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speech to the american equal rights association summary

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=American_Equal_Rights_Association&oldid=796958546

American Equal rights Association - wikipedia American Equal rights Association Jump to : navigation , search The American Equal Rights Association ( AERA ) was formed in 1866 in the United States . According to its constitution , its purpose was `` to secure Equal Rights to all American citizens , especially the right of suffrage , irrespective of race , color or sex . '' Some of the more prominent reform activists of that time were members , including women and men , blacks and whites . The AERA was created by the Eleventh National Women 's Rights Convention , which transformed itself into the new organization . Leaders of the women 's movement had earlier suggested the creation of a similar equal rights organization through a merger of their movement with the American Anti-Slavery Society , but that organization did not accept their proposal . The AERA conducted two major campaigns during 1867 . In New York , which was in the process of revising its state constitution , AERA workers collected petitions in support of women 's suffrage and the removal of property requirements that discriminated specifically against black voters . In Kansas they campaigned for referenda that would enfranchise African Americans and women . In both places they encountered increasing resistance to the campaign for women 's suffrage from former abolitionist allies who viewed it as a hindrance to the immediate goal of winning suffrage for African American men . The Kansas campaign ended in disarray and recrimination , creating divisions between those who worked primarily for the rights of African Americans and those who worked primarily for the rights of women , and also creating divisions within the women 's movement itself . The AERA continued to hold annual meetings after the failure of the Kansas campaign , but growing differences made it difficult for its members to work together . Disagreement about the proposed Fifteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution , which would prohibit the denial of suffrage because of race , was especially sharp because it did not also prohibit the denial of suffrage because of sex . The acrimonious AERA meeting in 1869 signaled the end of the organization and led to the formation of two competing women 's suffrage organizations . The bitter disagreements that led to the demise of the AERA continued to influence the women 's movement in subsequent years . Lucretia Mott , president of the AERA Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Leading participants 1.2 Background events 1.3 Founding in 1866 1.4 1867 annual meeting 1.5 New York campaign 1.6 Kansas campaign 1.7 Disagreement and division 1.8 1868 annual meeting 1.9 1869 annual meeting 1.10 Demise and aftermath 2 See also 3 References 3.1 Notes 3.2 Bibliography 4 External links History ( edit ) Leading participants ( edit ) The people who played significant roles in the AERA included some of the more prominent reform activists of that time , many of them already acquainted with one another as veterans of the anti-slavery and women 's rights movements : Lucretia Mott , the president of the AERA , was an abolitionist who was prevented from participating in the World Anti-Slavery Convention in London in 1840 because she was a woman . She was the main attraction and one of the organizers of the 1848 Seneca Falls Convention , the first women 's rights convention . Elizabeth Cady Stanton attended the 1840 World Anti-Slavery Convention as an observer , accompanying her husband Henry B. Stanton , who had worked as an agent of the American Anti-Slavery Society . There she and Mott became friends and vowed to organize a women 's rights convention in the United States . Stanton was an organizer of the Seneca Falls Convention and the primary author of its Declaration of Sentiments . Lucy Stone was a pioneering worker for women 's rights and an organizer of the first National Women 's Rights Convention in 1850 . She became a paid representative of the American Anti-Slavery Society in 1848 under an arrangement by which she could also lecture on women 's rights but without pay . Susan B. Anthony became a paid representative of the Anti-Slavery Society in 1856 with the understanding that she would also continue to campaign for women 's rights . Frederick Douglass was an escaped slave and abolitionist leader who played a pivotal role in the Seneca Falls women 's rights convention . He and Anthony both lived in Rochester , NY , and were family friends . Abby Kelley Foster and her husband Stephen Symonds Foster were abolitionists who had encouraged Anthony to become active in the Anti-Slavery Society . Henry Blackwell , who was married to Lucy Stone , worked against slavery and for women 's rights . Background events ( edit ) Although still relatively small , the women 's rights movement had grown in the years before the American Civil War , aided by the introduction of women to social activism through the abolitionist movement . The American Anti-Slavery Society , led by William Lloyd Garrison , was particularly encouraging to those who championed women 's rights . The planning committee for the first National Women 's Rights Convention in October 1850 was formed by people who were attending a convention of the Anti-Slavery Society earlier that year . The women 's movement was loosely structured during this period , with legislative campaigns and speaking tours organized by a small group of women acting on personal initiative . An informal coordinating committee organized national women 's rights conventions , but there were only a few state associations and no formal national organization . The movement largely disappeared from public notice during the Civil War ( 1861 -- 1865 ) as women 's rights activists focused their energy on the campaign against slavery . In 1863 Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony organized the Women 's Loyal National League , the first national women 's political organization in the U.S. , to campaign for an amendment to the U.S. Constitution that would abolish slavery . The letter that Stanton , Anthony and Stone circulated calling for petitions against introducing the word `` male '' into the U.S. Constitution via the Fourteenth Amendment After slavery in the U.S. was abolished by the Thirteenth Amendment in 1865 , Wendell Phillips was elected president of the Anti-Slavery Society and began to direct its resources toward winning political rights for blacks . He told women 's rights activists that he continued to support women 's suffrage but thought it best to set aside that demand until voting rights for African American men were assured . The women 's movement began to revive when proposals for a Fourteenth Amendment began circulating that would secure citizenship ( but not yet voting rights ) for African Americans . Some of the proposals for this amendment would also for the first time introduce the word `` male '' into the Constitution , which begins with the words `` We the People of the United States '' . Stanton said that `` if that word ' male ' be inserted , it will take us a century at least to get it out . '' Stanton , Anthony and Lucy Stone , the most prominent figures in the women 's movement , circulated a letter in late 1865 calling for petitions against any wording that excluded females . A version of the amendment that referred to `` persons '' instead of `` males '' passed the House of Representatives in early 1866 but failed in the Senate . The version that Congress eventually approved and sent to the states for ratification included the word `` male '' three times . Stanton and Anthony opposed the amendment , but Stone supported it as a step towards universal suffrage . Frederick Douglass denounced it because it permitted states to disenfranchise blacks if those states were willing to accept reduced representation at the federal level . The Fourteenth Amendment was ratified in 1868 . At a meeting of the Anti-Slavery Society in January 1866 , Stone and Anthony proposed a merger of that organization with the women 's rights movement to create a new organization that would advocate for the rights for African Americans and women , including suffrage for both . The proposal was blocked by Phillips , who once again argued that the key issue of the day was suffrage for African American men . Phillips and other abolitionist leaders expected a constitutional provision of voting rights for former slaves to help preserve the North 's recent victory over the slaveholding states during the Civil War . No such benefit could be expected to follow from women 's suffrage , and the effort needed to mount an effective campaign for it , they believed , would endanger the chances of winning suffrage for African American men . ( Their strategy did not work as planned . Even though the Constitution was amended in 1870 to prohibit the denial of voting rights because of race , a promise that became a reality for a brief period , violence and legal maneuvers prevented most African Americans in the South from voting until the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 . ) Founding in 1866 ( edit ) Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony issued the call for the Eleventh National Women 's Rights Convention , the first since the Civil War began , which met on May 10 , 1866 , in New York City . Frances Ellen Watkins Harper , an African American abolitionist and writer , spoke at the convention from the viewpoint of one who had to deal with issues faced by both women and blacks : `` You white women speak here of rights . I speak of wrongs . I , as a colored woman , have had in this country an education which has made me feel as if I were in the situation of Ishmael , my hand against every man , and every man 's hand against me . '' Wendell Phillips In a variation of the idea proposed earlier to the Anti-Slavery Society , the convention voted to transform itself into a new organization called the American Equal Rights Association ( AERA ) that would campaign for the rights of both women and blacks , advocating suffrage for both . The new organization elected Lucretia Mott as president and created an executive committee that included Stanton , Anthony and Lucy Stone . The AERA launched lobbying and petition campaigns in several states , hoping to create a drive strong enough to convince the Anti-Slavery Society to accept its goal of universal suffrage rather than suffrage for black men only . 1867 annual meeting ( edit ) The AERA held its first annual meeting in New York City on May 9 , 1867 . Referring to the growing demand for suffrage for African American men , Lucretia Mott , the AERA 's president , said , `` woman had a right to be a little jealous of the addition of so large a number of men to the voting class , for the colored men would naturally throw all their strength upon the side of those opposed to woman 's enfranchisement . '' Asked by George T. Downing , an African American , whether she would be willing for the black man to have the vote before woman , Elizabeth Cady Stanton replied , `` I would say , no ; I would not trust him with all my rights ; degraded , oppressed himself , he would be more despotic with the governing power than even our Saxon rulers are . I desire that we go into the kingdom together '' . Sojourner Truth , a former slave , said that , `` if colored men get their rights , and not colored women theirs , you see the colored men will be masters over the women , and it will be just as bad as it was before . '' Others disagreed . Abby Kelley Foster said that suffrage for black men was a more pressing issue than suffrage for women . Stephen Symonds Foster , arguing that ballot rights for one group of citizens should not be contingent on ballot rights for another , said , `` The right of each should be accorded at the earliest possible moment , neither being denied for any supposed benefit to the other . '' Henry Ward Beecher , a prominent minister , said he was in favor of universal suffrage but believed that by demanding the vote for both blacks and women , the movement was likely to achieve at least a partial victory by winning the vote for black men . New York campaign ( edit ) The state of New York organized a convention in June 1867 to revise its constitution . AERA workers prepared for it by organizing meetings in over 30 locations around the state and collecting over 20,000 signatures on petitions that supported women 's suffrage and the removal of property requirements that discriminated specifically against black voters . The suffrage committee of the convention was chaired by Horace Greeley , a prominent newspaper editor and abolitionist who had been a supporter of the women 's movement . His committee approved the removal of discriminatory property requirements for black voters but rejected the proposal for women 's suffrage . Susan B. Anthony Greeley had earlier clashed with Anthony and Stanton by insisting that their New York campaign should focus on the rights of African Americans rather than also including women 's issues . When they refused , he threatened to end his newspaper 's support for their work . Soon he began to attack the women 's movement . Responding to Greeley 's repeated claim that the best women he knew did not want to vote , Stanton and Anthony arranged for it to be announced from the floor of the convention that Mrs. Horace Greeley had signed the petition in favor of women 's suffrage . The History of Woman Suffrage , whose authors include Stanton and Anthony , said , `` This campaign cost us the friendship of Horace Greeley and the support of the New York Tribune , heretofore our most powerful and faithful allies . '' Kansas campaign ( edit ) Two referenda were placed before voters in Kansas in 1867 , one that would extend suffrage to black men and one that would extend it to women . Kansas had an anti-slavery heritage and the strongest laws for the protection of women 's rights outside New York . The AERA concentrated its resources on this campaign with high hopes of winning both referenda , which would boost the chances of winning suffrage for both blacks and woman at the national level . Both referenda failed , however , and the AERA campaign ended in disarray and recrimination . The Kansas campaign created divisions between those who worked primarily for the rights of African Americans and those who worked primarily for the rights of women , and it also created divisions within the women 's movement itself . The New York campaign had been financed partly by the Hovey Fund , which was created by a bequest that provided a large sum of money to support abolitionism , women 's rights and other reform movements . According to the terms of the bequest , if slavery was abolished , the remainder of the money was to go to the other reform movements , which meant that the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment should have freed up a significant stream of money for the women 's movement . However , Wendell Phillips , the head of the fund , declared that slavery would not truly be abolished until blacks were enfranchised on the same basis as whites , and he channeled much of fund 's money toward that cause . The AERA nonetheless expected the Hovey Fund to support its Kansas campaign , which worked for the enfranchisement of both African Americans and women . The fund refused to finance the Kansas campaign , however , because Phillips opposed mixing those two causes , leaving the campaign desperately short of money . It was difficult for the women 's movement itself to raise enough money for projects like this because few women had independent sources of income , and even those with employment generally were required by law to turn over their pay to their husbands . The AERA 's Kansas campaign began when Lucy Stone and Henry Blackwell arrived in April . The AERA workers were disconcerted when , after an internal struggle , Kansas Republicans decided to support suffrage for black men only , not merely refusing to support women 's suffrage but forming an `` Anti Female Suffrage Committee '' to organize opposition to those who were campaigning for it . In a letter to Anthony , Stone wrote , `` But the negroes are all against us . There has just now left us an ignorant black preacher named Twine , who is very confident that women ought not to vote . These men ought not to be allowed to vote before we do , because they will be just so much more dead weight to lift . '' By the end of summer the AERA campaign had almost collapsed under the weight of Republican hostility , and its finances were exhausted . Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton arrived in September to work on the campaign . They created a storm of controversy by accepting help during the last two and a half weeks of the campaign from George Francis Train , a Democrat , a wealthy businessman and a flamboyant speaker who supported women 's rights . Train was a political maverick who had attended the Democratic convention during the presidential election year of 1864 but then campaigned vigorously for the Republican candidate , Abraham Lincoln . By 1867 he was promoting himself as an independent candidate for president . Train was also a racist who openly disparaged the integrity and intelligence of African Americans , supporting women 's suffrage partly in the belief that the votes of women would help contain the political power of blacks . The usual procedure was for Anthony to speak first , declaring that the ability to vote rightfully belonged to both women and blacks . Train would speak next , declaring that it would be an outrage for blacks to vote but not women also . Lucy Stone The willingness of Anthony and Stanton to work with Train alienated many AERA members and other reform activists . Stone said she considered Train to be `` a lunatic , wild and ranting '' . Anthony and Stanton angered Stone by including her name , without her permission , in a public letter praising Train . Stone and her allies angered Anthony by charging her with misuse of funds , a charge that was later disproved , and by blocking payment of her salary and expenses for her work in Kansas . Opposition to Train was not due solely to his racism . Henry Blackwell , Stone 's husband , had just demonstrated that even AERA workers were not automatically free from the racial presumptions of that era by publishing an open letter to Southern legislatures assuring them that if they allowed both blacks and women to vote , `` the political supremacy of your white race will remain unchanged '' and that `` the black race would gravitate by the law of nature toward the tropics . '' Opposition to Train was partly due to the loyalty many reformers felt to the national Republican Party , which had provided political leadership for the elimination of slavery and was still in the difficult process of consolidating that victory . Train harshly attacked the Republican Party , making no secret of his desire to blemish its progressive image and create splits within it by campaigning for women 's rights when Kansas Republicans were refusing to do so . The abolitionist movement was sensitive to attacks on the Republican Party , with which it collaborated closely , serving in some ways as its left wing . The women 's rights movement depended heavily on abolitionist resources , with its articles published in their newspapers and some of its funding provided by abolitionists . After the Kansas debacle , women 's suffragists who distanced themselves from abolitionist and Republican leadership found those resources increasingly unavailable . Wendell Phillips worked to prevent discussion of women 's suffrage at abolitionist meetings , and abolitionist journals began to downplay those issues as well . The History of Woman Suffrage stated the conclusions drawn by the wing of the movement associated with Anthony and Stanton : `` Our liberal men counseled us to silence during the war , and we were silent on our own wrongs ; they counseled us again to silence in Kansas and New York , lest we should defeat ' negro suffrage , ' and threatened if we were not , we might fight the battle alone . We chose the latter , and were defeated . But standing alone we learned our power ... woman must lead the way to her own enfranchisement . '' Disagreement and division ( edit ) After the Kansas campaign ended in disarray in November 1867 , the AERA increasingly divided into two wings , both advocating universal suffrage but with different approaches . One wing , whose leading figure was Lucy Stone , was willing for black men to achieve suffrage first and wanted to maintain close ties with the Republican Party and the abolitionist movement . The other , whose leading figures were Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony , insisted that women and black men should be enfranchised at the same time and worked toward a politically independent women 's movement that would no longer be dependent on abolitionists . Stanton and Anthony expressed their views in a newspaper called The Revolution , which began publishing in January 1868 with initial funding from the controversial George Francis Train . Elizabeth Cady Stanton Disagreement was especially sharp over the proposed Fifteenth Amendment , which would prohibit the denial of suffrage because of race . In practice it would , theoretically at least , guarantee suffrage for virtually all males . Anthony and Stanton opposed passage of the amendment unless it was accompanied by a Sixteenth Amendment that would guarantee suffrage for women . Otherwise , they said , it would create an `` aristocracy of sex '' by giving constitutional authority to the belief that men were superior to women . Male power and privilege was at the root of society 's ills , Stanton argued , and nothing should be done to strengthen it . Anthony and Stanton also warned that black men , who would have voting power under the amendment , were overwhelmingly opposed to women 's suffrage . ( They were not alone in being unsure of black male support for women 's suffrage . Frederick Douglass , a strong supporter of women 's suffrage , said , `` The race to which I belong have not generally taken the right ground on this question . '' ) Most AERA members supported the Fifteenth Amendment . Among prominent African American AERA members , Frances Ellen Watkins Harper , Frederick Douglass , George Downing and Dr. Charles Purvis supported the amendment , but Dr. Purvis ' father , Robert Purvis , joined Anthony and Stanton in opposition to it . Congress approved the Fifteenth Amendment in February 1869 , and it was ratified by the states a year later . During the debate over the Fifteenth Amendment , Stanton wrote articles for The Revolution with language that was sometimes elitist and racially condescending . She believed that a long process of education would be needed before what she called the `` lower orders '' of former slaves and immigrant workers would be able to participate meaningfully as voters . Stanton wrote , `` American women of wealth , education , virtue and refinement , if you do not wish the lower orders of Chinese , Africans , Germans and Irish , with their low ideas of womanhood to make laws for you and your daughters ... demand that women too shall be represented in government . '' After first saying in another article , `` There is only one safe , sure way to build a government , and that is on the equality of all its citizens , male and female , black and white '' , Stanton then objected to laws being made for women by `` Patrick and Sambo and Hans and Yung Tung who do not know the difference between a Monarchy and a Republic '' . Anthony and Stanton also attacked the Republican Party and worked to develop connections with the Democrats . They wrote a letter to the 1868 Democratic National Convention that criticized Republican sponsorship of the Fourteenth Amendment ( which granted citizenship to black men but introduced the word `` male '' into the Constitution ) , saying , `` While the dominant party has with one hand lifted up two million black men and crowned them with the honor and dignity of citizenship , with the other it has dethroned fifteen million white women -- their own mothers and sisters , their own wives and daughters -- and cast them under the heel of the lowest orders of manhood . '' They urged liberal Democrats to convince their party , which did not have a clear direction at that point , to embrace universal suffrage . Their attempt to collaborate with Democrats did not go far , however , because their politics were too pro-black for the Democratic Party of that era . Despite the growing number of Democratic leaders who advocated the acceptance of black political power in the South , Southern Democrats had already begun the process of re-establishing white supremacy there , including violent suppression of the voting rights of blacks . Several AERA members expressed anger and dismay over the activities of Stanton and Anthony during this period , including their deal with Train that gave him space to express his views in The Revolution . Some , including Lucretia Mott , president of the organization , and African Americans Frederick Douglass and Frances Harper , voiced their disagreements with Stanton and Anthony but continued to maintain working relationships with them . Particularly in the case of Lucy Stone , however , the disputes of this period led to a personal rift , one that had important consequences for the women 's movement . To counter the initiatives of Anthony and Stanton , a planning committee was formed in May 1868 to organize a pro-Republican women 's suffrage organization in the Boston area that would support the proposal to enfranchise black males first . The New England Woman Suffrage Association was subsequently founded in November 1868 . Several participants in new organization were also active in the AERA , including Lucy Stone , Frederick Douglass and the Fosters . Prominent Republican politicians were involved in the founding meeting , including a U.S. senator who was seated on the platform . Francis Bird , a leading Massachusetts Republican , said at the meeting , `` Negro suffrage , being a paramount question , would have to be settled before woman suffrage could receive the attention it deserved . '' Julia Ward Howe , who was elected president of the new organization , said she would not demand suffrage for women until it was achieved for blacks . 1868 annual meeting ( edit ) The AERA accomplished little during 1868 except hold its annual meeting on May 14 , which was marked by hostilities . At that meeting , Olympia Brown denounced the Kansas Republicans for opposing women 's suffrage and stressed the need for a party that would support universal suffrage . Lucy Stone criticized the Republican Party also , but Frederick Douglass defended it as more supportive of suffrage for both blacks and women than the Democrats . Distressed at Stanton 's and Anthony 's association with George Francis Train and the hostilities it had generated , Lucretia Mott resigned as president of the AERA that same month . She said she thought it had been mistake to attempt to unite the women 's and abolitionist movements , and she recommended that the AERA be disbanded . 1869 annual meeting ( edit ) At the climactic AERA annual meeting on May 12 , 1869 , Stephen Symonds Foster objected to the renomination of Stanton and Anthony as officers . He denounced their willingness to associate with Train despite his disparagement of blacks , and he charged them with advocating `` Educated Suffrage '' , thereby repudiating the AERA 's principle of universal suffrage . Henry Blackwell responded , `` Miss Anthony and Mrs. Stanton believe in the right of the negro to vote . We are united on that point . There is no question of principle between us . '' Frederick Douglass objected to Stanton 's use of `` Sambo '' to represent black men in an article she had written for The Revolution . Frederick Douglass The majority of the attendees supported the pending Fifteenth Amendment , but debate was contentious . Douglass said , `` I do not see how anyone can pretend that there is the same urgency in giving the ballot to woman as to the negro . With us , the matter is a question of life and death , at least in fifteen States of the Union . '' Anthony replied , `` Mr. Douglass talks about the wrongs of the negro ; but with all the outrages that he to - day suffers , he would not exchange his sex and take the place of Elizabeth Cady Stanton . '' Lucy Stone disagreed with Douglass ' assertion that suffrage for blacks should have precedence , saying that `` woman suffrage is more imperative than his own . '' Referring to Douglass ' earlier assertion that `` There are no KuKlux Clans seeking the lives of women '' , Stone cited state laws that gave men control over the disposition of their children , saying that children had been known to have been taken from their mothers by `` Ku - Kluxers here in the North in the shape of men '' . Stone supported the Fifteenth Amendment and at the same time stressed the importance of women 's rights by saying , `` But I thank God for that XV . Amendment , and hope that it will be adopted in every State . I will be thankful in my soul if any body can get out of the terrible pit . But I believe that the safety of the government would be more promoted by the admission of woman as an element of restoration and harmony than the negro . '' Demise and aftermath ( edit ) The acrimonious 1869 meeting signaled the effective demise of the American Equal Rights Association , which held no further annual meetings . ( Its existence formally ended a year later on May 14 , 1870 . ) Two competing woman suffrage organizations were created in its aftermath . Two days after the 1869 meeting , Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton led the formation of the National Woman Suffrage Association ( NWSA ) . In November 1869 , Lucy Stone , Julia Ward Howe and others formed the American Woman Suffrage Association ( AWSA ) . Attitudes toward the Fifteenth Amendment formed a key distinction between these two organizations , but there were other differences as well . The NWSA took a stance of political independence , but the AWSA at least initially maintained close ties with the Republican Party , expecting the ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment to open the way for a Republican push for women 's suffrage . ( That did not happen ; the high point of Republican support was a non-committal reference to women 's suffrage in the 1872 Republican platform . ) The NWSA worked on a wider range of women 's issues than the AWSA , which criticized its rival for mixing women 's suffrage with issues like divorce reform and equal pay for women . Almost all members of the NWSA were women , as were all of its officers , but the AWSA actively sought male support and included men among its officers . Stanton and Anthony , the leading figures in the NWSA , were more widely known as leaders of the women 's suffrage movement during this period and were more influential in setting its direction . Events soon removed the basis for two key differences of principle between the competing women 's organizations . In 1870 debate about the Fifteenth Amendment was made irrelevant when that amendment was officially ratified . In 1872 disgust with corruption in government led to a mass defection of abolitionists and other social reformers from the Republicans to the short - lived Liberal Republican Party . Despite these events , the rivalry between the two women 's groups was so bitter that a merger proved to be impossible for twenty years . Ellen Carol DuBois , a historian of the women 's suffrage movement , says this rivalry had far - reaching consequences for the women 's movement : `` More than a century has passed , and still historians become partisans in the hostilities that their opposition created . '' In 1890 the NWSA and the AWSA combined to form the National American Woman Suffrage Association ( NAWSA ) , with Stanton , Anthony and Stone as its top officers . Anthony was the key force in the new organization . Stone , nominally the chair of its executive committee , in practice was involved only peripherally . Women 's suffrage , a key goal of the AERA , was achieved in 1920 with the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment , popularly known as the Susan B. Anthony Amendment . Despite the passage of the Fifteenth and Nineteenth Amendments , the AERA 's goal of securing equal rights for all citizens , especially suffrage , still had not yet been fully achieved . Although Puerto Ricans were by law citizens of the United States , Puerto Rican women were prevented from voting until 1929 , and African Americans in southern states were for the most part prevented from voting until 1965 , nearly a hundred years after the AERA was formed . See also ( edit ) History of women 's suffrage in the United States List of African - American abolitionists List of major women 's suffrage organizations List of suffragists and suffragettes List of women 's rights activists List of women 's rights organizations Reconstruction era Timeline of women 's rights ( other than voting ) Timeline of women 's suffrage Voting rights in the United States References ( edit ) Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Stanton , Anthony , Gage ( 1887 ) , p. 173 ^ Jump up to : Cullen - DuPont ( 1998 ) , p. 168 , `` Mott , Lucretia Coffin '' Jump up ^ Gordon ( 1997 ) , p. xxix Jump up ^ Kerr ( 1992 ) , pp. 49 , 52 , 58 Jump up ^ Barry ( 1988 ) , p. 110 Jump up ^ Dudden ( 2011 ) , p. 22 Jump up ^ Harper ( 1899 ) , Vol. 1 , p. 63 Jump up ^ Venet ( 1991 ) , p. 14 Jump up ^ Kerr ( 1992 ) , p. 58 Jump up ^ Million ( 2003 ) , pp. 109 , 121 Jump up ^ DuBois ( 1978 ) , p. 53 . The Women 's Loyal National League was also known by other names , including the National Loyal Women 's League and the Women 's National Loyal League . Jump up ^ Judith E. Harper . `` Biography '' . Not for Ourselves Alone : The Story of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony . PBS ( Public Broadcasting System ) . Retrieved May 23 , 2013 . Jump up ^ DuBois ( 1978 ) , pp. 56 , 59 Jump up ^ Letter from Stanton to Gerrit Smith , Jan 1 , 1866 , quoted in DuBois ( 1978 ) , p. 61 ^ Jump up to : Cullen - DuPont ( 1998 ) , pp. 11 - 12 , `` American Equal Rights Association '' Jump up ^ Dudden ( 2011 ) , pp. 78 - 79 Jump up ^ Dudden ( 2011 ) , p. 86 . Dudden says that Phillips also denounced the Fourteenth Amendment . She acknowledges , on page 230 , footnotes 152 - 154 , that some other historians have suggested that Phillips and Douglass supported the Fourteenth Amendment , but she provides quotes and citations that indicate otherwise . Jump up ^ DuBois ( 1978 ) , p. 63 Jump up ^ DuBois ( 1978 ) , pp. 57 , 59 Jump up ^ `` Introduction To Federal Voting Rights Laws : Before the Voting Rights Act '' . U.S. Department of Justice . Retrieved January 17 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Stanton , Anthony , Gage ( 1887 ) , pp. 152 - 153 Jump up ^ `` Proceedings of the Eleventh Women 's Rights Convention '' ( 1868 ) , pp. 45 - 48 . Quoted in Humez ( 2003 ) , p. 71 Jump up ^ Stanton , Anthony , Gage ( 1887 ) , pp. 171 - 174 Jump up ^ DuBois ( 1978 ) , p. 65 Jump up ^ Stanton , Anthony , Gage ( 1887 ) , p. 183 ^ Jump up to : Stanton , Anthony , Gage ( 1887 ) , p. 214 Jump up ^ Dudden ( 2011 ) , p. 98 Jump up ^ Stanton , Anthony , Gage ( 1887 ) , p. 193 Jump up ^ Stanton , Anthony , Gage ( 1887 ) , p. 216 Jump up ^ Stanton , Anthony , Gage ( 1887 ) , p. 219 ^ Jump up to : DuBois ( 1978 ) , p. 87 Jump up ^ Dudden ( 2011 ) , p. 92 Jump up ^ Dudden ( 2011 ) , p. 102 Jump up ^ Barry ( 1988 ) , p. 176 Jump up ^ Stanton , Anthony , Gage ( 1887 ) , p. 269 Jump up ^ DuBois ( 1978 ) , pp. 79 - 81 Jump up ^ Dudden ( 2011 ) , pp. 10,107 Jump up ^ Dudden ( 2011 ) , pp. 23 , 90 Jump up ^ Dudden ( 2011 ) , p. 68 Jump up ^ Dudden ( 2011 ) , p. 105 . Phillips ' opposition was also shown in the peculiar scheduling of his lecture tour of western states at the time of the Kansas campaign in 1867 . Despite traveling over 12,000 miles and speaking in over 60 locations , he never once set foot in the political battleground state of Kansas . Jump up ^ Dudden ( 2011 ) , p. 17 Jump up ^ Stanton , Anthony , Gage ( 1887 ) , p. 232 Jump up ^ DuBois ( 1978 ) , pp. 89 - 90 Jump up ^ Dudden ( 2011 ) , p. 127 Jump up ^ Stanton , Anthony , Gage ( 1887 ) , p. 238 . Cited in Dudden ( 2011 ) , p. 114 . Rev. Woodson Twine assisted the AERA campaign in Kansas , conducting a joint speaking tour with Olympia Brown . Although he spoke in favor of suffrage for both blacks and women , he only grudging supported the latter . See Dudden ( 2011 ) , p. 122 Jump up ^ DuBois ( 1978 ) , pp. 89 - 92 Jump up ^ DuBois ( 1978 ) , pp. 92 - 94 Jump up ^ Dudden ( 2011 ) , pp. 127 - 128 Jump up ^ DuBois ( 1978 ) , pp. 93 - 94 . According to Dudden ( 2011 ) , pp. 136 - 137 and 246 footnotes 22 and 25 , there is reason to believe that Stanton and Anthony hoped to draw the volatile Train away from his cruder forms of racism , and that Train had actually begun to do so . In any event , they were in direct contact with Train for only three months before he sailed for Europe in January 1868 . Jump up ^ Harper , p. 292 Jump up ^ Kerr ( 1992 ) , p. 129 . For an indication of just how intense the criticism was , see Harper ( 1899 ) , p. 294 . Jump up ^ Dudden ( 2011 ) , p. 139 Jump up ^ Barry ( 1988 ) , pp. 186 - 187 . Jump up ^ Dudden ( 2011 ) , p. 141 Jump up ^ Henry B. Blackwell ( January 15 , 1867 ) . `` What the South can do '' . An American Time Capsule . Library of Congress . p. 2 . Retrieved April 22 , 2013 . Cited in Dudden ( 2011 ) , p. 93 Jump up ^ Henry B. Blackwell ( January 15 , 1867 ) . `` What the South can do '' . An American Time Capsule . Library of Congress . p. 4 . Retrieved April 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ DuBois ( 1978 ) , p. 100 Jump up ^ DuBois ( 1978 ) , p. 57 Jump up ^ DuBois ( 1978 ) , p. 51 Jump up ^ DuBois ( 1978 ) , pp. 72 - 73 Jump up ^ Stanton , Anthony , Gage ( 1887 ) , pp. 267 - 268 Jump up ^ DuBois ( 1978 ) , pp. 80 - 81 Jump up ^ DuBois ( 1978 ) , pp. 99,103 Jump up ^ Technically the amendment did not guarantee suffrage regardless of race but instead prohibited disenfranchisement because of race . In 1875 , the Supreme Court ruled , in Minor v. Happersett , that `` the Constitution of the United States does not confer the right of suffrage upon anyone '' . Not until the mid-twentieth century did Supreme Court rulings establish the connection between citizenship and voting rights . See `` The Trial of Susan B. Anthony '' at the Federal Judicial Center . Jump up ^ DuBois ( 1978 ) , pp. 174 - 175,185 ^ Jump up to : Rakow and Kramarae eds. ( 2001 ) , p. 48 Jump up ^ Dudden ( 2011 ) , p. 184 Jump up ^ `` The Anniversaries '' . New York Tribune . May 15 , 1868 . Quoted in Dudden ( 2011 ) , p. 149 . Jump up ^ Barry ( 1988 ) , p. 194 . The 1869 AERA annual meeting voted to endorse the Fifteenth Amendment . Jump up ^ Dudden ( 2011 ) , pp. 179 , 178 , 171 , 99 , 184 Jump up ^ DuBois ( 1978 ) , pp. 175,177,178 Jump up ^ Elizabeth Cady Stanton , `` The Sixteenth Amendment , '' The Revolution , April 29 , 1869 , p. 266 . Quoted in DuBois ( 1978 ) , p. 178 . Jump up ^ Elizabeth Cady Stanton , `` Manhood Suffrage , '' The Revolution , December 24 , 1868 . Reproduced in Gordon ( 2000 ) , p. 194 Jump up ^ Elizabeth Cady Stanton , `` Manhood Suffrage , '' The Revolution , December 24 , 1868 . Reproduced in Gordon ( 2000 ) , p. 196 Jump up ^ Stanton , Anthony , Gage ( 1887 ) , p. 341 . This letter was signed by Anthony , who was requesting permission to present their views to the convention in person . Jump up ^ DuBois ( 1978 ) , pp. 109 - 110 Jump up ^ Dudden ( 2011 ) , p. 152 . Jump up ^ DuBois ( 1978 ) , p. 108 Jump up ^ Foner ( 1990 ) , pp. 180 , 232 Jump up ^ Harper ( 1899 ) , Vol. 1 , p. 295 Jump up ^ Faulkner ( 2011 ) , p. 196 Jump up ^ Dudden ( 2011 ) , p. 186 . Jump up ^ DuBois ( 1978 ) , p. 99 Jump up ^ DuBois ( 1978 ) , pp. 164 - 167 Jump up ^ `` Woman 's Rights Convention , '' New York Times , November 20 , 1868 . Quoted in DuBois ( 1978 ) , pp. 169 , 165 Jump up ^ DuBois ( 1978 ) , pp. 168 - 169 Jump up ^ Stanton , Anthony , Gage ( 1887 ) , p. 309 Jump up ^ DuBois ( 1978 ) , p. 185 Jump up ^ Stanton , Anthony , Gage ( 1887 ) , p. 310 Jump up ^ Stanton , Anthony , Gage ( 1887 ) , pp. 311 - 312 Jump up ^ Faulkner ( 2011 ) , p. 189 Jump up ^ Stanton , Anthony , Gage ( 1887 ) , p. 381 . The first issue of their newspaper , The Revolution , declared that it would advocate `` Educated Suffrage , irrespective of Sex or Color '' , according to Rakow and Kramarae ( 2001 ) , p. 20 . On p. 48 , Rakow and Kramarae implicitly attribute the phrase `` educated suffrage '' to Parker Pillsbury , one of the newspaper 's editors , adding that `` Stanton in this time period usually opposed any qualifications . '' One of Stanton 's biographers attributes the phrase to Train but says that Stanton clearly supported `` educated suffrage '' in later years . See Lori Ginzberg , Elizabeth Cady Stanton : An American Life ( 2009 ) , p. 162 . ^ Jump up to : Stanton , Anthony , Gage ( 1887 ) , p. 382 Jump up ^ Barry ( 1988 ) , p. 194 Jump up ^ Stanton , Anthony , Gage ( 1887 ) , p. 382 . During the elections of 1868 , hundreds of blacks in the South were murdered to ensure victories by white supremacists ; see Dudden ( 2011 ) , pp. 156 - 157 . Jump up ^ Stanton , Anthony , Gage ( 1887 ) , p. 383 ^ Jump up to : Stanton , Anthony , Gage ( 1887 ) , p. 384 Jump up ^ Brown ( 1911 ) ; pp. 75 - 76 . Douglass was referring to the Ku Klux Klan . Olympia Brown , the author of this memoir , was an AERA member . Jump up ^ Harper ( 1899 ) , pp. 348 - 349 Jump up ^ DuBois ( 1978 ) , p. 189 Jump up ^ Cullen - DuPont ( 1998 ) , p. 13 , `` American Woman Suffrage Association '' Jump up ^ DuBois ( 1978 ) , pp. 199 - 200 Jump up ^ DuBois ( 1978 ) , p. 197 Jump up ^ DuBois ( 1978 ) , pp. 192,196 Jump up ^ Dudden ( 2011 ) , p. 12 . Stanton and Anthony arranged for the introduction to Congress of what eventually became the Nineteenth Amendment ; Anthony was arrested for voting in 1872 and found guilty in a widely publicized trial ; Anthony dramatically inserted the demand for women 's suffrage into the official ceremonies for the Centennial of the Declaration of Independence . See Barry ( 1988 ) , pp. 283 , 249 - 257 and 270 - 271 . Jump up ^ DuBois ( 1978 ) , pp. 166 , 200 Jump up ^ DuBois ( 1978 ) , p. 173 Jump up ^ Cullen - DuPont ( 1998 ) , p. 174 , `` National American Woman Suffrage Association '' Jump up ^ Kerr ( 1992 ) , p. 227 Jump up ^ Kerr ( 1992 ) , p. 232 Jump up ^ `` Senators to Vote on Suffrage Today ; Fate of Susan B. Anthony Amendment Hangs in Balance on Eve of Final Test '' . New York Times . September 26 , 1918 . Jump up ^ Sneider ( 2008 ) pp. 121 , 136 . Literate Puerto Rican women were enfranchised in 1929 , per Sneider , page 134 . The voting rights of African Americans in southern states were enforced by the Voting Rights Act of 1965 . Bibliography ( edit ) Baker , Paula ( 1990 ) . `` The Domestication of Politics : Women and American Political Society , 1780 - 1920 . '' In Unequal Sisters : A Multicultural Reader in U.S. Women 's History , Ellen Carol DuBois and Vicki L. Ruiz editors , 66 - 91 . New York : Routledge . Barry , Kathleen ( 1988 ) . Susan B. Anthony : A Biography of a Singular Feminist . New York : Ballantine Books . ISBN 0 - 345 - 36549 - 6 . Brown , Olympia ( 1911 ) . Acquaintances , Old and New , Among Reformers . Milwaukee , WI : Olympia Brown ( S.E. Tate Printing Company ) . Buhle , Mari Jo ; Buhle , Paul editors ( 1978 ) . The Concise History of Woman Suffrage . University of Illinois . ISBN 0 - 252 - 00669 - 0 . Cullen - DuPont , Kathryn ( 2000 ) . The Encyclopedia of Women 's History in America , second edition . New York : Facts on File . ISBN 0 - 8160 - 4100 - 8 . DuBois , Ellen Carol ( 1978 ) . Feminism and Suffrage : The Emergence of an Independent Women 's Movement in America , 1848 - 1869 . Ithaca , NY : Cornell University Press . ISBN 0 - 8014 - 8641 - 6 . DuBois , Ellen Carol ( 1998 ) . Woman Suffrage and Women 's Rights . New York New York University Press . ISBN 0 - 8147 - 1901 - 5 . Dudden , Faye E ( 2011 ) . Fighting Chance : The Struggle over Woman Suffrage and Black Suffrage in Reconstruction America . New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 977263 - 6 . Faulkner , Carol ( 2011 ) . Lucretia Mott 's Heresy : Abolition and Women 's Rights in Nineteenth - Century America . Philadelphia : University of Pennsylvania Press . ISBN 978 - 0812243215 . Foner , Eric ( 1990 ) . A Short History of Reconstruction , 1863 - 1877 . New York : Harper & Row . ISBN 0 - 06 - 096431 - 6 . Giddings , Paula ( 1984 ) . When and Where I Enter : The Impact of Black Women on Race and Sex in America . New York : William Morrow . ISBN 978 - 0688146504 . Gordon , Ann D. , ed. ( 1997 ) . The Selected Papers of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony . Vol 1 : In the School of Anti-Slavery , 1840 to 1866 . New Brunswick , NJ : Rutgers University Press . ISBN 978 - 0813523170 . Gordon , Ann D. , ed. ( 2000 ) . The Selected Papers of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony . Vol 2 : Against an Aristocracy of Sex , 1866 to 1873 . New Brunswick , NJ : Rutgers University Press . ISBN 978 - 0813523187 . Harper , Ida Husted ( 1899 ) . The Life and Work of Susan B. Anthony , Vol 1 . Indianapolis & Kansas City : The Bowen - Merrill Company . Heinemann , Sue ( 1996 ) . Timelines of American Women 's History . New York : Berkley . ISBN 0 - 399 - 51986 - 6 . Humez , Jean ( 2003 ) . Harriet Tubman : The Life and the Life Stories . Madison , WI : University of Wisconsin Press . ISBN 0 - 299 - 19120 - 6 . Kerr , Andrea Moore ( 1992 ) . Lucy Stone : Speaking Out for Equality . New Brunswick , NJ : Rutgers University Press . ISBN 0 - 8135 - 1860 - 1 . McMillen , Sally Gregory ( 2008 ) . Seneca Falls and the Origins of the Women 's Rights Movement . New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 518265 - 0 . Million , Joelle ( 2003 ) . Woman 's Voice , Woman 's Place : Lucy Stone and the Birth of the Woman 's Rights Movement . Westport , CT : Praeger . ISBN 0 - 275 - 97877 - X . Rakow , Lana F. and Kramarae , Cheris , editors ( 2001 ) . The Revolution in Words : Righting Women 1868 -- 1871 , Volume 4 of Women 's Source Library . New York : Routledge . ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 25689 - 6 . Sneider , Allison L. ( 2008 ) . Suffragists in an Imperial Age : U.S. Expansion and the Woman Question 1870 - 1929 . New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0195321173 . Stanton , Elizabeth Cady ; Anthony , Susan B. ; Gage , Matilda Joslyn , editors ( 1887 ) . History of Woman Suffrage , Vol 2 . Rochester , NY : Susan B. Anthony . Venet , Wendy Hamand ( 1991 ) . Neither Ballots nor Bullets : Women Abolitionists and the Civil War . Charlottesville , VA : University Press of Virginia . ISBN 978 - 0813913421 . External links ( edit ) `` Manhood Suffrage '' , Elizabeth Cady Stanton 's six - point explanation of her opposition to the Fifteenth Amendment . It was first published in The Revolution in December 24 , 1868 , and is reproduced in Gordon ( 2000 ) , pp. 194 -- 199 . `` Proceedings of the 1867 AERA meeting '' , from the Library of Congress ( hide ) Suffrage Basic topics Universal suffrage Women Black Youth Resident foreigners Expatriates in country of origin Voting age Demeny voting Suffragette Compulsory voting Disfranchisement Women 's liberation movement By country Australia 1902 Commonwealth Franchise Act aboriginal women Japan Hong Kong Kuwait New Zealand Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom women Wales laws 1832 1918 1928 United States women Native Americans foreigners District of Columbia Puerto Rico amendments 15th 19th 23rd 24th 26th 1965 Voting Rights Act Events International Woman Suffrage Alliance conferences 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 1 July marches 2014 protests UK Mud March ( 1907 ) Women 's Sunday ( 1908 ) Black Friday ( 1910 ) Great Pilgrimage ( 1913 ) Open Christmas Letter U.S. Seneca Falls Convention Declaration of Sentiments Rochester Convention Ohio Women 's Convention National Women 's Rights Convention Suffrage Hikes 1913 Woman Suffrage Procession Silent Sentinels Night of Terror `` Give Us the Ballot '' Selma to Montgomery marches Related Age of candidacy US Voting Rights Museum Umbrella Movement Women Suffragists Timeline of women 's suffrage US in majority - Muslim countries Women 's suffrage organizations and publications Women 's rights activists Suffragette Memorial Pankhurst Centre Pankhurst Memorial Belmont - Paul Monument International Women 's Day Susan B. Anthony Day Women 's Equality Day Eagle House Justice Bell 1920 US presidential election Leser v. Garnett Popular culture `` The March of the Women '' ( 1910 song ) The Mother of Us All ( 1947 opera ) `` Sister Suffragette '' ( 1964 song ) Shoulder to Shoulder ( 1974 series ) Not for Ourselves Alone ( 1999 documentary ) Iron Jawed Angels ( 2004 film ) Great Petition ( 2008 sculpture ) Selma ( 2014 film ) Suffragette ( 2015 film ) Susan B. Anthony dollar 2020 US ten - dollar bill Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American_Equal_Rights_Association&oldid=796958546 '' Categories : African Americans ' rights organizations Civil rights organizations in the United States Feminist organizations in the United States History of voting rights in the United States Organizations established in 1866 Reconstruction Era Women 's suffrage advocacy groups in the United States 1866 establishments in the United States Hidden categories : CS1 : Julian -- Gregorian uncertainty Talk Contents About Wikipedia Français Edit links This page was last edited on 24 August 2017 , at 03 : 03 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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who were the principal musicians of the jazz avant-garde

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Cool_jazz&oldid=838398118

Cool jazz - wikipedia Cool jazz Jump to : navigation , search Cool jazz Stylistic origins Bebop swing classical Cultural origins 1940s , United States Typical instruments Drums piano trumpet trombone saxophone double bass Derivative forms Post-rock Local scenes Los Angeles San Francisco New York City Other topics West Coast jazz Cool jazz is a style of modern jazz music that arose in the United States after World War II . It is characterized by relaxed tempos and lighter tone , in contrast to the fast and complex bebop style . Cool jazz often employs formal arrangements and incorporates elements of classical music . Broadly , the genre refers to a number of post-war jazz styles employing a more subdued approach than that found in other contemporaneous jazz idioms . As Paul Tanner , Maurice Gerow , and David Megill suggest `` the tonal sonorities of these conservative players could be compared to pastel colors , while the solos of ( Dizzy ) Gillespie and his followers could be compared to fiery red colors . '' The term cool started being applied to this music around 1953 , when Capitol Records released the album Classics in Jazz : Cool and Quiet . Mark C. Gridley , writing in the All Music Guide to Jazz , identifies four overlapping sub-categories of cool jazz : `` Soft variants of bebop , '' including the Miles Davis recordings that constitute Birth of the Cool ; the complete works of the Modern Jazz Quartet ; the output of Gerry Mulligan , especially his work with Chet Baker and Bob Brookmeyer ; the music of Stan Kenton 's sidemen during the late 1940s through the 1950s ; and the works of George Shearing and Stan Getz . The output of modern players who eschewed bebop in favor of advanced swing - era developments and invented a modern Jazz Alternative to the Bebop style , other consider `` cool jazz `` , including Lennie Tristano , Lee Konitz , and Warne Marsh ; Dave Brubeck and Paul Desmond ; and performers such as Jimmy Giuffre and Dave Pell who were influenced by Count Basie and Lester Young 's small - group music . Musicians from either of the previous categories who were active in California from the 1940s through the 1960s , developing what came to be known as West Coast jazz . `` Exploratory music with a subdued effect by Teddy Charles , Chico Hamilton , John LaPorta , and their colleagues during the 1950s . '' Contents ( hide ) 1 Background 2 Development 3 West Coast jazz 4 Legacy 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Background ( edit ) Ted Gioia and Lee Konitz have each identified cornetist Bix Beiderbecke and saxophonist Frankie Trumbauer as early progenitors of the cool aesthetic in jazz . Gioia cites Beiderbecke 's softening of jazz 's strong rhythmic impact in favor of maintaining melodic flow , while also employing complex techniques such as unusual harmonies and whole tone scales . Trumbauer , through `` his smooth and seemingly effortless saxophone work , '' greatly affected tenor saxophonist Lester Young , who prefigured -- and influenced -- cool jazz more than any other musician . Young 's saxophone playing employed a light sound , in contrast to the `` full - bodied '' approach of players such as Coleman Hawkins . Young also had a tendency to play behind the beat , instead of driving it . He more strongly emphasized melodic development in his improvisation , rather than `` hot '' phrases or chord changes . While Young 's style initially alienated some observers , the cool school embraced it . ( Young would also influence bebop through Charlie Parker 's emulation of Young 's playing style . ) Tanner , Gerow , and Megill point out that `` cool developed gradually , as did previous styles . '' In addition to Lester Young 's approach , cool had other antecedents : Saxophonist Benny Carter underplayed his attacks , Teddy Wilson played the piano with a delicate touch , Benny Goodman stopped using the thick vibrato of Jimmy Noone and other clarinetists . Miles Davis 's solo on Charlie Parker 's `` Chasin ' the Bird '' in 1947 and John Lewis 's piano solo on Dizzie Gillespie 's record of `` ' Round Midnight '' in 1948 anticipated the Cool Era . Development ( edit ) Chet Baker , known as the `` Prince of Cool '' , 1983 In 1947 , Woody Herman formed a band that included tenor saxophonists Stan Getz , Zoot Sims , and Herbie Steward , and baritone saxophonist Serge Chaloff . The result was the `` Four Brothers '' sound , in which four strong improvisers could still perform well as a coordinated , blended section . ( Jimmy Giuffre composed `` Four Brothers , '' which highlighted this group . ) The Herman band 's recording of `` Early Autumn '' launched Getz 's career . Meanwhile , between 1946 and 1949 , baritone saxophonist and arranger Gerry Mulligan , arranger Gil Evans , and alto saxophonist Lee Konitz were all working for the Claude Thornhill Orchestra , whose instrumentation included a French horn and tuba . In 1948 , Miles Davis formed a nonet including Mulligan , Konitz , and Evans from Thornhill 's orchestra . Capitol Records recorded the group ( at arranger Pete Rugolo 's suggestion ) in 1949 and 1950 . These recordings , originally issued as 78 rpm records , were later compiled as Birth of the Cool ( 1957 ) . Gerry Mulligan explained that the idea behind Davis 's Nonet was not to get away from bebop , but `` just to try to get a good little rehearsal band together . Something to write for ... As far as the ' Cool Jazz ' part of it , all of that comes after the fact of what it was designed to be . '' As for Davis , his concern at the time was simply to play with a lighter sound , which he believed to be more expressive . Also his choice of notes suggested great deliberation rather than wild exuberance The Miles Davis Nonet 's existence was brief , consisting only of a two - week September 1948 engagement at the Manhattan 's Royal Roost and the three recording dates that make up Birth of the Cool . These recordings were not widely appreciated until some years later . However , they prefigured the work of nonet members John Lewis and Gerry Mulligan . John Lewis went on to co-found the Modern Jazz Quartet , who incorporated classical forms , such as the fugue , in their music . Tanner , Gerow , and Megill note that the Quartet `` played classical forms quite precisely . For example , the fugues they played were truly baroque in form except that the exposition parts were improvised . '' While third stream music would combine classical elements with jazz , the Modern Jazz Quartet used these forms `` just to play good , swinging , subtle jazz '' and in pursuit of `` the joy of collective improvisation and counterpoint . '' Gerry Mulligan , with Chet Baker , formed a pianoless quartet that was both innovative and successful . Later , Mulligan formed a `` Tentette '' that further developed the ideas he had brought to the Birth of the Cool nonet . George Shearing 's quintet , which used a more subtle bebop style , also influenced cool 's development . Both Thelonious Monk and Dizzy Gillespie praised Shearing 's approach . While Davis , Lewis , Mulligan , and Shearing 's efforts were rooted in bebop , other musicians were less indebted to that style . In New York , pianist Lennie Tristano and saxophonist Lee Konitz developed a `` somewhat atonal cerebral alternative to bop which concentrated on linear improvisation and interweaving rhythmic complexities '' . In California , Dave Brubeck hired alto saxophonist Paul Desmond , forming a quartet . Both Konitz and Desmond used an approach that ran counter to bebop , in the sense that neither player employed a sound or style heavily indebted to Charlie Parker ( or Parker 's blues elements ) . In a 2013 interview , Konitz noted that `` the blues never connected with me , '' and further explained `` I knew and loved Charlie Parker and copied his bebop solos like everyone else . But I did n't want to sound like him . So I used almost no vibrato and played mostly in the higher register . That 's the heart of my sound . '' West Coast jazz ( edit ) Main article : West Coast jazz In 1951 , Stan Kenton disbanded his Innovations Orchestra in Los Angeles . Many of the musicians , some of whom had also played in Woody Herman 's band , chose to remain in California . Trumpeter Shorty Rogers and drummer Shelly Manne were central figures among this group of musicians . Much of this activity centered on the Hermosa Beach Lighthouse Café , where bassist Howard Rumsey led a house band , the Lighthouse All - Stars . Drummer Chico Hamilton led an ensemble that -- unusually for a jazz group -- included a cellist , Fred Katz . Tanner , Gerow , and Megill liken Hamilton 's music to chamber music , and have noted that Hamilton 's `` subtle rhythmic control and use of different drum pitches and timbres '' was well - suited for this style of music . Tanner , Gerow , and Megill are largely dismissive of the term `` West Coast jazz . '' As it often refers to Gerry Mulligan and his associates in California , `` west coast '' merely becomes synonymous with `` cool , '' although Lester Young , Claude Thornhill , and Miles Davis were based in New York . At the same time , many musicians associated with West Coast jazz `` were much more involved in a hotter approach to jazz . Communication being what it is , it is hardly likely that any style of jazz was fostered exclusively in one area . '' Legacy ( edit ) In 1959 , The Dave Brubeck Quartet recorded Time Out , which reached No. 2 on the Billboard `` Pop Albums '' chart . The cool influence stretches into such later developments as bossa nova , modal jazz ( especially in the form of Davis 's Kind of Blue ( 1959 ) ) , and even free jazz ( in the form of Jimmy Giuffre 's 1961 -- 1962 trio ) . Following their work on Birth of the Cool , Miles Davis and Gil Evans would again collaborate on albums such as Miles Ahead , Porgy and Bess , and Sketches of Spain . Some observers saw the subsequent hard bop style as a response to cool and West Coast jazz . Conversely , David H. Rosenthal sees the development of hard bop as a response to both a perceived decline in bebop and the rise of rhythm and blues . Shelly Manne suggested that cool jazz and hard bop simply reflected their respective geographic environments : the relaxed cool jazz style reflected a more relaxed lifestyle in California , while driving bop typified the New York scene . Ted Gioia has noted that some of the artists associated with the ECM label during the 1970s are direct stylistic heirs of cool jazz . While these musicians may not sound similar to earlier cool artists , they share the same values : clarity of expression ; subtlety of meaning ; a willingness to depart from the standard rhythms of hot jazz and learn from other genres of music ; a preference for emotion rather than mere emoting ; progressive ambitions and a tendency to experiment ; above all , a dislike for bombast . Gioia also identifies cool 's influence upon other idioms , such as new - age , minimalism , pop , folk , and world music . See also ( edit ) Jazz portal Chamber jazz List of cool jazz and West Coast jazz musicians References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Gridley , Mark C. ( 1994 ) , `` Styles '' , in Ron Wynn , All Music Guide to Jazz , M. Erlewine , V. Bogdanov , San Francisco : Miller Freeman , p. 11 , ISBN 0 - 87930 - 308 - 5 ^ Jump up to : Tanner , Paul O.W. ; Maurice Gerow ; David W. Megill ( 1988 ) ( 1964 ) . `` Cool ( 1949 -- 1955 ) '' . Jazz ( 6th ed . ) . Dubuque , IA : William C. Brown , College Division . pp. 103 -- 111 . ISBN 0 - 697 - 03663 - 4 . Jump up ^ Martin , Henry and Keith Waters , Jazz : The First 100 Years , 2nd ed . Boston : SCHIRMER CENGAGE Learning , p. 224 . ^ Jump up to : Gioia , Ted ( 2005 ) . `` Cool Jazz and West Coast Jazz '' . In Kirchner , Bill . The Oxford Companion to Jazz . Oxford University Press US . pp. 332 -- 342 . ISBN 0 - 19 - 518359 - 2 . Jump up ^ Iverson , Ethan ( 2011 - 05 - 16 ) . `` Lee Konitz : A Q&A by Ethan Iverson '' . JazzTimes . Retrieved 2013 - 09 - 12 . ^ Jump up to : Wynn , Ron ( 1994 ) , Ron Wynn , ed. , All Music Guide to Jazz , M. Erlewine , V. Bogdanov , San Francisco : Miller Freeman , ISBN 0 - 87930 - 308 - 5 ^ Jump up to : Carr , Roy ( 2006 ) ( 1997 ) , `` The Cool on the Coast '' , A Century of Jazz : A Hundred Years of the Greatest Music Ever Made , London : Hamlyn , pp. 92 -- 105 , ISBN 0 - 681 - 03179 - 4 Jump up ^ Feather , Leonard ( 1950 ) , `` Cool , '' in Jazz , Los Angeles : Pacific Press . p. 26 . Cited in Tanner et al. `` Cool . '' Jazz , p. 106 . Jump up ^ Gridley , Mark C. ( SEVENTH ADDITION ) . Concise Guide to Jazz . CHAPTER 7 PAGE 127 : PERSON . p. 127 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 205 - 93749 -- 3 . Check date values in : date = ( help ) Jump up ^ Myers , Marc ( 2013 - 09 - 02 ) . `` Jazz 's King of Cool '' . The Wall Street Journal . Retrieved 2013 - 09 - 08 . Jump up ^ Case , Brian ( 2006 ) ( 1997 ) , `` The Harder They Come '' , in Roy Carr , A Century of Jazz : A Hundred Years of the Greatest Music Ever Made , London : Hamlyn , pp. 106 -- 121 , ISBN 0 - 681 - 03179 - 4 Jump up ^ Rosenthal , David H. ( 1992 ) , Hard Bop : Jazz and Black Music 1955 -- 1965 , New York : Oxford Univ. , ISBN 0 - 19 - 505869 - 0 Jump up ^ Manne , Shelly . `` Jazz : American Classic '' ( Interview : video ) . Interview with Reginald Buckner . Cited in Tanner et al. `` Hard Bop -- Funky . '' Jazz , p. 113 . Further reading ( edit ) MacAdams , Lewis , Birth of the Cool : Beat , Bebop , and the American Avant - Garde , Simon and Schuster , 2001 . ISBN 0 - 684 - 81354 - 8 External links ( edit ) A History of Cool Jazz in 100 Tracks , edited by Ted Gioia ( Jazz.com ) allmusic Cool Jazz Forever Cool : Cool and West Coast Jazz on the Internet The Birth of the Cool 1927 , by Len Weinstock . ( hide ) Jazz General topics Outline of jazz `` Jazz '' Jazz band Big band Improvisation Jam session Scat singing Swing performance Jazz bass Jazz drumming Jazz guitar Jazz piano Jazz violin Vocal jazz Women in jazz Genres Acid jazz Avant - garde jazz Azerbaijani jazz Jazz mugham Bebop Bossa nova Cape jazz Chamber jazz Cool jazz Crossover jazz Dixieland Folk jazz Free jazz European free jazz Free funk Free improvisation Gypsy jazz Hard bop Indo jazz Jazz blues Jazz - funk Jazz fusion Jazz rap Kansas City jazz Latin jazz Afro - Cuban jazz M - Base Mainstream jazz Modal jazz Neo-bop jazz Nu jazz Orchestral jazz Organ trio Post-bop Progressive jazz Punk jazz Ska jazz Smooth jazz Soul jazz Stride Swing Neo-swing Third stream Trad jazz West Coast jazz Yass Musicians Bassists Clarinetists Drummers Guitarists Organists Percussionists Pianists Saxophonists Trombonists Trumpeters Vibraphonists Violinists Vocalists Musicians by genre Bebop Chamber jazz Cool jazz & West Coast jazz Hard bop Jazz blues Jazz fusion Scat Smooth jazz Soul jazz Swing Standards Pre-1920 1920s 1930s 1940s post-1950 Discographies Bethlehem Blue Note BYG Actuel Cobblestone Contemporary CTI ECM ESP - Disk Flying Dutchman Freedom Groove Merchant Impulse ! India Navigation JMT Landmark Mainstream Milestone MPS Muse Prestige Riverside Strata - East Verve Winter & Winter Festivals Beaches ( Toronto ) Cape Town Copenhagen Jakarta Monterey Montreal Montreux New Orleans Newport North Sea Saint Lucia Culture Contrafacts Institutions and organizations Jazz funeral Jazz poetry Jazz royalty Jazz theory See Template : Jazz theory Rare groove Second line Venues Regional scenes Australian jazz Armenian jazz Azerbaijani jazz Balkan jazz Bulgarian jazz Baltimore jazz Belgian jazz Brazilian jazz British jazz British dance band Canadian jazz Chicago jazz Continental European jazz Cuban jazz Czech and Slovak jazz Danish jazz Dutch jazz European free jazz French jazz German jazz Haitian jazz Indian jazz Indo jazz Iranian jazz Italian jazz Japanese jazz Kansas City jazz Latin American jazz Malawian jazz New Orleans jazz New York City jazz Polish jazz Yass South African jazz Cape jazz Spanish jazz Swedish jazz West Coast jazz History Bibliography of jazz Blues music British dance band Ragtime Jazz Age Continental jazz Straight - ahead jazz Pre-1920 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s Related Contradanza Bluegrass music Blues music Boogie - woogie Brass band Jug band Jump blues Ragtime Novelty ragtime Rhythm & Blues Rock and roll Soul music Swamp pop West African music Western swing Zydeco Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cool_jazz&oldid=838398118 '' Categories : Cool jazz Jazz terminology Hidden categories : CS1 errors : dates Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Magyar Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Українська 粵語 中文 21 more Edit links This page was last edited on 26 April 2018 , at 19 : 02 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

5415609997531043369

the equal rights amendment banned discrimination based on which of these

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Equal_Rights_Amendment&oldid=818987021

Equal Rights Amendment - wikipedia Equal Rights Amendment Jump to : navigation , search This article is part of a series on the Constitution of the United States of America Preamble and Articles of the Constitution Preamble II III IV V VI VII Amendments to the Constitution Bill of Rights II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII XIV XV XVI XVII XVIII XIX XX XXI XXII XXIII XXIV XXV XXVI XXVII Unratified Amendments Congressional Apportionment Titles of Nobility Corwin Child Labor Equal Rights D.C. Voting Rights History Drafting and ratification timeline Convention Signing Federalism Republicanism Full text of the Constitution and Amendments Preamble and Articles I -- VII Amendments I -- X Amendments XI -- XXVII Unratified Amendments United States portal U.S. Government portal Law portal Wikipedia book The Equal Rights Amendment ( ERA ) is a proposed amendment to the United States Constitution designed to guarantee equal rights for all citizens regardless of sex ; it seeks to end the legal distinctions between men and women in terms of divorce , property , employment , and other matters . The ERA was originally written by Alice Paul and Crystal Eastman . The amendment was introduced in Congress for the first time in 1923 and has prompted conversations about the meaning of equality for women and men . In its early history , middle - class women were largely supportive , while those speaking for the working class were often opposed , arguing that employed women needed special protections regarding working conditions and employment hours . With the rise of the women 's movement in the United States in the 1960s , the ERA garnered increasing support , and , after being reintroduced by Representative Martha Griffiths ( D - MI ) , in 1971 , it passed both houses of Congress in 1972 and was submitted to the state legislatures for ratification . Congress had originally set a ratification deadline of March 22 , 1979 . Through 1977 , the amendment received 35 of the necessary 38 state ratifications . With wide , bipartisan support ( including that of both major political parties , both houses of Congress , and Presidents Ford and Carter ) it seemed headed for ratification until Phyllis Schlafly mobilized conservative women in opposition , arguing that the ERA would disadvantage housewives and cause women to be drafted into the military . Four states rescinded their ratifications before the 1979 deadline ; however , there is no precedent or mechanism within the US Constitution for rescinding , and , thus , it becomes a legal question . In 1978 , a joint resolution of Congress extended the ratification deadline to June 30 , 1982 , but no further states ratified the amendment before that revised deadline . On March 22 , 2017 , the 45th anniversary of Congress 's submission of the amendment to the states , the Nevada Legislature was the first to ratify the ERA after the expiration of the original deadline . Contents ( hide ) 1 Text 2 Background 2.1 Feminists split 2.2 Hayden rider and protective labor legislation 2.3 1960s 3 Congressional passage 4 Actions in the state legislatures 4.1 Ratifications 4.2 Ratifications rescinded 4.3 Refusal to recognize deadline extension to June 30 , 1982 4.4 Non-ratifying states with one - house approval 5 Congressional extension of ratification deadline 6 In the courts 7 Support for the ERA 7.1 Black women and the ERA 8 Opposition to the ERA 9 Post-deadline ratifications 10 Subsequent congressional action 10.1 Proposed removal of ratification deadline 11 State Equal Rights Amendments 12 See also 13 References 14 Further reading 15 External links Text ( edit ) Section 1 . Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex . Section 2 . The Congress shall have the power to enforce , by appropriate legislation , the provisions of this article . Section 3 . This amendment shall take effect two years after the date of ratification . Background ( edit ) Alice Paul toasting ( with grape juice ) the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment . August 26 , 1920 On the 75th anniversary of the Seneca Falls Convention , July 1 , 1923 , feminist and advocate for women 's rights Alice Paul announced that she planned on promoting and initiating an amendment to the United States Constitution that would give the same rights to men and women . She believed that the Nineteenth Amendment would not be enough to ensure that men and women were treated equally regardless of sex . Paul wrote a draft and in honor of Lucretia Mott , a female abolitionist who fought for women 's rights and attended the First Women 's Rights Convention , Paul named the amendment Mott 's Amendment . The original amendment stated : Men and women shall have equal rights throughout the United States and every place subject to its jurisdiction . Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation . In 1943 , Alice Paul further revised the amendment 's wording ; this text became Section 1 in the version passed by Congress in 1972 . That wording was based on that of the Fifteenth Amendment and Nineteenth Amendments . As a result , in the 1940s , ERA opponents proposed an alternative , which provided that `` no distinctions on the basis of sex shall be made except such as are reasonably justified by differences in physical structure , biological differences , or social function . '' It was quickly turned down by both pro and anti-ERA coalitions . Feminists split ( edit ) Since the 1920s , the Equal Rights Amendment has caused a sharp debate among feminists about the meaning of women 's equality . It was `` feminist against feminist '' , said historian Judith Sealander . Alice Paul and her National Woman 's Party was the leading proponent , arguing that women should be on equal terms with men in all regards , even if that means sacrificing certain benefits given to women through protective legislation , such as shorter work hours and no night work or heavy lifting . Opponents of the amendment , such as the Women 's Joint Congressional Committee , believed that these gender - based benefits protected women and that the loss of such protection would not be worth the supposed gain in equality . In general , middle - class elements supported the ERA , and working - class elements ( and the labor movement ) opposed it . In 1924 , The Forum hosted a debate between Doris Stevens and Alice Hamilton concerning these two perspectives on the proposed amendment . Their debate reflected the wider tension in the developing feminist movement of the early 20th century between two approaches towards the equality of gender . One approach emphasized shared similarities between the sexes and demanded rights based on women 's humanity . The other approach emphasized women 's unique experiences and how they were different from men to obtain recognition for their specific needs . The crusade against the ERA on behalf of working class women was led by Mary Anderson and the Women 's Bureau beginning in 1923 . These feminists argued that legislation including mandated minimum wages , safety regulations , restricted daily and weekly hours , lunch breaks , and maternity provisions would be more beneficial to the majority of women who were forced to work out of economic necessity , not personal fulfillment . The debate over the ERA also drew from struggles between working class and professional women . Alice Hamilton said , in her speech `` Protection for Women Workers , '' that the ERA would strip working women of the small protections they had achieved , and leave them powerless to further improve their condition in the future , or attain necessary protections in the present . The National Woman 's Party already had tested its approach in Wisconsin , where it won passage of the Wisconsin Equal Rights Law in 1921 . It then took the ERA to Congress in the 1920s , where Senator Charles Curtis , a future Vice President , and Representative Daniel R. Anthony , Jr. -- Susan B. Anthony 's nephew , both Kansas Republicans , introduced it for the first time as Senate Joint Resolution No. 21 on December 10 , 1923 , and as House Joint Resolution No. 75 on December 13 , 1923 , respectively . Though the ERA was introduced in every congressional session between 1923 and 1970 , it almost never reached the floor of either the Senate or the House for a vote -- instead , it was usually blocked in committee ; except in 1946 , when it was defeated in the Senate by a vote of 38 to 35 -- not receiving the required two - thirds vote . Hayden rider and protective labor legislation ( edit ) In 1950 and 1953 , the ERA was passed by the Senate with a provision known as `` the Hayden rider '' , introduced by Arizona Senator Carl Hayden . The Hayden rider added a sentence to the ERA to keep special protections for women : `` The provisions of this article shall not be construed to impair any rights , benefits , or exemptions now or hereafter conferred by law upon persons of the female sex . '' By allowing women to keep their existing and future special protections , it was expected that the ERA would be more appealing to its opponents . Though opponents were marginally more in favor of the ERA with the Hayden rider , supporters of the original ERA believed it negated the amendment 's original purpose -- causing the amendment not to be passed in the House . ERA supporters were hopeful that the second term of Dwight Eisenhower would advance their agenda . Eisenhower had publicly promised to `` assure women everywhere in our land equality of rights , '' and in 1958 , President Dwight Eisenhower asked a joint session of Congress to pass the Equal Rights Amendment , the first president to show such a level of support for the amendment . However , the National Woman 's Party found the amendment to be unacceptable and asked it to be withdrawn whenever the Hayden rider was added to the ERA . The Republican Party included support of the ERA in its platform beginning in 1940 , renewing the plank every four years until 1980 . The ERA was strongly opposed by the American Federation of Labor and other labor unions , who feared the amendment would invalidate protective labor legislation for women . The Equal Rights Amendment was also opposed by Eleanor Roosevelt and most New Dealers . They felt that ERA was designed for middle class women but that working class women needed government protection . They also feared that the ERA would undercut the male - dominated labor unions that were a core component of the New Deal coalition . Most northern Democrats , who aligned themselves with the anti-ERA labor unions , opposed the amendment . The ERA was supported by southern Democrats and almost all Republicans . At the 1944 Democratic National Convention , the Democrats made the divisive step of including the ERA in their platform , but the Democratic Party did not become united in favor of the amendment until congressional passage in 1972 . The main support base for the ERA until the late 1960s was among middle class Republican women . The League of Women Voters , formerly the National American Woman Suffrage Association , opposed the Equal Rights Amendment until 1972 , fearing the loss of protective labor legislation . 1960s ( edit ) At the Democratic National Convention in 1960 , a proposal to endorse the ERA was rejected after it met explicit opposition from liberal groups including the American Civil Liberties Union ( ACLU ) , the AFL -- CIO , labor unions such as the American Federation of Teachers , Americans for Democratic Action ( ADA ) , the American Nurses Association , the Women 's Division of the Methodist Church , and the National Councils of Jewish , Catholic , and Negro Women . The losing side then demanded that presidential candidate John F. Kennedy announce his support of the ERA ; he did so in an October 21 , 1960 , letter to the chairman of the National Woman 's Party . When Kennedy was elected , he made Esther Peterson the highest - ranking woman in his administration as an Assistant Secretary of Labor . Peterson publicly opposed the Equal Rights Amendment based on her belief that it would weaken protective labor legislation . Peterson referred to the National Woman 's Party members , most of them veteran suffragists and preferred the `` specific bills for specific ills '' approach to equal rights . Ultimately , Kennedy 's ties to labor unions meant he and his administration did not support the ERA . As a concession to feminists , Kennedy appointed a blue - ribbon commission on women , the President 's Commission on the Status of Women , to investigate the problem of sex discrimination in the United States . The commission was chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt who opposed the ERA but no longer spoke against it . In the early 1960s , Roosevelt announced that , due to unionization , she believed the ERA was no longer a threat to women as it once may have been and told supporters that they could have the amendment if they wanted it . However , she never endorsed the ERA . The commission she chaired reported ( after her death ) that no ERA was needed . The commission helped win passage of the Equal Pay Act of 1963 which banned sex discrimination in wages in a number of professions ( it would later be amended in the early 1970s to include the professions it initially excluded ) and secured an executive order from Kennedy eliminating sex discrimination in the civil service . The commission , made largely of anti-ERA feminists with ties to labor , proposed remedies to the widespread sex discrimination it unearthed and in its 1963 final report held that on the issue of equality `` a constitutional amendment need not now be sought '' . The commission established state and local commissions on the status of women and arranged for follow - up conferences in the years to come . The following year , the Civil Rights Act of 1964 banned workplace discrimination not only on the basis of race , religion , and national origin , but also on the basis of sex , thanks to the lobbying of Alice Paul and Coretta Scott King and the skillful politicking of Representative Martha Griffiths of Michigan . A new women 's movement gained ground in the later 1960s as a result of a variety of factors : Betty Friedan 's bestseller The Feminine Mystique ; the network of women 's rights commissions formed by Kennedy 's national commission ; the frustration over women 's social and economic status ; and anger over the lack of government and Equal Employment Opportunity Commission enforcement of the Equal Pay Act and Title VII of the Civil Rights Act . In June 1966 , at the Third National Conference on the Status of Women in Washington , D.C. , Betty Friedan and a group of activists frustrated with the lack of government action in enforcing Title VII of the Civil Rights Act formed the National Organization for Women to act as an `` NAACP for women '' , demanding full equality for American women and men . In 1967 , at the urging of Alice Paul , NOW endorsed the Equal Rights Amendment . The decision caused some union Democrats and social conservatives to leave the organization and form the Women 's Equity Action League ( within a few years WEAL also endorsed the ERA ) , but the move to support the amendment benefited NOW , bolstering its membership . By the late 1960s NOW had made significant political and legislative victories and was gaining enough power to become a major lobbying force . In 1969 , newly elected Representative Shirley Chisholm of New York gave her famous speech `` Equal Rights for Women '' on the floor of the U.S. House of Representatives . Congressional passage ( edit ) U.S. Representative Martha Griffiths championed the ERA In February 1970 , NOW picketed the United States Senate , a subcommittee of which was holding hearings on a constitutional amendment to lower the voting age to eighteen . NOW disrupted the hearings and demanded a hearing on the Equal Rights Amendment and won a meeting with Senators to discuss the ERA . That August , over 20,000 American women held a nationwide Women 's Strike for Equality protest to demand full social , economic , and political equality . Said Friedan of the strike , `` All kinds of women 's groups all over the country will be using this week on August 26 particularly , to point out those areas in women 's life which are still not addressed . For example , a question of equality before the law ; we are interested in the Equal Rights Amendment . '' Despite being centered in New York City -- which was regarded as one of the biggest strongholds for NOW and other groups sympathetic to the women 's liberation movement such as Redstockings -- and having a small number of participants in contrast to the large - scale anti-war and civil rights protests that had occurred in the recent time prior to the event , the strike was credited as one of the biggest turning points in the rise of second - wave feminism . In Washington , D.C. , protesters presented a sympathetic Senate leadership with a petition for the Equal Rights Amendment at the U.S. Capitol . Influential news sources such as Time also supported the cause of the protestors . Soon after the strike took place , activists distributed literature across the country as well . In 1970 , congressional hearings began on the ERA . On August 10 , 1970 , Michigan Democrat Martha Griffiths successfully brought Alice Paul 's ERA to the House Floor , after fifteen years of bringing the bill to the House Judiciary Committee without success . The bill passed in the House and continued on to the Senate , which voted for the ERA with an added clause that women would be exempt from the military . The session of Congress ended before the bill could go any further . Griffiths reintroduced the ERA , and achieved success on Capitol Hill with her House Joint Resolution No. 208 , which was adopted by the House on October 12 , 1971 , with a vote of 354 yeas ( For ) , 24 nays ( Against ) and 51 not voting . Griffiths 's joint resolution was then adopted by the Senate on March 22 , 1972 , with a vote of 84 yeas , 8 nays and 7 not voting . The Senate version , drafted by Senator Birch Bayh of Indiana , passed after the defeat of an amendment proposed by Senator Sam Ervin of North Carolina that would have exempted women from the draft . President Richard Nixon immediately endorsed the ERA 's approval upon its passage by the 92nd Congress . Contemporary movement on the ERA began in 2013 , when Senators Ben Cardin of Maryland and Mark Kirk of Illinois , along with Congresswoman Jackie Speier of California , introduced identical bills in both the US Senate and House chambers to remove the ratification deadline altogether . Currently , the legislation continues to gain co-sponsors in both chambers in anticipation of completion of the amendment . Actions in the state legislatures ( edit ) Ratifications ( edit ) In 1972 , the ERA was sent to the states , with a seven - year deadline to get 38 states to ratify the amendment . Most states were eager to pass the legislation ; in 1972 , 22 states ratified the amendment and eight more joined in 1973 . Between 1974 and 1977 , only five states approved the ERA , and advocates became worried about the approaching March 22 , 1979 deadline . At the same time , the legislatures of four states which had ratified the ERA then adopted legislation purporting to rescind those ratifications . If , indeed , a state legislature has power to rescind , then the ERA actually had ratifications by only 31 states -- not 35 -- when March 22 , 1979 arrived . The ERA has been ratified by the following states : Hawaii ( March 22 , 1972 ) New Hampshire ( March 23 , 1972 ) Delaware ( March 23 , 1972 ) Iowa ( March 24 , 1972 ) Idaho ( March 24 , 1972 ) Kansas ( March 28 , 1972 ) Nebraska ( March 29 , 1972 ) Texas ( March 30 , 1972 ) Tennessee ( April 4 , 1972 ) Alaska ( April 5 , 1972 ) Rhode Island ( April 14 , 1972 ) New Jersey ( April 17 , 1972 ) Colorado ( April 21 , 1972 ) West Virginia ( April 22 , 1972 ) Wisconsin ( April 26 , 1972 ) New York ( May 18 , 1972 ) Michigan ( May 22 , 1972 ) Maryland ( May 26 , 1972 ) Massachusetts ( June 21 , 1972 ) Kentucky ( June 26 , 1972 ) Pennsylvania ( September 27 , 1972 ) California ( November 13 , 1972 ) Wyoming ( January 26 , 1973 ) South Dakota ( February 5 , 1973 ) Oregon ( February 8 , 1973 ) Minnesota ( February 8 , 1973 ) New Mexico ( February 28 , 1973 ) Vermont ( March 1 , 1973 ) Connecticut ( March 15 , 1973 ) Washington ( March 22 , 1973 ) Maine ( January 18 , 1974 ) Montana ( January 25 , 1974 ) Ohio ( February 7 , 1974 ) North Dakota ( March 19 , 1975 ) Indiana ( January 18 , 1977 ) Nevada ( March 22 , 2017 ) , despite the ratification deadline expiring decades earlier . Ratifications rescinded ( edit ) Legislators in the following states voted to rescind their earlier ratification of the ERA : Nebraska ( March 15 , 1973 -- Legislative Resolution No. 9 ) Tennessee ( April 23 , 1974 -- House Joint Resolution No. 371 and Senate Joint Resolution No. 29 ) Idaho ( February 8 , 1977 -- Senate Joint Resolution No. 133 and House Concurrent Resolution No. 10 ) Kentucky ( March 17 , 1978 -- House ( Joint ) Resolution No. 2 and House ( Joint ) Resolution No. 20 ) The Lieutenant Governor of Kentucky , Thelma Stovall , who was acting as governor in the governor 's absence , vetoed the rescinding resolution . The Constitution is silent regarding whether the governor of a state has any authority regarding whether that state ratifies an amendment to the Constitution . The Constitution is likewise silent regarding a state 's authority to rescind its ratification of a proposed , but not yet adopted , constitutional amendment . Refusal to recognize deadline extension to June 30 , 1982 ( edit ) On March 1 , 1979 , the South Dakota Legislature approved Senate Joint Resolution No. 2 which , while not going quite so far as to rescind South Dakota 's 1973 ratification of ERA , stipulated that the ERA 's opportunity for ratification -- by any state of the Union -- would expire on March 22 , 1979 . Furthermore , Senate Joint Resolution No. 2 made clear that South Dakota 's own ratification of the ERA would no longer be valid after March 22 , 1979 , and that any ratification of the ERA after that date in any other state would be considered by South Dakota to be null and void . Non-ratifying states with one - House approval ( edit ) At various times , in 8 of the 14 non-ratifying states , one house of the legislature approved the ERA . It failed in those states because both houses of a state 's legislature must approve during the same session for that state to ratify . Florida -- whose House of Representatives voted to ratify the ERA on March 24 , 1972 , with a tally of 91 to 4 ; a second time on April 10 , 1975 , with a tally of 62 to 58 ; a third time on May 17 , 1979 , with a tally of 66 to 53 ; and a fourth time on June 21 , 1982 , with a tally of 60 to 58 . Illinois -- whose Senate voted to ratify the ERA in May 1972 with a tally of 30 to 21 , and again on May 22 , 2014 ( Senate Joint Resolution Constitutional Amendment No. 75 ) with a tally of 39 to 11 ; and whose House of Representatives voted to ratify the ERA on May 1 , 1975 with a tally of 113 to 62 , and again on May 21 , 2003 with a tally of 76 to 41 ( House Joint Resolution Constitutional Amendment No. 1 ) . At various times , votes were conducted in both houses of the Illinois General Assembly on the question of ratifying the ERA and while most members voted in favor of ratification , the result was always less than the three - fifths supermajority vote in each house of the Illinois General Assembly for ratification as required by the internal parliamentary rules of both the Illinois Senate and the Illinois House of Representatives . A provision of the Illinois State Constitution , which had required a supermajority of three - fifths in both legislative chambers , was found to be unconstitutional by the United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois in the 1975 case of Dyer v. Blair . Since then , the ERA has been voted on multiple times , but has only ever passed in one of the chambers . The most recent vote in favor of the ERA was in the state senate in May 2014 with a tally of 39 to 11 , and 6 voting present . Louisiana -- whose Senate voted to ratify the ERA on June 7 , 1972 , with a tally of 25 to 13 . Missouri -- whose House of Representatives voted to ratify the ERA on February 7 , 1975 , with a tally of 82 to 75 . North Carolina -- whose House of Representatives voted to ratify the ERA on February 9 , 1977 , with a tally of 61 to 55 . Oklahoma -- whose Senate voted to ratify the ERA on March 23 , 1972 , by a voice vote . South Carolina -- whose House of Representatives voted to ratify the ERA on March 22 , 1972 , with a tally of 83 to zero . Virginia -- whose Senate voted to ratify the ERA on February 7 , 2011 , with a tally of 24 to 16 ( Senate Joint Resolution No. 357 ) ; a second time on February 14 , 2012 , with a tally of 24 to 15 ( Senate Joint Resolution No. 130 ) ; a third time on February 5 , 2014 , with a tally of 25 to 8 ( Senate Joint Resolution No. 78 ) ; a fourth time on February 5 , 2015 , with a tally of 20 to 19 ( Senate Joint Resolution No. 216 ) ; and a fifth time on January 26 , 2016 , with a tally of 21 to 19 ( Senate Joint Resolution No. 1 ) . Over the past twenty years , ratification resolutions have also been defeated in Arizona , Arkansas , and Mississippi . Congressional extension of ratification deadline ( edit ) In 1978 -- as the 1979 deadline approached -- the 95th Congress adopted House Joint Resolution No. 638 ( H.J. Res. 638 ) , by Representative Elizabeth Holtzman of New York , which purported to extend the ERA 's ratification deadline to June 30 , 1982 . H.J. Res. 638 received less than two - thirds of the vote ( a simple majority , not a supermajority ) in both the House of Representatives and the Senate ; for that reason , ERA supporters deemed it necessary that H.J. Res. 638 be transmitted to then President Jimmy Carter for signature as a safety precaution . Carter signed the joint resolution , though he questioned -- on procedural grounds -- the propriety of his doing so . During this disputed extension , no additional states ratified or rescinded . President Carter signing the extension No additional states ratified the ERA during that extra period of slightly more than three years . On June 18 , 1980 , a resolution in the Illinois House of Representatives resulted in a vote of 102 - 71 in favor , but Illinois required a three - fifths majority on constitutional amendments and so the measure failed by five votes . In 1982 , seven female ERA supporters went on a fast and seventeen chained themselves to the door of the Illinois senate chamber ; none of this resulted in any state ratifications . The closest the ERA came to gaining an additional ratification between the original deadline of March 22 , 1979 and the revised June 30 , 1982 , expiration date was when it was approved by the Florida House of Representatives on June 21 , 1982 . In the final week before the deadline , that ratifying resolution was defeated in the Florida Senate by a vote of 16 yeas and 22 nays . Even if Florida had ratified the ERA , the proposed amendment would still have been two states short of the required 38 ( seven states short if the rescissions were valid ) . According to research by Professor Jules B. Gerard , professor of law at Washington University in St. Louis , of the 35 legislatures that passed ratification resolutions , 24 explicitly referred to the 1979 deadline . In the courts ( edit ) On December 23 , 1981 , in Idaho v. Freeman , the United States District Court for the District of Idaho ruled that the rescissions -- all of which occurred before the original 1979 ratification deadline -- were valid and that the ERA 's deadline extension was unconstitutional . The National Organization for Women appealed both rulings . On October 4 , 1982 , in NOW v. Idaho , 459 U.S. 809 ( 1982 ) , the U.S. Supreme Court vacated the ruling in Idaho v. Freeman and declared the entire matter moot on the grounds that the ERA was dead for the reason given by the Administrator of General Services that the ERA had not received the required number of ratifications ( 38 ) , so that `` the Amendment has failed of adoption no matter what the resolution of the legal issues presented here . '' Support for the ERA ( edit ) Supporters of the ERA point to the lack of a specific guarantee in the Constitution for equal rights protections on the basis of sex . In 1973 , future Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg summarized a supporting argument for the ERA in the American Bar Association Journal : The equal rights amendment , in sum , would dedicate the nation to a new view of the rights and responsibilities of men and women . It firmly rejects sharp legislative lines between the sexes as constitutionally tolerable . Instead , it looks toward a legal system in which each person will be judged on the basis of individual merit and not on the basis of an unalterable trait of birth that bears no necessary relationship to need or ability . In the early 1940s both the Democratic and Republican parties added support for the ERA to their platforms . The National Organization for Women ( NOW ) and ERAmerica , a coalition of almost 80 organizations , led the pro-ERA efforts . Between 1972 and 1982 , ERA supporters held rallies , petitioned , picketed , went on hunger strikes , and performed acts of civil disobedience . On July 9 , 1978 , NOW and other organizations hosted a national march in Washington D.C. , which garnered over 100,000 supporters , and was followed by a Lobby Day on July 10 . On June 6 , 1982 , NOW sponsored marches in states that had not passed the ERA including Florida , Illinois , North Carolina , and Oklahoma . Key feminists of the time , such as Gloria Steinem , spoke out in favor of the ERA , arguing that ERA opposition was based on gender myths that overemphasized difference and ignored evidence of unequal treatment between men and women . Black women and the ERA ( edit ) Many black women supported the ERA since they felt impacted by both race and sex discrimination . One prominent black female supporter was black Congresswoman Shirley Chisholm . On August 10 , 1970 , she gave a speech on the ERA called `` For the Equal Rights Amendment '' in Washington D.C. In her speech , she talked about how widespread sex discrimination had become and how the ERA would address that . She also said that laws to protect women in the workforce from unsafe working conditions would also be needed by men , and thus the ERA would help all people . Other black women at the time supported the ERA for similar reasons . By 1976 , 60 % of black women and 63 % of black men were in favor of the ERA , and the legislation was supported by black organizations such as the NAACP , National Council of Negro Women , Coalition of Black Trade Unionists , National Association of Negro Business , and the National Black Feminist Organization . Opposition to the ERA ( edit ) Anti-ERA women watching a committee meeting of the Florida Senate in 1979 , where consideration of the ERA was postponed , thus effectively killing the resolution for the 1979 session Opponents of the ERA focused on traditional gender roles , such as how men do the fighting in wartime . They argued that the amendment would eliminate the men - only draft requirement and guarantee the possibility that women would be subject to conscription and be required to have military combat roles in future wars if it were passed . Defense of traditional gender roles proved to be a useful tactic . In Illinois , supporters of Phyllis Schlafly , a conservative Republican activist from Illinois , used traditional symbols of the American housewife . They took homemade bread , jams , and apple pies to the state legislators , with the slogans , `` Preserve us from a congressional jam ; Vote against the ERA sham '' and `` I am for Mom and apple pie . '' They appealed to married women by stressing that the amendment would repeal protective laws such as alimony and eliminate the tendency for mothers to obtain custody over their children in divorce cases . It was suggested that single - sex bathrooms would be eliminated and same - sex couples would be able to get married if the amendment were passed . Traditional women started to oppose the ERA . Schlafly said the ERA was designed for the benefit of young career women and warned that if men and women had to be treated identically it would threaten the security of middle - aged housewives with no job skills . They could no longer count on alimony or Social Security . Opponents also argued that men and women were already equal enough with the passage of the Equal Pay Act of 1963 and the Civil Rights Act of 1964 , and that women 's colleges would have to admit men . Her argument that protective laws would be lost resonated with working - class women . Phyllis Schlafly , a conservative activist , organized opposition to the ERA and argued that it `` would lead to women being drafted by the military and to public unisex bathrooms '' At the 1980 Republican National Convention , the Republican Party platform was amended to end its support for the ERA . The most prominent opponent of the ERA was Schlafly . Leading the Stop ERA campaign , Schlafly defended traditional gender roles and would often bait feminists by opening her speeches with lines like , `` I 'd like to thank my husband for letting me be here tonight -- I always like to say that , because it makes the libs so mad . '' When Schlafly began her campaign in 1972 , public polls showed support for the amendment was widely popular and thirty states had ratified the amendment by 1973 . After 1973 , the number of ratifying states slowed to a trickle . Support in the states that had not ratified fell below 50 % . Critchlow and Stachecki argue that public opinion in key states shifted against the ERA as opponents , operating on the local and state levels , won over the public . The state legislators in battleground states followed public opinion in rejecting the ERA . Experts agree that Phyllis Schlafly was a key player in the defeat . Political scientist Jane Mansbridge in her history of the ERA argues that the draft issue was the single most powerful argument used by Schlafly and the other opponents to defeat ERA . She concludes , `` Many people who followed the struggle over the ERA believed -- rightly in my view -- that the Amendment would have been ratified by 1975 or 1976 had it not been for Phyllis Schlafly 's early and effective effort to organize potential opponents . '' Legal scholar Joan C. Williams argues , `` ERA was defeated when Schlafly turned it into a war among women over gender roles . '' Historian Judith Glazer - Raymo argues : As moderates , we thought we represented the forces of reason and goodwill but failed to take seriously the power of the family values argument and the single - mindedness of Schlafly and her followers . The ERA 's defeat seriously damaged the women 's movement , destroying its momentum and its potential to foment social change ... Eventually , this resulted in feminist dissatisfaction with the Republican Party , giving the Democrats a new source of strength that when combined with overwhelming minority support , helped elect Bill Clinton to the presidency in 1992 and again in 1996 . Many ERA supporters blamed their defeat on special interest forces , especially the insurance industry and conservative organizations , suggesting they funded an opposition that subverted the democratic process and the will of the pro-ERA majority . They argued that while the public face of the anti-ERA movement was Phyllis Schlafly and her STOP ERA organization , there were other important groups in the opposition as well , such as the powerful National Council of Catholic Women , labor feminists , and ( until 1973 ) the AFL -- CIO . Opposition to the amendment was particularly high among religious conservatives , who argued that the amendment would guarantee universal abortion rights and the right for homosexual couples to marry . Critchlow and Stachecki say the anti-ERA movement was based on strong support among Southern whites , Evangelical Christians , Mormons , Orthodox Jews , and Roman Catholics , including both men and women . Sonia Johnson , a traditionally raised Mormon housewife whose eventual feminist advocacy for the ERA 's passage led to her excommunication by the LDS church , subsequently wrote about her experiences in the memoir From Housewife to Heretic . ( Johnson and others led a hunger strike / fast at the Illinois state senate building in an effort to push Illinois toward ratification before the deadline of 1982 . ) Post-deadline ratifications ( edit ) Beginning in the mid 1990s , ERA proponents began an effort to win ratification of the ERA by the legislatures of states that did not ratify it between 1972 and 1982 . These proponents claim that Congress can remove the ERA 's ratification deadline despite the deadline having expired , allowing the states again to ratify it . They also claim that the ratifications ERA previously received remain valid . Proponents of the three - state strategy have promoted ratification resolutions in the legislatures of most of the 15 states that never ratified the ERA before the time limit on its ratification expired . On June 21 , 2009 , the National Organization for Women decided to support both efforts to obtain new ratifications and any strategy to submit a new ERA to the states for ratification . In 2013 , the Library of Congress 's Congressional Research Service issued a report saying that ratification deadlines are a political question : ERA proponents claim that the Supreme Court 's decision in Coleman v. Miller gives Congress wide discretion in setting conditions for the ratification process . It also says : Revivification opponents caution ERA supporters against an overly broad interpretation of Coleman v. Miller , which , they argue , may have been be ( sic ) a politically influenced decision . However , most recently , ERA Action has both led and brought renewed vigor to the movement by instituting what has become known as the `` three state strategy '' . It was in 2013 that ERA Action began to gain traction with this strategy through their coordination with Senate and House members not only to introduce legislation in both chambers to remove the ratification deadline , but also in gaining legislative sponsors . The Congressional Research Service then issued a report on the `` three state strategy '' on April 8 , 2013 entitled `` The Proposed Equal Rights Amendment : Contemporary Ratification Issues '' , stating that the approach was viable . In 2014 , under the auspices of ERA Action and their coalition partners , both the Virginia and Illinois state senates voted to ratify the ERA ; however , votes were blocked in both states ' House chambers . In the meantime , the ERA ratification movement continued with the resolution being introduced in 10 state legislatures . Then , on March 22 2017 , the Nevada legislature became the first state in 40 years to ratify the ERA , and Illinois began to see movement again as well . Subsequent congressional Action ( edit ) The amendment has been reintroduced in every session of Congress since 1982 . Senator Ted Kennedy ( D - MA ) championed it in the Senate from the 99th Congress through the 110th Congress . Senator Robert Menendez ( D - NJ ) introduced the amendment symbolically at the end of the 111th Congress and has supported it in the 112th Congress . In the House of Representatives , Carolyn B. Maloney ( D - NY ) has sponsored it since the 105th Congress , most recently in August 2013 . In 1983 , the ERA passed through House committees with the same text as in 1972 ; however , it failed by six votes to achieve the necessary two - thirds vote on the House floor . That was the last time that the ERA received a floor vote in the Congress . At the start of the 112th Congress on January 6 , 2011 , Senator Menendez , along with Representatives Maloney , Jerrold Nadler and Gwen Moore , held a press conference advocating for the Equal Rights Amendment 's adoption . The 113th Congress had a record number of women . On March 5 , 2013 , the ERA was reintroduced by Senator Menendez as S.J. RES. 10 . The `` New ERA '' introduced in 2013 , sponsored by Representative Carolyn B. Maloney , adds an additional sentence to the original text : `` Women shall have equal rights in the United States and every place subject to its jurisdiction . '' Proposed removal of ratification deadline ( edit ) On March 8 , 2011 , the 100th anniversary of International Women 's Day , Representative Tammy Baldwin ( D - WI ) introduced legislation ( H.J. Res. 47 ) to remove the congressionally imposed deadline for ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment . Bill co-sponsors include Representatives Robert Andrews ( D - NJ ) , Jackie Speier ( D - CA ) , Luis Gutierrez ( D - IL ) , Chellie Pingree ( D - ME ) and Debbie Wasserman Schultz ( D - FL ) . On March 22 , 2012 , the 40th anniversary of the ERA 's congressional approval , Senator Benjamin L. Cardin ( D - MD ) introduced ( S.J. Res. 39 ) -- which is worded with slight differences from Representative Baldwin 's ( H.J. Res. 47 ) . Senator Cardin was joined by ten other Senators who added their names to the Senate Joint Resolution . On February 24 , 2013 , the New Mexico House of Representatives passed a resolution asking that the congressionally imposed deadline for ERA ratification be removed . The resolution was officially received by the U.S. House of Representatives on April 25 , 2013 , and was referred to the House 's Committee on the Judiciary , as noted in the Congressional Record . State Equal Rights amendments ( edit ) Further information : State Equal Rights Amendments Twenty - four states have adopted constitutions or constitutional amendments providing that equal rights under the law shall not be denied because of sex . Most of these provisions mirror the broad language of the ERA , while the wording in others resembles the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment . Of course , the state actions do not change the federal draft laws that proved one of the stumbling blocks to passage of the national ERA . The 1879 Constitution of California contains the earliest state equal rights provision on record . Narrowly written , it limits the equal rights conferred to `` entering or pursuing a business , profession , vocation , or employment '' . Near the end of the 19th century two more states , Wyoming ( 1890 ) and Utah ( 1896 ) , included equal rights provisions in their constitutions . These provisions were broadly written to ensure political and civil equality between women and men . Several states crafted and adopted their own equal rights amendments during the 1970s and 1980s , while the ERA was before the states , or afterward . Some state Equal Rights Amendments and original constitutional equal rights provisions are : Alaska -- No person is to be denied the enjoyment of any civil or political right because of race , color , creed , sex or national origin . The legislature shall implement this section . Alaska Constitution , Article I , § 3 ( 1972 ) California -- A person may not be disqualified from entering or pursuing a business , profession , vocation , or employment because of sex , race , creed , color , or national or ethnic origin . California Constitution , Article I , § 8 ( 1879 ) Colorado -- Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the state of Colorado or any of its political subdivisions because of sex . Colorado Constitution , Article II , § 29 ( 1973 ) Connecticut - No person shall be denied the equal protection of the law nor be subjected to segregation or discrimination in the exercise or enjoyment of his or her civil or political rights because of religion , race , color , ancestry , national origin , sex or physical or mental disability . Connecticut Constitution , Article I , § 20 ( 1984 ) Illinois - The equal protection of the laws shall not be denied or abridged on account of sex by the State or its units of local government and school districts . Illinois Constitution , Article I , § 18 ( 1970 ) Iowa -- All men and women are , by nature , free and equal and have certain inalienable rights -- among which are those of enjoying and defending life and liberty , acquiring , possessing and protecting property , and pursuing and obtaining safety and happiness . Iowa Constitution , Article I , § 1 ( 1998 ) Maryland -- Equality of rights under the law shall not be abridged or denied because of sex . Maryland Constitution , Declaration of Rights , Article 46 ( 1972 ) Massachusetts - All people are born free and equal , and have certain natural , essential , and unalienable rights ; among which may be reckoned the right of enjoying and defending their lives and liberties ; that of acquiring , possessing and protecting property ; in fine , that of seeking and obtaining their safety and happiness . Equality under the law shall not be denied or abridged because of sex , race , color , creed or national origin . Massachusetts Constitution , Part 1 , Article 1 as amended by Article CVI by vote of the People , ( 1976 ) Montana -- Individual dignity . The dignity of the human being is inviolable . No person shall be denied the equal protection of the laws . Neither the state nor any person , firm , corporation , or institution shall discriminate against any person in the exercise of his civil or political rights on account of race , color , sex , culture , social origin or condition , or political or religious ideas . Montana Constitution , Article II , § 4 ( 1973 ) Oregon - Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the state of Oregon or by any political subdivision in this state on account of sex . Oregon Constitution , Article I , § 46 ( 2014 ) Utah -- The rights of citizens of the State of Utah to vote and hold office shall not be denied or abridged on account of sex . Both male and female citizens of this State shall enjoy all civil , political and religious rights and privileges . Utah Constitution , Article IV , § 1 ( 1896 ) Wyoming -- In their inherent right to life , liberty and the pursuit of happiness , all members of the human race are equal . Since equality in the enjoyment of natural and civil rights is only made sure through political equality , the laws of this state affecting the political rights and privileges of its citizens shall be without distinction of race , color , sex , or any circumstance or condition whatsoever other than the individual incompetency or unworthiness duly ascertained by a court of competent jurisdiction . The rights of citizens of the state of Wyoming to vote and hold office shall not be denied or abridged on account of sex . Both male and female citizens of this state shall equally enjoy all civil , political and religious rights and privileges . Wyoming Constitution , Articles I and VI ( 1890 ) See also ( edit ) Government of the United States portal Law portal Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women Equal pay for equal work Feminism in the United States First - wave feminism History of feminism History of women in the United States References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Olson , James S. ; Mendoza , Abraham O. ( 2015 - 04 - 28 ) . American Economic History : A Dictionary and Chronology : A Dictionary and Chronology . ABC - CLIO . ISBN 9781610696982 . Jump up ^ Miller , Eric C. ( 2015 - 06 - 19 ) . `` Phyllis Schlafly 's `` Positive '' Freedom : Liberty , Liberation , and the Equal Rights Amendment `` . Rhetoric & Public Affairs . 18 ( 2 ) : 277 -- 300 . ISSN 1534 - 5238 . Jump up ^ `` New Drive Afoot to Pass Equal Rights Amendment '' . www.washingtonpost.com . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 13 . Jump up ^ `` Unbelievably , women still do n't have equal rights in the Constitution '' . 5 January 2018 . 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Jump up ^ Volume 92 , United States Statutes At Large , page 3799 Jump up ^ Equal Rights Amendment - Extension of ratification deadline Archived October 19 , 2013 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ O'Dea , Suzanne ( 1999 ) . From Suffrage to the Senate : An Encyclopedia of American Women in Politics , Volume 1 . ABC - CLIO . p. 244 . Jump up ^ Nicholson , Zoe Ann ( 2004 ) . The Hungry Heart : A Woman 's Fast for Justice . Lune Soleil Press . ISBN 0972392831 . Jump up ^ Sheppard , Nathaniel ( June 24 , 1982 ) . `` Women say they 'll end fast but not rights fight '' . The New York Times . Retrieved September 18 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Letter to House Judiciary Committee , June 14 , 1978 Jump up ^ State of Idaho v. Freeman , 529 F. Supp. 1107 ( D. Idaho 1982 ) . Jump up ^ Memorandum of Gerald P. Carmen , Administrator of General Services , July 1982 . Jump up ^ `` Now v. Idaho '' . eagleforum.org . Jump up ^ `` ERA : Why '' . www.equalrightsamendment.org . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 06 . 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Retrieved May 22 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Perlez , Jane ( May 17 , 1984 ) . `` Plan to omit rights amendment from platform brings objections '' . New York Times . Retrieved July 24 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Critchlow , p. 247 Jump up ^ Jane J. Mansbridge , Why we lost the ERA ( University of Chicago Press , 1986 ) p 214 . Jump up ^ Jane Mansbridge , `` Who 's in Charge Here ? Decision by Accretion and Gatekeeping in the Struggle for the ERA '' , Politics & Society ( 1984 ) 13 # 4 pp 343 - 382 . Jump up ^ Mansbridge , Why we lost the ERA ( 1986 ) p 110 . Jump up ^ Williams , Joan ( 1999 ) . Unbending Gender : Why Family and Work Conflict and What To Do About It . Oxford UP . p. 147 . Jump up ^ Glazer - Raymo , Judith ( 2001 ) . Shattering the Myths : Women in Academe . Johns Hopkins UP . p. 19 . Jump up ^ Critchlow and Stachecki ( 2008 ) . 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Specialist in American National Government , Government Division , The Library of Congress , Congressional Research Service . March 18 , 1996 Jump up ^ `` 2009 National NOW Conference Resolutions : Equal Rights Amendment '' . National Organization for Women . June 21 , 2009 . Archived from the original on 2009 - 08 - 12 . Retrieved 2009 - 08 - 14 . Jump up ^ Neale , Thomas H. ( May 9 , 2013 ) , The Proposed Equal Rights Amendment : Contemporary Ratification Issues ( PDF ) , Congressional Research Service Jump up ^ Held , Herndon , and Stager , Allsion , Sheryl , and Danielle ( 1997 ) . `` The Equal Rights Amendment : Why the ERA Remains Legally Viable And Properly Before the States '' ( PDF ) . William & Mary Journal of Women and the Law . 3 : 113 : 113 -- 136 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Neale , Thomas ( 9 May 2013 ) . `` The Proposed Equal Rights Amendment : Contemporary Ratification Issues '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved 25 May 2017 . Congressional Research Service Jump up ^ `` ERA : Home '' . www.equalrightsamendment.org . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Nevada Ratifies The Equal Rights Amendment ... 35 Years After The Deadline '' . NPR.org . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 06 . Jump up ^ Brown , Matthew Hay . `` As women march in D.C. , Cardin co-sponsors new Equal Rights Amendment '' . baltimoresun.com . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 06 . Jump up ^ says , Quora . `` Let 's Ratify the ERA : A Look at Where We Are Now '' . AAUW : Empowering Women Since 1881 . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Illinois at center of revived Equal Rights Amendment fight '' . Chicago Sun - Times . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` The Equal Rights Amendment : 111th Congress '' ( PDF ) . maloney.house.gov . July 13 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Bill Summary & Status 113th Congress ( 2013 - 2014 ) H.J. RES. 56 '' . loc.gov . Library of Congress . Jump up ^ Randall , Vicky ( 1987 ) . Women and Politics : An International Perspective . University of Chicago Press . p. 308 . Jump up ^ `` As Constitution is read aloud , Maloney , Menendez , Nadler , Moore cite need for Equal Rights Amendment '' . maloney.house.gov ( Press release ) . January 6 , 2011 . Retrieved April 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Bill Text 113th Congress ( 2013 - 2014 ) S.J. RES.10.IS '' . loc.gov . Library of Congress . Jump up ^ Gray , Kaili Joy ( March 7 , 2013 ) . `` Democrats re-re - re-reintroduce Equal Rights Amendment ... but shhhh , do n't tell anyone '' . dailykos.com . Jump up ^ Neuwirth , Jessica ( 2015 ) . Equal Means Equal . New York : The New Press . p. 102 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 62097 - 039 - 3 . Jump up ^ `` U.S. Rep. Baldwin : Seeks to speed ratification of Equal Rights Amendment '' . wispolitics.com . Archived from the original on 2011 - 07 - 18 . Retrieved 2011 - 03 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` All Bill Information ( Except Text ) for S.J. Res. 39 - A joint resolution removing the deadline for the ratification of the equal rights amendment '' . congress.gov . Jump up ^ 51st Legislature , State of New Mexico , First Session , 2013 , House Memorial 7 ( PDF ) CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ `` Roundhouse roundup , Feb. 11 , 2013 '' . Las Cruces Sun - News . Archived from the original on 2014 - 02 - 03 . Jump up ^ 113th Congress , 1st Session , `` Congressional Record '' ( PDF ) , congress.gov ( Vol. 159 , No. 58 ) , p . H2352 Jump up ^ Gladstone , Leslie ( August 23 , 2004 ) . `` Equal Rights Amendment : State Provisions '' ( PDF ) . Congressional Research Service . Retrieved June 19 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Leslie W. Gladstone ( August 23 , 2004 ) . `` Equal Rights Amendments : State Provisions '' ( PDF ) . CRS Report for Congress . Congressional Research Service - The Library of Congress . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on May 15 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` VoteERA.org Equal Rights Amendment Women 's Full Equality '' . VoteERA.org Equal Rights Amendment Women 's Full Equality . Further reading ( edit ) Baldez , Lisa ; Epstein , Lee ; Martin , Andrew D. ( 2006 ) . `` Does the U.S. Constitution Need an Equal Rights Amendment ? '' ( PDF ) . Journal of Legal Studies . 35 ( 1 ) : 243 -- 283 . doi : 10.1086 / 498836 . Bradley , Martha S. ( 2005 ) . Pedestals and Podiums : Utah Women , Religious Authority , and Equal Rights . Salt Lake City , UT : Signature Books . ISBN 1 - 56085 - 189 - 9 . Critchlow , Donald T. ( 2005 ) . Phyllis Schlafly and Grassroots Conservatism : A Woman 's Crusade . Princeton , NJ : Princeton University Press . ISBN 0 - 691 - 07002 - 4 . Critchlow , Donald T. , and Stachecki , Cynthia L. ( 2008 ) . `` The Equal Rights Amendment Reconsidered : Politics , Policy , and Social Mobilization in a Democracy '' , Journal of Policy History Volume 20 , Number 1 online Dunlap , Mary C. ( 1976 ) `` The Equal Rights Amendment and the Courts '' . Pepperdine Law Review Volume 3 , Number 1 online Hatch , Orrin G. ( 1983 ) . The Equal Rights Amendment : Myths and Realities , Savant Press . Kempker , Erin M. ( 2013 ) `` Coalition and Control : Hoosier Feminists and the Equal Rights Amendment '' . Frontiers : A Journal of Women Studies 34.2 ( 2013 ) : 52 - 82 . online Lee , Rex E. ( 1980 ) . A Lawyer Looks at the Equal Rights Amendment . Provo , UT : Brigham Young University Press . ISBN 0 - 8425 - 1883 - 5 . Mansbridge , Jane J. ( 1986 ) . Why We Lost the ERA . Chicago : University of Chicago Press . ISBN 0 - 226 - 50358 - 5 . McBride , Genevieve G. ( 2005 ) . `` ' Forward ' Women : Winning the Wisconsin Campaign for the Country 's First ERA , 1921 . '' . In Peter Watson Boone ( ed . ) . The Quest for Social Justice III . Milwaukee , WI : UW - Milwaukee . ISBN 1 - 879281 - 26 - 0 . CS1 maint : Extra text : editors list ( link ) Neale , T.H. ( 2013 ) . The proposed Equal Rights Amendment : Contemporary ratification issues ( Washington , DC : Congressional Research Service ) online External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Equal Rights Amendment . Wikisource has original text related to this article : Equal Rights Amendment Alice Paul Institute United4Equality VoteERA.org/ Eagle Forum Women Matter ERA Coalition Katrina 's Dream ERA Action 2015 article on attempts to revive the amendment in Virginia Ginsburg , Ruth Bader ( 7 April 1975 ) . `` Opinion : The Fear of the Equal Rights Amendment '' . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on 3 May 2017 . Retrieved 1 August 2017 . But opponents continue a campaign appealing to our insecurity . The campaign theme is fear , fear of unsettling familiar and , for many men and women , comfortable patterns ; fear of change , engendering counsel that we should not deviate from current arrangements , because we can not fully forecast what an equal opportunity society would be like . 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who is a pretty little liars season 7

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Pretty Little Liars ( season 7 ) - Wikipedia Pretty Little Liars ( season 7 ) Jump to : navigation , search Pretty Little Liars ( season 7 ) Season 7 DVD Cover Country of origin United States No. of episodes 20 Release Original network Freeform Original release June 21 , 2016 ( 2016 - 06 - 21 ) -- June 27 , 2017 ( 2017 - 06 - 27 ) Season chronology ← Previous Season 6 List of Pretty Little Liars episodes The seventh and final season of the American mystery drama television series Pretty Little Liars , based on the books of the same name by Sara Shepard , was renewed on June 10 , 2014 for two additional seasons , making the show Freeform 's longest running original series . The season consisted of 20 episodes , in which ten episodes aired in the summer of 2016 , with the remaining ten episodes aired from April 2017 . The season 's premiere aired on June 21 , 2016 on Freeform . Production and filming began in the end of March 2016 , which was confirmed by showrunner I. Marlene King . The season premiere was written by I. Marlene King and directed by Ron Lagomarsino . King revealed the title of the premiere on Twitter on March 17 , 2016 . On August 29 , 2016 , it was confirmed that this would be the final season of the series . Contents ( hide ) 1 Overview 2 Cast 2.1 Main cast 2.2 Recurring cast 2.3 Special guest star 2.4 Guest cast 3 Episodes 4 Specials 5 Production 5.1 Development 5.1. 1 Final season speculation 5.2 Filming 5.3 Casting 6 Reception 6.1 Live + SD Ratings 6.2 Live + 7 Day ( DVR ) ratings 7 References Overview ( edit ) A.D. gives the Liars 24 hours to find Charlotte 's real killer or Hanna dies . While discussing possible suspects , the girls ' suspicion fell on Alison . Aria suspects the red jacket blonde she saw entering the church was Alison . Emily finds the jacket in Alison 's things and Caleb gives it to A.D. Meanwhile , Hanna manages to escape . Elliot 's true motive is later revealed to Alison ; she managed to use his phone to alert the girls to her location when he takes her out in his car one night . She jumps out of the car and he gives chase but Hanna accidentally runs him over and they bury him in the woods . The Liars find out Jenna is calling Elliot as `` Archer '' on his burner phone . Mona then traces most of the sent messages from a secret apartment where they find out his real name is `` Archer Dunhill '' . Toby discovers this and gets the cops to release Alison who reveals that she was the red jacket blonde but only tried to comfort Charlotte . Jenna befriends Sara and Noel begins helping them . Emily confronts Jenna and Sara . Jenna reveals that she became Charlotte 's friend after feeling sympathy for her in Welby and helped Archer fake his identity to be with Charlotte . Sara reveals that they are all looking for the same thing but is killed soon after . A.D. tricks Hanna into believing Archer is alive and records her digging up his grave . The Liars find videos in Noel 's cabin of him torturing them in the dollhouse . Hanna kidnaps Noel after negotiating with him does n't work and films an interrogation video . He manages to escape and lures the Liars to an abandoned blind school . They leave the dollhouse videos on a table and someone takes them but Noel and Jenna attempt to murder them . In the confrontation , Noel is accidentally killed , and Spencer is shot by A.D. , while Jenna corners Spencer . Jenna prepares to kill Spencer , but is knocked out by Mary . She then reveals that Spencer is her second child . A.D. saves Jenna who asks if they shot Spencer . One week later , Spencer has recovered and A.D. sends Jenna to confess to the cops that Noel wanted money Charlotte left Jenna for another eye surgery , killed Sara and tried to kill Jenna in the blind school . Peter returns and reveals that Mary is the one who killed Jessica . Hanna and Spencer follow the trail of a private investigator he hired to find Mary and bump into Ted who reveals he has been hiding her as she is his college fling with whom he conceived Charles . Mary reveals to Spencer that Peter and Jessica were planning to kill her , thus she used his pills to kill Jessica . A.D. then uses Emily 's stolen eggs to impregnate Alison , as a way to further torture the liars . Meanwhile , A.D. hires Sydney Driscoll as their helper and she fakes being A.D. to recruit Aria into joining the A.D. team . Aria is forced into playing and becomes A.D. 's new helper , destroying Emison 's baby nursery and leaving an `` A '' message in Spencer 's house , until the Liars catch her in the act and she defects . Mona , who is becoming addicted to the A-game again , reveals that she tried to scare Charlotte into not resuming the A-game but Charlotte attacked her and she killed her in self - defense . Mary confesses to Rollins and Jessica 's murder . A.D. ends the game as they have finally learned that Mona was Charlotte 's killer . One year later , Mary escapes from prison and Mona is released from Welby but rejoins the A-Team and is sent to kidnap Spencer , who comes face - to - face with A.D. -- Alex Drake , her twin sister . Mary reveals she sold Alex to a London family to get out of Radley . Alex ran away and met Wren who revealed everything about Spencer to her and introduced her to Charlotte who left her everything . She became A.D. to use the Liars to find Charlotte 's killer and killed Wren as he always saw her as Alex while she wanted to become Spencer to have her `` perfect life '' . She explains that Sara was looking for Charlotte 's false treasure in the Radley which was actually the secret file and Jenna recruited Noel to look for `` Charlotte 's sister '' . Jenna uses her enhanced sense of smell to figure out `` Spencer 's not Spencer '' and alerts Toby who tells the others . Mona reveals to them that Wren was going to kill her but she convinced him she could get Mary out . The Liars , Toby , Mona , and Caleb come face to face with Alex and Spencer as they can not tell them apart , until Toby makes the distinction by asking what Spencer 's favorite poem from a book she gave him . Mona tracked A.D. 's location has a cop arrest her . The Liars then say goodbye to one another as Aria leaves for her honeymoon with Ezra . Mona moves to Paris and the `` cop '' is revealed to be her boyfriend who has imprisoned Alex and Mary in her basement dollhouse . In the finale moment , a new set of liars are awaken to find their leader , Addison , has just gone missing . Cast ( edit ) Main article : List of Pretty Little Liars characters Main cast ( edit ) Troian Bellisario as Spencer Hastings and Alex Drake Ashley Benson as Hanna Marin Tyler Blackburn as Caleb Rivers Lucy Hale as Aria Montgomery Ian Harding as Ezra Fitz Laura Leighton as Ashley Marin Shay Mitchell as Emily Fields Andrea Parker as Mary Drake and Jessica DiLaurentis Janel Parrish as Mona Vanderwaal Sasha Pieterse as Alison DiLaurentis Recurring cast ( edit ) Nicholas Gonzalez as Marco Furey Keegan Allen as Toby Cavanaugh Tammin Sursok as Jenna Marshall Lindsey Shaw as Paige McCullers Brant Daugherty as Noel Kahn Lulu Brud as Sabrina Huw Collins as Archer Dunhill Special guest star ( edit ) Holly Marie Combs as Ella Montgomery Chad Lowe as Byron Montgomery Guest cast ( edit ) Lesley Fera as Veronica Hastings Brendan Robinson as Lucas Gottesman Vanessa Ray as CeCe Drake / Charlotte DiLaurentis Kara Royster as Yvonne Phillips Jim Titus as Barry Maple Chloe Bridges as Sydney Driscoll Nia Peeples as Pam Fields Drew Van Acker as Jason DiLaurentis Nolan North as Peter Hastings Julian Morris as Wren Kingston Roma Maffia as Linda Tanner Dre Davis as Sara Harvey Shane Coffey as Holden Strauss Rebecca Breeds as Nicole Gordon Ava Allan as Addison Derringer Torrey DeVitto as Melissa Hastings Edward Kerr as Ted Wilson John O'Brien as Principal Arthur Hackett Roberto Aguire as Liam Greene David Coussins as Jordan Hobart Meg Foster as Carla Grunwald Mary Page Keller as Dianne Fitzgerald Emma Dumont as Katherine Daly I. Marlene King as Wedding Photographer Notes Unlike the other series regulars , Laura Leighton is only credited in the episodes she appears in . Episodes ( edit ) See also : List of Pretty Little Liars episodes No . overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date Prod . code U.S. viewers ( millions ) 141 `` Tick - Tock , Bitches '' Ron Lagomarsino I. Marlene King June 21 , 2016 ( 2016 - 06 - 21 ) 2M7201 1.43 Whilst searching for Hanna , the gang sees Mary Drake enter the police station . They learn of her identity and that she is the new owner of the Lost Woods resort . After tricking the girls with a doll made to look like a dead Hanna , `` Uber A '' informs them that they have 24 hours to hand over Charlotte 's real killer or Hanna dies . The Liars and the others admit to believing that Alison killed Charlotte and they set out to find proof . Aria and Ezra search Alison 's house , and are almost caught by Elliott . At the psychiatric hospital , Alison , in a drugged state - of - mind , seemingly admits to Emily that she killed Charlotte . After Aria recalls to have seen someone with a red jacket follow Charlotte the night she was murdered , Emily finds the jacket at Alison 's house . Caleb gives the proof to ' Uber A ' in order to save Hanna . Hanna is locked up by `` Uber A '' , but manages to escape . However , she later meets Mary . Elliott reveals his duplicity to Alison as he wants to punish her for killing Charlotte . 142 `` Bedlam '' Tawnia McKiernan Joseph Dougherty June 28 , 2016 ( 2016 - 06 - 28 ) 2M7202 1.24 After putting herself in danger , Hanna is rescued by Mary Drake . After Alison calls Emily about her current condition , this leads the Liars to grow suspicious of Elliott . Spencer and Caleb 's relationship is on the rocks after Hanna tells Caleb about her feelings towards him . Liam is assigned to help Aria and Ezra on their book and after Aria breaks up with him , he unleashes on Ezra . Hanna breaks off her engagement with Jordan , and later signs a contract with Lucas to construct a fashion company . `` A.D. '' ending : `` A.D. '' wheels Alison on a stretcher and adds medication to her intravenous fluids . 143 `` The Talented Mr. Rollins '' Zetna Fuentes Jonell Lennon July 5 , 2016 ( 2016 - 07 - 05 ) 2M7203 1.12 Emily connects the puzzle pieces as she figures out that Elliott and Mary may be working together . Toby and Yvonne get engaged . Spencer feels like breaking up with Caleb because she feels that he still loves Hanna . Emily reveals her true feelings to Sabrina . Aria and Hanna find out about Elliott and Charlotte 's love affair . The Liars attempt to rescue Alison from the psychiatric hospital to protect her from Uber A 's threats . Meanwhile , Alison manages to escape Rollins , who chases her to the woods , where a distracted Hanna hits him with her car . 144 `` Hit and Run , Run , Run '' Michael Goi Maya Goldsmith July 12 , 2016 ( 2016 - 07 - 12 ) 2M7204 1.26 After killing Rollins , the Liars bury his body and try to hide his death , but they end up straining their romantic relationships in the process . At the psychiatric hospital , Alison finally comes clean about the night Charlotte died : she followed Charlotte into the Church and they argued about Elliott , and Alison left minutes before someone killed Charlotte . Mona intervenes with a cover - up plan to help the girls , for better or worse . Spencer meets a man named Marco Furey at The Radley and almost hooks up with him . Jenna comes back to Rosewood and is revealed to be in connection with Elliott , whose real name is revealed to be Archer . 145 5 `` Along Comes Mary '' Norman Buckley Bryan M. Holdman July 19 , 2016 ( 2016 - 07 - 19 ) 2M7205 1.17 Jenna befriends Sara Harvey which puts her at the top of the ' Uber A ' suspect list . Alison is placed under the watch of Mary Drake , and finds out that Archer stole all her money . Spencer enlists Hanna 's help to search for Caleb , she later visits Toby in the police department in order to find out something about Caleb 's disappearance and ends up bumping into Marco , who is revealed to be a detective . Aria and Emily discover a secret apartment that belonged to Archer Dunhill and suspect him to be `` A.D '' . Ali receives her red jacket back with a note from `` Uber A '' saying her friends gave it to them . Ezra proposes to Aria and Noel Kahn meets up with Sara and Jenna . 146 6 `` Wanted : Dead or Alive '' Bethany Rooney Lijah J. Barasz August 2 , 2016 ( 2016 - 08 - 02 ) 2M7206 1.10 The Rosewood P.D. begin to question Elliott 's disappearance and explore the possibility of him being dead . The investigation leads the Liars to question Elliott 's murder altogether , with Hanna being conflicted about whether or not to tell the police the truth . Spencer talks with Marco in order to make things clear regarding the kiss they had in the Radley elevator . Meanwhile , Aria and Ezra struggle with their relationship after Aria turns down Ezra 's proposal because of Elliott 's murder . Emily questions the fact that Sara and Jenna have teamed up together , and finds out that Charlotte enlisted Jenna 's help to find her birth mother and make Archer the alias of Elliott Rollins in order to purposely meet Ali and take advantage of her good intentions for her eventual release . Spencer and Caleb finally have a conversation about their relationship and break up . `` A.D. '' unsuccessfully attacks Alison at her house wearing a mask . After hearing everything from Aria , Ezra proposes to her again -- and , this time , she says yes . Sara is murdered by an unseen figure and her body is discovered in a bathtub at The Radley . `` A.D. '' ending : `` A.D. '' watches a recording of Hanna and Spencer digging up Archer 's grave on their computer . 147 7 `` Original G'A'ngsters '' Melanie Mayron Kateland Brown August 9 , 2016 ( 2016 - 08 - 09 ) 2M7207 1.16 Jason comes back to Rosewood in order to stop Alison from becoming too close to Mary . Meanwhile , Noel Kahn 's behaviour starts to worry the girls when they find out he broke into Toby 's house to steal Mary 's Radley file . The Liars discover new information about Mary and Jessica , leading them to a secret cellar in Carol Ward 's house where they discover that Jessica had files about them and that Mary had a second child while at Radley . They then begin to think that this child , a cousin of Alison , may be behind the `` A.D. '' mask , and wanting revenge for something . The cellar explodes right after the girls leave , and someone writes `` I see you '' on the rear window of their car . Ezra and Aria decide to elope in Italy , but right before they are about to leave , the FBI contacts Ezra and tells him that Nicole may be alive . `` A.D. '' ending : `` A.D. '' steals the files about Aria and Noel , and pours Irish Whiskey over the Noel file and strikes a match on a wax doll face to burn the file . 148 8 `` Exes and OMGs '' Kimberly McCullough Charlie Craig August 16 , 2016 ( 2016 - 08 - 16 ) 2M7208 1.11 After receiving a job offer as the Rosewood High swim coach , Emily discovers that Paige has returned to Rosewood and is also a candidate for the job . Hanna is visited by Mrs. Grunwald , who warns her about Noel . Meanwhile , Alison goes back to work at Rosewood High , but finds it difficult after her students play a prank on her . Aria struggles with her relationship with Ezra after telling him she deleted a call that came from Nicole 's cellphone , and later , with Spencer , visits the doctor who delivered Mary 's baby in order to get answers . Aria buys a plane ticket for Ezra to get him closer to the latest news on Nicole , delaying their wedding . After not getting any help from the Liars , Hanna goes rogue and decides to work alone in an unknown plan to try and discover who `` A.D. '' is . 149 9 `` The Wrath of Kahn '' Chad Lowe Jonell Lennon August 23 , 2016 ( 2016 - 08 - 23 ) 2M7209 1.09 When the typical methods of sleuthing are n't working , Hanna rages and ends up trying to make a deal with Noel Kahn ( who she thinks is `` A.D. '' ) and indirectly drug him in order to lock him up ; however , her initial goal fails . Emily turns to Paige for comfort , while her relationship with Sabrina plummets . Jason and Aria look into Mary 's past where they learn that Steven Kahn , Noel and Eric 's father , orchestrated the adoption of Mary 's second child . Aria learns from Ezra that Nicole is still missing . At the Kahn 's cabin , Spencer and Emily discover that Charlotte and Noel were working together to torture the girls in the dollhouse however the videos are stolen after someone breaks into Spencer 's house . At the end , after unsuccessfully trying to drug Noel , Hanna knocks him out from behind . 150 10 `` The DArkest Knight '' Arlene Sanford I. Marlene King & Maya Goldsmith August 30 , 2016 ( 2016 - 08 - 30 ) 2M7210 1.33 The Liars , Alison , Mona , and Caleb team up with Rosewood P.D. to find Hanna . Emily and Paige continue to rebuild their friendship . Alison reveals to Emily that she 's pregnant . Spencer learns that Toby and Yvonne are planning to leave Rosewood . Aria finds out that Nicole is alive . Noel manages to escape and leads the Liars to an abandoned school for the blind where Jenna , armed with a gun , attempts to murder the Liars with Noel . However , Noel , while attacking Hanna and Emily , trips on his axe and accidentally kills himself . Jenna then shoots at the Liars and gets Spencer . Jenna corners her and is about to execute her when Mary Drake knocks her out and reveals that she is Spencer 's biological mother . While leaving town , Toby and Yvonne are in a car accident . `` A.D. '' ending : `` A.D. '' drags an unconscious Jenna from the abandoned school , and Jenna asks if it was they who shot Spencer . They throw her their mask and she realizes it is `` A.D. '' , as they put up their hoodie . 151 11 `` Playtime '' Chad Lowe Allyson N. Nelson & Joseph Dougherty April 18 , 2017 ( 2017 - 04 - 18 ) 2M7211 1.33 One week after the events of the last episode , Toby is well but Yvonne is in a coma while Spencer has recovered . Ezra arrives and reveals he has n't told Nicole about him and Aria getting married . Hanna and Caleb are back together and Mona helps her get back into the fashion business . Emily is appointed coach of the varsity swimming team and Paige is made an athletics supervisor at Rosewood High . The Liars are given a interactive board game by `` A.D. '' which shows the area of notable places of Rosewood and figurines of the Liars . Spencer plays the game and receives a puzzle piece and a letter from Mary . Hanna tries to destroy the game but a video appears showing that `` A.D. '' knows they killed Rollins . `` A.D. '' ending : `` A.D. '' has Jenna in a dark room without her glasses . She 's drinking a cup of tea and asks for more information about the game . `` A.D. '' takes the teacup and throws a binder with a lot of papers written in braille on her lap . After reading the top of the first page , Jenna mutters `` end game '' . 152 12 `` These Boots Were Made for Stalking '' Ron Lagomarsino Oliver Goldstick April 25 , 2017 ( 2017 - 04 - 25 ) 2M7212 0.92 The Liars question what to do with the board game . Emily refuses to play and leaves . Aria learns that Ezra might have been engaged to Nicole before she went missing and while they started dating again . Meanwhile , Emily battles with a student named Addison Derringer who despises her . Spencer asks Marco to track down Mary Drake and shows him the letter that her mother had written to her before she was born in Radley . Jenna , having been in hiding , returns and claims that Charlotte left behind money for her eye surgery . She further says Noel wanted it , threatened Jenna , and murdered Sara . Emily confronts Addison but Paige interferes and reveals that Addison sent an email to a friend gloating about how she was going to get rid of Emily . 153 13 `` Hold Your Piece '' Marta Cunningham Bryan M. Holdman May 2 , 2017 ( 2017 - 05 - 02 ) 2M7213 0.86 Hanna is sure Jenna is to blame for a recent professional setback and is forced to bring Caleb up to speed on current events . Aria and Emily team up to investigate Sydney for more information about Jenna and her connection to `` A.D. '' and discover that she is working for `` A.D. '' after they find her making a deposit for a surgery for Jenna . They realize that `` A.D. '' is paying Jenna off for helping with the blind school and confront Sydney , who claims that `` A.D. '' is simply an anonymous client . Sydney leaves , however , Aria plants a tracking device in her bag . Meanwhile , Spencer grows closer to Detective Furey , while Aria struggles with her current situation with Ezra , and Hanna 's turn at the game is more intense than she bargained for , leading to shocking consequences . 154 14 `` Power Play '' Roger Kumble Lijah J. Barasz May 9 , 2017 ( 2017 - 05 - 09 ) 2M7214 0.91 Ali 's turn at the game forces her to make a drastic decision to abort her child but is haunted when `` A.D '' reminds her of when she was in the psychiatric hospital and was wheeled into a operating room . Alison is traumatized to remember that Emily 's donated eggs were implanted inside her uterus , realizing Emily is her child 's mother . Spencer has a long overdue conversation with her father about his past sins and recent whereabouts . Emily continues to navigate working at Rosewood High with both Ali and Paige , learning the truth about Ali 's pregnancy . Meanwhile , Paige contemplates leaving Rosewood , but decides against it , resulting in her and Emily renewing their relationship . Aria continues to question the fate of her relationship with Ezra after Nicole 's arrival and bristles under `` A.D. 's '' taunts . While searching for Mary , wanting answers from her , Hanna and Spencer run into Pastor Ted , who eventually reveals himself as Charlotte 's biological father . He also reveals that Lucas was Charlotte 's old childhood friend . Meanwhile , Aria discovers that Sydney is on the A-Team , working with `` A.D. '' . Sydney and `` A.D. '' offer Aria the chance to join the A-Team . 155 15 `` In the Eye Abides the Heart '' Troian Bellisario Joseph Dougherty May 23 , 2017 ( 2017 - 05 - 23 ) 2M7215 0.85 After being blackmailed by `` A.D. '' , Aria supplies info to them about the Liars findings . Detective Furey reveals to Spencer that she used Archer 's credit card to buy drinks when they first met and she is now a suspect in Archer 's death . After some arguing , Ezra finally agrees to leave Nicole behind for Aria , while Emily encourages Ali to not get an abortion and raise her child . Paige discovers Emily is going to help Alison raise her child . That night Paige and Alison discuss Emily , while finally making up after years of hate . Realizing that Emily loves Alison , Paige leaves Rosewood and Emily for good . After learning about Lucas ' relation with Charles , Hanna sets out to prove he is innocent , but finds more evidence that he is `` A.D '' , when the Liars find a comic book made by Lucas and Charles , that heavily resembles the `` A '' game . Hanna tells Mona about the game and tries to convince her to help . Meanwhile , `` A.D. '' sends Aria to retrieve the comic book for them , and in return she is gifted the official `` A '' uniform . `` A.D. '' ending : `` A.D. '' is busy playing around with Aria 's face that they created during their snapchat videos , while `` A.D. '' , masquerading as Aria , holds a secret file of Aria 's , while they laugh uncontrollably . 156 16 `` The Glove That Rocks the Cradle '' Paula Hunziker Maya Goldsmith May 30 , 2017 ( 2017 - 05 - 30 ) 2M7216 0.90 Spencer steals a flash drive from Marco 's apartment about Lucas ' alibi confession to the police the night Archer was killed . `` A.D. '' sends Aria to destroy Alison and Emily 's nursery . In Hanna 's turn at the game , `` A.D. '' makes her pick up something at the computer repair shop and bring it to Rosewood High School . The Liars have a confrontation with Lucas where he explains to them that he did n't know Charles and Charlotte were the same person , or that Charlotte was `` A '' . A second comic book exists and depicts turning vengeance into a game . Aria breaks down in remorse after her plot to destroy the nursery . Meanwhile , Caleb and Hanna return to Lucas 's loft with the hard drive Hanna picked up . The audio file contains a Patsy Cline song . Hanna remembers that `` A '' played a different Patsy song in the Dollhouse . Alison finally admits her feelings to Emily . `` A.D. '' ending : `` A.D. '' has the second comic book . They are shown sketching the ending of the comic book . They draw a gravestone and write `` Here lies '' . 157 17 `` Driving Miss Crazy '' Oliver Goldstick Francesca Rollins & Oliver Goldstick June 6 , 2017 ( 2017 - 06 - 06 ) 2M7217 0.97 With Mona making inroads in the game , Emily reluctantly teams up with her to investigate the doctor who performed Ali 's procedure . Ashley returns to Rosewood to check on Hanna and asks Caleb what his intentions are with her daughter , to which he admits that he wants to marry Hanna and the two become engaged . Meanwhile , `` A.D. '' sends Aria to deliver a gift to the Hastings family that contains a voice recording of Peter and Mary discussing Jessica 's murder , leaving Spencer more confused than ever about who to trust . Ezra notices Aria 's change in attitude and fears he may have lost her ; and `` A.D. '' 's machinations cause Aria to have a terrifying nightmare . 158 18 `` Choose or Lose '' Norman Buckley Charlie Craig June 13 , 2017 ( 2017 - 06 - 13 ) 2M7218 0.96 The Liars have been served with search warrants at their homes . Spencer goes to the police station where she finds out that the case is now being investigated by Detective Tanner . The Liars are sent a phone with a timer that tells them to `` Choose or Lose '' . Caleb and Hanna get married at the courthouse with Ashley as a witness . Caleb and Ezra find the cell tower location from which the game phone has been sending signals from , and later discover that they are being sent from Mona 's house . While leaving to find Spencer , Aria discovers Archer 's corpse is in her car trunk , just as a police car pulls up to confront her . 159 19 `` Farewell , My Lovely '' Joseph Dougherty Joseph Dougherty June 20 , 2017 ( 2017 - 06 - 20 ) 2M7219 0.83 The Liars are told by Caleb that Mona has the board game and jump to conclusions that Mona is `` A.D. '' . Mary meets with Spencer at Lost Woods Resort and gives her ownership of the building . Mona reveals that Charlotte never recovered and was going to resume the A-game . She confronted Charlotte and threatened to push her out the window but never planned to go through with it . When Hanna , Caleb and Spencer take Mona back to their car , the final two puzzle pieces are waiting . Later , the Liars gather in a room at the Lost Woods and put the two final puzzle pieces in . When the pieces are in place , the game says `` Congratulations . Claim the grand prize '' , a picture of Archer . Augmented reality shows a man walking toward Aunt Carol 's house . The Liars are arrested by Tanner at Aunt Carol 's where Archer 's body is found . Mary lies and says she killed Archer , also confessing to Jessica 's murder , saving the Liars from a murder charge . Mona reveals that after she stopped threatening her , Charlotte attacked Mona and in the struggle she accidentally killed Charlotte in self - defense . `` A.D. '' ending : `` A.D. '' drives off into the sunrise with the Liars ' game pieces in a plastic bag . 160 20 `` Till Death Do Us Part '' I. Marlene King Story by : I. Marlene King & Kyle Bown Teleplay by : I. Marlene King & Maya Goldsmith June 27 , 2017 ( 2017 - 06 - 27 ) 2M7220 1.41 This episode 's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed . Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise . ( July 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) A year later , Ezra and Aria are getting ready to be married . Alison and Emily have twin daughters , named Grace and Lily . Alison proposes to Emily , who accepts . Before their wedding , Ezra suddenly goes missing , so the wedding is postponed . Spencer is kidnapped by Mona , who is back on the A-Team and working for `` A.D. '' When Spencer awakens , she meets her secret twin sister , Alex Drake , who is revealed as `` A.D. '' Alex explains that she met Wren at a bar in England , where he later introduced her to Charlotte , whom she had a close relationship with . She became `` A.D. '' in hopes of avenging her death and also reveals that she murdered Wren , and turned him into an eternity stone . It is also revealed that Wren Kingston is the father of Emily and Allison 's twins . Alex explains she has been impersonating Spencer and wants to take her place because she is in love with Toby . With help from Mona , who reveals she 's playing to beat `` A.D. '' , the Liars eventually find Spencer and Ezra struggling with Alex . Toby holds Spencer and Alex at gun point and realizes who the real Spencer is , and Alex and Mary are arrested . The Liars are gathered to see Aria off , when Hanna reveals she is pregnant . Aria reveals that she and Ezra are going to visit an adoption agency after their honeymoon . The girls exchange goodbyes and Aria leaves . In France , Mona has imprisoned Mary and Alex in a new Dollhouse , officially winning the `` A '' game . Meanwhile , Addison 's friends are having a sleepover . When they awaken , they find that Addison has gone missing , with Willa saying `` I think I heard a scream '' and the series ends . Specials ( edit ) Special no . Title Narrator ( s ) Aired after Original air date U.S viewers ( million ) `` A-List Wrap Party '' I. Marlene King & The Cast of Pretty Little Liars `` Till Death Do Us Part '' June 27 , 2017 ( 2017 - 06 - 27 ) 0.62 Showrunner I. Marlene King and the Liars sit down for an hour long unbarred and uncensored tell - all after series finale to discuss all of the series ' tightly held secrets , behind - the - scenes insights , and top moments . Production ( edit ) Development ( edit ) The seventh season was ordered with the sixth season on June 10 , 2014 , right before the fifth - season premiere aired , which made Pretty Little Liars ABC Family 's longest running original series , surpassing The Secret Life of the American Teenager , which was ABC Family 's previous longest running original series . The season will consist of 20 episodes , in which ten episodes will air in the summer of 2016 , with the remaining ten episodes beginning to air in April 2017 . Charlie Craig , who served as writer / consulting producer on the second season , will return for the seventh season as executive producer / co-showrunner . I. Marlene King revealed the title of the premiere `` Tick - Tock , Bitches '' on Twitter . Variety announced that season premiere would air on June 21 , 2016 , the latest for a season premiere in the show 's history . Additionally , series star Troian Bellisario would make her directorial debut this season . Bellisario is set to direct the fifteenth episode of the season . A promo was released on May 12 , 2016 . Freeform released a promotional poster for the season , on June 7 , 2016 . After the season premiere , Freeform released another poster which included Ashley Benson . On August 29 , 2016 , I. Marlene King with the principal cast of the show announced that Pretty Little Liars would end after the seventh season . King also announced that the show would start airing the second half of the season later than usual , in April 2017 and that the series finale would be a two - hour episode event . It was reported on October 26 , 2016 , that a tell - all special will air after the series finale `` Till Death Do Us Part '' , where the main cast and showrunner I. Marlene King talked about the show and behind - the - scenes exclusive . Final season speculation ( edit ) The seventh season had been speculated by both fans and the cast and crew of the show to being the final season of Pretty Little Liars ever since the show was renewed for two additional seasons . In an interview with BuzzFeed , Troian Bellisario said `` This is the beginning of the end . But the best part about these last two years is that , because it 's the beginning of the end , we can actually start telling the story I think we 've been waiting to tell for a long time . '' Regarding the show 's ending , Lucy Hale said to E ! News that `` Seven seasons will definitely end the show . '' Showrunner I. Marlene King commented on these rumors to TVLine as she said `` We have enough story to take us to the end of Season 7 , and we 're going to let the fans tell us if they 're ready to say goodbye to this world and these characters . '' She confirmed to being open for an eighth season and a movie and a new book . In an interview with Variety regarding the five - year time - jump , King said `` I think that this story when we 're back will end next year at the end of Season 7 '' . She later took to Twitter where she confirmed that the current storyline that began in the second half of the sixth season would end after the seventh season , but would not necessarily mean that the show would end after the seventh season . Hale said on The Late Late Show with James Corden that the show was ending after the seventh season . Bellisario 's fiancé Patrick J. Adams said in June 2016 , that the show was ending in 2017 , as the couple has decided to get married after the show ends . Freeform gave out a statement not long after saying that `` There has been no official decision made for PLL beyond a season 7 . '' It was announced on August 29 , 2016 , the day before the mid-season finale would air , that Pretty Little Liars will end after the seventh season . Filming ( edit ) Production began on February 1 , 2016 , when King announced on Twitter that the writers were in full swing brainstorming and mapping the seventh season . Production and filming began in the end of March 2016 and officially wrapped up in October 2016 . Casting ( edit ) The seventh season has nine roles receiving star billing , with eight of them returning from the previous season , six of which was part of the original cast from the first season . The season saw the four protagonists of the series continue the roles as they try to take down the new ' A ' . Troian Bellisario played Spencer Hastings , who has relationship problems with Caleb , while Ashley Benson played Hanna Marin , who was kidnapped at the end of last season . Lucy Hale continued her role as Aria Montgomery as she is set in a love triangle with Ezra and her boyfriend Liam . Shay Mitchell portrayed Emily Fields who begins to rekindle her relationship with Alison . Sasha Pieterse continued to portray Alison DiLaurentis as Alison struggles with being in a psych - ward . Janel Parrish returned as Mona Vanderwaal who seems to be finally on their side . Tyler Blackburn continues to play Caleb Rivers and Ian Harding also continued his role as Ezra Fitz . Andrea Parker was added as a series regular , playing Jessica DiLaurentis ' twin sister Mary Drake . After the sixth - season finale , it was announced that Andrea Parker would return to the show as Mary Drake , Jessica DiLaurentis ' identical twin sister and biological mother to Charlotte DiLaurentis . TVLine later confirmed that Parker was added as a series regular for the upcoming season . Deadline reported on May 10 , 2016 , that actor Nicholas Gonzalez was cast as Detective Vic Furey , a character who will oversee the Rosewood Police Department . The character was later renamed Det . Marco Furey . Tammin Sursok announced that she will return to the show as Jenna Marshall after last appearing in the fifth - season episode `` How the ' A ' Stole Christmas '' . On June 2 , 2016 , Variety reported that Brant Daugherty would be returning as Noel Kahn ; Brant has not appeared on the show since the beginning of the fifth season . On June 10 , 2016 , The Hollywood Reporter reported that Lindsey Shaw would be returning as Paige McCullers after leaving in the fifth season mid-season premiere . The actress playing Sydney Driscoll , Chloe Bridges , posted an image on social media , confirming that she would return to the show after last appearing in the Christmas special episode . On July 28 , 2016 , The Hollywood Reporter reported that Shane Coffey would be returning as Holden Strauss ; Shane has not appeared on the show since the beginning of the third season . It was announced on August 8 , 2016 , that Ava Allan will appear on the show , and will first appear in the second half of the season as Addison . On August 17 , 2016 , TVLine reported that Edward Kerr would be returning to the show as Pastor Ted Wilson in the second half of the season . Kerr had not been on the show since towards the end of the fifth season . Reception ( edit ) Live + SD Ratings ( edit ) No. in series No. in season Episode Air date Time slot ( EST ) Rating / Share ( 18 -- 49 ) Viewers ( m ) Rank ( 18 -- 49 ) 141 `` Tick - Tock , Bitches '' June 21 , 2016 ( 2016 - 06 - 21 ) Tuesdays 8 : 00 p.m. 0.7 1.43 11 142 `` Bedlam '' June 28 , 2016 ( 2016 - 06 - 28 ) 0.6 1.24 15 143 `` The Talented Mr. Rollins '' July 5 , 2016 ( 2016 - 07 - 05 ) 0.5 1.12 12 144 `` Hit and Run , Run , Run '' July 12 , 2016 ( 2016 - 07 - 12 ) 0.6 1.26 7 145 5 `` Along Comes Mary '' July 19 , 2016 ( 2016 - 07 - 19 ) 0.6 1.17 15 146 6 `` Wanted : Dead or Alive '' August 2 , 2016 ( 2016 - 08 - 02 ) 0.5 1.10 12 147 7 `` Original G'A'ngsters '' August 9 , 2016 ( 2016 - 08 - 09 ) 0.6 1.16 9 148 8 `` Exes and OMGs '' August 16 , 2016 ( 2016 - 08 - 16 ) 0.6 1.11 14 149 9 `` The Wrath of Kahn '' August 23 , 2016 ( 2016 - 08 - 23 ) 0.5 1.09 16 150 10 `` The DArkest Knight '' August 30 , 2016 ( 2016 - 08 - 30 ) 0.7 1.33 11 151 11 `` Playtime '' April 18 , 2017 ( 2017 - 04 - 18 ) 0.7 1.33 152 12 `` These Boots Were Made for Stalking '' April 25 , 2017 ( 2017 - 04 - 25 ) 0.5 0.92 10 153 13 `` Hold Your Piece '' May 2 , 2017 ( 2017 - 05 - 02 ) 0.4 0.86 11 154 14 `` Power Play '' May 9 , 2017 ( 2017 - 05 - 09 ) 0.5 0.91 9 155 15 `` In the Eye Abides the Heart '' May 23 , 2017 ( 2017 - 05 - 23 ) 0.4 0.85 11 156 16 `` The Glove That Rocks the Cradle '' May 30 , 2017 ( 2017 - 05 - 30 ) 0.4 0.90 8 157 17 `` Driving Miss Crazy '' June 6 , 2017 ( 2017 - 06 - 06 ) 0.5 0.97 158 18 `` Choose or Lose '' June 13 , 2017 ( 2017 - 06 - 13 ) 0.5 0.96 7 159 19 `` Farewell , My Lovely '' June 20 , 2017 ( 2017 - 06 - 20 ) 0.4 0.83 9 160 20 `` Till Death Do Us Part '' June 27 , 2017 ( 2017 - 06 - 27 ) 0.7 1.41 721 `` A-List Wrap Party '' June 27 , 2017 ( 2017 - 06 - 27 ) Tuesday 10 : 00 p.m. 0.3 0.62 14 Live + 7 Day ( DVR ) ratings ( edit ) No. in series No. in season Episode Air date Time slot ( EST ) 18 -- 49 rating increase Viewers ( millions ) increase Total 18 -- 49 Total viewers ( millions ) Ref . 141 `` Tick - Tok , Bitches '' June 21 , 2016 ( 2016 - 06 - 21 ) Tuesdays 8 : 00 p.m. 0.5 1.05 2.48 142 `` Bedlam '' June 28 , 2016 ( 2016 - 06 - 28 ) 0.4 0.82 1.0 2.05 143 `` The Talented Mr. Rollins '' July 5 , 2016 ( 2016 - 07 - 05 ) 0.4 0.74 0.9 1.85 144 `` Hit and Run , Run , Run '' July 12 , 2016 ( 2016 - 07 - 12 ) 0.4 0.76 1.0 2.01 145 5 `` Along Comes Mary '' July 19 , 2016 ( 2016 - 07 - 19 ) N / A N / A N / A N / A N / A 146 6 `` Wanted : Dead or Alive '' August 2 , 2016 ( 2016 - 08 - 02 ) 0.5 0.84 1.0 1.94 147 7 `` Original G'A'ngsters '' August 9 , 2016 ( 2016 - 08 - 09 ) 0.5 0.95 1.1 2.11 148 8 `` Exes and OMGs '' August 16 , 2016 ( 2016 - 08 - 16 ) 0.5 0.86 1.1 1.97 149 9 `` The Wrath of Kahn '' August 23 , 2016 ( 2016 - 08 - 23 ) 0.5 0.71 0.9 1.80 150 10 `` The DArkest Knight '' August 30 , 2016 ( 2016 - 08 - 30 ) 0.4 0.77 1.1 2.10 151 11 `` Playtime '' April 18 , 2017 ( 2017 - 04 - 18 ) 0.4 0.85 1.1 2.19 152 12 `` These Boots Were Made for Stalking '' April 25 , 2017 ( 2017 - 04 - 25 ) N / A N / A N / A N / A N / A 153 13 `` Hold Your Piece '' May 2 , 2017 ( 2017 - 05 - 02 ) N / A N / A N / A N / A N / A 154 14 `` Power Play '' May 9 , 2017 ( 2017 - 05 - 09 ) 0.4 0.85 0.9 1.77 155 15 `` In the Eye Abides the Heart '' May 23 , 2017 ( 2017 - 05 - 23 ) 0.5 0.98 0.9 1.83 156 16 `` The Glove That Rocks the Cradle '' May 30 , 2017 ( 2017 - 05 - 30 ) 0.5 0.91 0.9 1.82 157 17 `` Driving Miss Crazy '' June 6 , 2017 ( 2017 - 06 - 06 ) 0.5 0.93 1.0 1.90 158 18 `` Choose or Lose '' June 13 , 2017 ( 2017 - 06 - 13 ) 0.4 0.93 0.9 1.90 159 19 `` Farewell , My Lovely '' June 20 , 2017 ( 2017 - 06 - 20 ) 0.5 0.79 0.9 1.62 References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( June 9 , 2014 ) . `` ' Pretty Little Liars ' Renewed For Seasons Six & Seven by ABC Family '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 13 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Aguilera , Leanne ( March 16 , 2016 ) . `` EXCLUSIVE : ' Pretty Little Liars ' Boss Talks Season 7 Secrets , Amping Up the Sex and the ' PLL ' Movie ! '' . Entertainment Tonight . Retrieved March 17 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Wieselman , Jarett ( June 2 , 2015 ) . `` It 's The Beginning Of The End For `` Pretty Little Liars '' `` . BuzzFeed . Retrieved January 13 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Goldberg , Lesley ( August 29 , 2016 ) . `` It 's Official : ' Pretty Little Liars ' to End With Season 7 '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved August 29 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Kissell , Rick ( April 7 , 2016 ) . `` Freeform Sets ' Pretty Little Liars ' Season 7 Premiere Date and Schedules More Summer Series '' . Variety . Retrieved April 8 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Aguilera , Leanne ( March 15 , 2016 ) . `` EXCLUSIVE ' Pretty Little Liars ' Postmortem : Ashley Benson Dishes on Hanna 's ' Questionable ' Fate in Season 7 ! '' . Entertainment Tonight . Retrieved March 16 , 2016 . Jump up ^ King , I. Marlene ( April 4 , 2016 ) . `` Here we go . First # PLLTableReAd of seAson 7 '' . Instagram . Retrieved April 4 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : King , I. Marlene ( March 17 , 2016 ) . `` Season 7 premiere title is `` Tic Tock , Bitches '' @ ThexCreator `` . Twitter . Retrieved March 17 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Special PLL Announcement '' . Facebook . August 29 , 2016 . Retrieved April 12 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Welch , Alex ( June 22 , 2016 ) . `` Tuesday cable ratings : Copa America 2016 scores high '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved June 22 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Welch , Alex ( June 30 , 2016 ) . `` Tuesday cable ratings : ' Pretty Little Liars ' dips '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved June 30 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Welch , Alex ( July 7 , 2016 ) . `` Tuesday cable ratings : ' The Haves and the Have Nots ' holds steady '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved July 7 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Welch , Alex ( July 13 , 2016 ) . `` Tuesday cable ratings : ' Pretty Little Liars ' ticks up '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved July 13 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Welch , Alex ( July 20 , 2016 ) . `` Tuesday cable ratings : ' WWE Smackdown ' rules the night '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved July 20 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Welch , Alex ( August 3 , 2016 ) . `` Tuesday cable ratings : ' WWE Smackdown ' lands on top '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved August 3 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Welch , Alex ( August 10 , 2016 ) . `` Tuesday cable ratings : ' WWE Smackdown ' dips '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved August 10 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Welch , Alex ( August 17 , 2016 ) . `` Tuesday cable ratings : ' WWE Smackdown ' and ' The Haves and The Have Nots ' hold steady '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved August 19 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Welch , Alex ( August 24 , 2016 ) . `` Tuesday cable ratings : ' WWE Smackdown ' ticks up '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved August 25 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Welch , Alex ( August 30 , 2016 ) . `` Tuesday cable ratings : ' WWE Smackdown ' ticks up '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved August 31 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Welch , Alex ( April 19 , 2017 ) . `` Tuesday cable ratings : ' Pretty Little Liars ' premieres , NBA Playoffs lead the night '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 19 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Welch , Alex ( April 26 , 2017 ) . `` Tuesday cable ratings : ' Genius ' premieres , ' Pretty Little Liars ' falls '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 26 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( May 3 , 2017 ) . `` Tuesday cable ratings : NBA Playoffs rule , ' Pretty Little Liars ' dips a little '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 3 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Welch , Alex ( May 10 , 2017 ) . `` Tuesday cable ratings : ' Pretty Little Liars ' ticks up '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 10 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Welch , Alex ( May 24 , 2017 ) . `` Tuesday cable ratings : ' WWE Smackdown ' ticks up , ' Pretty Little Liars ' dips '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 24 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Welch , Alex ( June 1 , 2017 ) . `` Tuesday cable ratings : ' Animal Kingdom ' returns well , ' WWE Smackdown ' wins the night '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved June 1 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Welch , Alex ( June 7 , 2017 ) . `` Tuesday cable ratings : ' Pretty Little Liars ' ticks up , ' Animal Kingdom ' holds steady '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved June 7 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Welch , Alex ( June 14 , 2017 ) . `` Tuesday cable ratings : ' Animal Kingdom ' and ' WWE Smackdown ' fall '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved June 15 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Welch , Alex ( June 21 , 2017 ) . `` Tuesday cable ratings : ' Haves and The Have Nots ' and ' Queen Sugar ' return , ' Animal Kingdom ' holds steady '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved June 21 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Welch , Alex ( June 28 , 2017 ) . `` Tuesday cable ratings : ' Pretty Little Liars ' series finale scores high '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved June 28 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Gelman , Vlada ( October 26 , 2016 ) . `` TVLine Items : Pretty Little Liars Tell All , Saving Hope 's Final Season and More '' . TVLine . Retrieved October 26 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Smith , Clarissa ( October 26 , 2016 ) . `` PRETTY LITTLE LIARS : Freeform to Air Tell - All Special After Series Finale '' . Retrieved October 26 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ( January 8 , 2016 ) . `` ' Pretty Little Liars ' : Writer Charlie Craig Returns As Co-Showrunner For Season 7 '' . Deadline . Retrieved January 13 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` TROIAN BELLISARIO WILL MAKE HER DIRECTORIAL DEBUT IN ' PRETTY LITTLE LIARS ' SEASON 7 ( EXCLUSIVE ) '' . Pretty Little Liars.com. April 7 , 2016 . Retrieved April 10 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Freeform 's Hit Original Series `` Pretty Little Liars '' Starts Production on Season Seven `` . The Futon Critic . Retrieved April 11 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Swift , Andy ( May 12 , 2016 ) . `` Pretty Little Liars Season 7 Trailer : Hanna 's Cliffhanger Fate Revealed '' . TVLine . Retrieved May 15 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Swift , Andy ( June 7 , 2016 ) . `` Pretty Little Liars Season 7 Poster : The Girls ( Minus Hanna ) Are Dressed to Kill '' . TVLine . Retrieved June 8 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` THE NEW PLL POSTER IS OUT AND WE ARE SO RELIEVED ! '' . June 21 , 2016 . Retrieved August 29 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Pretty Little Liars Star ' Lucy Hale ' On E ! News '' . YouTube . October 28 , 2014 . Retrieved January 13 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Denton , Elizabeth ( October 28 , 2014 ) . `` Is Season 7 The End For Pretty Little Liars ? ! '' . Seventeen . Retrieved January 13 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Swift , Andy ( August 12 , 2015 ) . `` Pretty Little Liars Boss on Charles ' Transition , Ali 's New Man and the Show 's Future After Season 7 '' . TVLine . Retrieved January 13 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Wagmeister , Elizabeth ( August 11 , 2015 ) . `` ' Pretty Little Liars ' Creator Marlene King Teases Possible Movie & Season 8 '' . Variety . Retrieved January 13 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Wagmeister , Elizabeth ( December 22 , 2015 ) . `` ' Pretty Little Liars ' Will End After Season 7 , Says Creator '' . Variety . Retrieved January 13 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Andy , Swift ( December 23 , 2015 ) . `` Pretty Little Liars Boss Clears the Air About Ending Series After Season 7 '' . TVLine . Retrieved January 13 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Reiher , Andrea ( February 26 , 2016 ) . `` Lucy Hale confirms ' Pretty Little Liars ' ending with Season 7 , reveals how she hopes it ends '' . Retrieved March 16 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Longeretta , Emily ( June 11 , 2016 ) . `` ' Pretty Little Liars ' Ending After Season 7 -- It 's ' Coming To An End This Year ' '' . Hollywoodlife.com . Retrieved June 19 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Howell , Ernie ( June 13 , 2016 ) . `` ' PRETTY LITTLE LIARS ' NETWORK DROPS BOMBSHELL , CONFIRMS SEASON 7 WILL END ' PLL AS WE KNOW IT ' '' . The Inquisitr . Retrieved June 19 , 2016 . Jump up ^ King , I. Marlene ( February 1 , 2016 ) . `` We 're back ! # Prettylittlewriters '' . Twitter . Retrieved February 17 , 2016 . Jump up ^ King , I. Marlene ( February 1 , 2016 ) . `` Let 's do this . # Prettylittlewriters # Season7 '' . Twitter . Retrieved February 17 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Swift , Andy ( March 15 , 2016 ) . `` Pretty Little Liars Season Finale Recap : ( Spoiler ) 's Twin Revealed '' . TVLine . Retrieved March 16 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Swift , Andy ( March 16 , 2016 ) . `` Pretty Little Liars Season 7 Welcomes Back Andrea Parker as Series Regular '' . TVLine . Retrieved March 16 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Petski , Denise ( May 10 , 2016 ) . `` ' Pretty Little Liars ' Casts Nicholas Gonzalez As Rosewood 's Newest Detective '' . Deadline . Retrieved May 15 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Highfill , Samantha ( June 10 , 2016 ) . `` Pretty Little Liars exclusive : Meet the man who 's going to solve murders in Rosewood '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved June 10 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Swift , Andy ( May 4 , 2016 ) . `` Pretty Little Liars : Jenna Returning to Rosewood in Season 7 ( ' Be Afraid ' ) '' . TVLine . Retrieved May 5 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Wagmeister , Elizabeth ( June 2 , 2016 ) . `` Brant Daugherty Returning to ' Pretty Little Liars ' Season 7 ( EXCLUSIVE ) '' . Variety . Retrieved June 2 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Whitney , Alyse ( June 10 , 2016 ) . `` ' Pretty Little Liars ' : Lindsey Shaw to Return for Season 7 ( Exclusive ) '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved June 10 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Bridges , Chloe ( June 22 , 2016 ) . `` Back at it again ! '' . Instagram . Retrieved June 29 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Whitney , Alyse ( July 28 , 2016 ) . `` ' Pretty Little Liars ' Books Another Alum for Season 7 Return ( Exclusive ) '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved July 28 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Petski , Denise ( August 8 , 2016 ) . `` ' Pretty Little Liars ' Adds Ava Allan In Season 7B '' . Deadline . Retrieved August 8 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Swift , Andy ( August 17 , 2016 ) . `` Pretty Little Liars : Pastor Ted Returns in Season 7B -- Good News For Ashley ? '' . TVLine . Retrieved August 24 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( July 11 , 2016 ) . `` Cable Live + 7 ratings , June 20 -- 26 : ' Game of Thrones ' finale dominates '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved August 22 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( July 10 , 2016 ) . `` Cable Live + 3 ratings , June 27 -- July 3 : ' Love & Hip Hop , ' ' Rizzoli & Isles ' on top '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved August 22 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( July 17 , 2016 ) . `` Cable Live + 3 ratings , July 4 -- 10 : ' Love & Hip Hop : Atlanta ' and ' Preacher ' make biggest gains '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved August 22 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( July 24 , 2016 ) . `` Cable Live + 3 ratings , July 11 -- 17 : ' Mr. Robot , ' ' Love & Hip Hop : Atlanta , ' ' Major Crimes ' lead '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved August 22 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( August 14 , 2016 ) . `` Cable Live + 3 ratings , Aug. 1 -- 7 : ' Love & Hip Hop : Atlanta , ' ' Rizzoli & Isles ' lead '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved August 22 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( August 21 , 2016 ) . `` Cable Live + 3 ratings , Aug. 8 -- 14 : ' Pretty Little Liars , ' ' Ballers , ' ' The Last Ship ' make biggest gains '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved August 22 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( August 28 , 2016 ) . `` Cable Live + 3 ratings , Aug. 15 -- 21 : ' Fear the Walking Dead , ' ' Rizzoli & Isles ' '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved September 2 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( September 4 , 2016 ) . `` Cable Live + 3 ratings , Aug. 22 -- 28 : ' Fear the Walking Dead ' and ' Rizzoli & Isles ' lead again '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved September 11 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( May 4 , 2017 ) . `` ' Fargo ' premiere makes solid gains in cable Live + 7 ratings for April 17 -- 23 '' . Variety . Retrieved May 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( May 27 , 2017 ) . `` ' Brockmire ' makes a big jump in cable Live + 7 ratings for May 8 -- 14 '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved May 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( June 9 , 2017 ) . `` ' Better Call Saul ' racks up more big gains in cable Live + 7 ratings for May 22 -- 28 '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved June 10 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( June 14 , 2017 ) . `` ' Nashville ' return makes solid gains in cable Live + 7 ratings for May 29 -- June 4 '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved June 15 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( June 23 , 2017 ) . `` ' Better Call Saul ' triples in cable Live + 7 ratings for June 5 -- 11 '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved June 24 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( June 29 , 2017 ) . `` ' Better Call Saul ' on top again : Cable Live + 7 ratings for June 12 -- 18 '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved June 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( July 7 , 2017 ) . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it http://tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com/dvr-ratings/doctor-who-quadruples-in-18-49-cable-live-7-ratings-for-june-19-25/ . Retrieved July 9 , 2017 . Missing or empty title = ( help ) ( hide ) Pretty Little Liars Episodes Season 1 `` Pilot '' `` For Whom the Bell Tolls '' Season 2 `` UnmAsked '' Season 3 `` It Happened ' That Night ' '' Season 4 `` ' A ' Is for A-l-i-v-e '' `` Grave New World '' `` Free Fall '' `` A Is for Answers '' Season 5 `` Miss Me × 100 '' `` How the ' A ' Stole Christmas '' Season 6 `` Game On , Charles '' `` Game Over , Charles '' `` Of Late I Think of Rosewood '' `` Charlotte 's Web '' `` Where Somebody Waits For Me '' `` Hush , Hush , Sweet Liars '' Season 7 `` Tick - Tock , Bitches '' `` Bedlam '' `` The Talented Mr. Rollins '' `` Hit and Run , Run , Run '' `` Along Comes Mary '' `` Wanted : Dead or Alive '' `` Original G'A'ngsters '' `` Exes and OMGs '' `` The Wrath of Kahn '' `` The DArkest Knight '' `` Playtime '' `` These Boots Were Made for Stalking '' `` Hold Your Piece '' `` Power Play '' `` In the Eye Abides the Heart '' `` The Glove That Rocks the Cradle '' `` Driving Miss Crazy '' `` Choose or Lose '' `` Till Death Do Us Part '' Characters `` A '' Alex Drake Alison DiLaurentis Aria Montgomery Charlotte Drake Emily Fields Hanna Marin Jenna Marshall Mary Drake Melissa Hastings Mona Vanderwaal Red Coat Sara Harvey Spencer Hastings Sydney Driscoll Related Book series 2006 novel Rosewood , Pennsylvania Ravenswood Pretty Little Liars : The Perfectionists Pretty Dirty Secrets Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pretty_Little_Liars_(season_7)&oldid=836865913 '' Categories : 2016 American television seasons Pretty Little Liars Hidden categories : Pages with citations lacking titles Pages with citations having bare URLs Wikipedia articles with plot summary needing attention from July 2017 All Wikipedia articles with plot summary needing attention Talk Contents About Wikipedia Español Français Հայերեն Italiano Português Edit links This page was last edited on 17 April 2018 , at 09 : 24 . 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english and french are spoken in many parts of africa because

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=African_French&oldid=814851616

African French - wikipedia African French Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the French language spoken in Africa . For immigrants to France from Africa , see African immigration to France , Blacks in France , and Arabs in France . Francophone Africa . The countries coloured dark blue had a population of 410 million in 2017 . In 2050 their population is forecast to reach between 848 million and 867 million . French - language graffiti on Avenue Habib Bourguiba in Tunis , in March 2012 . The graffiti says : `` LONG LIVE TUNISIA ( Vive la Tunisie ) , free and democratic '' . African French ( French : français africain ) is the generic name of the varieties of French spoken by an estimated 120 million ( 2010 ) people in Africa spread across 24 francophone countries . This includes those who speak French as a first or second language in these 31 francophone African countries ( dark blue on the map ) , but it does not include French speakers living in non-francophone African countries . Africa is thus the continent with the most French speakers in the world . French arrived in Africa as a colonial language . These African French speakers are now a large part of the Francophonie . In Africa , French is often spoken alongside indigenous languages , but in some areas it has become a first language , such as in the region of Abidjan , Ivory Coast or Libreville , Gabon . In some countries it is a first language among some classes of the population , such as in Tunisia , Morocco and Algeria where French is a first language among the upper classes ( many people in the upper classes are simultaneous bilinguals in Arabic / French ) , but only a second language among the general population . In each of the francophone African countries , French is spoken with local specificities in terms of pronunciation and vocabulary . Contents ( hide ) 1 Varieties 1.1 Français populaire africain 2 Pronunciation 3 Vocabulary 3.1 Abidjan French vocabulary 3.2 Kinshasa French vocabulary 4 See also 5 Notes and references 6 External links Varieties ( edit ) There are many different varieties of African French , but they can be broadly grouped into four categories : the French spoken by people in West and Central Africa -- spoken altogether by about 75 million people as either a first or second language . the French variety spoken by Maghrebis and Berbers in Northwest Africa ( see Maghreb French ) , which has about 36 million first and second language speakers . the French variety spoken in Djibouti in the Horn of Africa . the French variety spoken by Creoles in the Indian Ocean ( Réunion , Mauritius and Seychelles ) , which has around 1.6 million first and second language speakers . The French spoken in this region is not to be confused with the French - based creole languages , which are also spoken in the area . All the African French varieties differ from standard French both in terms of pronunciation and vocabulary , but the formal African French used in education , media and legal documents is based on standard French vocabulary . In the colonial period , a vernacular form of creole French known as Petit nègre was also present in West Africa . The term has since , however , become a pejorative term for poorly spoken African French . V.Y. Mudimbe describes African French as possessing `` approximate pronunciation , repressed syntax , bloated or tortured vocabulary , intonation , rhythm and accent stuck in the original African language flow ; many phonetic , morphologic and lexical africanisms . '' The differences from European French are due to influence from the mother tongues and the complexity of French grammatical rules , which inhibit its learning by most non-native speakers . The difficulty linguists have in describing African French comes from variations , such as the `` pure '' language used by many African intellectuals and writers versus the mixtures between French and African languages . For this , the term `` creolization '' is used , often in a pejorative way , and especially in the areas where French is on the same level with one or more local languages . According to G. Manessy , `` The consequences of this concurrency may vary according to the social status of the speakers , to their occupations , to their degree of acculturation and thus to the level of their French knowledge . '' Code - switching , or the alternation of languages within a single conversation , takes place in both Senegal and Congo - Kinshasa , the latter having four `` national '' languages -- Kikongo , Lingala , Ciluba and Swahili -- which are in a permanent opposition to French . Code - switching has been studied since colonial times by different institutions of linguistics . One of these , located in Dakar , Senegal , already spoke of the creolization of French in 1968 , naming the result `` franlof '' : a mix of French and Wolof ( the language most spoken in Senegal ) which spreads by its use in urban areas and through schools , where teachers often speak Wolof in the classroom despite official instructions . The omnipresence of local languages in francophone African countries -- along with insufficiencies in education -- has given birth to a new linguistic concept : le petit français . Le petit français is the result of a superposition of the structure of a local language with a narrowed lexical knowledge of French . The specific structures , though very different , are juxtaposed , marking the beginning of the creolization process . Français populaire africain ( edit ) In the urban areas of francophone Africa , another type of French has emerged : Français populaire africain ( `` Popular African French '' ) or FPA . It is used in the entirety of sub-Saharan Africa , but especially in African cities such as Abidjan , Ivory Coast ; Ouagadougou , Burkina Faso ; Dakar , Senegal ; Cotonou , Benin ; and Lomé , Togo . At its emergence , it was marginalized and associated with the ghetto ; Angèle Bassolé - Ouedraogo describes the reaction of the scholars : `` Administration and professors do not want to hear that funny - sounding and barbarian language that seems to despise articles and distorts the sense of words . They see in it a harmful influence to the mastery of good French . '' However , FPA has begun to emerge as a second language among the upper class . It has also become a symbol of social acceptance . FPA can be seen as a progressive evolution of Ivorian French . After diffusing out of Ivory Coast , it became Africanized under the influence of young Africans ( often students ) and cinema , drama , and dance . FPA has its own grammatical rules and lexicon . For example , `` Il ou elle peut me tuer ! '' or `` Il ou elle peut me dja ! '' can either mean `` This person annoys me very much '' or `` I 'm dying for him / her '' depending on the circumstances . `` Il ou elle commence à me plaire '' signifies a feeling of exasperation ( whereupon it actually means `` he or she starts to appeal to me '' ) , and friendship can be expressed with `` c'est mon môgô sûr '' or `` c'est mon bramôgo . '' FPA is mainly composed of metaphors and images taken from African languages . For example , the upper social class is called `` les en - haut d'en - haut '' ( the above from above ) or `` les môgôs puissants '' ( the powerful môgôs ) . Pronunciation ( edit ) Pronunciation in the many varieties of African French can be quite varied . There are nonetheless some trends among African French speakers ; for instance , the letter R tends to be pronounced as an alveolar trill instead of the standard dialect 's uvular trill or ' guttural R . ' The voiced uvular fricative , the sound represented by ⟨ غ ⟩ in the Arabic word مغرب Maghrib , is another common alternative . Pronunciation of the letters ( d ) , ( t ) , ( l ) and ( n ) may also vary , and intonation may differ from standard French . Vocabulary ( edit ) In terms of vocabulary , there exist three phenomena in African French . First , the presence of words which do not exist in standard French . These words were either coined locally or borrowed from local African languages . As a consequence , each regional variety of African French has its own local words that are not the same as in other varieties of African French , although this local vocabulary only constitutes a small part of the overall vocabulary which for the most part is identical to standard French . When talking to people from other regions or countries , African French speakers often switch to a more standard form of French avoiding this local vocabulary . However , there also exist some African French words that are found across many African countries ( see for example chicotter in the Abidjan French vocabulary section below ) . A second phenomenon is the use of some words with a meaning different from standard French . For example , the word présentement ( which means `` at the moment '' in standard French ) is used a lot in sub-Saharan Africa ( but not in the Maghreb ) with the meaning of `` as a matter of fact '' , `` as it were '' and not `` at the moment '' . A third phenomenon is hypercorrection , which is found especially among the educated and upper classes of sub-Saharan Africa . Educated people there tend to speak a very formal sort of French which may sound a bit old - fashioned and conservative to European and North American French speakers . The local African French vocabulary not found in standard French ranges from slang frowned upon by educated people , to colloquial usage , to words that have entered the formal usage ( such as chicotter ) . The French spoken in Abidjan , the largest city of Ivory Coast , offers a good example of these contrasting registers . Abidjan French vocabulary ( edit ) Motorway in the centre of Abidjan French language signs outside a pharmacy in Port - Bouët , Abidjan , in 2009 . According to some estimates , French is spoken by 75 to 99 percent of Abidjan 's population , either alone or alongside indigenous African languages . There are three sorts of French spoken in Abidjan . A formal French is spoken by the educated classes . Most of the population , however , speaks a colloquial form of French known as français de Treichville ( after a working - class district of Abidjan ) or français de Moussa ( after a character in chronicles published by the magazine Ivoire Dimanche which are written in this colloquial Abidjan French ) . Finally , an Abidjan French slang called nouchi is spoken by people in gangs and also by young people copying them . New words usually appear in nouchi and then make their way into colloquial Abidjan French after some time . As of 2012 , a crowdsourced dictionary of Nouchi is being written using mobile phones . Here are some examples of words used in the African French variety spoken in Abidjan ( the spelling used here conforms to French orthography , except ô which should be read as - aw in the English word `` law '' ) : une go is a slang word meaning a girl or a girlfriend . It is a loanword either from the Mandinka language or from English ( `` girl '' ) . It is also French hip - hop slang for a girl. ( 1 ) un maquis is a colloquial word meaning a street - side eatery , a working - class restaurant serving African food . This word exists in standard French , but its meaning is `` maquis shrubland '' , and by extension `` guerrilla '' , see Maquis ( World War II ) . It is not known exactly how this word came to mean street - side restaurant in Ivory Coast . un bra - môgô is a slang word equivalent to `` bloke '' or `` dude '' in English . It is a loanword from the Mandinka language . chicotter is a word meaning to whip , to beat , or to chastise ( children ) . It is a loanword from Brazilian Portuguese where it meant `` to whip ( the black slaves ) '' . It has now entered the formal language of the educated classes . le pia is a slang word meaning money . It comes perhaps from the standard French word pièce ( `` coin '' ) or pierre ( `` stone '' ) , or perhaps piastre ( dollar , buck ) . When speaking in a formal context , or when meeting French speakers from outside Ivory Coast , Abidjan speakers would replace these local words with the French standard words une fille , un restaurant or une cantine , un copain , battre and l'argent respectively . Note that some local words are used across several African countries . For example , chicotter is attested not only in Ivory Coast but also in Senegal , Mali , Niger , Burkina Faso , Chad , the Central African Republic , Benin , Togo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo . As already mentioned , these local words range from slang to formal usage , and their use therefore varies depending on the context . In Abidjan , this is how the sentence `` The girl stole my money . '' is constructed depending on the register : formal Abidjan French of the educated people : La fille m'a subtilisé mon argent . colloquial Abidjan French ( français de Moussa ) : Fille - là a prend mon l'argent. ( in standard French , the grammatically correct sentence should be `` Cette fille ( là ) m'a pris l'argent . '' ) Abidjan French slang ( nouchi ) : La go a momo mon pia . ( momo is an Abidjan slang word meaning `` to steal '' ) Kinshasa French vocabulary ( edit ) Boulevard du 30 Juin in the commercial heart of Kinshasa Journalists ' demonstration in Kinshasa in October 2009 . The French banner says : `` The DRC must not be turned into a graveyard for journalists . '' With more than 8 million inhabitants , Kinshasa is the second largest francophone city in the world after Paris . It is the capital of the most populous francophone country in the world , the Democratic Republic of the Congo , where an estimated 24 million people ( 40 % of the total population ) can speak French ( essentially as a second language ) . Contrary to Abidjan where French is the first language of a large part of the population , in Kinshasa French is only a second language , and its status of lingua franca is shared with Lingala . Kinshasa French also differs from other African French variants , for it has some Belgian French influences , due to colonisation . People of different African mother tongues living in Kinshasa usually speak Lingala to communicate with each other in the street , but French is the language of businesses , administrations , schools , newspapers and televisions . French is also the predominant written language . Due to its widespread presence in Kinshasa , French has become a local language with its own pronunciation and some local words borrowed for the most part from Lingala . Depending on their social status , some people may mix French and Lingala , or code switch between the two depending on the context . Here are examples of words particular to Kinshasa French . As in Abidjan , there exist various registers and the most educated people may frown upon the use of slangish / lingala terms . cadavéré means broken , worn out , exhausted , or dead . It is the local pronunciation of the standard French word cadavre whose meaning in standard French is `` corpse '' . The word cadavéré has now spread to other African countries due to the popularity of Congolese music in Africa . makasi means strong , resistant . It is a loanword from Lingala . anti-nuit are sunglasses worn by partiers at night . It is a word coined locally and whose literal meaning in standard French is `` anti-night '' . It is one of the many Kinshasa slang words related to nightlife and partying . A reveler is known locally as un ambianceur , from standard French ambiance which means atmosphere . casser le bic , literally `` to break the Bic '' , means to stop going to school . `` Bic '' is colloquially used to refer to a ballpoint pen in Belgian French and Kinshasa French , but not in standard French . merci mingi means `` thank you very much '' . It comes from standard French merci ( `` thank you '' ) and Lingala mingi ( `` a lot '' ) . un zibolateur is a bottle opener . It comes from the Lingala verb kozibola which means `` to open something that is blocked up or bottled '' , to which was added the standard French ending - ateur . un tétanos is a rickety old taxi . In standard French tétanos means `` tetanus '' . moyen tê vraiment means `` absolutely impossible '' . It comes from moyen tê ( `` there 's no way '' ) , itself made up of standard French moyen ( `` way '' ) and Lingala tê ( `` not '' , `` no '' ) , to which was added standard French vraiment ( `` really '' ) . See also ( edit ) French language and French - speaking world portal Africa portal French colonial empire Romance - speaking African countries Geographical distribution of French speakers Camfranglais List of colonies and possessions of France Belgian Congo Maghreb French Françafrique Francophonie French language in Minnesota French language in Vietnam French language in Cambodia French language in Laos French Polynesia Notes and references ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Population Reference Bureau . `` 2017 World Population Data Sheet '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 16 . Jump up ^ United Nations . `` World Population Prospects : The 2017 Revision '' ( XLSX ) . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 16 . ^ Jump up to : ( in French ) La Francophonie dans le monde 2006 - 2007 published by the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie . Nathan , Paris , 2007 Jump up ^ ( in French ) Le français à Abidjan : Pour une approche syntaxique du non-standard by Katja Ploog , CNRS Editions , Paris , 2002 Jump up ^ Mudimbe , V.Y. Quel enseignement de la littérature et de la culture françaises ? ( in French ) . Conseil international de la langue française ( Colloque ) . ^ Jump up to : Manessy , G ( 1978 ) . `` Le français d'Afrique noire : français créole ou créole français ? ( The French of black Africa : French creole or creole French ? ) '' . Langue française ( in French ) . 37 : 91 -- 105 . Jump up ^ Calvet , M. `` Le français au Sénégal : intérférences du wolof dans le français des élèves sénégalais ( The French of Senegal : Wolof interference in the French of Senegalese students ) '' . Le français en France et hors de France ( in French ) . 7 : 71 -- 91 . ^ Jump up to : Bassolé - Ouedraogo , A ( 2007 ) . `` Le français et le français populaire africain : partenariat , cohabitation ou défiance ? FPA , appartenance sociale , diversité linguistique '' ( PDF ) ( in French ) . Institut d'Études des Femmes , Université d'Ottawa . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2008 - 02 - 27 . Jump up ^ Marita Jabet , Lund University . `` La situation multilinguistique d'Abidjan '' ( PDF ) ( in French ) . Retrieved 2007 - 05 - 29 . ^ Jump up to : Bertin Mel Gnamba and Jérémie Kouadio N'Guessan . `` Variétés lexicales du français en Côte d'Ivoire '' ( PDF ) ( in French ) . p. 65 . Retrieved 2013 - 09 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` Languages : Crowd - Sourced Online Nouchi Dictionary '' . Rising Voices. 2012 - 07 - 30 . Retrieved 2012 - 09 - 02 . Jump up ^ Suzanne Lafage ( 2002 ) . `` Le lexique français de Côte d'Ivoire '' ( in French ) . Archived from the original on 4 August 2007 . Retrieved 2007 - 08 - 01 . External links ( edit ) LE FRANÇAIS EN AFRIQUE - Revue du Réseau des Observatoires du Français Contemporain en Afrique Links for Afrique francophone Dictionaries of various French - speaking countries Le Français et le Français populaire Africain : partenariat , cohabitation ou défiance ? FPA , appartenance sociale , diversité linguistique La mondialisation , une chance pour la francophonie RFI - L'avenir du français passe par l'Afrique Varieties of the French language Africa Maghrebi African Asia Cambodian Indian Laotian Vietnamese Europe Meridional Standard Belgian Jersey Legal Swiss Aostan North America Canada Quebec Joual Magoua Brayon Acadian Chiac Newfoundland Métis United States Louisiana Cajun Colonial Métis Missouri Muskrat New England Caribbean Haitian Saint - Barthélemy Related French - based creole languages Michif Signed Français signé French language and French - speaking world portal ( hide ) Romance languages ( Classification ) Western Ibero - Romance Galician - Portuguese Portuguese dialects European Brazilian Uruguayan African Asian Creoles Galician Eonavian / Galician - Asturian Fala Judaeo - Portuguese Caló Astur - Leonese Asturian Cantabrian Extremaduran Leonese Mirandese Spanish Spanish dialects Latin American Philippine Equatoguinean European Creoles Old Spanish Judaeo - Spanish Caló Others Navarro - Aragonese Aragonese Judaeo - Aragonese Mozarabic Occitano - Romance Catalan dialects Eastern Catalan Alguerese Balearic Central Northern Western Catalan North - Western Valencian Judaeo - Catalan Caló Occitan Auvergnat Gascon Aranese Languedocien Limousin Provençal Niçard Mentonasc Vivaro - Alpine Old Provençal Judaeo - Provençal Caló Gallo - Romance Langues d'oïl Burgundian Champenois Franc - Comtois French dialects Standard African Aostan Belgian Cambodian Canadian Indian Laotian Swiss Vietnamese Old French Middle French Judaeo - French Creoles Gallo Lorrain Norman Anglo - Norman Picard Poitevin Saintongeais Walloon Moselle Romance British Latin Others Arpitan / Franco - Provençal Valdôtain Savoyard North Italian dialects Gallo - Italic Ligurian Brigasc Genoese Intemelio Monégasque Lombard Western Eastern Emilian - Romagnol Emilian Bolognese Parmigiano Romagnol Piedmontese Judaeo - Piedmontese Gallo - Italic of Sicily Gallo - Italic of Basilicata Others Venetian Fiuman Talian Triestine Mediterranean Lingua Franca Rhaeto - Romance Rhaeto - Romance Friulian Ladin Romansh Central , Sardinian and Eastern Italo - Dalmatian Central Italian dialects Central Tuscan Corsican Gallurese Sassarese Judaeo - Italian Southern Neapolitan Northern Calabrese Sicilian Southern Calabrese Others Dalmatian Istriot Sardinian Sardinian Sardinian Campidanese Logudorese Eastern Romanian Romanian Moldovan Vlach Others Aromanian Istro - Romanian Megleno - Romanian North African North African African Romance Italics indicate extinct languages Bold indicates languages with more than 5 million speakers Languages between parentheses are varieties of the language on their left . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=African_French&oldid=814851616 '' Categories : French language in Africa French dialects Hidden categories : Articles with French - language external links CS1 French - language sources ( fr ) Articles containing French - language text Inconsistent articles All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2014 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 11 December 2017 , at 08 : 51 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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how do i get to dubuque from here

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Dubuque,_Iowa&oldid=820062789

Dubuque , Iowa - wikipedia Dubuque , Iowa Jump to : navigation , search ' Dubuque ' redirects here . For other uses , see Dubuque ( disambiguation ) . Dubuque , Iowa City Downtown Dubuque , Iowa , Oct 2008 Flag Seal Logo Nickname ( s ) : `` The Key City '' , `` City of Five Flags '' , `` Masterpiece on the Mississippi '' Motto ( s ) : `` Showing the Spirit '' Location in the State of Iowa Dubuque , Iowa Location in the United States Coordinates : 42 ° 30 ′ 16 '' N 90 ° 41 ′ 13 '' W  /  42.50444 ° N 90.68694 ° W  / 42.50444 ; - 90.68694 Country United States State Iowa County Dubuque Incorporated 1833 Founded by Julien Dubuque Government Type Council - Manager Mayor Roy D. Buol City manager Michael C. Van Milligen Area City 31.22 sq mi ( 80.86 km ) Land 29.97 sq mi ( 77.62 km ) Water 1.25 sq mi ( 3.24 km ) Elevation 617 ft ( 188 m ) Population ( 2010 ) City 57,637 Estimate ( 2016 ) 58,531 Rank 10th in Iowa Density 1,923 / sq mi ( 742.6 / km ) Metro 96,370 Time zone CST ( UTC - 6 ) Summer ( DST ) CDT ( UTC - 5 ) ZIP codes 52001 -- 52004 , 52099 Area code ( s ) 563 FIPS code 19 - 22395 GNIS feature ID 0456040 Website www.cityofdubuque.org Dubuque / dəˈbjuːk / ( listen ) is the county seat of Dubuque County , Iowa , United States , located along the Mississippi River . In 2013 , its population was 58,253 , making it the tenth - largest city in the state . This city lies at the junction of Iowa , Illinois , and Wisconsin , a region locally known as the Tri-State Area . It serves as the main commercial , industrial , educational , and cultural center for the area . Geographically , it is part of the Driftless Area , a portion of North America that escaped all three phases of the Wisconsinian Glaciation . It is one of the few cities in Iowa with hills , and a tourist destination featuring the city 's unique architecture and river location . It is home to five institutions of higher education , making it a center for culture and learning . Dubuque has long been a center of manufacturing , but the economy grew rapidly and diversified to other areas in the first years of the 21st Century . By 2005 , the city led the state and the Midwest in job growth , ranking as the 22nd fastest - growing economy in the US . Alongside industry , the city has large health care , education , tourism , publishing , and financial service sectors . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Awards and recognition 3 Geography 3.1 Cityscape 3.1. 1 Downtown 3.1. 2 North End 3.1. 3 South End 3.1. 4 West End 3.2 Climate 4 Culture 4.1 Sports 4.2 Media 4.2. 1 Print 4.2. 2 Radio 4.2. 2.1 AM radio stations 4.2. 2.2 FM radio stations 4.2. 3 Television 4.3 Dubuque in film 5 Economy 6 Demographics 6.1 Dubuque Metropolitan Area 6.2 2010 census 6.3 2000 census 6.4 Religion 7 Law and government 7.1 Political climate 8 Education 8.1 Public education 8.2 Private education 8.3 Higher education 9 Infrastructure 9.1 Health and medicine 9.2 Transportation 9.2. 1 Highways 9.2. 2 Airport 9.2. 3 Mass transit 10 Notable people 11 See also 12 References 13 External links History ( edit ) Spain gained control of the Louisiana Territory west of the Mississippi River following the 1763 defeat of the French in the Seven Years ' War ; the British took over all territory to the east , as well as Canada . The first permanent settler in what is now Dubuque was Quebecois pioneer Julien Dubuque , who arrived in 1785 . In 1788 , he received permission from the Spanish government and the local Meskwaki American Indians to mine the area 's rich lead deposits . Control of Louisiana and Dubuque 's mines shifted briefly back to France in 1800 , then to the United States in 1803 , following the Louisiana Purchase . Dubuque died in 1810 . The Meskwaki continued to mine with full support of the U.S. Government until 1830 , when the Meskwaki were illegally pushed out of the mine region by American prospectors . Saint Mary 's , one of 11 Catholic churches in Dubuque . The current City of Dubuque was named after Julien Dubuque , settled at the southern end of a large flat plain adjacent to the Mississippi River . The city was officially chartered in 1833 , located in unorganized territory of the United States . The region was designated as the Iowa Territory in 1838 , and was included in the newly created State of Iowa in 1846 . After the lead resources were exhausted , the city became home to numerous industries . Dubuque became a center for the timber industry because of its proximity to forests in Minnesota and Wisconsin , and was later dominated by various millworking businesses . Also important were boat building , brewing , and later , the railroad industry . In 1874 , the Diamond Jo Line moved its company headquarters to Dubuque . Diamond Jo Line established a shipyard at Eagle Point in 1878 . Just two years later , the company was the largest employer in Dubuque , putting 78 people to work , 75 of whom worked at the shipyard while earning $800 -- $1,000 per week in wages . Between 1860 and 1880 , Dubuque was one of the 100 largest urban areas in the United States . Iowa 's first church was built by Catholics in 1833 . Since then , Iowans have followed a variety of religious traditions . Old store Beginning in the mid-19th century and into the early 20th century , thousands of poor German and Irish Catholic immigrants came to the city to work in the manufacturing centers . The city 's large Roman Catholic congregations led to its designation as the seat of the newly established Archdiocese of Dubuque . Numerous convents , abbeys , and other religious institutions were built . The ethnic German and Irish descendants maintain a strong Catholic presence in the city . Nicholas E. Gonner ( 1835 - 1892 ) , a Catholic immigrant from Pfaffenthal in Luxembourg , founded the Catholic Publishing Company of Dubuque , Iowa . His son Nicholas E. Gonner Jr. ( 1870 - 1922 ) took over in 1892 , editing two German language weeklies , an English language weekly , and the Daily Tribune , the only Catholic daily newspaper ever published in the United States . Early in the 20th century , Dubuque was one of several sites of a brass era automobile company , in this case Adams - Farwell ; like most others , it folded . Subsequently , Dubuque grew significantly , and industrial activity remained the mainstay of the economy until the 1980s . During that time , a series of changes in manufacturing and the onset of the `` Farm Crisis '' led to a large decline in the sector , and the city 's economy as a whole . However , the economy diversified rapidly in the 1990s , shifting away from heavy industry . Today , tourism , high technology , and publishing are among the largest and fastest - growing businesses . Dubuque attracts well over 1,500,000 tourists annually , and this number continues to increase . The city has encouraged development of the America 's River Project 's tourist attractions in the Port of Dubuque , the expansion of the city 's colleges , and the continued growth of shopping centers , such as Asbury Plaza . Awards and recognition ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( February 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Dubuque has received a number of awards and recognition for its redevelopment during the past decade . 2001 - 1st recipient of the Vision Iowa Grant , awarded for $40 million to revitalize the Port of Dubuque . 2006 - Urban Pioneer Award by the National Trust for Historic Preservation , in recognition of Dubuque 's 20 - year commitment to the revitalization of the city 's center . 2006 - Audrey Nealson Community Development Achievement Award that is given out by the National Community Development Association . The award recognized exemplary uses of Community Development Block Grant ( CDBG ) funds which best addressed the needs of low - income families and neighborhoods . 2006 - Money Magazine identified Dubuque as having the `` shortest commute time '' - 11.8 minutes , of all U.S cities . 2007 , 2008 and 2010 - ranked among the `` 100 Best Communities for Young People '' by the America 's Promise Youth Foundation . April 2007 - ranked 15th in the `` Best Small Places For Business and Careers ' '' ranking by Forbes magazine , climbing 60 spots from 2006 . June 2007 - All - America City Award , one of 10 cities recognized nationally . June 2008 - Named as the `` Most Livable '' Small City by the United States Conference of Mayors ( USCM ) . 2009 - ranked the 8th best small metro area to launch a small business by CNNMoney.com . 2009 - Dubuque was honored as the United States Department of Commerce 's Excellence in Economic Development for Excellence in Historic Preservation - led Strategies . Dubuque received the award for its commitment to research - based , market driven economic development in helping grow the local economy . 2009 - one of America 's Top 100 Places to Live , by RelocateAmerica. com 's . 2009 - `` America 's Crown Community Award , '' by American City and Country Magazine , for collaboration that resulted in IBM 's decision to locate a new global technology service delivery center in Dubuque . In 2010 - Forbes has selected Dubuque as the best small city to raise a family in the country . In 2010 - Forbes ranked Dubuque as the top community for job growth , up from 157th in 2009 . 2010 - Excellence in Economic Development Award , presented by the International Economic Development Council . 2010 - Greater Dubuque Development was recognized by the Mid-American Economic Development Council for its programs in Business Retention and Expansion and Workforce Development . 2010 - Third most livable community in the world at the International Awards for Livable Communities . 2010 - ranked 7th best city in the U.S. for economic growth of cities under 200,000 people , by Business Facilities Magazine . 2010 - ranked as the third best city for job growth by careerbuilder.com . 2011 - one of the 10 smartest cities on the planet , Fast Company magazine . ( Dubuque was the only city from the western hemisphere on the list . ) 2011 - 2010 Drinking Water Safe Revolving Loan Fund Award by EPA for Sustainable Public Health Protection . 2012 - Second All - America City Award , one of 10 cities recognized nationally. All - America City Award 2013 - Third All - America City Award , one of 10 cities recognized nationally . 2014 - USA Today named Dubuque the fourth `` Best American Riverfront . '' 2015 - ASA D Northern National Men 's Slow Pitch Champions . Team : Kass & Co . Geography ( edit ) Aerial view of Dubuque and surrounding area One of the Fourth Street Elevator cars Dubuque is located at 42 ° 30 ′ 16 '' N 90 ° 41 ′ 13 '' W  /  42.50444 ° N 90.68694 ° W  / 42.50444 ; - 90.68694 ( 42.504321 , - 90.686865 ) . According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 31.22 square miles ( 80.86 km ) , of which , 29.97 square miles ( 77.62 km ) is land and 1.25 square miles ( 3.24 km ) is water . Cityscape ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( February 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Downtown ( edit ) Downtown Dubuque is the location of the city 's central business district and many of its government and cultural institutions . It is the center of Dubuque 's transportation and commercial sectors , and functions as the hub to the various outlying districts and neighborhoods . It is located in the east - central portion of the city , along the Mississippi River , and includes all of the area north of Maus Park , south of 17th Street , east of the bluffline , and west of the river . The area is made up of several distinct neighborhoods , each of which has a unique history and character . These neighborhoods include : Cable Car Square / Cathedral Square , the Central Business District , Jackson Park / Upper Main , Lower Main , and the Warehouse District . An area of special note within Downtown Dubuque is the Port of Dubuque , which has seen a massive amount of new investment and new construction . The downtown area includes a number of significant buildings , many of which are historic , reflecting the city 's early and continuing importance to the region . North End ( edit ) Eagle Point Park in Dubuque 's North End . Dubuque 's North End area was first settled in the late 19th century by working - class German immigrants to the city . The German - American community in Dubuque sought to establish their own German Catholic churches , separate from the Irish Catholic churches in Dubuque 's downtown and South End . Today , the area still retains its working - class roots , and is still home to some of the largest factories operating in Dubuque . The North End is roughly defined , but generally includes all of the territory north of 17th Street , and east of North Grandview Avenue and Kaufmann Avenue . The area is made up of two main hills ( west of Central Avenue , and west of Lincoln Avenue ) , and two main valleys , the Couler Valley ( between the two hills ) , and the `` Point '' neighborhood , adjacent to the Mississippi River . It is home to Dubuque 's two main cemeteries , Linwood Cemetery ( established for Protestants ) , and Mt . Calvary Cemetery ( established for Catholics ) . Other important sites in the North End include : Eagle Point Park Holy Ghost Catholic Church Linwood Cemetery Lock & Dam # 11 Mathias Ham House Mt . Calvary Cemetery Sacred Heart Catholic Church South End ( edit ) The South End has been the traditional neighborhood of Irish - Americans in the city , and became known as `` Little Dublin , '' specifically centered around southern portions of Downtown Dubuque . Remnants of Irish culture still survive in the South End , with Irish pubs such as Murph 's South End Tap , The Lift , and stores such as Shamrock Imports still operating in the area . Irish culture in Dubuque also revolves around the city 's Irish Catholic churches , namely : St. Columbkille 's , St. Patrick 's , and St. Raphael 's Cathedral . Today , the South End is much larger , and includes all of the land south of Dodge Street , east of Fremont Avenue but including areas of west of it , and north of the Key West area . The South End has many of the city 's `` old money '' neighborhoods , especially along South Grandview and Fremont Avenues , and around the Dubuque Golf & Country Club . Many South End neighborhoods have a more spacious and park - like appearance , contrasting with the more urban North End . Other Important sites in the South End include : Archdiocese of Dubuque headquarters St. Pius X Seminary Louis Murphy Park Mines of Spain State Rec . Area Mt . Carmel Convent St. Raphael 's Cathedral Valentine Park Wartburg Theological Seminary West End ( edit ) Dubuque 's West End is a large , mostly suburban area settled almost entirely after the Second World War . Development was spurred by the onset of the massive baby - boom generation , and sharply higher demand for new housing in the city . Expansion began with the construction of the `` John Deere Homes '' in the Hillcrest Park neighborhood , which were financed by Deere & Company for its workers . Soon after , many large shopping centers were built , including Plaza 20 , and the then - largest enclosed shopping mall in Iowa , Kennedy Mall . Today , the area continues to expand at a rapid pace , with new subdivisions and shopping centers stretching out for miles from the city 's downtown . The West End is not clearly defined , but is generally considered to include all of the suburban - style growth west of North Grandview Avenue , the University of Dubuque , and the Valentine Park neighborhood . The area is home to a wide variety of mostly middle - class neighborhoods and city parks , but also includes many of the city 's largest schools , industrial parks , and all of its large shopping centers . The expansion of the area has also led to rapid growth in suburban Asbury and exurban Peosta , Iowa , both of which adjoin the West Side . Other Important sites in the West End include : Asbury Plaza Asbury Square Shopping Center Bunker Hill Golf Course Dubuque Arboretum & Botanical Gardens Emmaus Bible College Flora Park Hempstead High School Kennedy Mall Medical Associates Clinic - West Campus Mt . Loretto Convent Plaza 20 Resurrection Catholic Church Veterans Memorial Park Wacker Plaza Wahlert High School Warren Plaza Kennedy Mall Redstone Bed & Breakfast Old Cable elevator Mississippi River The Washington Park Gazebo Climate ( edit ) Dubuque has a humid continental climate ( Köppen Dfa ) , which gives it four distinct seasons . However , local weather is often not as extreme as that found in other parts of the Midwest , such as Minnesota or Wisconsin . Spring is usually wet and rainy , summers are sunny and warm , autumn is mild , and winters are typically cloudy and snowy . ( hide ) Climate data for Dubuque , Iowa Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high ° F ( ° C ) 60 ( 16 ) 66 ( 19 ) 85 ( 29 ) 93 ( 34 ) 91 ( 33 ) 100 ( 38 ) 101 ( 38 ) 100 ( 38 ) 97 ( 36 ) 90 ( 32 ) 75 ( 24 ) 67 ( 19 ) 101 ( 38 ) Average high ° F ( ° C ) 27 ( − 3 ) 32 ( 0 ) 44 ( 7 ) 59 ( 15 ) 69 ( 21 ) 79 ( 26 ) 82 ( 28 ) 80 ( 27 ) 72 ( 22 ) 60 ( 16 ) 45 ( 7 ) 30 ( − 1 ) 56.6 ( 13.8 ) Daily mean ° F ( ° C ) 19 ( − 7 ) 23.7 ( − 4.6 ) 35.4 ( 1.9 ) 48.2 ( 9 ) 58.8 ( 14.9 ) 68.3 ( 20.2 ) 72 ( 22 ) 70 ( 21 ) 62 ( 17 ) 50 ( 10 ) 36.7 ( 2.6 ) 22.8 ( − 5.1 ) 47.3 ( 8.5 ) Average low ° F ( ° C ) 11 ( − 12 ) 16 ( − 9 ) 27 ( − 3 ) 38 ( 3 ) 48 ( 9 ) 58 ( 14 ) 62 ( 17 ) 60 ( 16 ) 52 ( 11 ) 40 ( 4 ) 29 ( − 2 ) 15 ( − 9 ) 38 ( 3.3 ) Record low ° F ( ° C ) − 30 ( − 34 ) − 27 ( − 33 ) − 20 ( − 29 ) 11 ( − 12 ) 21 ( − 6 ) 36 ( 2 ) 44 ( 7 ) 40 ( 4 ) 28 ( − 2 ) 13 ( − 11 ) − 17 ( − 27 ) − 25 ( − 32 ) − 30 ( − 34 ) Average precipitation inches ( mm ) 1.3 ( 33 ) 1.3 ( 33 ) 2.8 ( 71 ) 3.9 ( 99 ) 4.2 ( 107 ) 4.0 ( 102 ) 4.2 ( 107 ) 4.6 ( 117 ) 4.1 ( 104 ) 2.8 ( 71 ) 2.7 ( 69 ) 1.9 ( 48 ) 37.7 ( 958 ) Average snowfall inches ( cm ) 10 ( 25 ) 9 ( 23 ) 6.3 ( 16 ) ( 5 ) 0 ( 0 ) 0 ( 0 ) 0 ( 0 ) 0 ( 0 ) 0 ( 0 ) trace 2.8 ( 7.1 ) 11.8 ( 30 ) 41.9 ( 106.4 ) Average precipitation days 8.7 8.6 10.4 11.5 13 11.3 9.9 9.1 8.9 8.9 9.8 10 120.1 Average snowy days 7.2 6.4 4.6 0 0 0 0 0 . 1 2.8 6.8 29 Source : Weatherbase Culture ( edit ) Dubuque has several buildings on the National Register of Historic Places . The Dubuque Arboretum and Botanical Gardens have won a number of awards . The Dubuque County Courthouse , with its Beaux - Arts architecture , is on the register . The Five Flags Theater was built in 1910 , and is on the National Historic Landmark Registry . The Fourth Street Elevator ( also known as the Fenelon Place Elevator ) is located in Downtown Dubuque . This elevator , which is the shortest and steepest railroad in existence , takes passengers up and down one of the large bluffs that dominate the city . The Grand Opera House , a large , grandiose theatre in the downtown district , is one of the epicenters of Dubuque 's thriving local theatre scene . Designed by Willoughby J. Edbrooke , it was erected in 1890 and is on the register . The Julien Dubuque Bridge is a National Historic Landmark . Linwood Cemetery is noted for a number of famous people buried there . The Shot Tower , which was used to produce lead shot and is one of the few such towers left in existence , is also a National Historic Landmark . There are a number of notable parks in Dubuque , particularly Eagle Point Park and the Mines of Spain State Recreation Area . The Grand River Center overlooks the Mississippi River in the Port of Dubuque . Dubuque 's waterfront features the Ice Harbor and just north of it , the Diamond Jo Casino and Grand River Event Center . Land for this project was acquired from several businesses through condemnation of their properties under eminent domain . Dubuque is also the home of the Colts Drum and Bugle Corps . The Colts are a Drum Corps International World Class ensemble and tour the country each summer to attend drum corps competitions . Each summer the Colts and Dubuque host `` Music on the March '' , a Drum Corps International - sanctioned marching competition at Dubuque Senior High School . Dubuque is the second - smallest city in the nation to support a World Class drum corps . Sports ( edit ) The city is home of the Dubuque Fighting Saints . They began playing in the Tier I Junior A United States Hockey League in the Fall of 2010 at the new Mystique Ice Center . Dubuque was home to the original Fighting Saints team from 1980 - 2001 when the team relocated to Tulsa , Oklahoma . From 2001 - 2010 The Dubuque Thunderbirds replaced the Fighting Saints playing in the Tier III Junior A Central States Hockey League at the Five Flags Center . The 2010 - 2011 Fighting Saints were USHL Clark Cup Champions after defeating the Green Bay Gamblers three games to one in the best - of - five Clark Cup Final . In 2013 the Fighting Saints again won the Clark Cup , defeating the Fargo Force three games to none in the best - of - five Final . The team averaged over 2,600 fans per game in the 2013 - 2014 regular season , the highest average in team history . Dubuque is also home to a semi-professional soccer team , Union Dubuque F.C. . On October 26th , 2017 , Union Dubuque announced that they would play in the United Premier Soccer League , a Tier 1 league of the United States Adult Soccer Association . The club is also eligible to participate in the Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup . Media ( edit ) Print ( edit ) Dubuque 's daily newspaper , the Telegraph Herald ( or the `` TH '' , as it is known locally ) , had a daily circulation of nearly 31,000 as of January 27 , 2007 . Several other important papers and journals also operate in the city , including Tri-State Business Times ( monthly business paper ) , 365ink Magazine ( bi-weekly alt / cultural magazine ) , Julien 's Journal ( monthly lifestyle magazine ) , the Dubuque Advertiser ( advertisement paper ) and the `` Tri-States Sports Look '' ( local sports publication ) . Radio ( edit ) AM radio stations ( edit ) ( Strongest signal stations in bold ) WMT 600 `` Newsradio '' , news / talk KDTH 1370 `` Voice of the Tri-States '' , news / talk WDBQ 1490 `` News , Talk , & Sports Leader '' , news / talk / sports FM radio stations ( edit ) ( Strongest signal stations in bold ) WJTY 88.1 `` Joy 88 '' , Christian KIAD 88.5 , Christian KNSY 89.7 `` IPR News / Studio One '' , Iowa Public Radio KUNI 90.9 `` KUNI Radio '' , Iowa Public Radio WHHI 91.3 `` Wisconsin Public Radio '' , public radio KATF 92.9 `` Kat - FM '' , adult contemporary WQPC 94.3 `` Great Country Q94 '' , country WVIK 95.9 `` Augustana Public Radio '' , public radio KGRR 97.3 `` 97.3 The Rock '' , active rock WGLR 97.7 `` 97.7 Country '' , country WVRE 101.1 `` The River '' , country KSUI 101.7 `` Classical Music and More '' , Iowa Public Radio KXGE 102.3 `` Eagle 102 '' , classic rock WJOD 103.3 `` New Country 103 '' , country KLYV 105.3 `` Today 's Hit Music Y105 '' , Top 40 KIYX 106.1 `` Superhits 106 '' , classic hits WPVL 107.1 `` Xtreme 107.1 '' , Top 40 WDBQ - FM 107.5 `` Q107. 5 '' , classic hits KLCR `` Loras College Radio '' , college radio Television ( edit ) Dubuque and surrounding areas are in the Cedar Rapids / Waterloo / Dubuque broadcast media market , which is monitored by the A.C. Nielsen Company for audience research data for advertisers . For years , Dubuque had a local TV news station ( KFXA / KFXB Fox 28 / 40 ) until 2004 , when that station became an affiliate of CTN . Currently , the Dubuque - based TV news is covered by KWWL - TV7 ( Waterloo ) , and KCRG - TV 9 ( Cedar Rapids ) ; both operate news bureaus in the city , and most of the city 's major stories are covered by those stations . Since the closing of KFXA / KFXB , KWWL - TV has captured a majority of the local news market in Dubuque . Dubuque in film ( edit ) Several movies have been filmed in and around Dubuque , including : F.I.S.T. ( 1978 ) , the film is loosely based on the Teamsters union and their former President Jimmy Hoffa Take This Job and Shove It ( 1981 ) Various scenes from Field of Dreams ( 1989 ) were filmed in Dubuque , with the majority of the filming ( and the actual field from the movie ) located in nearby Dyersville , Iowa . Economy ( edit ) For many years , Dubuque 's economy was centered on manufacturing companies such as Deere and Company and Flexsteel Industries . While industry still plays a major role in the city , the economy has diversified a great deal in the last decade . Today , health care , education , tourism , publishing , and financial services are all important sectors of the city 's expanding business climate . There are several major companies which are either headquartered in Dubuque , or have a significant presence in the city . Dubuque 's largest employers include : Deere and Company ( 2,350 ) Dubuque Community School District ( 1,946 ) Medical Associates ( 1,046 ) Mercy Medical Center - Dubuque ( 1,000 ) Finley Hospital ( 859 ) City of Dubuque ( 691 ) Eagle Window & Door Co. ( 550 ) Prudential Financial ( 528 ) Sedgwick Claims Management Services ( 500 ) Loras College ( 415 ) Q Casino ( 413 ) Flexsteel ( 410 ) Diamond Jo Casino ( 400 ) McGraw - Hill Education ( 400 ) McKesson ( 400 ) Hartig Drug ( 393 ) Holy Family Catholic Schools ( 381 ) Cottingham & Butler ( 700 ) Medline Industries ( 371 ) Dubuque County ( 365 ) IBM ( 350 ) University of Dubuque ( 327 ) A.Y. McDonald Mfg. ( 318 ) Some other companies with a large presence in the area include : Hormel , Nordstrom , Alliant Energy , Woodward Communications , Swiss Valley Farms , The Metrix Company , and Tschiggfrie Excavating Co . In recent years , Dubuque 's economy has grown very rapidly . In fact , in 2005 , the city had the 22nd - highest job growth rate in the nation , far outpacing the rest of Iowa . This ranking placed the city in a level of growth similar to Austin , Texas , and Orlando , Florida , among others . The city created over 10 % of the new jobs in Iowa in 2005 . Also , the number of jobs in Dubuque County has reached new all - time highs , with over 57,000 people working in non-farming jobs . Many new and existing businesses have announced significant expansion plans , including : Sedgwick CMS , McGraw - Hill Higher Education , Deere and Company , Cottingham & Butler , Quebecor World Inc. , Namasco , and many others . Demographics ( edit ) Saint Raphael 's Cathedral , the oldest church in Iowa Dubuque Metropolitan area ( edit ) Dubuque is the primary city in the Dubuque Metropolitan Statistical Area ( MSA ) . It is at the junction of four major highways and two major railroads . Its location along the river has formed the city into a major Midwestern hub . The Dubuque Area is the general area encompassing Dubuque , Iowa . The MSA proper includes Dubuque County exclusively , and un - officially , but locally includes : Jackson County , Iowa , Jo Daviess County , Illinois , Grant County , Wisconsin . The official population of the Dubuque County was 93,653 as of the 2010 population estimates . Although , if you include the unofficial counties , the area 's population is near 190,000 . Platteville - Platteville is the largest city in Grant County , and Southwest Wisconsin . University of Wisconsin - Platteville ( UWP ) , is located there . 10,000 people call Platteville home . Platteville is considered a micropolitan area . Galena - Galena is Midwest -- renowned for being a quaint mid-America town with boutiques and hundreds of shops along main street . Home of General Grant and eight other Civil War Union Generals . Some of the shops include furniture shops , several candy shops , multiple Bed and Breakfast establishments , a number of bars , and many gift shops as well . The town sits along the Galena River which runs to the Mississippi River . The population of Galena ranges between 3,500 and 4,000 , making it easily the largest city in Jo Daviess County , Illinois . East Dubuque - East Dubuque is sometimes called the Illinois Bar Capital . The population is only around 2000 , but you could find at least 50 bars surrounding and in East Dubuque . East Dubuque is often abbreviated `` ED . '' Most East Dubuquers work in either Galena , or Dubuque . Asbury - As of a 2016 special census , Asbury 's population is 5,451 , making it the second largest city in Dubuque County , surpassing Dyersville , Iowa . Asbury is a prime and vital suburb of the Dubuque area . Historical population Year Pop . ± % 1850 3,108 -- 1860 13,000 + 318.3 % 1870 18,434 + 41.8 % 1880 25,254 + 37.0 % 1890 30,311 + 20.0 % 1900 36,297 + 19.7 % 1910 38,494 + 6.1 % 1920 39,141 + 1.7 % 1930 41,679 + 6.5 % 1940 43,892 + 5.3 % 1950 49,671 + 13.2 % 1960 56,606 + 14.0 % 1970 62,309 + 10.1 % 1980 62,374 + 0.1 % 57,538 − 7.8 % 2000 57,686 + 0.3 % 57,637 − 0.1 % 2016 58,531 + 1.6 % Source : `` American FactFinder '' . United States Census Bureau . Source : U.S. Decennial Census 2010 Census ( edit ) As of the census of 2010 , there were 57,637 people , 23,506 households , and 13,888 families residing in the city . The population density was 1,923.2 inhabitants per square mile ( 742.6 / km ) . There were 25,029 housing units at an average density of 835.1 per square mile ( 322.4 / km ) . The racial makeup of the city was 91.7 % White , 4.0 % African American , 0.3 % Native American , 1.1 % Asian , 0.5 % Pacific Islander , 0.6 % from other races , and 1.8 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.4 % of the population . There were 23,505 households of which 27.4 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 43.6 % were married couples living together , 11.1 % had a female householder with no husband present , 4.3 % had a male householder with no wife present , and 40.9 % were non-families. 33.7 % of all households were made up of individuals and 12.7 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2.28 and the average family size was 2.92 . The median age in the city was 38 years . 21.4 % of residents were under the age of 18 ; 13 % were between the ages of 18 and 24 ; 23.3 % were from 25 to 44 ; 25.9 % were from 45 to 64 ; and 16.5 % were 65 years of age or older . The gender makeup of the city was 48.4 % male and 51.6 % female . 2000 Census ( edit ) As of the census of 2000 , there were 57,686 people , 22,560 households , and 14,303 families residing in the city . The population density was 2,178.2 people per square mile ( 841.1 / km2 ) . There were 23,819 housing units at an average density of 899.4 per square mile ( 347.3 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the city was 96.15 % White , 1.21 % Black or African American , 0.19 % Native American , 0.68 % Asian , 0.11 % Pacific Islander , 0.69 % from other races , and 0.96 % from two or more races. 1.58 % of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race . There were 22,560 households out of which 30.0 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 50.3 % were married couples living together , 10.0 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 36.6 % were non-families. 31.0 % of all households were made up of individuals and 12.6 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2.37 and the average family size was 2.99 . Age spread : 23.6 % under the age of 18 , 11.8 % from 18 to 24 , 26.5 % from 25 to 44 , 21.6 % from 45 to 64 , and 16.5 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 37 years . For every 100 females there were 90.0 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 86.2 males . The median income for a household in the city was $36,785 , and the median income for a family was $46,564 . Males had a median income of $31,543 versus $22,565 for females . The per capita income for the city was $19,616 . About 5.5 % of families and 9.5 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 9.3 % of those under age 18 and 12.5 % of those age 65 or over . Religion ( edit ) A stained glass image of Bishop Mathias Loras at St. Raphael 's Cathedral . Further information : Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Dubuque Since its founding , Dubuque has had , and continues to have , a strong religious tradition . Local Catholic settlers established what would become the first Christian church in Iowa , St. Raphael 's Cathedral , in 1833 . The city also played a key role in the expansion of the Roman Catholic Church into the Western United States , as it was the administrative center for Catholics in what is now Iowa , Minnesota , North Dakota , and South Dakota . Many important Catholic religious leaders have lived in Dubuque , including Father Samuel Mazzuchelli , Bishop Mathias Loras , Clement Smyth , and Mother Mary Frances Clarke . Roman Catholic parishes around the city include Saint Raphael 's Cathedral Saint Mary 's , Sacred Heart , Holy Ghost , Saint Patrick 's , Saint Joseph the Worker , Resurrection , Saint Columbkille 's and Saint Anthony 's . Since the 1870s the religious character of the area is still dominated by the Roman Catholic Church . In 2010 , Catholic adherents who regularly attended services made up about 53 % of Dubuque County residents . This contrasts with Iowa as a whole , which was about 17 % Catholic in 2010 . The city proper is home to 52 different churches ( 11 Catholic , 40 Protestant , 1 Orthodox ) , 1 Jewish synagogue , and 1 mosque . In addition to churches , 5 religious colleges , 4 area convents , and a nearby abbey and monastery add to the city 's religious importance . Most of non-Catholic population in the city belongs to various Protestant denominations . Dubuque is home to three theological seminaries : St. Pius X Seminary ( Dubuque , Iowa ) , Minor ( College ) Seminary for Roman Catholic men discerning a call to ordained priesthood , the University of Dubuque , with the Presbyterian Church USA , and the Wartburg Theological Seminary , with the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America . These latter two institutions train both lay and ordained ministers for placements in churches nationwide . Dubuque is the headquarters of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Dubuque , which directly administers 1 / 3 of Iowa 's territory for the church , and is the head of the Ecclesiastical Province of Dubuque , the entire state of Iowa . Law and government ( edit ) The City of Dubuque operates on the council - manager form of government , employing a full - time city manager and part - time city council . The city manager , Michael C. Van Milligen , runs the day - to - day operations of the city , and serves as the city 's executive leader . The assistant city manager is Cindy Steinhauser , and is largely credited in spearheading downtown and riverfront revitalization and is currently working on a `` Greening Historic Buildings '' project as an economic - development strategy and as a way to remember its manufacturing past . Dubuque has been using its city - owned Community Broadband Network to become a smart city . In 2014 , city government officials created four apps to monitor data related to water use , electricity use , transit patterns and waste recycling efforts . The City of Dubuque Sustainability Coordinator , Cori Burbach , stated this was `` for educating citizens and implementing behavior changes that they control based on the data these applications provide '' . However , Dubuque has been reaching the limits of its network and lack sufficient services from giant providers . Policy and financial decisions are made by the city council , which serves as the city 's legislative body . The council comprises the mayor , Roy D. Buol , who serves as its chairman , 4 ward - elected members , and 2 at - large members . The city council members are : Kevin Lynch ( Ward 1 ) , Luis Del Toro ( Ward 2 ) , Joyce E. Connors ( Ward 3 ) , Jake Rios ( Ward 4 ) , Ric Jones ( at - large ) , and David Resnick ( at - large ) . The city council meets at 6 : 30 P.M. on the first and third Mondays of every month in the council chamber of the Historic Federal Building . The city is divided into 4 electoral wards and 21 precincts , as stated in Chapter 17 of the Dubuque City Code . In the Iowa General Assembly , Dubuque is represented by Senator Pam Jochum ( D ) in the Iowa Senate , and Representatives Charles Isenhart ( D ) , and Abby Finkenauer ( D ) in the Iowa House of Representatives . At the federal level , it is within Iowa 's 1st congressional district , represented by Rod Blum ( R - Dubuque ) in the U.S. House of Representatives . Dubuque , and all of Iowa , are represented by U.S. Senators Chuck Grassley ( R ) and Joni Ernst ( R ) . City Council of Dubuque , Iowa Area Name Mayor Roy D. Buol At - Large David Resnick At - Large Ric Jones First Ward Kevin Lynch Second Ward Luis Del Toro Third Ward Joyce E. Connors Fourth Ward Jake Rios Political climate ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( February 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) For most of its history , the people in Dubuque have been mostly Democratic . This was due to the large numbers of working - class people and Catholics living in the city . At times , Dubuque was called `` The State of Dubuque '' because the political climate in Dubuque was very different from the rest of Iowa . For the most part , Dubuque has maintained itself as a Democratic stronghold , even in recent years . Notably , however , at the turn of the twentieth century the United States Congress was led by two Dubuque Republicans . Representative David B. Henderson ascended to Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives in 1899 , at the same time Senator William B. Allison served as Chairman of the U.S. Senate Republican Conference , an office now known as Senate Majority Leader . Education ( edit ) The front of Emmaus Bible College Public education ( edit ) Dubuque is served by the Dubuque Community School District , which covers roughly the eastern half of Dubuque County and enrolled 10,735 students in 20 school buildings in 2006 . The district has 13 elementary schools , three middle schools , three high schools , and one preschool complex . It is among the fastest - growing school districts in Iowa , adding over 1,000 students in the last five years . Public high schools in Dubuque include Dubuque Senior High School and Hempstead High School . Private education ( edit ) The city has a large number of students who attend private schools . Most private schools are run by the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Dubuque . The Archdiocese oversees the Holy Family Catholic Schools , which operates 11 schools in the city , including nine early childhood programs , four elementary schools ( one of which is a Spanish Immersion program ) , one middle school , and one high school , Wahlert Catholic High School . As of 2006 , Holy Family Catholic Schools enrolled 1,954 students in grades K - 12 . Dubuque also has one Lutheran Church -- Missouri Synod affiliated elementary school , the Dubuque Lutheran School . Higher education ( edit ) Dubuque is home to a large number of higher education institutions . Loras College and Clarke University are two of the three both four - year colleges operated by the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Dubuque . Protestant colleges in the city include the University of Dubuque , which is associated with the Presbyterian Church ( USA ) , and Emmaus Bible College , connected with the Plymouth Brethren movement . Three theological seminaries operate in the city , St. Pius X Seminary ( Roman Catholic , associated with Loras College ) , the University of Dubuque Theological Seminary ( Presbyterian ) , and Wartburg Theological Seminary ( Lutheran ) . Other schools in the area include Northeast Iowa Community College , which operates its largest campus in nearby Peosta , Iowa , and has a satellite campus in Dubuque , Divine Word College Seminary in Epworth , Iowa and Capri Cosmetology College , in Dubuque . The University of Wisconsin - Platteville is another major university about 20 miles northeast of Dubuque in Platteville , Wisconsin . Infrastructure ( edit ) Health and Medicine ( edit ) Dubuque is the health care center of a large region covering eastern Iowa , northwestern Illinois , and southwestern Wisconsin . On March 15 , 2012 , the Commonwealth Fund released its first Scorecard on Local Health System Performance ; it ranked Dubuque second in the nation . The city is home to two major hospitals that , together , have 421 beds . Mercy Medical Center - Dubuque is the largest hospital in the city with 263 beds , and one of only three in Iowa to achieve `` Magnet Hospital '' status . Magnet Hospitals must meet and maintain strict standards , deeming them some of the best medical facilities in the country . Mercy specializes in various cardiac - related treatments , among other things and is affiliated with the Roman Catholic Church . Dubuque 's other hospital is The Finley Hospital , which is a member of UnityPoint Health 's network of hospitals . Finley is JCAHO accredited , and as of 2007 had 158 beds . It is unofficially Dubuque 's `` cancer hospital , '' as it has significant oncology - related facilities , including the Wendt Regional Cancer Center . The hospital campus has expanded in recent years , with the construction of several new buildings . Among other health care facilities , the city is home to two major outpatient clinics . Medical Associates Clinic is the oldest multi-specialty group practice clinic in Iowa , and currently operates two major outpatient clinics in Dubuque , its `` East '' and `` West '' campuses . It is affiliated with Mercy Medical Center -- Dubuque , and also operates its own HMO , Medical Associates Health Plans . Affiliated with the Finley Hospital is Dubuque Internal Medicine , which as of 2007 was Iowa 's largest internal medicine group practice clinic . Transportation ( edit ) Highways ( edit ) Dubuque is served by 4 U.S. Highways ( 20 , 151 , 61 , 52 ) and 2 state highways ( 3 , 32 ) . Highway 20 , is the city 's busiest east - west thoroughfare , connecting to Rockford ( and I - 39 / I - 90 ) and Chicago , Illinois to the east , over the Julien Dubuque Bridge . In the west , it connects to Waterloo , Iowa . Highways 151 , 61 , and 52 all run north - south through the city , with a shared expressway between the three for part of the route . Highways 61 and 52 both connect Dubuque with the Twin Cities ( Minnesota ) to the north , with 61 connecting to Davenport , Iowa ( and I - 74 / I - 80 ) , and 52 connecting to Clinton , Iowa via U.S. Route 67 to the south . Highway 151 connects Dubuque with Madison , Wisconsin ( and I - 39 / I - 90 / I - 94 ) ( via the Dubuque - Wisconsin Bridge ) to the northeast and Cedar Rapids , Iowa to the southwest . Dubuque has 4 - lane , divided highway connections with Cedar Rapids , Davenport , Madison , and Waterloo . Iowa State Highway 3 begins in Dubuque along a shared route with Highway 52 , and connects the city with central and western Iowa . Iowa State Highway 32 , locally known as the `` Northwest Arterial , '' acts as a beltway for parts of the North End and West Side . Eventually , this 4 - lane highway will be extended southeast , to connect with highways 151 & 61 near Key West , Iowa and the Dubuque Regional Airport and will be called the `` Southwest Arterial . '' Airport ( edit ) Main article : Dubuque Regional Airport The Dubuque Regional Airport Dubuque and its region are served by the general - aviation Dubuque Regional Airport ( IATA : DBQ , ICAO : KDBQ ) . The airport currently has one carrier , Envoy Air , ( a division of American Airlines ) which operates 3 non-stop jet flights daily to Chicago O'Hare International Airport . Northwest Airlines regional partner Mesaba operating under Northwest Airlink used to have daily service to Dubuque . Northwest operated twice daily flights to and from Minneapolis - Saint Paul International Airport ( IATA : MSP , ICAO : KMSP ) using Saab 340 aircraft . These flights began June 2008 and ended on August 31 , 2009 . Northwest Airlines once offered service to Dubuque prior to 9 / 11 . The airport 's operator , the City of Dubuque , continues to court additional carriers to add service to the airport . The Dubuque Regional Airport has reported steadily increasing passenger numbers over the years , and , up until recently , had service from 3 different carriers prior to 9 / 11 . In early November 2007 , it was announced that October 2007 was the best month ever for American Eagle airline at the Dubuque Regional Airport , according to Robert Grierson , Dubuque Regional Airport manager : `` We had 4,510 total revenue passenger enplanements ; that is a record for American Eagle in Dubuque . American Eagle averaged a 79.82 percent enplanement load factor . Load factors are determined by how many revenue passengers were on the plane versus how many seats are available . '' Currently , a $23 million new terminal is being built to modernize and expand the airport . Improvements include a larger terminal , new access road , and expanded aviation parking . The new terminal at the Dubuque Regional Airport is expected to be opening in 2016 . Mass transit ( edit ) Main article : The Jule In Dubuque , public transportation is provided by the city transit division The Jule . The Jule operates multiple daytime bus routes , late night Friday and Saturday bus routes and Minibus service , summer trolleys , and on - demand paratransit Minibus service throughout the city . The routes are based out of one or more of the three transfer locations and run in 30 - minute loops . These loops serve neighborhoods , shopping areas , medical offices , and industrial parks and provide connections to other areas of the city with the 15 - minute cross-town Express route . The system 's 3 major transfer stations are : Downtown Intermodal ( 9th & Elm St ) , Midtown ( North Grandview & University Avenues ) , and the West End ( Kennedy Circle / John F. Kennedy Road ) . Notable people ( edit ) Main article : List of people from Dubuque , Iowa See also ( edit ) Iowa portal Parks in Dubuque , Iowa References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` US Gazetteer files 2010 '' . United States Census Bureau . Archived from the original on 2012 - 07 - 14 . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 11 . ^ Jump up to : `` American FactFinder '' . United States Census Bureau . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 11 . Jump up ^ `` Population and Housing Unit Estimates '' . Retrieved June 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Find a County '' . National Association of Counties . Archived from the original on 2012 - 07 - 12 . Retrieved 2011 - 06 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Total Population , Numeric and Percent Change for Iowa 's Incorporated Places : 2000 - 2010 '' . Iowa Data Center . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2013 - 08 - 27 . Retrieved 2011 - 02 - 22 . ^ Jump up to : `` Dubuque Job Growth Ranking '' . Archived from the original on February 18 , 2007 . Retrieved February 5 , 2007 . Jump up ^ French colonization of the Americas # Louisiana Jump up ^ `` Newspaper article about Meskwaki ( Fox ) Indians being removed from the Galena territory '' . Indianapolis Democrat ( p. 2 ) . September 25 , 1830 . Retrieved 15 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Reynolds , Joseph `` Diamond Jo '' `` . Biographical Dictionary of Iowa . University of Iowa . Retrieved 29 October 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Diamond Jo Line '' . Encyclopedia Dubuque . Retrieved November 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Population of the 100 Largest Cities and Other Urban Places in the United States : 1790 to 1990 '' . Retrieved September 1 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Iowa . Marshall Cavendish. 2007 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7614 - 2350 - 8 . Retrieved September 16 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Thomas Adam ( 2005 ) . Germany and the Americas : vol 2 . ABC - CLIO . p. 458 . Jump up ^ `` Commute times by city '' . CNN . Retrieved March 25 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` 100 Best communities for young people '' . Archived from the original on March 27 , 2007 . Retrieved March 25 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` 2007 Dubuque Business Ranking : Forbes Magazine '' . April 5 , 2007 . Retrieved April 17 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` All America Cities 2007 '' . Archived from the original on June 26 , 2007 . Retrieved June 13 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Most Livable Cities 2008 '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved July 11 , 2008 . Jump up ^ http://www.10best.com/awards/travel/best-american-riverfront/ Jump up ^ `` US Gazetteer files : 2010 , 2000 , and 1990 '' . United States Census Bureau . 2011 - 02 - 12 . Retrieved 2011 - 04 - 23 . Jump up ^ `` Weatherbase : Historical Weather for Dubuque , Iowa '' . Retrieved January 1 , 2007 . Jump up ^ https://uniondfc.squarespace.com/news/upslannouncement Jump up ^ `` Telegraph Herald : Circulation '' . Retrieved January 27 , 2007 . ^ Jump up to : `` Radio Locator : Dubuque radio stations '' . Retrieved January 27 , 2007 . ^ Jump up to : `` Radio Station World : Dubuque radio stations '' . Retrieved January 27 , 2007 . ^ Jump up to : `` On The Radio : Dubuque radio stations '' . Retrieved January 27 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Dubuque news stories by KWWL / KCRG '' . Retrieved January 27 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Greater Dubuque Development Corporation - Major Employers Jump up ^ `` Dubuque Job Growth : 2005 '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on June 24 , 2008 . Retrieved February 5 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Dubuque County QuickFacts from the US Census Bureau '' . quickfacts.census.gov . Archived from the original on 2011 - 07 - 09 . Retrieved 2015 - 06 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` Census of Population and Housing '' . Census.gov . Archived from the original on May 12 , 2015 . Retrieved June 4 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` American FactFinder '' . United States Census Bureau . Archived from the original on 2013 - 09 - 11 . Retrieved 2008 - 01 - 31 . Jump up ^ `` Dubuque County , Iowa Religious Traditions , 2010 '' . Association of Religion Data Archives . Retrieved November 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Iowa Religious Traditions , 2010 '' . Association of Religion Data Archives . Retrieved November 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Temple Beth El . '' Retrieved on 2008 - 07 - 12 . Jump up ^ `` Churches in Dubuque '' . Churches in USA.com . Retrieved January 13 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Craig Settles , Gigabit Nation ( July 27 , 2014 ) . `` States , stand down ! Let community broadband innovate '' . Gigaom Inc . Retrieved 25 February 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Dubuque City Code '' . Retrieved August 5 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` City of Dubuque Ward and Precinct Map '' ( PDF ) . 2005 . Retrieved August 5 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Mercy Medical Center -- Dubuque : Licensed beds '' . Retrieved January 9 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Mercy Medical Center -- Dubuque : Magnet status '' . Retrieved January 9 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` The Finley Hospital : Licensed beds '' . Archived from the original on October 16 , 2006 . Retrieved January 9 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` The Finley Hospital : Oncology Department '' . Retrieved January 9 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Medical Associates Clinic : Information '' . Retrieved January 9 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Dubuque Internal Medicine : Information '' . Retrieved January 9 , 2007 . Jump up ^ The Dubuque Regional Airport Jump up ^ `` Budget FY2008 . Dubuque Regional Airport : New Terminal '' ( PDF ) . City of Dubuque. 2007 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on June 24 , 2008 . Retrieved January 27 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Dubuque Regional Airport facing $40 M expansion '' . KWWL.com . May 23 , 2012 . Retrieved May 31 , 2012 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dubuque , Iowa . Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Dubuque . Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Dubuque . Official Dubuque City Website Encyclopedia Dubuque Searchable database with thousands of articles and images Co Dubuque Resources for the LGBTQ+ community of Dubuque City Data Comprehensive Statistical Data and more about Dubuque How a Midwestern town reinvented itself , BBC News , November 23 , 2011 , video Pacific Standard Magazine article `` Move to Dubuque , Not San Francisco , '' Jim Russell January 14 , 2014 Dubuque Newspapers in Google News Archive Compiled by Carnegie - Stout Public Library in Dubuque `` Dubuque '' . The New Student 's Reference Work . 1914 . Coordinates : 42 ° 30 ′ 16 '' N 90 ° 41 ′ 13 '' W  /  42.504321 ° N 90.686865 ° W  / 42.504321 ; - 90.686865 Municipalities and communities of Dubuque County , Iowa , United States County seat : Dubuque Cities Asbury Balltown Bankston Bernard Cascade ‡ Centralia Dubuque Durango Dyersville ‡ Epworth Farley Graf Holy Cross Luxemburg New Vienna Peosta Rickardsville Sageville Sherrill Worthington Zwingle ‡ Townships Cascade Center Concord Dodge Dubuque Iowa Jefferson Liberty Mosalem New Wine Peru Prairie Creek Table Mound Taylor Vernon Washington Whitewater Unincorporated communities Fillmore Key West Washington Mills Footnotes ‡ This populated place also has portions in an adjacent county or counties Radio stations in the Dubuque , Iowa area By FM frequency Wisconsin WJTY -- 88.1 WSSW -- 89.1 WSUP -- 90.5 WHHI -- 91.3 WGLR -- 97.7 WPVL -- 107.1 Iowa KIAD -- 88.5 KNSY -- 89.7 KATF -- 92.9 K240DZ -- 95.9 KGRR -- 97.3 WVRE -- 101.1 K269AK -- 101.7 KXGE -- 102.3 WJOD -- 103.3 KLYV -- 105.3 KIYX -- 106.1 Illinois W211BZ -- 90.1 W227BL -- 93.3 WDBQ -- 107.5 By AM frequency Iowa KDTH -- 1370 WDBQ -- 1490 Wisconsin WPVL -- 1590 Nearby radio markets Cedar Rapids -- Iowa City Janesville -- Beloit -- Jefferson County La Crosse Madison Quad Cities Rockford Waterloo -- Cedar Falls See also List of radio stations in Iowa State of Iowa Des Moines ( capital ) Topics Attorney General Archaeology Area codes Auditor of State Capitol Code Congressional districts Crime Delegations Representatives Senators Elections Caucuses Environment Flag Index Governor History Historic Places Legislature House Senate People Native Americans Political parties Democratic Libertarian Republican Seal Secretary of Agriculture Secretary of State State Parks Supreme Court Regions Coteau des Prairies Des Moines metropolitan area Dissected Till Plains Driftless Area Great River Road Honey Lands Iowa Great Lakes Loess Hills Omaha -- Council Bluffs metropolitan area Quad Cities Siouxland Largest cities Ames Ankeny Bettendorf Burlington Cedar Falls Cedar Rapids Clinton Council Bluffs Davenport Des Moines Dubuque Fort Dodge Iowa City Marion Marshalltown Mason City Muscatine Ottumwa Sioux City Urbandale Waterloo West Des Moines Counties Adair Adams Allamakee Appanoose Audubon Benton Black Hawk Boone Bremer Buchanan Buena Vista Butler Calhoun Carroll Cass Cedar Cerro Gordo Cherokee Chickasaw Clarke Clay Clayton Clinton Crawford Dallas Davis Decatur Delaware Des Moines Dickinson Dubuque Emmet Fayette Floyd Franklin Fremont Greene Grundy Guthrie Hamilton Hancock Hardin Harrison Henry Howard Humboldt Ida Iowa Jackson Jasper Jefferson Johnson Jones Keokuk Kossuth Lee Linn Louisa Lucas Lyon Madison Mahaska Marion Marshall Mills Mitchell Monona Monroe Montgomery Muscatine O'Brien Osceola Page Palo Alto Plymouth Pocahontas Polk Pottawattamie Poweshiek Ringgold Sac Scott Shelby Sioux Story Tama Taylor Union Van Buren Wapello Warren Washington Wayne Webster Winnebago Winneshiek Woodbury Worth Wright VIAF : 153621549 GND : 4227246 - 4 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dubuque,_Iowa&oldid=820062789 '' Categories : Cities in Iowa Iowa populated places on the Mississippi River County seats in Iowa Cities in Dubuque County , Iowa Dubuque , Iowa Driftless Area 1833 establishments in Michigan Territory Hidden categories : Articles with hAudio microformats Articles including recorded pronunciations ( English ) All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2015 Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from February 2015 All articles with vague or ambiguous time Vague or ambiguous time from February 2015 Articles needing additional references from February 2015 All articles needing additional references Articles with unsourced statements from July 2015 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2006 All articles containing potentially dated statements Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2007 Wikipedia articles incorporating citation to the NSRW Wikipedia articles incorporating citation to the NSRW with an wstitle parameter Coordinates on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikivoyage تۆرکجه Bân - lâm - gú Български Català Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Ido Interlingua Italiano Қазақша Kreyòl ayisyen Кыргызча Magyar Malagasy मराठी Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Polski Português Simple English Ślůnski Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe اردو Tiếng Việt Volapük Winaray 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 12 January 2018 , at 21 : 37 . 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-3798593716671762540

who is this doing this synthetic type of alpha beta psychedelic funkin' lyrics

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Elektrobank&oldid=785074960

Elektrobank - wikipedia Elektrobank Jump to : navigation , search `` Elektrobank '' Single by The Chemical Brothers from the album Dig Your Own Hole Released 8 September 1997 ( 1997 - 09 - 08 ) Format CD 12 '' vinyl Recorded Genre Big beat Label Freestyle Dust Virgin Songwriter ( s ) Tom Rowlands Ed Simons George Clinton William Earl Collins Robert M. James Producer ( s ) The Chemical Brothers The Chemical Brothers singles chronology `` Block Rockin ' Beats '' ( 1997 ) `` Elektrobank '' ( 1997 ) `` The Private Psychedelic Reel '' ( 1997 ) `` Block Rockin ' Beats '' ( 1997 ) `` Elektrobank '' ( 1997 ) `` The Private Psychedelic Reel '' ( 1997 ) `` Elektrobank '' is a song by English electronic music duo The Chemical Brothers . It was released as a single from their second album , Dig Your Own Hole , on September 1997 . It peaked at number 17 on the UK Singles Chart . Spike Jonze directed the music video , which depicted a mixed artistic gymnastics / rhythmic gymnastics competition with his future wife Sofia Coppola as one of the competitors . It has been called `` arguably Jonze 's greatest music video '' . Despite reaching number 17 in the UK Singles Chart , the single does not feature on either of the duo 's singles compilations , Singles 93 -- 03 and Brotherhood . Contents ( hide ) 1 Samples 2 Track listing 3 Personnel 4 Charts 4.1 Weekly charts 5 References 6 External links Samples ( edit ) The vocals `` Who is dis doin ' this synthetic type of alpha beta psychedelic funkin ' ? '' are taken from the song `` This That Shit '' by Keith Murray . The bass line is performed by `` Ali Friend '' . It should be noted that the voice of the introduction is from Kool Herc and was taken live at the Irving Plaza in autumn of 1996 . Track listing ( edit ) UK and Europe CD 1 No . Title Length 1 . `` Elektrobank '' 8 : 01 2 . `` Not Another Drugstore '' ( featuring Justin Warfield ) 5 : 33 3 . `` Do n't Stop the Rock ( Electronic Battle Weapon Version ) '' 7 : 15 UK and Europe CD 2 No . Title Length 1 . `` Elektrobank ( Radio Edit ) '' 3 : 56 2 . `` Elektrobank ( Dust Brothers Remix ) '' 3 : 55 3 . `` These Beats Are Made for Breakin ' '' 2 : 48 US CD No . Title Length 1 . `` Elektrobank '' 8 : 01 2 . `` Not Another Drugstore '' 5 : 33 3 . `` Elektrobank ( The Dust Brothers Remix ) '' 3 : 55 4 . `` Do n't Stop the Rock ( Electronic Battle Weapon Version ) '' 7 : 15 5 . `` These Beats Are Made for Breakin ' '' 2 : 48 6 . `` Elektrobank ( Radio Edit ) '' 3 : 56 Personnel ( edit ) Tom Rowlands , Ed Simons - keyboards , synths , programming , samples Keith Murray - raps ( sampled ) Simon Phillips - drums Charts ( edit ) Weekly charts ( edit ) Chart ( 1997 ) Peak position Finland ( Suomen virallinen lista ) 16 New Zealand ( Recorded Music NZ ) 44 Scotland ( Official Charts Company ) 17 UK Singles ( Official Charts Company ) 17 UK Dance ( Official Charts Company ) 7 References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` 1997 - 09 - 20 Top 40 Official UK Singles Archive - Official Charts '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved 15 July 2013 . Jump up ^ Eric Henderson ( 26 October 2003 ) . `` The Work of Spike Jonze '' . Slant Magazine . Retrieved 9 October 2011 . Jump up ^ `` The Chemical Brothers : Elektrobank '' ( in Finnish ) . Musiikkituottajat -- IFPI Finland . Retrieved January 20 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Charts.org.nz -- The Chemical Brothers -- Elektrobank '' . Top 40 Singles . Retrieved January 20 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Official Scottish Singles Sales Chart Top 100 '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved January 20 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Official Singles Chart Top 100 '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved January 20 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Official Dance Singles Chart Top 40 '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved January 20 , 2017 . External links ( edit ) Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics ( hide ) The Chemical Brothers songs Discography Exit Planet Dust `` Leave Home '' `` Life Is Sweet '' `` Song to the Siren '' Dig Your Own Hole `` Block Rockin ' Beats '' `` Elektrobank '' `` Setting Sun '' `` The Private Psychedelic Reel '' `` Where Do I Begin '' Surrender `` Hey Boy Hey Girl '' `` Let Forever Be '' `` Music : Response '' `` Out of Control '' Come with Us `` Come with Us '' `` It Began in Afrika '' `` Star Guitar '' `` The Test '' Singles 93 -- 03 `` Get Yourself High '' `` The Golden Path '' Push the Button `` Believe '' `` Galvanize '' `` The Boxer '' We Are the Night `` Do It Again '' `` The Salmon Dance '' Brotherhood `` Midnight Madness '' Further `` Escape Velocity '' `` Swoon '' `` Another World '' `` Horse Power '' Born in the Echoes `` Sometimes I Feel So Deserted '' `` Go '' `` Under Neon Lights '' Other songs `` Electronic Battle Weapon '' series `` Only 4 the K People '' Template Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elektrobank&oldid=785074960 '' Categories : Music videos directed by Spike Jonze 1997 singles The Chemical Brothers songs 1997 songs Virgin Records singles Astralwerks singles Songs written by Tom Rowlands Songs written by Ed Simons Songs written by Bootsy Collins Songs written by George Clinton ( musician ) Hidden categories : Use dmy dates from November 2012 Use British English from November 2012 Singlechart usages for Finland Singlechart usages for New Zealand Singlechart usages for Scotland Singlechart called without artist Singlechart called without song Singlechart usages for UK Singlechart usages for UKdance Talk Contents About Wikipedia Italiano Nederlands Edit links This page was last edited on 11 June 2017 , at 14 : 28 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

1461167092409454775

who has a green white and red flag

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Flag_of_Ireland&oldid=804252960

Flag of Ireland - wikipedia Flag of Ireland Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the flag of the state called Ireland . For flags associated with the island of Ireland , see List of flags of Ireland . For flags used in Northern Ireland , see List of flags used in Northern Ireland . Republic of Ireland Name Bratach na hÉireann Irish tricolour Use National flag and ensign Proportion 1 : 2 Adopted 1922 ( constitutional status ; 1937 ) Design A vertical tricolour of green , white and orange The national flag of Ireland ( Irish : bratach na hÉireann ) -- frequently referred to as the Irish tricolour ( trídhathach na hÉireann ) -- is the national flag and ensign of the Republic of Ireland . The flag itself is a vertical tricolour of green ( at the hoist ) , white and orange . The proportions of the flag are 1 : 2 ( that is to say , flown horizontally , the flag is half as high as it is wide ) . The Irish government has described the symbolism behind each colour as being that `` green represents the older Gaelic tradition while the orange represents the supporters of William of Orange . The white in the centre signifies a lasting truce between the ' Orange ' and the ' Green ' . '' Presented as a gift in 1848 to Thomas Francis Meagher from a small group of French women sympathetic to the Irish cause , it was not until the Easter Rising of 1916 , when it was raised above the General Post Office in Dublin , that the tricolour came to be regarded as the national flag . The flag was adopted by the Irish Republic during the Irish War of Independence ( 1919 -- 1921 ) . The flag 's use was continued by the Irish Free State ( 1922 -- 1937 ) and it was later given constitutional status under the 1937 Constitution of Ireland . The tricolour is used by nationalists on both sides of the border as the national flag of the whole island of Ireland since 1916 . Thus it is flown by many nationalists in Northern Ireland as well as by the Gaelic Athletic Association . Contents ( hide ) 1 Design and symbolism 1.1 Symbolism 2 History 2.1 Marine 2.2 Use in Northern Ireland 3 Protocol 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Design and symbolism ( edit ) In relation to the national flag of Ireland , the Constitution of Ireland simply states in Article 7 : The national flag is the tricolour of green , white and orange . As there are no further statutory requirements in relation to the flag , the Department of the Taoiseach takes general responsibility over matters relating to the flag . In its advisory role , the Department has issued guidelines to assist persons in their use of the national flag . The flag should be rectangular in shape and its length should be two times its width , translating into an aspect ratio of 1 : 2 . The three coloured pales -- green , white and orange -- should be of equal size , and vertically disposed . The precise colours of the flag as set by the Department of the Taoiseach are : Scheme Green White Orange Pantone 347 White 151 Hex triplet # 169B62 # FFFFFF # FF883E RGB 22 - 155 - 98 255 - 255 - 255 255 - 136 - 62 CMYK 86 - 0 - 37 - 39 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 0 - 47 - 76 - 0 The flag should normally be displayed on a flagstaff , with the green pale positioned next to the flagstaff , at the hoist ; the white pale positioned in the centre ; and the orange pale positioned at the fly , farthest from the flagstaff . Provided that the correct proportions are observed , the flag may be made to any convenient size . Symbolism ( edit ) The green pale in the flag symbolises Irish republicanism dating back to the Society of United Irishmen in the 1790s . The orange represents the minority who were supporters of King William III , who was of the House of Orange and originally the Stadtholder of the Netherlands , had defeated King James II and his predominantly Irish Catholic army at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690 . His title came from the Principality of Orange in the south of France that had been a Protestant bastion from the 16th century . It was included in the Irish flag in an attempt to reconcile the Orange Order in Ireland with the Irish independence movement . The white in the centre signifies a lasting truce between the two cultures and a living together in peace . The flag , as a whole , is intended to symbolise the inclusion and hoped - for union of the people of different traditions on the island of Ireland , which is expressed in the Constitution as the entitlement of every person born in Ireland to be part of the independent Irish nation , regardless of ethnic origin , religion or political conviction . There are exceptions to the general beneficent theory . Green was also used as the colour of such Irish bodies as the mainly - Protestant and non-sectarian Friendly Brothers of St. Patrick , established in 1751 . Occasionally , differing shades of yellow , instead of orange , are seen at civilian functions . However the Department of the Taoiseach state that this is a misrepresentation which `` should be actively discouraged '' , and that worn - out flags should be replaced . In songs and poems , the colours are sometimes enumerated as `` green , white and gold '' , using poetic licence . Variants of different guises are utilised to include , for example , various emblems of Ireland , such as the presidential harp , the four provinces or county arms . History ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( January 2014 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The Green harp flag , first used by Owen Roe O'Neill in 1642 . A green flag featuring a harp is described as being used by Owen Roe O'Neill in 1642 . In the late 18th century green had become associated as the colour of revolution . The United Irishmen , founded in the 1790s , were inspired by the French revolution , and used a green flag , to which they had a harp emblazoned . A rival organisation , the Orange Order , whose main strength was in Ulster , and which was exclusively for Protestants , especially members of the Anglican Church of Ireland , was founded in 1795 in memory of King William of Orange and the `` Glorious Revolution '' of 1688 . Following the Irish Rebellion of 1798 , which pitted the `` green '' tradition of the republican United Irishmen against the `` orange '' tradition of Anglican Protestant Ascendancy loyal to the British Crown , the ideal of a later nationalist generation in the mid-19th century was to make peace between the two traditions and , if possible , to found a self - governing Ireland on such peace and union . Blessing of the Colours by John Lavery The oldest known reference to the use of the three colours of green , white and orange as a nationalist emblem dates from September 1830 when tricolour cockades were worn at a meeting held to celebrate the French Revolution of that year -- a revolution which restored the use of the French tricolour . The colours were also used in the same period for rosettes and badges , and on the banners of trade guilds . However , widespread recognition was not accorded to the flag until 1848 . At a meeting in his native city of Waterford on 7 March 1848 , Thomas Francis Meagher , the Young Ireland leader , first publicly unveiled the flag from a second - floor window of the Wolfe Tone Club as he addressed a gathered crowd on the street below who were present to celebrate another revolution that had just taken place in France . It was inspired by the tricolours of France and Newfoundland ; Meagher 's father was born in Newfoundland . Speeches made at that time by Meagher suggest that it was regarded as an innovation and not as the revival of an older flag . From March of that year Irish tricolours appeared side - by - side with French ones at meetings held all over the country . John Mitchel , referring to the tricolour of green , white and orange that Meagher had presented from Paris at a later meeting in Dublin on 15 April 1848 , said : `` I hope to see that flag one day waving , as our national banner '' . Although the tricolour was not forgotten as a symbol of the ideal of union and a banner associated with the Young Irelanders and revolution , it was rarely used between 1848 and 1916 . Even up to the eve of the Easter Rising of 1916 , the green flag featuring a harp held undisputed sway . Neither the colours nor the arrangement of the early tricolours were standardised . All of the 1848 tricolours showed green , white and orange , but orange was sometimes put next to the staff , and in at least one flag the order was orange , green and white . In 1850 a flag of green for the Roman Catholics , orange for the Protestants of the Established Church and blue for the Presbyterians was proposed . In 1883 , a Parnellite tricolour of yellow , white and green , arranged horizontally , was recorded . Down to modern times , yellow has occasionally been used instead of orange , but by this substitution the fundamental symbolism is destroyed . The Irish flag is always flown with the green at the hoist Associated with separatism in the past , flown during the Easter Rising of 1916 and capturing the national imagination as the banner of the new revolutionary Ireland , the tricolour came to be acclaimed throughout the country as somewhat of a national flag . To many Irish people , though , it was considered to be a `` Sinn Féin flag '' . In the Irish Free State which existed between 1922 and 1937 , the flag was adopted by the Executive Council . The Free State constitution did not specify national symbols ; the decision to use the flag was made without recourse to statute . When the Free State joined the League of Nations in September 1923 , the new flag `` created a good deal of interest amongst the general public '' in Geneva . The defeated republicans who had fought the Free State 's forces in the 1922 -- 23 Civil War regarded the tricolour as the flag of the self - proclaimed Irish Republic , and condemned its appropriation by the new state , as expressed in the song `` Take It Down From The Mast '' . The Executive Council 's decision was a provisional one . A 1928 British document said : The government in Ireland have taken over the so called Free State Flag in order to forestall its use by republican element and avoid legislative regulation , to leave them free to adopt a more suitable emblem later . In 1937 , the tricolour 's position as the national flag was formally confirmed by the new Constitution of Ireland . Marine ( edit ) The Red Ensign used by some Irish merchant vessels until 1939 The pre-independence Merchant Shipping Act 1894 was not repealed , and so the Free State 's mercantile marine was technically required to fly the Red Ensign . The collier Glenageary may have been the first to arrive in a British port flying the tricolour on 8 December 1921 ( two days after the treaty ) . This flag along with a model of the Glenageary is on display in the National Maritime Museum of Ireland . While some ships , such as the cross-channel ferries flew the red ensign , others sailed under the tricolour . Some masters of Irish ships were charged by the British Customs and fined by courts for flying an `` improper ensign '' . The tricolour was flown by the fisheries patrol vessel Muirchú , precursor to the Irish Naval Service ; Frank Carney alleged in the Dáil in 1930 that a trespassing French trawler had refused to surrender to because it did not recognise Muirchú 's flag . See also : Irish Mercantile Marine during World War II Irish - register ships could fly the Red Ensign until September 1939 , after the outbreak of World War II , when a decree under the state of emergency was made , to ensure neutral Irish ships were not mistaken for British ships . Some ships flying the tricolour were nevertheless sunk by Germans . When the tricolour was hoisted over the passenger ferries in Holyhead their British crews went on strike . Five days later their owners transferred the ferries to the British register and the Red Ensign was restored . On the other hand , the Belfast to Liverpool ferry , British owned and British crewed , used the tricolour as a flag of convenience ; so did the whalers of Christian Salvesen Shipping , to take advantage of the Irish whale quota . The tricolour 's marine status was formalised by the Merchant Shipping Act , 1947 . Use in Northern Ireland ( edit ) See also : Northern Ireland flags issue A large tricolour flying from CuChulainn House in the New Lodge , Belfast In 1921 , Ireland was partitioned , with the unionist - dominated north - east becoming Northern Ireland , while later , in 1922 , the remainder of Ireland left the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland to form the Irish Free State . Northern Ireland continued to use the UK 's Union Flag and created its Ulster Banner derivation of the flag of Ulster with a crown on top of a six pointed star . Furthermore , for many years the tricolour was effectively banned in Northern Ireland under the Flags and Emblems ( Display ) Act ( Northern Ireland ) 1954 which empowered the police to remove any flag that could cause a breach of the peace but specified , rather controversially , that a Union Flag could never have such an effect . In 1964 , the enforcement of this law by the Royal Ulster Constabulary at the behest of Ian Paisley , involving the removal of a single tricolour from the offices of Sinn Féin in Belfast , led to two days of rioting . The tricolour was immediately replaced , highlighting the difficulty of enforcing the law . The tricolour is regularly burnt on Loyalist bonfires during twelfth of July celebrations Despite its original symbolism , in Northern Ireland the tricolour , along with most other markers of either British or Irish identity , has come to be a symbol of division . The Ulster Unionist Party Government of Northern Ireland adopted the Ulster Banner ( based on the flag of Ulster ) in 1953 . Thus it is this flag and the Union Flag that are flown by unionists and loyalists , while the tricolour is flown by nationalists and republicans . In Northern Ireland , each community uses its own flags , murals and other symbols to declare its allegiance and mark its territory , often in a manner that is deliberately provocative . Kerb - stones in unionist and loyalist areas are often painted red , white and blue , while in nationalist and republican areas kerb - stones may be painted green , white and orange , although this is a much less frequent occurrence . Elements of both communities fly `` their '' flag from chimneys , tall buildings and lamp - posts on roads . Under the 1998 Good Friday or Belfast Agreement , it was recognised that flags continue to be a source of disagreement in Northern Ireland . The Agreement stated that : All participants acknowledge the sensitivity of the use of symbols and emblems for public purposes , and the need in particular in creating the new institutions to ensure that such symbols and emblems are used in a manner which promotes mutual respect rather than division . Unionists argue that the recognition of the principle of consent in the Agreement -- that Northern Ireland 's constitutional status can not change without a majority favouring it -- by the signatories amounts to recognising that the Union Flag is the only legitimate official flag in Northern Ireland . Nationalists maintain that the Agreement means that the use of the Union Flag for official purposes should be restricted , or that the tricolour should be flown alongside the UK 's flag on government buildings . However the tricolour is never flown from official buildings , alone or alongside the UK 's flag . A Sinn Féin Lord Mayor of Belfast , Alex Maskey , displayed both flags in his own offices causing some controversy . Protocol ( edit ) The Department of the Taoiseach has issued guidelines to assist persons in giving due respect to the national flag . Observance of the guidelines is a matter for each individual as there are no statutory requirements . It is expected , however , that the national flag will be treated at all times with appropriate respect by those who use it . The Department has general responsibility in relation to the national flag and this is primarily concerned with the protocol for the flying of the flag . The Department 's role , therefore , is an advisory one . Irish Flag outside Department Store in Dublin showing EU flag to its left , or right as seen by an approaching observer With respect to the display , placing and precedence of the national flag by both itself and in relation to other flags , the Department has made a number of suggestions . No flag or pennant should be flown above the national flag . When the flag is carried with another flag , or flags , it should be carried in the place of honour -- that is on the marching right , or on the left of an observer towards whom the flags are approaching . Where one of these flags is that of the European Union , the European Union flag should be carried on the immediate left of the national flag , or , as seen by an observer when the flags are approaching , on the immediate right of the national flag . In the event of a display of crossed staffs , the national flag should be to the right and to the fore -- that is to the left of the observer who is facing the flag . Its staff should be in front of the other flag or flags . When the group of flags of the European Union are flown , the sequence is alphabetical , based on the first letter of the country 's name . The flags should be flown from left to right with the European Union flag flown from the first flagstaff before the group . An alternative order of flags is to begin on the left with the national flag and place the European Union flag on the far right of the group , as seen by an observer . With regard to international flags ; where either an even or an odd number of flags are flown in line on staffs of equal height , the national flag should be first on the right of the line -- that is on the observer 's left as he or she faces the flags . Where one of these flags is that of the European Union , the European Union flag should be flown on the immediate left of the national flag , or as seen by an observer , on the immediate right of the national flag . Where , however , an odd number of flags are displayed from staffs grouped so that there is one staff in the centre and higher than the others , the national flag should be displayed from the staff so placed . Where one of these flags is that of the European Union , the European Union flag should be flown from the first flagstaff on the right , or as seen by an observer , on the first flagstaff on the left . Only one national flag should be displayed in each group of flags or at each location . In all cases , the national flag should be in the place of honour . When the national flag is displayed either horizontally or vertically against a wall or other background , the green should be on the right ( an observer 's left ) in the horizontal position or uppermost in the vertical position . When displayed on a platform , the national flag should be above and behind the speaker 's desk . While being carried , the flag should not be dipped by way of salute or compliment except to the dead during memorial ceremonies . In raising or lowering , the national flag should not be allowed to touch the ground . When being hoisted to half - mast , the flag should first be brought to the peak of the staff and then lowered to the half - mast position . It should again be brought to the peak of the staff before it is finally lowered . On ceremonial occasions when the national flag is being hoisted or lowered , or when it is passing by in a parade , all present should face it , stand to attention and salute . Persons in uniform who normally salute with the hand should give the hand salute . Persons in civilian attire should salute by standing to attention . The salute to the flag when it is being borne past in a parade is rendered when the flag is six paces away and the salute is held until the flag has passed by . Where more than one national flag is carried , the salute should be given only to the leading flag . When the national anthem is played in the presence of the national flag , all present should face the national flag , stand to attention and salute it , remaining at the salute until the last note of the music . When the national flag has become worn or frayed it is no longer fit for display , and should not be used in any manner implying disrespect . The national flag , when used as a decoration , should always be treated with due respect . It may be used as a discreet lapel button or rosette or as part of a centrepiece for a table . When used in the latter context with the flags of other nations , the national flag should also be displayed in the place of honour on a nearby flag staff . Where multiple national flags are flown on festive occasions these should be of uniform dimensions . Bunting of the national colours may also be used on festive occasions . Michael Collins lying in state by John Lavery showing the green of the flag towards the head The national flag should be displayed in the open only between sunrise and sunset , except on the occasion of public meetings , processions , or funerals , when it may be displayed for the duration of such functions . When displayed on a platform , the national flag should not be used to cover the speaker 's desk , nor should it be draped over the platform . The national flag should never be defaced by placing slogans , logos , lettering or pictures of any kind on it , for example at sporting events . The flag should not be draped on cars , trains , boats or other modes of transport ; it should not be carried flat , but should always be carried aloft and free , except when used to drape a coffin ; on such an occasion , the green should be at the head of the coffin . The tricolour is draped across the coffins of Presidents of Ireland ( including former presidents ) , soldiers and Garda Síochána personnel killed in the line of duty , and other notables accorded state funerals , such as Roger Casement in 1965 , or Kevin Barry in 2001 . Care should be taken at all times to ensure that the national flag does not touch the ground , trail in water or become entangled in trees or other obstacles . Irish flag flying from the General Post Office in Dublin It is the normal practice to fly the national flag daily at all military posts and from a limited number of important State buildings . The European flag is flown alongside the national flag on all official buildings , and in most places where the Irish flag is flown over buildings . The national flag is flown over buildings including : the residence of the President of Ireland , Áras an Uachtaráin ; Leinster House , the seat of the Irish parliament , when parliament is in session ; Irish courts and state buildings ; Irish military installations , at home and abroad ; and Garda Síochána ( police ) stations . The national flag is also flown on Saint Patrick 's Day ( the national holiday ) , Easter Sunday and Easter Monday ( in commemoration of the Easter Rising of 1916 ) , and the National Day of Commemoration on the Sunday closest to 11 July . On these occasions the national flag is flown from all State buildings throughout the country which are equipped with flagpoles , and many private individuals and concerns also fly it . The national flag is flown on the occasion of other significant national and local events such as festivals and commemorations . The national flag is frequently flown at half - mast on the death of a national or international figure on all prominent government buildings equipped with a flag pole . The death of a prominent local figure may be marked locally by the national flag being flown at half - mast . Where the national flag is flown at half - mast no other flag should be half - masted . See also ( edit ) Ireland portal Coat of arms of Ireland Cross-border flag for Ireland List of flags of Ireland Flag of Northern Ireland References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Library . `` National Flag '' . Taoiseach.gov.ie . Retrieved 30 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Home '' . Taoiseach.gov.ie . Retrieved 30 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` National Flag '' . Department of the Taoiseach . Retrieved 27 June 2016 . Jump up ^ Sean Duffy , The Concise History of Ireland , 2005 Jump up ^ Rick Steve 's Ireland 2008 ^ Jump up to : The National Flag : Design , Department of the Taoiseach . Jump up ^ Symbols in Northern Ireland -- Flags Used in the Region CAIN Web Service . Retrieved on 8 November 2011 Jump up ^ Sugden , John & Harvie , Scott ( 1995 ) . Sport and Community Relations in Northern Ireland , Centre for the Study of Conflict , School of History , Philosophy and Politics , Faculty of Humanities , University of Ulster . Retrieved on 14 June 2007 . Jump up ^ Article 7 , Bunreacht na hÉireann . ^ Jump up to : The National Flag : Guidelines for use of the National Flag , Department of the Taoiseach . Jump up ^ rgb.to . `` Color not found ! '' . rgb.to . Retrieved 30 September 2017 . Jump up ^ rgb.to . `` Color not found ! '' . rgb.to . Retrieved 30 September 2017 . Jump up ^ Ireland : Green Flag -- Flags of the World Jump up ^ ( 1 ) King James II leader at Battle of Boyne Jump up ^ National Flag , Department of the Taoiseach ^ Jump up to : The National Flag , Department of the Taoiseach . Jump up ^ Subject to the Twenty - seventh Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland , 2004 . Jump up ^ The national Flag Department of the Taoiseach Jump up ^ See , for example : Long Journey Home by Elvis Costello and Paddy Moloney . Jump up ^ See , for example , the lyrics and commentary on the following Irish rebel songs : Green White and Gold ; The Dying Rebel . Archived 14 April 2005 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ others , The Zen Cart TM Team and . `` County Coat of Arms Irish Flag buy discounted Irish flags with family crest for Irish family reunion ( ) - $24.00 : A Bit O Blarney.com Celtic Jewelry Shop , serving online since 1999 '' . Abitoblarney.com . Retrieved 30 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Photographic image '' ( PNG ) . S1.thejournal.ie . Retrieved 30 September 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Andries Burgers Ireland : Green Flag , Flags of the World ( 21 May 2006 ) , citing G.A. Hayes - McCoy , A History of Irish Flags from earliest times ( 1979 ) . ^ Jump up to : Ireland , Flags of the World , 2001 . Retrieved on 11 June 2007 . ^ Jump up to : Tricolour Flag of Ireland , Your Irish Culture , 2007 . Retrieved on 11 June 2007. Archived 2008 Jump up ^ Contrary to popular belief , the tricolour was not the actual flag of the Easter Rising , although it had been flown from the General Post Office ; that flag was a green flag featuring in gold a harp and the words `` Irish Republic '' . Jump up ^ Hayes - McCoy , Gerard Anthony ( 1979 ) . A History of Irish flags from Earliest Times . Academy Press , Dublin . ISBN 978 - 0 - 906187 - 01 - 2 . Jump up ^ `` NAI DFA 26 / 102 : Extracts from the report of the Irish delegation to the Fourth Assembly of the League of Nations ( September 1923 ) '' . Documents on Irish Foreign Policy . 2 ( 1923 -- 1926 ) . Royal Irish Academy . September 2000 . No. 134 . ISBN 1 - 874045 - 83 - 6 . Retrieved 21 March 2011 . Jump up ^ Public Record Office document DO 117 / 100 , written in 1928 . ^ Jump up to : Merchant Shipping Bill , 1947 -- Second Stage. ( 20 November 1947 ) Dáil debates Vol. 108 No. 15 p. 23 Jump up ^ Forde , Frank ( 2000 ) . The Long Watch . Island Books . p. 108 . ISBN 1 - 902602 - 42 - 0 . ^ Jump up to : Dáil debates Vol. 33 No. 17 p. 7 cc. 2290 -- 95 20 March 1930 Jump up ^ Dáil debates Vol. 53 No. 7 p. 4 21 June 1934 Jump up ^ Sweeney , Pat ( 2010 ) . Liffey Ships . Mercier Press . p. 202 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 85635 - 685 - 5 . Jump up ^ Dáil debates Vol. 81 No. 14 p. 23 20 February 1941 Jump up ^ Forde , Frank ( 2000 ) . The Long Watch . Island Books . p. 2 . ISBN 1 - 902602 - 42 - 0 . Jump up ^ McRonald , Malcolm ( 2007 ) . The Irish Boats. 3 , Liverpool to Belfast . Tempus . p. 70 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7524 - 4235 - 8 . Jump up ^ Share , Bernard ( 1978 ) . The Emergency . Dublin : Gill and Macmillan . p. 99 . ISBN 0 - 71710 - 916 - X . Jump up ^ Sections 2 and 14 , Merchant Shipping Act , 1947 Irish Statute Book Jump up ^ FitzGerald , Garret . Ireland , Partition of , Encarta , 2007 . Retrieved on 14 June 2007 . Archived 9 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine . 31 October 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Flags Used in Northern Ireland , Conflict Archive on the Internet , 1 April 2007 . Retrieved on 14 June 2007 . Jump up ^ Flags and Emblems ( Display ) Act ( Northern Ireland ) 1954 , Conflict Archive on the Internet , 1 April 2007 . Retrieved on 14 June 2007 . Jump up ^ Boyd , Andrew ( 1969 ) . Holy War in Belfast -- `` 1964 : The Tricolour Riots '' . Anvil Press . ISBN 0 - 900068 - 10 - 8 . Jump up ^ Northern Ireland ( United Kingdom ) , Flags of the World , 2007 . Retrieved on 14 June 2007 . Jump up ^ Ewart , Shirley & Schubotz , Dirk ( 2004 ) . Voices behind the Statistics : Young People 's Views of Sectarianism in Northern Ireland , National Children 's Bureau , p. 7 . Jump up ^ `` Loyalist paramilitary flags explosion '' , BBC News Online , 21 June 2000 . Retrieved on 14 June 2007 . Jump up ^ Brown , Kris . & MacGinty , Roger ( 2003 ) . `` Public Attitudes toward Partisan and Neutral Symbols in Post-Agreement Northern Ireland '' , Identities : Global Studies in Power and Culture . Vol. 10 , No. 1 , pp. 83 -- 108 . Jump up ^ Bryan , Dr. Dominic & Stevenson , Dr. Clifford ( 2006 ) . Flags Monitoring Project 2006 : Preliminary Findings , Institute of Irish Studies , Queen 's University , Belfast . Retrieved on 14 June 2007 . Jump up ^ The Belfast Agreement 1998 , Conflict Archive on the Internet . Retrieved on 14 June 2007 . Jump up ^ Wilson , Robin ( July 2000 ) . Flagging concern : The Controversy over Flags and Emblems , Democratic Dialogue , Retrieved on 14 June 2007 . Jump up ^ Northern Ireland Assembly Official Report of Tuesday 6 June 2000 , Northern Ireland Assembly , 6 June 2000 . Retrieved on 14 June 2007 . Jump up ^ Report on Draft Regulations proposed under Article 3 of the Flags ( Northern Ireland ) Order 2000 , Northern Ireland Assembly , 17 October 2000 . Retrieved on 14 June 2007 . Jump up ^ Alex Maskey Motion 39 -- flags and emblems , SinnFein.ie , 17 February 2006 . Retrieved on 14 June 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Tricolour raised in City Hall '' , BBC News Online , 4 September 2002 . Retrieved on 14 June 2007 . Jump up ^ Should Belfast have its own flag ? , BBC News Talking Point , 5 September 2002 . Retrieved on 14 June 2007 . ^ Jump up to : The National Flag : Display , placing and precedence , Department of the Taoiseach . Jump up ^ A flag is at half - mast in any position below the top of the staff but never below the middle point of the staff . As a general guide , the half - mast position may be taken as that where the top of the flag is the depth of the flag below the top of the staff . Jump up ^ The National Flag : Hoisting and lowering the Flag , Department of the Taoiseach . ^ Jump up to : The National Flag : Saluting the Flag , Department of the Taoiseach . Jump up ^ The National Flag : Worn - out Flag , Department of the Taoiseach . ^ Jump up to : The National Flag : Respect for the National Flag , Department of the Taoiseach . Jump up ^ For military purposes , sunrise occurs at 8 : 00 a.m. between March and October , and at 8 : 30 a.m. between November and February . Sunset is deemed to occur at : 3 : 30 p.m. in January and December ; 4 : 30 p.m. in February and November ; 5 : 30 p.m. in March and October ; 6 : 00 p.m. in April ; 7 : 00 p.m. in May and September ; and 8 : 00 p.m. between June and August . Jump up ^ The National Flag : Practices to avoid , Department of the Taoiseach . Jump up ^ The National Flag : Occasions on which the National Flag is flown , Department of the Taoiseach . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Flags of Ireland . Ireland at Flags of the World Flags of Europe Sovereign states Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Kazakhstan Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Macedonia Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom England Northern Ireland Scotland Wales Vatican City States with limited recognition Abkhazia Artsakh Kosovo Northern Cyprus South Ossetia Transnistria Dependencies and other entities Åland Faroe Islands Gibraltar Guernsey Isle of Man Jersey Svalbard Other entities European Union Sovereign Military Order of Malta National flags and coats of arms National flags Sovereign states Dependent territories Timeline National coats of arms Sovereign states Dependent territories Heraldry portal Young Ireland General Repeal Association The Nation Irish nationalism Irish republicanism Irish Confederation Great Hunger Revolutions of 1848 A Nation Once Again Irish tricolour Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848 Penal transportation Van Diemen 's Land Irish Republican Brotherhood Personalities Joseph Blake Joseph Brenan Robert Cane Thomas Davis John Blake Dillon Michael Doheny Charles Gavan Duffy Philip Gray John Kenyon James Fintan Lalor Maurice Leyne Thomas D'Arcy McGee Terence MacManus John Martin Thomas Francis Meagher John Mitchel William Smith O'Brien Kevin Izod O'Doherty Patrick O'Donoghue Richard O'Gorman John O'Leary John O'Mahony Thomas Devin Reilly John Savage Patrick James Smyth James Stephens Jane Wilde British laws Crime and Outrage Bill ( Ireland ) 1847 Treason Felony Act 1848 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flag_of_Ireland&oldid=804252960 '' Categories : National symbols of the Republic of Ireland National flags Flags of the Republic of Ireland Flags introduced in 1922 1922 establishments in Ireland Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links Webarchive template wayback links EngvarB from October 2013 Use dmy dates from October 2013 Articles containing Irish - language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2011 Articles needing additional references from January 2014 All articles needing additional references Talk Contents About Wikipedia Azərbaycanca Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца ) ‎ Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Gaelg Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски मराठी Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 7 October 2017 , at 19 : 38 . 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fullmetal alchemist brotherhood season 1 episode 1 dubbed

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=List_of_Fullmetal_Alchemist:_Brotherhood_episodes&oldid=816996983

List of Fullmetal Alchemist : Brotherhood episodes - wikipedia List of Fullmetal Alchemist : Brotherhood episodes Jump to : navigation , search Cover for Fullmetal Alchemist : Brotherhood 's first DVD and Blu - ray release Fullmetal Alchemist : Brotherhood , known in Japan as Alchemist of Steel : Fullmetal Alchemist ( 鋼 の 錬金術 師 フルメタル アルケミスト , Hagane no Renkinjutsushi : Furumetaru Arukemisuto ) , is the second independent anime adaptation developed by Bones from the Fullmetal Alchemist manga series by Hiromu Arakawa . Yasuhiro Irie worked as director , and Hiroshi Ōnogi as writer . The series follows the story of two alchemist brothers , Edward and Alphonse Elric , who want to restore their bodies after a disastrous failed attempt to bring their mother back to life through alchemy . Unlike the first anime , which added original elements to the story , the second series follows the manga . The series comprises a total of 64 episodes and four original video animations . The series premiered on April 5 , 2009 , on MBS - TBS 's Sunday 5 : 30 pm JST anime timeblock , replacing Mobile Suit Gundam 00 . It received its English language premiere five days later on Animax Asia , with Japanese audio and English subtitles . Anime distributor Funimation streamed English subtitled episodes four days after the Japanese air dates on both its website and its YouTube channel . Funimation suspended streaming of the series for a few weeks in May following the accidental leak of an episode of One Piece from its servers before it had aired in Japan . All episodes were also available on American subscription service Hulu , showing 14 days after their original airing , as well as via Australia 's Madman Entertainment . English dubbed episodes of the show started on American cable channel Adult Swim from February 13 , 2010 , onwards , as part of their Saturday anime block . Aniplex began releasing the series in DVD and Blu - ray on August 26 , 2009 . The first one contains two episodes and an original video animation ( OVA ) . Three more OVAs were included in the fifth , ninth and thirteenth volumes alongside four episodes . Other volumes feature four episodes and no OVAs . A total of sixteen volumes were released , with the last one on November 24 , 2010 . Funimation released the episodes on Blu - ray and DVD in five volumes , each of thirteen episodes on May 25 , 2010 . Brotherhood 's music composer is Akira Senju . Ten pieces of theme music were used in Brotherhood . The respective opening and ending themes for the first 14 episodes are `` Again '' by Yui , and `` Uso '' ( 嘘 , lit . `` Lie '' ) by Sid . From episode 15 - 26 , the respective opening and ending themes are `` Hologram '' by Nico Touches the Walls , and `` Let It Out '' by Miho Fukuhara . From episode 27 - 38 , the respective opening and ending themes are `` Golden Time Lover '' by Sukima Switch , and `` Tsunaida Te '' ( つない だ 手 , lit . `` Tied Hands '' ) by Lil'B . From episode 39 - 50 , the respective opening and ending themes are `` Period '' by Chemistry , and `` Shunkan Sentimental '' ( 瞬間 センチメンタル , Shunkan Senchimentaru , lit . `` Sentimental Moment '' ) by Scandal . From episodes 51 - 62 , the respective opening and ending themes are `` Rain '' ( レイン , Rein ) by Sid , and `` Ray of Light '' by Shoko Nakagawa . While episodes 63 and 64 do not use opening themes , they use `` Rain '' and `` Hologram '' , respectively , for the endings . Contents ( hide ) 1 Episodes list 2 OVAs 3 References 4 External links Episodes list ( edit ) No . Title Original airdate U.S. airdate 01 `` Fullmetal Alchemist '' `` Hagane no Renkinjutsushi '' ( 鋼 の 錬金術 師 ) April 5 , 2009 February 13 , 2010 The Elric brothers , Edward and Alphonse , who both have already made a strong reputation of themselves despite Edward 's short military career , are called upon by Führer King Bradley and Colonel Roy Mustang to hunt down rogue state alchemist Isaac McDougal . Edward and Alphonse ambush and successfully capture their target . However , due to Edward being enraged by McDougal calling him `` small '' , the `` Freezing Alchemist '' finds an opening and escapes . The Elric brothers alongside the state military are forced to confront McDougal again when he simultaneously activates numerous transmutation circles in Central , which creates an alchemic reaction encompassing the entire command center . Edward suspects the use of a philosopher 's stone , but is unable to confirm his suspicion . Luckily , the Elric brothers , Major Alex Louis Armstrong , and Mustang succeed in thwarting McDougal 's plans to bury Central in ice . The Führer confronts McDougal as he attempts to escape . In the brief battle that follows , McDougal is easily sliced to death by the Führer , who later credits both Mustang and the Elric brothers in helping accomplish the mission . 02 `` The First Day '' `` Hajimari no Hi '' ( はじまり の 日 ) April 12 , 2009 February 20 , 2010 As Edward and Alphonse depart for Liore by train , their childhood is shown in flashback . They had learned rudimentary alchemy from their father 's books , and , upon their mother 's death , had attempted to revive her by performing human transmutation , a practice officially considered taboo among alchemists . A dark mass of shadowy hands then proceeded to disintegrate Alphonse 's physical body , while a disembodied figure named Truth showed Edward the secret behind perfect human transmutation in exchange for his left leg . Cursing his actions in causing the loss of his brother , Edward bonds Alphonse 's soul to a suit of armor , sacrificing his right arm to complete the process . Elsewhere in the present , Colonel Maes Hughes shows Mustang the paperwork concerning the McDougal incident , which states that McDougal used a Xingese art known as alkahestry , unknown to the two of them . Back in the past , Edward 's skill in both surviving the attempted human transmutation and anchoring his brother 's soul attracts the attention of Mustang , who suggests Edward become a state alchemist . Edward later takes and passes the state alchemist examination , and is given the title of `` Fullmetal Alchemist '' . 03 `` City of Heresy '' `` Jakyō no Machi '' ( 邪教 の 街 ) April 19 , 2009 February 27 , 2010 Edward and Alphonse arrive at Liore , where they witness Father Cornello winning the devotion of the townspeople by performing `` miraculous '' transmutations , which they believe could only have been accomplished using a philosopher 's stone . They meet Rosé and request to see Cornello , who is aware of the state alchemists ' presence . Cornello ambushes Edward and Alphonse , sending a chimera , a hybrid , after them . While battling the chimera , Edward unintentionally reveals his prosthetic automail limbs , making Cornello realize that he had attempted the forbidden taboo of human transmutation . Edward and Alphonse escape , taking Rosé with them . While Alphonse explains their story to Rosé , Cornello finds Edward and reveals his nefarious plan , unaware that it had been broadcast to the whole town of Liore . Cornello uses the philosopher 's stone on his ring to fight against Edward , but Edward manages to defeat him . Edward then realizes that the stone is a fake when it shatters on the ground . Cornello runs off , but is killed by Lust and eaten by Gluttony . When Rosé confronts Edward and Alphonse about the stone , despairing that she had believed in Cornello for nothing , Edward tells her to find strength within herself and to `` walk on her own two feet '' . 04 `` An Alchemist 's Anguish '' `` Renkinjutsushi no Kunō '' ( 錬金術 師 の 苦悩 ) April 26 , 2009 March 6 , 2010 A mysterious man with a cross-shaped scar across his face attacks and murders Brigadier General Basque Grand . The Führer orders Hughes and Armstrong to use all available resources to stop the murderer . Meanwhile , to avoid being in their debt , Mustang introduces Edward and Alphonse to Shou Tucker , the `` Sewing - Life Alchemist '' , who obtained his state alchemist credentials by creating a chimera that could understand human speech . He opens up his library to the Elric brothers for them to study living creature transmutation , but they also end up spending time to play with Tucker 's daughter Nina and family dog Alexander . Upon returning to the house for another study session , they find that Tucker has created another speaking chimera in order to satisfy his yearly assessment requirements . However , Edward is furious to discover that the speaking chimera was created using Nina and Alexander , and he also realizes that Tucker did the same with his wife , two years prior . Alphonse stops Edward from nearly beating Tucker to death , as Edward is left feeling helpless . Mustang tells him that by being a state alchemist , he must prepare himself to take a life if called upon by the military . While Tucker is arrested for his actions , he is visited by the scarred man , who kills him and the Nina / Alexander chimera . 05 `` Rain of Sorrows '' `` Kanashimi no Ame '' ( 哀しみ の 雨 ) May 3 , 2009 March 13 , 2010 Lieutenant Riza Hawkeye tells Edward and Alphonse that both Tucker and the chimera have been killed . Meanwhile , back in Liore , Lust and Gluttony attempt to cause a rebellion using the faith of the locals , with Envy using his shape - shifting powers to disguise himself as Cornello . Back at East City , as Edward and Alphonse dwell on their limits in alchemy , they are viciously attacked by Scar . They quickly retreat until they are cornered and are forced to defend themselves , resulting in Scar damaging Alphonse 's body and then destroying Edward 's right arm . The state alchemists intervene just when Scar prepares to finish off Edward . Mustang , unable to subdue Scar , is saved by Hawkeye , who reminds Mustang that his flame alchemy is useless in the rain . When Armstrong arrives and battles Scar , it is revealed that the man is an Ishvalan . Outnumbered , Scar manages to escape into the sewers , and Mustang tells the Elric brothers about the Ishval civil war . Edward and Alphonse decide to head back to Resembool to repair their bodies . 06 `` Road of Hope '' `` Kibō no Michi '' ( 希望 の 道 ) May 10 , 2009 March 20 , 2010 While Armstrong escorts Edward and Alphonse back to Resembool by train , he spots a man named Tim Marcoh , the `` Crystal Alchemist '' , at a nearby stop . He explains that Marcoh was a state alchemist and doctor during the Ishval civil war , and conducted research on biological alchemy before disappearing at the end of the war . They decide to chase after Marcoh , only to learn that he was researching the philosopher 's stone but only succeeded in creating an incomplete version . At first refusing to share his knowledge with Edward , Marcoh eventually gives them a clue to the location of his research data . After they reach Resembool , Winry Rockbell and her grandmother Pinako Rockbell start working on Edward 's automail . After receiving his replacement arm and leg , Edward uses his alchemy to rebuild Alphonse 's suit of armor from the shattered remains . Afterwards , the Elric brothers , along with Armstrong , head back to Central to search for Marcoh 's research . 07 `` Hidden Truths '' `` Kakusareta Shinjitsu '' ( 隠 され た 真実 ) May 17 , 2009 March 27 , 2010 Edward and Alphonse arrive back in Central , only to find that the first branch of the state library , where Marcoh 's research was stored , had been burned to the ground . Scar encounters and battles Lust and Gluttony in the sewers , resulting in a large explosion . Edward and Alphonse 's new escorts , Denny Brosh and Maria Ross , direct them to Sheska , a file clerk who had worked at the first branch of the state library , but was fired for spending all her time reading . Sheska reveals that she has an eidetic memory and memorized all of Marcoh 's research and then makes handwritten duplicates for the Elric brothers . While initially appearing to be a cookbook , Edward notices that it is written in a code that Marcoh created . Edward and Alphonse spend several days deciphering the hidden data , only to discover that the philosopher 's stone is made from sacrificing living humans . Edward asks Brosh and Ross to keep it a secret , but Armstrong learns about it using intimidation . Edward notices another hidden piece of information , locating an unused laboratory next to a prison , where `` raw materials '' for the stone were gathered . Armstrong tells the Elric brothers to stay put , but they both manage to sneak out to the fifth laboratory . Edward enters the building via an air duct , while Alphonse waits outside , unaware that he is being watched by a menacing figure . 08 `` The Fifth Laboratory '' `` Daigo Kenkyūsho '' ( 第 五 研究 所 ) May 24 , 2009 April 3 , 2010 At the fifth laboratory , Al fights Barry the Chopper outside , and Edward faces Slicer inside . It is revealed that both opponents are souls of murderers affixed to armor . Edward struggles in his battle when his automail arm malfunctions , the result of Winry forgetting to add a small bolt back in Resembool . Alphonse initially has the advantage in his fight , until Barry suggests that Alphonse never truly existed , claiming he was a doll made by Edward with false memories . Contemplating on the possibility , Alphonse recalls that Edward was afraid of telling him something . Edward is particularly troubled when his opponent turns out to be a pair of brothers , each controlling a different part of the armor . Edward manages to defeat Slicer by use of Scar 's destruction technique , but before he can get any information from the two brothers , they are killed by Lust and Envy . Edward demands to know who they are and tries to use alchemy , but his automail arm breaks and he gets knocked out by Envy . Outside , Barry almost gets the upper hand on Alphonse , but he is saved by the arrival of Brosh and Ross . Lust and Envy destroy the lab to cover up the evidence of the philosopher 's stone , but not before carrying Edward outside and handing him over to Brosh and Ross , commenting that he is a valuable resource . 09 `` Created Feelings '' `` Tsukurareta Omoi '' ( 創 られ た 想い ) May 31 , 2009 April 10 , 2010 Edward and Alphonse are hospitalized following the incident of the fifth laboratory . Ross slaps Edward for being reckless , and asks him to trust adults more . Needing his automail repaired , Edward calls for Winry to come to Central . When Winry arrives at the train station , Alphonse still contemplates what Barry had told him . Hughes invites Winry over to his daughter Elicia 's birthday party , where she laments that Edward and Alphonse never tell her anything . Hughes tells her that men tend to hide things so as not to worry anyone . Alphonse then decides to confront Edward about what he was afraid to tell him , asking if he was really an artificial soul . Edward storms off and Winry yells at Alphonse , telling him that Edward was terrified Alphonse may have blamed him for getting him stuck in the armor . The Elric brothers then have a fight , which Edward becomes the victor , and they both reminisce about their past fights , reaffirming their existence . Meanwhile , Scar wakes up in the care of Ishvalan refugees . 10 `` Separate Destinations '' `` Sorezore no Yukusaki '' ( それぞれ の 行く先 ) June 7 , 2009 April 17 , 2010 Führer King Bradley appears at the hospital and warns the Elric brothers to be careful around the military , and he then hops out of a window to evade his subordinates . Edward and Alphonse decide to go to the town of Dublith to visit their alchemy teacher , Izumi Curtis , to ask her for information about the philosopher 's stone . They agree to take Winry with them when she notices that Rush Valley , a town known for creating the best automail in the world , is on the way to Dublith . Hughes investigates the problems in Liore , the fifth laboratory , and the Ishval civil war . He discovers a connection , but is then attacked by Lust . He escapes her and tries to contact Mustang with his information at a public telephone booth , only to be gunned down by Envy disguised as Ross , and then as his wife Gracia . Hughes is posthumously promoted to the rank of brigadier general while his murder is investigated by Mustang , who concludes via Armstrong that a high ranked member of the military may be responsible for ordering Hughes ' death . 11 `` Miracle at Rush Valley '' `` Rasshu Barē no Kiseki '' ( ラッシュ バレー の 奇跡 ) June 14 , 2009 April 24 , 2010 As Edward , Alphonse and Winry arrive in Rush Valley , Edward 's state alchemist pocket watch is stolen by a pickpocket named Paninya , who has automail legs . After tracking her down , Winry asks her automail 's creator , Dominic LeCoulte , to let her be his apprentice , but is swiftly declined . As Winry convinces Paninya to stop being a pickpocket and return the pocket watch , she peeks in it and finds the date the Elric brothers burned down their house carved inside . Meanwhile , Dominic 's daughter - in - law is having a baby , and since they are unable to travel to a hospital in the poor weather , Winry and Paninya deliver the baby . Following a successful birth , Winry asks again to be an apprentice , and Dominic directs her to another mechanic where she can study to become a better automail engineer . With that , Edward and Alphonse continue onwards to Dublith . 12 `` One is All , All is One '' `` Ichi wa Zen , Zen wa Ichi '' ( 一 は 全 、 全 は 一 ) June 21 , 2009 May 1 , 2010 Edward and Alphonse visit Izumi and her husband Sig in order to get clues on the philosopher 's stone . During their stay , the Elric brothers recall how they first met Izumi during a flooding in Resembool , and how they had been formally accepted as Izumi 's disciples after being stranded on an island for a month . They look back at how they figured out the meaning behind `` one is all , all is one '' . Izumi notices that the Elric brothers attempted human transmutation , concluding this from their movement during hand - to - hand combat training . Realizing that they were not the only ones who had committed the taboo , Izumi tells the Elrics that she also had attempted human transmutation to bring back her baby , who died when Izumi became sick during pregnancy . The three make up , bonding over the hardships that they went through after suffering the effects of human transmutation . 13 `` Beasts of Dublith '' `` Daburisu no Kemono - tachi '' ( ダブリス の 獣 たち ) June 28 , 2009 May 8 , 2010 Edward and Alphonse are expelled by Izumi , becoming her equals rather than her students . Meanwhile , Mustang announces to his five subordinates that they are all transferring back with him to Central . Scar , recovering in an Ishvalan squatter colony , is advised by the elder that pursuing the current state alchemists would not do the surviving Ishvalans any good . Scar leaves the colony after having to defeat two thugs recruited by Yoki , who wanted to capture Scar and bring him back to Central , due to his connections to the murder of Basque Grand . Alphonse , lured to a trap after reading a threatening note regarding his secret , is captured by Roa , Bido , Martel , and Dolcetto , all of whom are chimera employed by the homunculus Greed . Edward finds Greed , who proposes teaching homunculus fabrication in exchange for learning human transmutation . An enraged Edward charges at Greed , who uses his ultimate shield to make himself invulnerable to Edward 's attacks . However , Edward is soon able to counterattack by transmuting Greed 's ultimate shield . Izumi arrives and intervenes , taking Greed by surprise . 14 `` Those Who Lurk Underground '' `` Chika ni Hisomu Mono - tachi '' ( 地下 に ひそむ 者 たち ) July 5 , 2009 May 15 , 2010 Bradley and Armstrong lead a team of state military soldiers to raid Greed 's hideout , though the former is using it as cover to hunt down and execute Greed . The state military soldiers fire at Roa and Dolcetto , but the two survive . Bradley goes into the sewage passageway beneath the hideout , and he duels against Greed there . However , Greed is severely weakened by the Führer , who reveals his true identity as Wrath . Roa and Dolcetto , who have come to save Greed , are killed by the Führer . Martel , who is hiding inside Alphonse , attempts to choke Bradley to death , but she is stabbed from outside the armor . Her blood splashes on Alphonse 's blood seal and unlocks his forgotten memories . Alphonse reveals to Edward that he managed to recover all of his memories prior to being taken away from the Gate of Truth when Edward failed in his human transmutation attempt to revive their mother . Greed is taken back as a captive to Father , who was disappointed in him after he deserted the rest of the homunculi . When Greed refuses to rejoin the homunculi , he is melted alive to a liquid philosopher 's stone , which is then consumed by Father . 15 `` Envoy from the East '' `` Tōhō no Shisha '' ( 東方 の 使者 ) July 12 , 2009 May 22 , 2010 Scar quickly deals with another state alchemist named Giolio Comanche , known as the `` Silver Alchemist '' . Upon returning to the temporary hideout with Yoki , Scar discovers a young Xingese girl named May Chang accompanied by a tiny panda named Shao Mei , who have traveled across the eastern desert in search for the philosopher 's stone . Meanwhile , Barry the Chopper is detained by Roy Mustang , Riza Hawkeye , and Vato Falman to be interrogated regarding the assassination of Maes Hughes . Elsewhere , the Elric brothers return to Rush Valley to have Edward 's automail repaired once again . They then find a Xingese man named Ling Yao on the verge of starving to death . After being fed , he explains his purpose for researching alkahestry . Lin summons his bodyguards , Lan Fan and Fu , and holds the Elric brothers hostage , in hopes of having the secrets of the philosopher 's stone revealed . During their fight , much of the town becomes damaged . Ling and his bodyguards retreat after their defeat , forcing the Elric brothers to confront the angry townspeople . Ling meets with Edward and Alphonse again after they repair the town , and it is realized that Ling wants to become the heir to the throne by learning about the philosopher 's stone . Winry joins up with them , as they all prepare to depart for Central . Scar and Yoki are travelling to Central at night in a horse carriage with May in tow . 16 `` Footsteps of a Comrade - in - Arms '' `` Senyuu no Ashiato '' ( 戦友 の 足跡 ) July 19 , 2009 May 30 , 2010 Edward , Alphonse and Winry arrive in Central , where Ling is arrested for being an illegal immigrant . Sheska accidentally reveals some information on Mustang to Envy , disguised as Captain Focker , one of her superiors . Armstrong informs Mustang that he was unable to tell the Elric brothers about Hughes ' death . When they meet up with Mustang , he falsely says that Hughes has retired from the state military . However , they soon learn the truth after encountering Ross . Winry soon finds out the truth as well after visiting Gracia and Elicia . Edward , along with Alphonse , arrive to apologize , since Edward blames himself for Hughes ' murder . Gracia encourages them to push forward , even though she is holding back her tears . Envy comes up with a plan to stop Mustang from investigating Hughes ' murder , and the next day , Ross is arrested by Colonel Henry Douglas for Hughes ' murder . 17 `` Cold Flame '' `` Reitetsu na Honō '' ( 冷徹 な 焔 ) July 26 , 2009 June 5 , 2010 Ross , accused of Hughes ' assassination , is placed under military police custody and interrogated by Douglas . After reading a newspaper article about Ross 's detention , Barry the Chopper leaves the safe house and launches a solo raid on the jail . Barry releases Ling from jail as well after Ling promises to help both Barry and Ross . Barry tells Ross that she needs to leave Central immediately , or risk being killed . Edward and Alphonse run into the trio , and Barry holds the brothers off to allow Ross time to get away . Ross then runs into Mustang , who seemingly kills her in with a massive fireball . Edward accosts Mustang after seeing Ross ' charred body , while Mustang coldly reminds Edward of his place as a soldier of the state military . Armstrong later shows up and declares that Edward should return to Resembool to apparently have his automail arm fixed , dragging the confused Edward away . 18 `` The Arrogant Palm of a Small Human '' `` Chiisa na Ningen no Gōman na Tenohira '' ( 小さな 人間 の 傲慢 な 掌 ) August 2 , 2009 June 12 , 2010 Once they arrive in Resembool , Edward and Armstrong meet up with Heymans Breda , who takes them to the ruins of Xerxes . Once there , they discover that Ross is still alive , and that Mustang faked her death in order to draw out those responsible for Hughes ' murder . After the brief reunion , Ross decides to hide out in Xing with Fu , but promises to return if she is ever needed . After Ross ' departure , Edward explores the ruins further and encounters a group of Ishbalan refugees , who reveal that it was Scar who had killed Winry 's parents during the Ishbal civil war . Meanwhile , Barry 's human body , which is now nothing more than a crazed animal , attacks Falman and Barry back in Central . However , with the assistance of Jean Havoc , they manage to subdue Barry 's human body . Hawkeye , also there with them , is then attacked by Gluttony . 19 `` Death of the Undying '' `` Shinazaru Mono no Shi '' ( 死な ざる 者 の 死 ) August 9 , 2009 June 19 , 2010 Kain Fuery manages to save Hawkeye , with Mustang coming to defeat Gluttony . Alphonse meets up with the group and they pursue Barry , who chases his body into the depths of the third laboratory . The group splits into two teams . Mustang and Havoc are ambushed by Lust , resulting in both men being grievously wounded and left for dead . Lust then confronts Barry , slicing him to pieces . Hawkeye , believing Mustang to be dead , flies into a suicidal rage and shoots Lust repeatedly , without effect . Before Lust can kill Hawkeye , Mustang appears , revealing he cauterized his wounds . He repeatedly sets Lust on fire until her philosopher 's stone is depleted . No longer able to regenerate , she crumbles to ash . Barry 's soul survives , but his blood seal is scratched out by his human body , which kills both of them . Edward returns to Resembool and heads toward the Rockbell residence . However , he spots his father Van Hohenheim at the grave of his mother Trisha Elric . 20 `` Father Before the Grave '' `` Bozen no Chichi '' ( 墓前 の 父 ) August 16 , 2009 June 26 , 2010 An unhappy Edward overhears a conversation Hohenheim has with Pinako about whether or not the corpse that the Elric brothers had attempted to transmute was actually his mother . Hohenheim leaves the next day , warning Pinako that something horrible will happen in this country . Alphonse explains to Ling the circumstances of his body , and Winry is appalled when Ling does n't care about the consequences of Alphonse 's body . Determined to find the true answer , Edward and Pinako dig up the corpse of the failed transmutation during a downpour , though Edward keeps retching at the thought . When the body has been unearthed , he realizes it was not their mother that they transmuted . Edward then calls Izumi and asks about the legitimacy of her human transmutation , but she does not answer . Edward returns to Central and reunites with Alphonse and Winry , reassuring them of the possibility of restoring Alphonse 's body . Izumi calls Edward back , saying she had the same results as him , which confirms his suspicions of the possibility , but not of reviving what has been deceased . Edward , Alphonse , and Izumi feel a sense of relief that they had not killed their loved ones a second time . The Elric brothers reaffirm their resolve to return Alphonse to his original body . 21 `` Advance of the Fool '' `` Gusha no Zenshin '' ( 愚者 の 前進 ) August 30 , 2009 July 3 , 2010 Edward ponders on the assumption that Alphonse may be absorbing some nutrients through him . Mustang suspects that the Führer is cooperating with the homunculi . Havoc reveals the lower half of his body is paralyzed , and Mustang feels responsible for it . Scar has returned to Central and murders three more state alchemists . Edward and Alphonse dangerously plan to confront Scar in order to draw out the homunculi . Ling and Lan Fan appear and agree to help them , as it would benefit Ling in finding immortality . Mustang sends Breda to locate Marco , only to find he has been kidnapped . Edward begins showboating in the streets , eventually luring in Scar . While the Elric brothers fight him , Mustang goes to the command center and reports false information regarding the whereabouts of Scar , confusing and stalling the state military . Lan Fan attacks Gluttony , but is soon injured by Bradley . 22 `` Backs in the Distance '' `` Tōku no Senaka '' ( 遠く の 背中 ) September 6 , 2009 July 10 , 2010 Ling fights Bradley and Gluttony as he tries to escape with Lan Fan . Meanwhile , Winry hears about the Elric brothers fighting Scar and heads over there . As she arrives , she hears Edward questioning Scar about the death of her parents . Shocked by this , Winry picks up a nearby gun and aims it at Scar . It is then that Scar recalls about his brother who had researched into alchemy to combat against the attacking state alchemists . However , they had been attacked by Solf J. Kimblee , the `` Crimson Alchemist '' . Scar had been heavily injured from the attack , as his right arm had been brutally severed . To save him , his brother had sacrificed himself and had transferred his right arm onto Scar . Shocked upon waking up and seeing his brother 's arm on his body , he went berserk and had killed Winry 's parents . Before they can kill each other , Edward protects Winry from Scar and interrupts Scar 's attack in its tracks , reminding him of when his brother protected him . A concerned Edward consoles a traumatized Winry , while Alphonse chases after Scar . As he slowly has her unclasp the gun , he tells her that her hands were meant to give life and not to kill . 23 `` Girl on the Battlefield '' `` Ikusaba no Shōjo '' ( 戦場 の 少女 ) September 13 , 2009 July 17 , 2010 Edward leaves Winry in the custody of the state military in order to catch up with Alphonse . Meanwhile , as Bradley continues to chase after Ling and Lan Fan , Gluttony goes after Scar . As Edward rejoins Alphonse in his fight against Scar , Gluttony arrives on the scene . Ling then joins the fight and is able to capture Gluttony . Lan Fan manages to escape Wrath by cutting off her disabled arm and strapping it on the back of a dog to throw Wrath off her trail . Hawkeye arrives and drives off with Ling and Gluttony , keeping the operation secret from the state military . As the Elric brothers are about to apprehend Scar , they are stopped by May , who uses her alkahestry to escape with him . However , the Elric brothers manage to take custody of her panda , Shao Mei . As they arrive back at the headquarters , they tell Winry everything . Winry feels depressed , believing all she can do is wait , but feels better when she receives a call from her customers back in Rush Valley . As she leaves on the train back to Rush Valley , Winry starts to realize that she may be falling in love with Edward . Meanwhile , Edward and Alphonse join the others at a hideout , where Lan Fan 's wounds are treated by Doctor Knox . Ling reveals to Edward , Alphonse , and Mustang that the Führer is a homunculus . When Gluttony hears mention of Mustang , the one who killed Lust , he transforms and blows the corner off the hideout . 24 `` Inside the Belly '' `` Hara no Naka '' ( 腹の中 ) September 20 , 2009 July 24 , 2010 Marcoh , in the custody of the homunculi , has to cooperate in exchange for his village 's safety . Meanwhile , Edward , Alphonse , and Ling try to escape from Gluttony , who has become able to swallow anything in his sight . After losing Gluttony , Dr. Knox takes Mustang , Hawkeye , and Lan Fan to safety while Edward , Alphonse , and Ling stay to fight . Envy arrives to stop Gluttony from harming the Elric brothers . Hearing this , Edward and Alphonse face Gluttony while Ling battles Envy . After some fighting , Gluttony ends up accidentally swallowing Edward , Ling , and Envy . Mustang stumbles upon a conspiracy between the Führer and the top brass of the state military and realizes that this is what Hughes meant when he said the state military was in danger . 25 `` Doorway of Darkness '' `` Yami no Tobira '' ( 闇 の 扉 ) September 27 , 2009 July 31 , 2010 Edward and Ling find themselves in a dark place and realize they are inside Gluttony 's stomach , as they try to find a way out . May is worried about Shao Mei , explaining to Yoki about their circumstances , so Scar decides to help search for her . Edward and Ling are approached by Envy , who explains that Gluttony was a failed attempt at recreating the Gate of Truth , and that there is no exit . Envy , after revealing that he was the one who started the Ishval civil war , transforms into a giant beast . Meanwhile , Alphonse gets Gluttony to take him to Father , who is apparently in Central , and Wrath gets leverage over Mustang by transferring his men to various military command headquarters and assigning Hawkeye as his personal assistant , effectively making her his hostage . 26 `` Reunion '' `` Saikai '' ( 再会 ) October 4 , 2009 August 7 , 2010 Edward and Ling face off against Envy . Edward , finding himself hesitating to attack , due to all the people embedded into Envy 's body , gets swallowed . Meanwhile , Scar and May find Shao Mei with Alphonse and Gluttony and decide to follow them down to an underground tunnel , where they fight off several chimeras . Edward spots the philosopher 's stone inside Envy , and , after seeing the missing piece from the ruins of Xerxes found in Gluttony 's stomach , he conjures a way to escape . Bradley explains to Mustang how he was trained from birth for leadership and was injected with the philosopher 's stone . Edward reluctantly uses the souls inside the stone to transmute himself and open the Gate of Truth to escape through . Edward finds Alphonse 's body but is unable to bring it back , since it is not his . However , before the gate closes , he bursts through it , yelling to Alphonse 's body that he will come back to get him someday . 27 `` Interlude Party '' `` Hazama no Utage '' ( 狭間 の 宴 ) October 11 , 2009 January 8 , 2011 In a clip show episode , Hohenheim is at a festival in Resembool where he converses with a young Pinako , who asks him why he remains apart from all the villagers . In the same time , he faces a demon identical to him who talks to him about the weakness of the humans . Hohenheim then finds encouragement from a young Trisha , and he wakes up to discover it was all a dream as a result of drinking too much alcohol . 28 `` Father '' `` Otō - sama '' ( お とう さま ) October 18 , 2009 January 15 , 2011 Alphonse and Gluttony arrive at Father 's lair , when Edward , Ling , and Envy burst out of Gluttony 's stomach . Father then uses his strange powers and cancels out Edward and Alphonse 's alchemy , rendering them vulnerable . Ling is then captured and given the philosopher 's stone , which he willingly accepts , allowing Greed to take over his body . Scar and May then arrive and engage in battle , where their alchemy is still effective . Scar learns about the murder that Envy committed which triggered the Ishbal civil war and attacks Father , only to find his powers ineffective against him . May gets injured , and Scar uses a hydrogen explosion as a diversion so that they can both escape . Edward battles Greed and is quickly subdued , although he can sense that Ling is still inside Greed . As a result of the earlier explosion , Gluttony uses up the last of his regenerative abilities , so Father extracts his philosopher 's stone , promising to revive him with his memories intact . 29 `` Struggle of the Fool '' `` Gusha no Agaki '' ( 愚者 の 足掻き ) October 25 , 2009 January 22 , 2011 Envy leads Edward and Alphonse , who has May and Shao Mei hidden inside of his armor , out of Father 's hideout , which is actually under Central Command Headquarters , to meet with Wrath . Though Edward tries to resign from the state military , Wrath threatens to kill Winry unless he remains a state alchemist . However , he allows the Elric brothers to continue their research . Bradley denies having killed Hughes when asked by Mustang , but refuses to reveal the killer 's identity . Edward calls Winry to assure her safety . Greed gives Alphonse a message written by Ling , in order to notify Lan Fan that he has found the philosopher 's stone . Meanwhile , Scar encounters an imprisoned Marcoh , who admits being responsible for the extermination of the Ishvalans . Meeting up with Bradley , Greed points out that Ling is still fighting for control of his body . Mustang reveals Bradley 's true identity to Armstrong , as he ponders that there may be another homunculus lurking in the shadows . Alphonse , taking May to be treated by Knox , informs Lan Fan about Greed , encouraging her to get an automail arm . Edward , hearing that other alchemists had failed to transmute at the same time his abilities were blocked by Father , wonders how Scar and May were still able to use theirs . Even though Marcoh begs for Scar to take his life , Scar demands to know how Marcoh was involved in the civil war . 30 `` The Ishvalan War of Extermination '' `` Ishuvāru Senmetsusen '' ( イシュヴァール 殲滅 戦 ) November 1 , 2009 January 29 , 2011 Years ago , Mustang 's desire to become a state alchemist was disapproved of by his teacher , Berthold Hawkeye , who was Riza Hawkeye 's father . Before dying from an illness , he asked Mustang to look after his daughter , who has the details of his flame alchemy research tattooed on her back . In the present , Edward visits Hawkeye and returns the gun she lent him , explaining his inability to pull the trigger . After the civil war had broke out seven years past , Bradley signed a document announcing the extermination of the Ishvalans . It took a toll on many state alchemists and soldiers , including Hughes and Mustang , which was not helped by the taunts of the hardhearted Kimblee . Marcoh reveals to Scar that he was involved in using Ishvalans to make the philosopher 's stone , which was given to the state alchemists to enhance their alchemy . The Ishvalan leader tried pleading with Bradley to end the killing in exchange for his life , but he was rejected . When the civil war finally ended , Mustang resolved that he would work to become the new Führer to protect the people , and appointed Hawkeye as his second - in - command . Hawkeye mentions to Edward that when they finally achieve peace , they may have to be punished for the crimes they committed during the war . When Envy checks Marcoh 's prison cell , he finds a beheaded corpse and the word `` vengeance '' written in blood on the wall . 31 `` The 520 Cens Promise '' `` Gohyaku Nijū Senzu no Yakusoku '' ( 520 センズ の 約束 ) November 8 , 2009 February 5 , 2011 After contemplating as to why Scar and May could transmute when the alchemy has been blocked at the time , Edward and Alphonse go and look for May and Shao Mei . Meanwhile , Mustang 's subordinates say their goodbyes as they are sent to different state military bases . Mustang later reminds Edward that he owes him five hundred and twenty cens , but Edward decides to keep the money until Mustang becomes Führer . Mustang uses the note he got from Falman to make contact with Commanding Officer Grumman . Meanwhile , Fu is shocked to find Lan Fan had lost her arm , yet they decline to see an automail mechanic , since it would put Winry in danger . Afterwards , Knox gets a visit from his wife and son , who are pleased to hear he treated two live patients . Suspecting that Marcoh had escaped along with Scar , Envy releases Kimblee from prison and gives him the task of retrieving Marcoh and killing Scar . Wanting to find out more about Kimblee and the secrets behind his brother 's alchemy , Scar destroys Marcoh 's face so it will not be recognized , before heading off towards the North to recover his brother 's notes . 32 `` The Führer 's Son '' `` Daisōtō no Musuko '' ( 大 総統 の 息子 ) November 15 , 2009 February 12 , 2011 As May heads off towards the North with one hooded person , Scar escapes with another to the West . Grumman , disguised as a woman , meets up with Mustang to discuss current matters . Upon hearing that Grumman saw May at the train station , Mustang asks Armstrong to pass the message onto Edward , who had decided to look in the library for information on alkahestry . Upon passing on the message , Armstrong also gives Edward a letter of introduction to pass on to his sister Major General Olivier Mira Armstrong at Briggs Fortress . Later on , Edward and Alphonse meet the Führer 's adopted son , Selim Bradley , and are invited to his house where they also meet the Führer 's wife , and are later joined by the Führer himself . After the meeting , the Elric brothers head off towards the North . Meanwhile , Scar and his accomplice escape from the train heading towards the West , and Kimblee tries to predict Scar 's next move . 33 `` The Northern Wall of Briggs '' `` Burigguzu no Hokuheki '' ( ブリッグズ の 北 壁 ) November 22 , 2009 February 19 , 2011 After some investigation , Kimblee deduces that Scar is headed towards the North . He manages to catch up to the train Scar is hitching a ride on , only to find his hooded companion is actually Yoki and not Marcoh . Scar and Kimblee recognize each other from when they crossed paths in Ishval , and a fight ensues . Scar manages to impale Kimblee , but Kimblee manages to separate the train carriages and escape . Meanwhile , May continues towards the North with Marcoh , while Edward and Alphonse arrive upon the mountain path leading to Briggs Fortress . They soon find themselves attacked by one of the soldiers , Captain Buccaneer , before being surrounded by the guards . They are then confronted by Olivier . May and Marcoh manage to find research notes written by Scar 's brother and begin to decipher them . 34 `` Ice Queen '' `` Kōri no Joō '' ( 氷 の 女王 ) November 29 , 2009 February 26 , 2011 After learning about what type of automail is suited for such snowy weather , Olivier asks the Elric brothers about the purpose of their arrival . Deciding not to mention anything incriminating , they speak of their search for May , leading Olivier to be interested in alkahestry . They are given work to do by Major Miles , who is part Ishvalan , and they also run into Falman . Suddenly , the homunculus named Sloth appears from underground , and Olivier is surprised by his invulnerability . Edward has to hold back his answers about the homunculus , only mentioning that its makeup is similar to that of a human , which gives Olivier an idea on how to detain it . 35 `` The Shape of This Country '' `` Kono Kuni no Katachi '' ( この 国 の かたち ) December 6 , 2009 March 5 , 2011 Olivier and her crew manage to subdue Sloth by dousing him in fuel and sending him outside to freeze . Olivier then has the Elric brothers arrested so she can learn more about the homunculus . Kimblee , who is in the hospital , is visited by Lieutenant General Raven , who brings along another state alchemist who uses the philosopher 's stone to heal his wounds . Meanwhile , Marcoh continues to look into alkahestry , with May teaching him about how it works . Edward , Alphonse , Olivier , Buccaneer , and Falman investigate the tunnel that Sloth made , where Olivier has Edward tell her everything . Edward and Falman deduce that the tunnel is being used as a giant transmutation circle for the philosopher 's stone , and that Amestris itself was formed for that very purpose . Olivier talks with Raven while the others listen in on the conversation , and gets him to spill about immortal armies . 36 `` Family Portrait '' `` Kazoku no Shōzō '' ( 家族 の 肖像 ) December 13 , 2009 March 12 , 2011 Hohenheim recalls when he had left his family , lamenting that his body would outlast that of his wife and sons . Meanwhile , soldiers investigating the tunnels under Briggs Fortress find themselves under attack by a mysterious shadow . Raven tells Olivier to put Sloth back into the tunnel and seal it off . While Miles stalls Kimblee for time , Olivier kills Raven . As Olivier shows a few of her men a separate entrance to the tunnel , Kimblee brings Winry over to see Edward and Alphonse , reminding them of their place and situation . Meanwhile , Scar and Yoki reunites with May and Marcoh , and Mustang gets information and a message from Olivier from his intelligence sources . 37 `` The First Homunculus '' `` Hajimari no Homunkurusu '' ( 始まり の 人造 人間 ( ホムンクルス ) ) December 20 , 2009 March 19 , 2011 Edward has his automail fixed by Winry , while Kimblee issues orders to keep Alphonse separated from Edward . Olivier sends a search party down into the tunnels , who find a couple of survivors that warn them not to put any lights on , or else a monster would come . Hawkeye learns that Selim is a homunculus named Pride , who attacks from the shadows . Kimblee orders Edward to search for Scar and Marcoh , and to create a blood crest similar to Ishval in Briggs Fortress , tempting him with a philosopher 's stone if he accepts . After telling Alphonse and Winry about the situation , Edward grudgingly accepts the job , though he does not intend to use the stone himself . As the Elric brothers go to search for Scar , their real intent to find May as well , Winry decides to accompany them . 38 `` Conflict at Baschool '' `` Bazukūru no Gekitō '' ( バズクール の 激闘 ) December 27 , 2009 March 26 , 2011 Hawkeye receives a call from Mustang , but is unable to say anything in fear of being watched by Pride . In the town of Baschool , the Elric brothers , along with Winry , lose the guards that were assigned to them , and end up running into May , Marcoh , and Yoki . It is explained how Yoki was banished from the state military . Elsewhere , Scar encounters a pair of chimeras under Kimblee named Jerso and Zampano , running into trouble with them . Scar gets pinned , but Edward and Alphonse arrive and beat the chimeras , before restraining Scar themselves . Winry and Miles arrive , and Winry confronts Scar face - to - face about the deaths of her parents . Explosions then are set off , and it appears that Scar has taken Winry hostage . Meanwhile , as Olivier 's squad retrieve the survivors from the tunnels , Briggs Fortress is approached by Central Command Headquarters . 39 `` Daydream '' `` Hakuchū no Yume '' ( 白昼 の 夢 ) January 10 , 2010 April 2 , 2011 When faced with the option of judging the one who killed her parents , Winry decides to bandage Scar 's wounds , knowing it would be something her parents would do . Miles explains to Scar that he joined the military to gradually change the way people think of Ishvalans . Since May and Marcoh need Scar to decipher his brother 's research , Miles offers to hide everyone at the fort , with Alphonse insisting on sparing the two chimeras . While Scar and company head for the fort via tunnels in the mines , Winry comes up with a ruse to make it look like Scar has kidnapped her to elude Kimblee , just before a blizzard sets in . However , as they head for the fort , Miles gets word that Olivier is no longer there , as it is being manned by the state alchemists . When Alphonse willingly goes into the blizzard to find and warn the group , he briefly sees his body and wonders if it is trying to get its soul back . Meanwhile , Father makes plans involving Alphonse , Edward , Hohenheim , Izumi , and one more candidate . 40 `` Homunculus ( The Dwarf in the Flask ) '' `` Homunkurusu '' ( フラスコ の 中 の 小 人 ) January 17 , 2010 April 9 , 2011 Olivier goes to Central , where she admits to killing Raven and convinces Bradley to let her take his place . Hawkeye uses a coded message to tell Roy Mustang that Selim is a homunculus . Meanwhile , Father dreams of ancient Xerxes , where Hohenheim had been raised as a nameless slave , known only as Number 23 . There , Hohenheim had met Homunculus , a being in a flask who was created from his blood , which gave Hohenheim his current name and taught him the basics of alchemy . One night , Homunculus had been summoned by the King of Xerxes , who asked Homunculus to tell him the secret for immortality . Homunculus had tricked the king into making a gigantic transmutation circle , using the whole country as a sacrifice , while it and Hohenheim stood at the center of the circle . When Hohenheim had awakened , everyone else in Xerxes was dead , except for Homunculus . It had created a body shaped like Hohenheim for itself , then becoming known as Father . Back in the present , after Hohenheim awakes from this shared dream , he runs into Izumi and Sig . When Hohenheim notices that Izumi committed the ultimate sin , he rearranges her organs so that her blood can flow better . After this , Hohenheim tells Izumi and Sig that he is the philosopher 's stone in human form . 41 `` The Abyss '' `` Naraku '' ( 奈落 ) January 24 , 2010 April 16 , 2011 Miles and his men set off with the intent of killing Kimblee and his henchmen , something Edward objects to . As Scar and company exit the mine , they find Alphonse , who warns them about Central Command Headquarters infiltrating Briggs Fortress , so Scar decides to take them towards an Ishvalan slum . Miles attempts to snipe Kimblee , but Kimblee has already figured out the trap and uses a cover of snow to enter the mines . Edward tries to follow , but is attacked by two more chimeras , Darius and Heinkel . Edward disables them by using the ammonia in dynamite to make a stink bomb to overwhelm their high sense of smell . Edward then knocks the philosopher 's stone out of Kimblee 's hand , but Kimblee uses another philosopher 's stone hidden inside his mouth , sending Edward and the chimeras down a mine shaft and leaving Edward impaled by a steel bar . At the same time , Alphonse starts to drift out of consciousness , saying his soul is being drawn back to his body . Remembering the promise he made Winry and determined not to die , Edward gets the chimeras to remove the bar while he sacrifices some of his life span to temporarily fix the wound and to stop the bleeding . The chimeras find the philosopher 's stone that Kimblee dropped , and , thankful for their rescue , decide to take Edward to a doctor . 42 `` Signs of a Counteroffensive '' `` Hangeki no Kizashi '' ( 反撃 の 兆し ) January 31 , 2010 April 23 , 2011 Alphonse , after regaining consciousness , realizes he was dismantled by the group to carry him back to the tunnels . May figures how to decipher the notes written by Scar 's brother by rearranging and overlapping the pages , which reveal the nationwide Amestris transmutation circle . After further investigation , they flip over the pages , finding another transmutation circle used for alkahestry . Meanwhile , Kimblee encounters Pride , who tells Kimblee to carve out the Briggs Fortress blood crest . Elsewhere , Falman gets into contact with Breda , and Sloth finishes digging the tunnels . Hohenheim arrives in Liore , where Rosé and the other citizens are rebuilding , and finds an underground passage under the church of Leto . As he stumbles upon Sloth 's tunnels , he is attacked by Pride but manages to escape outside its boundary , and then tells Pride to let Father know he would be coming . Meanwhile , in order to carve out the blood crest , Kimblee conspires with the Drachman military forces to attack Briggs Fortress , and Zampano informs Envy of Marcoh 's location . 43 `` Bite of the Ant '' `` Ari no Hito Kami '' ( 蟻 の ひと 噛み ) February 7 , 2010 May 1 , 2011 Briggs Fortress is able to defeat the Drachman military forces with ease , finally carving out the blood crest . Zampano brings Envy to Marcoh , where Marcoh reveals that it was their intention from the start to lure the homunculus out there , and Envy is easily hit and outsmarted by the multiple alkahestry traps set up by May . Out of anger , Envy transforms into his true form and begins to attack the group . After being captured by the homunculus , Marcoh destroys the philosopher 's stone inside Envy , reducing him to his real form , a tiny , parasitic creature . Scar gives it to May and tells her to return to her country . Marcoh and Scar decide to go their own way , and Alphonse and the rest head for Liore . In Dublith , Bido , the last remaining chimera under Greed , sees two military officers searching for Izumi . Thinking that they could lead him to Greed , he hides underneath their car . Olivier is told about the fort 's victory , and is then shown , by one of the superiors , the secret behind forbidding human transmutation . Meanwhile , when reaching Liore , Alphonse 's group meets with Rosé as well as Hohenheim . 44 `` Reviving at Full Throttle '' `` Barinbarin no Zenkai '' ( バリンバリン の 全開 ) February 14 , 2010 May 8 , 2011 Alphonse and Winry are welcomed by Rosé and the people of Liore . Meanwhile , Darius , one of the chimeras who helped Edward after he had been injured , goes to a bank and makes a withdrawal from Edward 's state alchemist research account . However , the state military is informed and they storm the clinic where Edward and the chimeras are , though the trio manages to escape from them . Hohenheim tells Alphonse the truth about himself and his involvement with Father . While Olivier is shown the army of artificial humans created by the military , Bido is spotted by Greed . Bido realizes who Greed is and tries to make him remember his chimera friends , but Greed ends up killing him . Angered at seeing Greed kill one of his friends , Ling 's conscience has a vicious clash with Greed 's . Later that night , Greed storms Bradley 's mansion and confronts him . 45 `` The Promised Day '' `` Yakusoku no Hi '' ( 約束 の 日 ) February 21 , 2010 May 15 , 2011 Greed is initially overwhelmed in his fight against Bradley , but he manages to survive and escape . Meanwhile , Olivier requests , mainly as a means to avoid the family being taken hostage , that her father determine leadership of the household , which leads to a fight she inevitably wins against her brother . May passes through Youswell , and the people there offer to help her on her journey back to Xing , but Envy tricks her into heading back to Central . Edward , Darius , and Heinkel arrive at one of the old hideouts in Central and are soon met by Ling , who had managed to temporarily regain control over his body . Before Greed takes over again , Ling tells Edward that Father will try to open the gate on the Promised Day . Since Greed had severed his relationships with the homunculi , Edward suggests that Greed become his ally . Greed jokes that he just might consider it if they work for him , but Edward decides to take that suggestion seriously , and Greed accepts the offer . Alphonse passes a message to all military command headquarters , warning everyone about the Promised Day , which is set to take place next spring . 46 `` Looming Shadows '' `` Semaru Kage '' ( 迫る 影 ) February 28 , 2010 May 22 , 2011 Briggs Fortress soldiers escort Winry back home , where she is surprised to find Edward and his group . Though Edward warns her to escape to another country , she refuses and says that Edward should just make sure he protects everyone . Meanwhile , Scar has recruited several Ishvalans to help in his cause , and Mustang reveals Selim 's true identity to Olivier . Alphonse , who had been suffering from more frequent blackouts , is ambushed and captured by Gluttony and Pride . On the day before the Promised Day , Wrath is tricked into taking a train back to Central and is caught in an explosion on the bridge . Meanwhile , Hawkeye , Breda , and Fuery prepare for the upcoming day . Within the military , as the chosen generals are panicking over the Führer 's possible death , Olivier sees her chance to try to take control . However , before she can do anything , she is halted by the sudden appearance of Father and Sloth . 47 `` Emissary of Darkness '' `` Yami no Shisha '' ( 闇 の 使者 ) March 7 , 2010 May 29 , 2011 Upon seeing Hohenheim , Edward 's group is notified about the Promised Day , and in return Edward tells of the last dying words Trisha had told him . Soon after , Edward 's group leave , only to run into Alphonse . However , it is revealed that Alphonse is being controlled by Pride . Although it seems that Pride gets the upper hand , Edward responds by blacking out the slums and taking away the light so that Pride can not use his shadows . Heinkel uses this opportunity to find and attack Pride , but Gluttony then fights Edward , Greed , and Darius . Greed , having a disadvantage in the dark , agrees to switch places with Ling , who uses his detection abilities to fight Gluttony . As Gluttony starts to use his full power , he is overwhelmed by the arrival of Lan Fan , who is now equipped with automail . 48 `` The Oath in the Tunnel '' `` Chikadō no Chikai '' ( 地下道 の 誓い ) March 14 , 2010 June 5 , 2011 Ling and Lan Fan fight Gluttony , while Heinkel continues to fight Pride . Meanwhile , Mustang visits Madame Christmas to confirm that Selim is in fact a homunculus . Pride manages to overwhelm Heinkel . However , before Pride can finish him off , Edward intervenes and saves Heinkel using his automail , now reinforced with carbon . Spies from Central are shown to have followed Mustang to a hostess bar , finding out that Madame Christmas is his foster mother . Mustang then detonates the bar , and he escapes through the sewers with Madame Christmas . He then meets up with Hawkeye , Breda , and Fuery before they attempt to take over Central . Before Pride , who takes over Alphonse again , prepares to fight Edward , Fu throws a flash bomb into the air , overwhelming the shadows with light and breaking Pride 's control of Alphonse . Darius then takes Alphonse away to a safer place , and Gluttony stumbles into the fight between Edward and Pride . Upon discovering that Ling and Lan Fan can sense homunculi , Pride consumes Gluttony , both to replenish his life as well as to gain a sense of smell that can detect Edward 's group . Back in Central , Mustang begins his upheaval plot by capturing Bradley 's wife . 49 `` Filial Affection '' `` Oyako no Jō '' ( 親子 の 情 ) March 21 , 2010 June 12 , 2011 Edward , Greed , and Lan Fan have a difficult time fighting against Pride , since his assimilation of Gluttony . Alphonse intentionally allows himself to be captured by Pride . Hohenheim encases the two in a mountain of soil devoid of light , thereby preventing Pride from using his shadows . Meanwhile , Kimblee begins to move just as Scar 's group is told about the bombing of Bradley 's train . As the Promised Day begins , Greed goes to Central on his own while both Edward and Scar 's groups meet up again to devise a plan . In Central , Mustang and his subordinates begin to attack soldiers while using Bradley 's wife as a hostage . However , the military superiors give the order to kill everybody in the group except for Mustang . 50 `` Upheaval in Central '' `` Sentoraru Dōran '' ( セントラル 動乱 ) March 28 , 2010 June 19 , 2011 As Mustang 's team are cornered by the Central soldiers , Mustang 's old Ishval squadron intervenes and saves them . Meanwhile , the Briggs Fortress soldiers , led by Buccaneer , join the battle . As Mustang 's team begins to run low on ammunition , they are saved by Maria Ross and Rebecca Catalina . Mustang calls the person who had Ross return from Xing , and he is surprised to hear Havoc at the other end . During the chaos , Edward 's group manages to sneak underground via the third laboratory , where the group then splits up . Edward , Scar , Darius , Jerso , and Zampano go in one direction while Hohenheim and Lan Fan go in the other . However , at that moment , one of the generals awakens the mannequin soldiers . 51 `` The Immortal Legion '' `` Fushi no Gundan '' ( 不死 の 軍団 ) April 4 , 2010 June 26 , 2011 As Edward 's group arrives at the door where Alphonse had fought against Lust , the mannequin soldiers emerge from it . Meanwhile , Olivier is attacked by Sloth , who had been ordered to kill her . Alphonse and Heinkel learn too late that Pride had been sending a morse code message from banging a stick onto Alphonse 's head , and they are soon attacked by Kimblee , who frees Pride from his imprisonment . In the sewers , May is also attacked by the mannequin soldiers , and when Envy manages to merge with them , he returns to his human form . As Olivier struggles against Sloth , Armstrong rescues her and joins the fight . Alphonse transmutes his legs off in order to help Heinkel , who then gives him the philosopher 's stone that Kimblee had previously lost . Alphonse uses it to restore his legs , and then he faces against Pride and Kimblee . 52 `` Combined Strength '' `` Minna no Chikara '' ( みんなの 力 ) April 11 , 2010 July 2 , 2011 Alphonse begins using the philosopher 's stone to battle against Pride and Kimblee . He manages to trap Pride once again , but is taken by surprise by Kimblee when he starts using his own stone . Meanwhile , as the Armstrong siblings start to gain the upper hand over Sloth , it is then that Sloth begins to use his true strength and reveals himself to be the fastest homunculus . Although Alphonse gets apprehended by Pride again , Heinkel , having been healed by Marcoh , manages to deliver a fatal blow to Kimblee . Yoki arrives to rescue Alphonse and the others and head towards Central , while Pride consumes Kimblee . As Armstrong manages to temporarily impale Sloth on a spike , both he and Olivier are attacked by mannequin soldiers . Meanwhile , May fends off both Envy and the mannequin soldiers , while Edward 's group , overwhelmed by the mannequin soldiers , are joined by Mustang and Hawkeye . 53 `` Flame of Vengeance '' `` Fukushū no Honō '' ( 復讐 の 炎 ) April 18 , 2010 July 9 , 2011 Mustang 's team has Bradley 's wife interviewed on a live radio broadcast . With the power of the broadcast and the help of the Ishvalans , word of a supposed coup d'état spreads . This gives the rebels support from the citizens , while Briggs Fortress launches an attack on Central Command Headquarters . Meanwhile , Mustang manages to destroy the mannequin soldiers surrounding Edward 's group by burning them to ash . May lures Envy into a trap in the upper levels , causing them both to fall below into the chamber with Edward 's group . Envy reveals himself as Hughes ' killer , infuriating Mustang , who unleashes a torrent of flames onto Envy . Edward 's group moves onward as Mustang brutally burns Envy , but Edward gets concerned that Mustang may end up being consumed by his own hatred . Envy realizes he is no match for Mustang and flees for his life . Upon seeing Hawkeye heading towards Mustang for backup , Envy gets an idea . Mustang later encounters Hawkeye , who aims a gun at his back . 54 `` Beyond the Inferno '' `` Rekka no Saki ni '' ( 烈火 の 先 に ) April 25 , 2010 July 16 , 2011 Upon seeing through Envy being disguised as Mustang , Hawkeye shoots Envy until the real Mustang arrives and mercilessly incinerates the homunculus , reverting him back to his parasitic form . Before Mustang can kill Envy , it is then that Edward , Hawkeye , and Scar persuade him to let go of his anger and his need for revenge , for Amestris can not be ruled by someone consumed with hatred . Envy becomes outraged by Mustang 's change of heart and rants about why everyone does not kill each other , trying to goad them into doing so by pointing out all of the terrible things they have done to each other . Edward determines that the reason why Envy hates humans is because he is jealous of their capacity to continue living on , despite all the abuse they take . Humiliated and insulted by how Edward understands him , Envy commits suicide by tearing out and destroying his own philosopher 's stone . Meanwhile , the Armstrong siblings begin to gain the upper hand in their battle against Sloth . Izumi arrives in Central , allied with the Briggs Fortress soldiers , to participate in the coup d'état . Elsewhere , Hohenheim confronts Father alone . 55 `` The Adults ' Way of Life '' `` Otona - tachi no Ikizama '' ( 大人 たち の 生き 様 ) May 2 , 2010 July 23 , 2011 The Armstrong siblings have trouble fighting off both Sloth and the mannequin soldiers , until Izumi and Sig arrive . Through the combined efforts of Armstrong and Sig , they manage to deal enough damage to Sloth to finally kill him , before turning their attention to the mannequin soldiers . Meanwhile , Hohenheim fights with Father underground . In the midst of the battle , Father is unable to take the philosopher 's stone from within Hohenheim , since the latter feels that he is missing something . With the majority of the Central Command Headquarters captured , the Briggs Fortress soldiers start to celebrate until Bradley , still alive , approaches the headquarters , promising to reclaim it . 56 `` The Return of the Führer '' `` Daisōtō no Kikan '' ( 大 総統 の 帰還 ) May 9 , 2010 July 30 , 2011 Hohenheim , who had managed to converse with all the souls within his philosopher 's stone , had infused the souls into Father 's body to destroy it from the inside . However , Father shows his true form and is able to survive outside of his container , yet somehow he escapes from the inevitable and gets rid of his skin which appears to be a container . Meanwhile , Bradley begins his attack on the headquarters and solely takes on the resisting forces , as well as destroying Buccaneer 's automail arm . As he reaches the main gate , he finds himself against Greed , and Bradley reveals his hidden ultimate eye to fight him . Buccaneer allows himself to be stabbed in order to take away Bradley 's sword , though Bradley soon arms himself with daggers . Meanwhile , Falman and the remaining Briggs Fortress soldiers try to fend off the Central soldiers , and Fu later arrives to assist Greed in facing Wrath . 57 `` Eternal Leave '' `` Eien no Itoma '' ( 永遠 の 暇 ) May 16 , 2010 August 6 , 2011 Greed , unable to hurt Wrath , is pinned down during their fight , which forces Fu to fight Bradley alone . Fu attempts to perform a suicide attack to kill Wrath using explosives strapped to his chest , but Bradley defuses them and mortally wounds Fu . However , Buccaneer thrusts a sword through Fu 's body before he falls and successfully stabs Bradley in the stomach , allowing Ling to scratch out his ultimate eye , while Lan Fan arrives to witness her grandfather 's death . Meanwhile , Edward 's group encounters the gold - toothed doctor who created Bradley , and are pit against the numerous rejected Führer candidates . The doctor then activates a transmutation circle , connected by the five research labs in Central , which absorbs Edward , Alphonse , and Izumi . 58 `` Sacrifices '' `` Hitobashira '' ( ひと ば しら ) May 23 , 2010 August 13 , 2011 In the ensuing battle , Bradley ends falling into the moat below over the side of the front gate . As Buccaneer lays dying , he gives his final request to Ling to defend the front gate . Already distraught by Fu 's death , Ling complies and draws upon the full power of Greed 's ultimate shield to annihilate all Central forces before the gate . Underground , Edward and Izumi , with an unconscious Alphonse , reappear in Father 's lair to find Hohenheim subdued . With four of the five human sacrifices , Father is left to wait for the fifth . The gold - toothed doctor in the levels above has Hawkeye 's throat slit , telling Mustang that he will only save her if he performs human transmutation as the fifth candidate . 59 `` Lost Light '' `` Ushinawareta Hikari '' ( 失 われ た 光 ) May 30 , 2010 August 20 , 2011 Following Hawkeye 's eye signal , Mustang refuses to perform a human transmutation . May arrives with Jerso , Zampano and Darius , and heals Hawkeye 's wound . However , Wrath and Pride also appear and force Mustang to perform human transmutation , using the gold - toothed doctor as a sacrifice . Mustang passes through the Gate of Truth and reappears in Father 's lair with Pride , Father and the other sacrifices , and finds he has lost his eyesight in exchange . Scar battles Wrath above , and May crashes through the ceiling of Father 's lair to find Alphonse unconscious . Alphonse stands before the gate to find his body , but despairs that he will be unable to use it to fight alongside the others because of its frailty . He promises to return for his body and goes through the gate , regaining consciousness in Father 's lair and completing Father 's count for the five sacrifices . 60 `` Eye of Heaven , Gateway of Earth '' `` Ten no Hitomi , Chi no Tobira '' ( 天 の 瞳 、 地 の 扉 ) June 6 , 2010 August 27 , 2011 Edward and Alphonse battle against Pride , as May tries to take on Father by herself , all while the Ishvalans lay out alkahestry transmutation circles throughout Amestris . In his fight against Wrath , Scar reveals a reconstruction transmutation circle from his brother 's research now tattooed on his other arm . Just as Edward 's group starts to gain the upper hand , and despite the arrival of Greed , Father grabs the four sacrifices and uses them along with Hohenheim for his transmutation circle , absorbing all the souls in Amestris . This gives Father enough power to open the earth , allowing him to unlock the entrance to Heaven and absorb the Being within , the Eye of God . 61 `` He Who Would Swallow God '' `` Kami o Nomikomishi Mono '' ( 神 を 呑み こみ し 者 ) June 13 , 2010 September 3 , 2011 Those who were present in the lair manage to survive the human transmutation , discovering how Father used over fifty million Amestrian souls only to suppress the Eye of God within a reborn body . Father neutralizes the use of alchemy , as he prepares to annihilate them . However , Hohenheim reveals his countermeasure , for having spent years traveling the country , placing fragments of his own philosopher 's stone into the earth to use as foundation for returning the Amestrian souls to their original bodies . The stone fragments are activated by the eclipse 's umbra , as the souls are ripped from Father 's body back into their bodies , which forces a weakened Father to relinquish the Eye of God . As the eclipse then lifts , Bradley becomes blinded with sunlight , allowing Scar to kill him . Scar activates the nationwide alkahestry circle that his brother and fellow Ishvalans had been preparing , which restores the use of alchemy at the greatest potential . Unable to fight in his unstable body , Father retreats above ground to find more souls and replenish his stone supply . Edward remains behind to fight Pride while everyone else chases Father . Pride tries to steal Edward 's body to replace his own deteriorating one , but Kimblee 's soul reappears within him and taunts him while Edward enters his body and destroys it , reverting him to the form of a small fetus - like creature . Edward spares Pride 's life and leaves to join his friends . 62 `` A Fierce Counterattack '' `` Seizetsunaru Hangeki '' ( 凄絶 なる 反撃 ) June 20 , 2010 September 10 , 2011 Hohenheim and the others stop Father from making more philosopher 's stones , but as Edward rejoins them , Father spawns humans resembling the people of Xerxes before attacking with a powerful blast which takes out half the headquarters . They barely manage to survive the blast , but Alphonse and Hohenheim take some heavy damage protecting the others . Before Father can kill Edward and Izumi , the Briggs Fortress soldiers , along with several of Edward 's allies , join up to attack Father and use up his stone supply . Father lets down his barrier temporarily to try to absorb Greed 's stone , giving Edward , Armstrong , and Izumi the opportunity to damage him to the point of defending himself manually . As Father starts to lose control , he creates a blast which traps Edward 's arm while his automail arm is destroyed . With Edward in danger , Alphonse convinces May to help him perform a transmutation , trading his soul for the return of Edward 's right arm . Alphonse rejoins with his body on the other side and with his arm returned , Edward frees himself to unleash a series of blows on Father . 63 `` The Other Side of the Gateway '' `` Tobira no Mukōgawa '' ( 扉 の 向こう 側 ) June 27 , 2010 September 17 , 2011 While being effortlessly pummeled , Father desperately tries to absorb the philosopher 's stone from Greed . However , Greed , who decides to part from Ling 's body , uses his carbonization ability to turn Father 's body into weak charcoal . Father extinguishes Greed 's soul , but Edward punches through Father 's chest , releasing all the souls of the people of Xerxes and sending Father to the Gate of Truth where he is trapped for eternity . In the wake of Father 's defeat , everyone mourns Alphonse 's sacrifice . Edward rejects using a philosopher 's stone to bring him back to life , even after Hohenheim offers his final life as an apology for the pain the Elric brothers were forced through . Edward ultimately decides to perform a human transmutation on himself , sacrificing his own gate and his ability to use alchemy with it . As a reward for discovering he does not need to perform alchemy , Edward is allowed to bring Alphonse back with him in his original body . As everyone recuperates from the battle , Hohenheim returns to Resembool and dies peacefully before Trisha 's grave . 64 `` Journey 's End '' `` Tabiji no Hate '' ( 旅路 の 涯 ) July 4 , 2010 September 24 , 2011 Deciding to help sort out Ishvalan policies , Mustang is approached by Knox as well as Marcoh , who offer him a philosopher 's stone to get his eyesight back , though Mustang insists it be used to fix Havoc 's legs first . Olivier secretly rescues Scar so that he can assist Miles in rebuilding Ishbal . Having previously seen off Ling , who had promised to take care of May 's clan among others once he becomes emperor , the Elric brothers return to Resembool where Winry awaits them . Two years later , Grumman , who had become Führer , visits Bradley 's wife , who had been raising up Selim to be a compassionate child . Alphonse decides to travel with Jerso and Zampano to Xing and other eastern countries to learn about alkahestry , while Edward learns what he can in the west , hoping to pull their research together . As Edward heads off , he and Winry finally express their love to each other using the term of equivalent exchange . The last shot shows Ed and Winry , now married with two children , accompanied by Al , May , Paninya , and Garfiel . OVAs ( edit ) # Title Original release date English release date `` The Blind Alchemist '' `` Momoku no Renkinjutsushi '' ( 盲目 の 錬金術 師 ) August 26 , 2009 May 22 , 2012 Edward and Alphonse hear of a blind alchemist named Judeau who had supposedly performed a successful human transmutation . Meeting up with him , Jude reveals to Edward that a young girl named Rosalie Humbergang was resurrected through alchemy , with his eyes paid for in equivalent exchange . However , the madame refuses to teach Edward about the techniques used . Rosalie leads Alphonse to a room with a little girl 's shriveled corpse inside . She reveals this as the result of the real Rosalie 's transmutation , while she herself is a girl named Amy , who was adopted due to her similar appearance to Rosalie . As Edward arrives on the scene , the madame tells him that her late husband kept the truth about the transmutation failure from Judeau , who truly wanted to resurrect Rosalie . The Elric brothers then leave carrying this knowledge with them as well . `` Simple People '' `` Shinpuru na Hitobito '' ( シンプル な 人々 ) December 23 , 2009 May 22 , 2012 While on their way back to Resembool to have Edward 's automail arm repaired , the Elric brothers buy earrings as souvenirs for Winry to prevent her from getting mad about the broken automail . Later on , Edward fights an assassin and his automail gets broken again , and he buys more earrings for Winry to avoid her wrath . Winry explains that she decided to pierce her ears after meeting Hawkeye on the day Edward decided to become a state alchemist . Meanwhile , Hawkeye explains to Rebecca that she grew her hair long after meeting Winry that same day . Rebecca comments on how simple a reason that is , and Hawkeye says that reasons are always simple . To explain her choice , she remarks that they are all living in a simple world , one where when they pull the trigger and their enemies die . `` The Chronicle of Teacher '' `` Sensei Monogatari '' ( 師匠 物語 ) April 21 , 2010 May 22 , 2012 Back when Izumi was eighteen years old , she had traveled to meet the alchemist Silver Steiner and had requested to be his apprentice . Giving her only a knife , he had told her to survive one month on the summit of Briggs before she can become his apprentice . On the second day , she had been found by some of guards of Briggs Fortress , but had managed to beat them and take their food rations . On the eighth day , she had been close to starving to death , but then had become motivated to survive . As she had learned to defend herself and live off of the wildlife , she had realized the meaning behind alchemy , saying that one is all , and all is one . However , returning after a month , it is revealed she had been talking to Silver 's older brother , Gold Steiner , who is not an alchemist but rather a hand - to - hand combat specialist . Annoyed , Izumi beats him and leaves . This ends with an exaggerated look on the first meeting between Izumi and Sig . `` Yet Another Man 's Battlefield '' `` Sore mo Mata Kare no Senjō '' ( それ も また 彼 の 戦場 ) August 25 , 2010 May 22 , 2012 The story centers around Mustang , at eighteen years of age , in a military boot camp . After encountering a group of seniors being cruel to an Ishvalan recruit named Heathcliff Erbe , Mustang takes interest in Hughes , who is supposedly friends with them . The two soon become rivals , competing in various events . Mustang later catches the seniors picking on Heathcliff again and gets into a fight with them before Hughes backs him up , having the same beliefs as Mustang . The three become friends and discuss their reasons for joining the military . Later , though , during the Ishvalan war , Mustang ends up fighting against Heathcliff , who is killed by Hughes after shooting at Mustang . However , Mustang falls into despair before being confronted by Hughes , who has to hold in the pain of his sins so he can smile in front of his wife . Upon returning home , Mustang sees Hughes reuniting with his wife , and envies Hughes 's strength . References ( edit ) General `` Fullmetal Alchemist Story '' ( in Japanese ) . Aniplex . Archived from the original on 2009 - 02 - 13 . Retrieved 2009 - 04 - 15 . Specific ^ Jump up to : Animage Editorial Staff ( October 2008 ) . 鋼 の 錬金術 師 新 シリーズ . Animage ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo , Japan : Tokuma Shoten. 364 ( October 2008 ) : 67 . Jump up ^ `` New Fullmetal Alchemist TV Anime Series Confirmed '' . Anime News Network . 2008 - 08 - 20 . Retrieved 2008 - 08 - 20 . Jump up ^ `` Manga UK Adds New Fullmetal Aist , Sengoku Basara '' . Anime News Network . February 9 , 2010 . Retrieved February 10 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` New Fullmetal Alchemist TV Commercial Streamed '' . Anime News Network . 2009 - 02 - 10 . Retrieved 2009 - 02 - 27 . Jump up ^ `` Animax Asia to Run 2009 Fullmetal Alchemist in Same Week as Japan '' . Anime News Network . 2009 - 03 - 20 . Retrieved 2009 - 03 - 21 . Jump up ^ `` Fullmetal Alchemist Not Streaming from Funimation.com ( Update 2 ) '' . Anime News Network . Retrieved 2009 - 06 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Funimation Portal Streams New Fullmetal Alchemist Again '' . Anime News Network . 2009 - 06 - 25 . Retrieved 2009 - 07 - 01 . Jump up ^ `` The Funimation Update Newsletter '' . Funimation . Retrieved 2009 - 12 - 29 . Straight from Japan : New subtitled episodes of Fullmetal Alchemist : Brotherhood every Thursday @ 10 : 00 a.m. CDT . Jump up ^ `` Funimation to Offer 2009 Fullmetal Alchemist on April 9 ( Update 3 ) '' . Anime News Network . Retrieved 2009 - 04 - 04 . ^ Jump up to : `` Adult Swim Air Schedule '' . Adult Swim . Archived from the original on February 5 , 2010 . Retrieved February 5 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` DVD / BD Information '' ( in Japanese ) . Aniplex . Archived from the original on July 18 , 2011 . Retrieved 2009 - 04 - 15 . ^ Jump up to : `` DVD / BD Information 2 '' ( in Japanese ) . Aniplex . Archived from the original on July 18 , 2011 . Retrieved January 25 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Fullmetal Alchemist : Brotherhood Part 1 Blu - ray '' ( in Japanese ) . Amazon.com . Retrieved December 21 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Fullmetal Alchemist : Brotherhood Part 1 '' ( in Japanese ) . Amazon.com . Retrieved December 21 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Fullmetal Alchemist Original Soundtrack 1 '' . CDJapan . Retrieved August 31 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` OP / ED Artists '' ( in Japanese ) . Aniplex . Archived from the original on July 18 , 2011 . Retrieved 2009 - 04 - 15 . Jump up ^ `` MBS April 5 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Mainichi Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on July 19 , 2011 . Retrieved October 14 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TBS April 12 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on 2009 - 07 - 08 . Retrieved June 17 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TBS April 19 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on 2009 - 07 - 08 . Retrieved June 17 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TBS April 26 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on 2009 - 07 - 08 . Retrieved June 17 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TBS May 3 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on 2009 - 07 - 08 . Retrieved June 17 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TBS May 10 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on 2009 - 07 - 08 . Retrieved June 17 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TBS May 17 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on 2009 - 07 - 08 . Retrieved June 17 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TBS May 24 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on 2009 - 07 - 08 . Retrieved June 17 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TBS May 31 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on 2009 - 07 - 08 . Retrieved June 17 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : `` Adult Swim Air Schedule '' . Adult Swim . Archived from the original on April 11 , 2010 . Retrieved April 11 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` TBS June 7 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on 2009 - 07 - 08 . Retrieved June 17 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TBS June 14 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on 2009 - 07 - 08 . Retrieved June 17 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TBS June 21 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on 2009 - 07 - 08 . Retrieved June 14 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TBS June 28 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on 2009 - 07 - 08 . Retrieved July 5 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TBS July 5 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on 2009 - 07 - 08 . Retrieved July 5 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : `` Adult Swim Air Schedule '' . Adult Swim . Archived from the original on May 17 , 2010 . Retrieved May 17 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` TBS July 12 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on 2009 - 07 - 08 . Retrieved July 5 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TBS July 19 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on August 14 , 2009 . Retrieved July 5 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TBS July 26 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on August 14 , 2009 . Retrieved July 5 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TBS August 2 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on August 14 , 2009 . Retrieved July 5 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TBS August 9 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on August 14 , 2009 . Retrieved July 5 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TBS August 16 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on August 14 , 2009 . Retrieved July 5 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TBS August 30 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on October 20 , 2009 . Retrieved July 5 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TBS September 6 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on October 20 , 2009 . Retrieved July 5 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : `` Adult Swim Air Schedule '' . Adult Swim . Archived from the original on June 11 , 2010 . Retrieved June 11 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` TBS September 13 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on October 20 , 2009 . Retrieved July 5 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TBS September 20 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on October 20 , 2009 . Retrieved July 5 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TBS September 27 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on October 20 , 2009 . Retrieved July 5 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TBS October 4 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on October 20 , 2009 . Retrieved July 5 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` New Bleach Episodes Return to Adult Swim on August 28 '' . Anime News Network . June 29 , 2010 . Retrieved June 29 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` TBS October 11 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on October 20 , 2009 . Retrieved July 5 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` News : Adult Swim to Run More FMA : Brotherhood on January 9 '' . Anime News Network . December 17 , 2010 . Retrieved December 18 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` TBS October 18 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on October 29 , 2009 . Retrieved October 29 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : `` Revised 12 / 14 / 2010 '' . Adult Swim . Archived from the original on December 27 , 2010 . Retrieved December 27 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` TBS October 25 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on October 29 , 2009 . Retrieved October 29 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TBS November 1 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on October 29 , 2009 . Retrieved November 1 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TBS November 8 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . 2009 - 10 - 31 . Archived from the original on 2009 - 11 - 01 . Retrieved November 30 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TBS November 15 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on November 8 , 2009 . Retrieved November 8 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : `` Revised 1 / 24 / 2011 '' . Adult Swim . Archived from the original on January 26 , 2011 . Retrieved January 26 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` TBS November 22 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on November 24 , 2009 . Retrieved November 24 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TBS November 29 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on November 24 , 2009 . Retrieved November 24 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TBS December 6 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on November 29 , 2009 . Retrieved November 29 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : `` Adult Swim Air Schedule '' . Adult Swim . Archived from the original on March 4 , 2011 . Retrieved March 4 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` TBS December 13 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on December 8 , 2009 . Retrieved December 6 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : `` Revised 3 / 28 / 2011 '' . Adult Swim . Archived from the original on April 2 , 2011 . Retrieved April 2 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` TBS December 20 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on December 14 , 2009 . Retrieved December 14 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TBS December 27 , 2009 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on December 21 , 2009 . Retrieved December 14 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TBS January 10 , 2010 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on January 6 , 2009 . Retrieved January 6 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TBS January 17 , 2010 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on January 16 , 2009 . Retrieved January 6 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TBS January 24 , 2010 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on January 20 , 2009 . Retrieved January 20 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TBS January 31 , 2010 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on January 25 , 2009 . Retrieved January 25 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TBS February 7 , 2010 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on January 31 , 2010 . Retrieved January 31 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Revised 4 / 25 / 2011 '' . Adult Swim . Archived from the original on May 8 , 2011 . Retrieved April 29 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` TBS February 14 , 2010 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on February 9 , 2010 . Retrieved February 9 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` TBS February 21 , 2010 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on February 14 , 2010 . Retrieved February 14 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` TBS February 28 , 2010 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on February 22 , 2010 . Retrieved February 22 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` TBS March 7 , 2010 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on March 1 , 2010 . Retrieved March 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` TBS March 14 , 2010 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on March 7 , 2010 . Retrieved March 7 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` TBS March 21 , 2010 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on March 17 , 2010 . Retrieved March 15 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Revised 6 / 8 / 2011 '' . Adult Swim . Archived from the original on June 14 , 2011 . Retrieved May 14 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` TBS March 28 , 2010 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on March 24 , 2010 . Retrieved March 22 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` TBS April 4 , 2010 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on April 2 , 2010 . Retrieved March 29 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` TBS April 11 , 2010 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on April 5 , 2010 . Retrieved April 5 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` TBS April 18 , 2010 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on April 11 , 2010 . Retrieved April 11 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Revised 6 / 22 / 2011 '' . Adult Swim . Archived from the original on June 28 , 2011 . Retrieved June 27 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` TBS April 25 , 2010 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on April 22 , 2010 . Retrieved April 22 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` TBS May 2 , 2010 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on April 25 , 2010 . Retrieved April 25 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` TBS May 9 , 2010 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on May 5 , 2010 . Retrieved May 5 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` TBS May 16 , 2010 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on May 17 , 2010 . Retrieved May 9 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Revised 7 / 26 / 2011 '' . Adult Swim . Archived from the original on June 28 , 2011 . Retrieved August 28 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` TBS May 23 , 2010 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on May 17 , 2010 . Retrieved May 17 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` TBS May 30 , 2010 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on May 23 , 2010 . Retrieved May 23 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` TBS June 6 , 2010 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on June 1 , 2010 . Retrieved June 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` TBS June 13 , 2010 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on June 7 , 2010 . Retrieved June 7 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` TBS June 20 , 2010 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on June 12 , 2010 . Retrieved June 12 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Revised 8 / 23 / 2011 '' . Adult Swim . Archived from the original on September 12 , 2011 . Retrieved August 28 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` TBS June 27 , 2010 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Tokyo Broadcasting System . Archived from the original on June 23 , 2010 . Retrieved June 23 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` MBS July 4 , 2010 schedule '' ( in Japanese ) . Mainichi Broadcasting System . Retrieved July 4 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Fullmetal Alchemist Brotherhood OVAs slated for May in U.S '' . Anime News Network . February 28 , 2012 . Retrieved March 1 , 2012 . External links ( edit ) Anime and manga portal Aniplex 's official Fullmetal Alchemist website ( in Japanese ) Official Fullmetal Alchemist Brotherhood website ( in Japanese ) ( hide ) Fullmetal Alchemist by Hiromu Arakawa Media Chapters Light novels 2003 anime Episodes Conqueror of Shamballa Brotherhood Episodes The Sacred Star of Milos Fullmetal Alchemist ( film ) Video games Broken Angel Curse of the Crimson Elixir Kami o Tsugu Shōjo Dream Carnival Dual Sympathy Characters Edward Elric Alphonse Elric Roy Mustang Scar Winry Rockbell Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Fullmetal_Alchemist:_Brotherhood_episodes&oldid=816996983 '' Categories : Fullmetal Alchemist Lists of anime episodes Hidden categories : CS1 uses Japanese - language script ( ja ) CS1 Japanese - language sources ( ja ) Articles containing Japanese - language text Articles with Japanese - language external links Talk Contents About Wikipedia Čeština Español Italiano Magyar Polski Português Русский ไทย Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 December 2017 , at 08 : 58 . 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how long is ex on the beach on for

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Ex_on_the_Beach&oldid=806717560

Ex on the Beach - wikipedia Ex on the Beach Jump to : navigation , search For the most recent series , see Ex on the Beach ( series 7 ) . Ex on the Beach Genre Reality Created by MTV International Country of origin United Kingdom Original language ( s ) English No. of series 7 No. of episodes 64 Release Original network MTV International Picture format 16 : 9 1080i HDTV Original release 22 April 2014 ( 2014 - 04 - 22 ) -- present Chronology Related shows Geordie Shore External links Official website www.mtv.co.uk/ex-on-the-beach Ex on the Beach is a reality television series that is broadcast on MTV . The series was first announced in February 2014 and premiered on 22 April 2014 . It features eight single men and women enjoying a summer holiday in paradise whilst looking for love . However , they were joined by their exes to shake things up . Each ex was there either for painful revenge or to rekindle their love . The show is narrated by Irish comedian Andrew Maxwell . Contents ( hide ) 1 Series 1.1 Series 1 ( 2014 ) 1.2 Series 2 ( 2015 ) 1.3 Series 3 ( 2015 ) 1.4 Series 4 ( 2016 ) 1.5 Series 5 ( 2016 ) 1.6 Series 6 ( 2017 ) 1.7 Series 7 ( 2017 ) 1.8 Series 8 ( 2018 ) 2 Cast 2.1 Other appearances 3 International versions 4 References 5 External links Series ( edit ) See also : List of Ex on the Beach episodes Year Series Predominant Location Number of Episodes Average MTV viewers 2014 Series 1 Marbella , Spain 8 764,000 2015 Series 2 Marbella , Spain 8 712,000 Series 3 Cancun , Mexico 10 777,000 2016 Series 4 Algarve , Portugal 8 896,000 Series 5 Koh Samui , Thailand 10 800,000 2017 Series 6 Crete , Greece 10 805,000 Series 7 Bali , Indonesia 10 525,000 2018 Series 8 TBA 10 Series 1 ( 2014 ) ( edit ) Main article : Ex on the Beach ( series 1 ) The first series of the show was announced in February 2014 and premiered on MTV on 22 April 2014 . The series ran for eight episodes and concluded on 10 June 2014 . The official list of cast members was released on 13 March 2014 and includes four single boys : Ashley Cain , Jack Lomax , Liam Lewis and Marco Alexandre ; as well as four single girls : Chloe Goodman , Emily Gillard , Farah Sattaur and Vicky Pattison . It was announced that Geordie Shore star Vicky Pattison would be taking part in the series ; she was joined by ex-fiancé and former Geordie Shore co-star Ricci Guarnaccio as well as Australian fling Daniel Conn who featured briefly in series 6 of Geordie Shore . On 7 January 2015 , cast member Chloe Goodman entered the Celebrity Big Brother house to compete in the fifteenth series . However she became the first Housemate to be evicted . Ashley later returned for Series 2 as an ex , whilst Vicky returned in the third series . Liam and Chloe both returned again for Series 5 , whilst Ashley and Joss made appearances as exes . Ross was another cast member from this series to make a return , this time during Series 6 . Series 2 ( 2015 ) ( edit ) Main article : Ex on the Beach ( series 2 ) The second series of the show began airing on 27 January 2015 and ran for eight episodes , concluding on 17 March 2015 . This was confirmed on 23 July 2014 when it was announced that filming would begin soon , with the series airing in 2015 . The official list of cast members was released on 6 January 2015 . It included four single boys : Connor Hunter , Luke Goodfellow , Morgan Evans and Rogan O'Connor , as well as four single girls : Anita Kaushik , Kayleigh Morris , Loren Green and Melissa Reeves . It was also announced that Geordie Shore stars Charlotte Crosby and Gary Beadle would be taking part in the series . Ahead of the launch of the new series , it was confirmed that Series 1 cast member Ashley Cain would be returning for the second series as an ex . Rogan later returned for the third series , whilst Jess and Gary both returned for the fifth series as main cast , with Kayleigh and Melissa appearing as exes . Kayleigh also went on to appear in the eighteenth series of Big Brother in 2017 , but was removed from the house on Day 13 due to threatening behaviour . Series 3 ( 2015 ) ( edit ) Main article : Ex on the Beach ( series 3 ) The third series of the show began on 11 August 2015 . The official list of cast members was released on 14 July 2015 . This series was filmed in Cancun , Mexico , making this the first series to be filmed outside of Europe . They include four boys : Graham Griffiths , Jayden Robins , Kirk Norcross and Stephen Bear , and four girls : Amy Paige Cooke , Laura Alicia Summers , Megan McKenna and Megan Rees . With the announcement of the line - up it was confirmed that former Geordie Shore cast member and star of the first series , Vicky Pattison , would be making her return as an ex alongside Series 2 star Rogan O'Connor . The Only Way Is Essex cast member Kirk Norcross was also confirmed to be taking part in the series , with his ex-fiancée and Celebrity Big Brother star Cami - Li featuring as his ex . Star of Magaluf Weekender Jordan Davies was also revealed to be taking part in the series , also featuring as an ex . Megan McKenna and Jordan later returned for the fourth series . On 5 January 2016 , cast member Megan McKenna entered the Celebrity Big Brother house to compete in the seveneeth series , and on 28 July 2016 , Stephen Bear entered the house to compete in the eighteenth series where he left as the winner . Jordan Davies made another return to the show , this time during the fifth series with Jemma and Bear , and Holly also returning as an ex again . Series 4 ( 2016 ) ( edit ) Main article : Ex on the Beach ( series 4 ) The fourth series of the show began on 19 January 2016 . This series was filmed in Portugal . The official cast list was revealed on 15 December 2015 and includes four girls : Helen Briggs , Nancy - May Turner , Naomi Hedman and Olivia Walsh , as well as four boys : Joe Delaney , Lewis Good , Youssef Hassane and Geordie Shore star Scotty T. Megan McKenna and Magaluf Weekender cast member Jordan Davies would be returning to the series as exes , having previously appeared during the previous series . Olivia later returned to the beach for the fifth series , whilst Kieran Lee went onto appear in the eighteenth series of Big Brother , but was evicted during the final week . Series 5 ( 2016 ) ( edit ) Main article : Ex on the Beach ( series 5 ) The fifth series of the show began on 16 August 2016 . This series took place in Koh Samui , Thailand . The series was confirmed on 8 March 2016 after the finale of the fourth series . It was also announced that faces from the past would return for this series with `` unfinished business '' . The official list of cast members were released on 5 July 2016 . It features four boys and four girls from previous series . From the first series it includes Chloe Goodman and Liam Lewis . Geordie Shore star Gary Beadle and Jess Impiazzi return having previously appeared in the second series , whilst Jemma Lucy , Jordan Davies and Stephen Bear from the third series all return . Finally Olivia Walsh returns having previously appeared in series 4 . Over the course of the series they will be joined by their exes , which also include familiar faces . Series 1 's Ashley Cain will be making his third appearance on the show , whilst Joss Mooney also returns . Kayleigh Morris and Melissa Reeves will be back having already appeared in the second series . Holly Rickwood from Series 3 will also be back on the beach . New cast members include Lillie Lexie Gregg , Charlotte Dawson , David Hawley , Aimee Kimber , Conor Scurlock and Alex Stewart . Kayleigh also went on to appear in the eighteenth series of Big Brother in 2017 , but was removed from the house on Day 13 due to threatening behaviour . Series 6 ( 2017 ) ( edit ) Main article : Ex on the Beach ( series 6 ) The sixth series of the show began on 17 January 2017 . This series was filmed on location in Crete , Greece . The series was confirmed on 2 November 2016 . The official list of cast members were released on 13 December 2016 . They include four boys ; Alex Leslie , Josh Ritchie , Ross Worsick and Sean Pratt , and four girls ; Harriette Harper , Maisie Gillespie , Zahida Allen and ZaraLena Jackson . Ross has previously appeared in the first series of the show whereas Josh featured in the first series of Love Island . With the announcement of the line - up it was also confirmed that Geordie Shore star Aaron Chalmers would be arriving on the beach as an ex as well as former The Only Way Is Essex cast member Nicole Bass . Chanelle McCleary , an ex from this series , later went onto appear in the eighteenth series of Big Brother but was evicted a week before the final . Series 7 ( 2017 ) ( edit ) Main article : Ex on the Beach ( series 7 ) The seventh series of the show began on 20 June 2017 . This series was filmed on location on the island of Bali in Indonesia . The series was confirmed on 26 February 2017 . The cast members for the series were confirmed on 23 May 2017 which include Geordie Shore stars Chloe Ferry and Marty McKenna , Love Island contestants Max Morley and Josh Ritchie , as well as Beauty School Cop Outs cast member Savannah Kemplay . Marty and Josh had previously appeared in the third and sixth series of the show respectively . Series 8 ( 2018 ) ( edit ) Main article : Ex on the Beach ( series 8 ) The eighth series of the show is expected to begin in 2018 . The series was confirmed when it was rumoured that Geordie Shore cast member Marnie Simpson had signed up for the show . Cast ( edit ) Main article : List of Ex on the Beach cast members Other appearances ( edit ) As well as appearing in Ex on the Beach , some of the cast members went on to compete in other reality TV shows including Celebrity Big Brother and Big Brother . Celebrity Big Brother Chloe Goodman -- Series 15 ( 2015 ) -- Thirteenth Megan McKenna -- Series 17 ( 2016 ) -- Tenth Stephen Bear -- Series 18 ( 2016 ) -- Winner Jemma Lucy -- Series 20 ( 2017 ) -- Sixth Jordan Davies -- Series 20 ( 2017 ) -- Twelfth Big Brother Chanelle McCleary - Series 18 ( 2017 ) -- Tenth Kayleigh Morris -- Series 18 ( 2017 ) -- Eighteenth ( Ejected ) Kieran Lee -- Series 18 ( 2017 ) -- Sixth International versions ( edit ) Country Channel Title Year Reference Sweden Kanal 11 Ex on the Beach 2015 -- France NRJ 12 La Revanche des Ex 2016 -- Netherlands Belgium MTV Netherlands MTV Flanders Ex on the Beach : Double Dutch 2016 -- Russia Pyatnica ! Ex on the Beach 2016 -- Brazil MTV De Férias com o Ex 2016 -- Poland MTV Ex on the Beach 2016 -- Hungary Viasat 3 Exek az Édenben 2017 -- References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Coming soon ! Brand New MTV Series Ex On The Beach '' . mtv.co.uk . Retrieved 2014 - 03 - 12 . ^ Jump up to : `` Ex On The Beach MTV UK '' . MTV UK . Retrieved 2014 - 03 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` MIND BLOWN : This Is What The Ex On The Beach Narrator Looks Like '' . MTV Australia . Jump up ^ `` MTV 's Ex On The Beach : What we 've learned about the `` sexy singles '' - TV News - Digital Spy `` . digitalspy.co.uk . Retrieved 2014 - 03 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` Geordie Shore 's Vicky Pattison Swaps Newcastle for Paradise In ' Ex On The Beach '' . MTV UK . Retrieved 2014 - 03 - 12 . Jump up ^ `` MTV 's Ex On The Beach is BACK ! '' . beamly.com . Jump up ^ `` MTV Orders New Seasons of U.K. Hits ' Ex on the Beach , ' ' Geordie Shore ' '' . Hollywoodreporter.com. 2014 - 07 - 23 . Retrieved 2014 - 08 - 20 . Jump up ^ `` Ex on the Beach : Geordie Shore 's Gaz , Charlotte sign up ! Meet the cast '' . Digital Spy . Jump up ^ `` Charlotte Crosby and Gaz Beadle set to join MTV 's Ex On The Beach - Daily Mail Online '' . Mail Online . Jump up ^ `` Ex On The Beach season 2 : Super sexy Ashley Cain is back for a second helping ! - Metro News '' . Metro . Jump up ^ `` Meet some of the new Big Brother housemates '' . 2 June 2017 . Jump up ^ bbspy . `` Big Brother 2017 removes Kayleigh over ' threats of violence ' '' . Jump up ^ `` Ex On The Beach is back for its third series in August and it has celebrity exes galore '' . Digital Spy . Jump up ^ `` Ex On The Beach , Series 3 : Kirk Norcross , Vicky Pattison plus all the other sexy singles ! '' . heatworld . Jump up ^ `` Ex On The Beach : Vicky returns alongside Kirk , Cami & Jordan Davies '' . Reveal . Jump up ^ Justin Harp ( 8 December 2015 ) . `` Here 's a cheeky first look at the contestants on Ex on the Beach series 4 '' . Digital Spy . Jump up ^ Danny Walker ( 8 December 2015 ) . `` Ex on the Beach series 4 CONFIRMED : MTV tease massive twist for raunchy reality show '' . mirror . Jump up ^ Ian Sandwell ( 15 December 2015 ) . `` Meet the Ex on the Beach series four singles '' . Digital Spy . Jump up ^ `` MTV tease Ex On The Beach series 5 : `` Stars of the past have got unfinished business '' `` . Reveal . Jump up ^ `` Ex on the Beach cast tease the All - Star series '' . 4 July 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Ex On The Beach 5 Cast Announced : Gary Beadle Will Cry After Emotional Reunion With Lillie Lexie Gregg , Jemma Lucy Has ' Unfinished Business ' - MTV UK '' . Jump up ^ `` Meet some of the new Big Brother housemates '' . 2 June 2017 . Jump up ^ bbspy . `` Big Brother 2017 removes Kayleigh over ' threats of violence ' '' . Jump up ^ `` Ex on the Beach has been confirmed for a sixth series '' . 2 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` The FULL line - up for Ex On The Beach is revealed ... and it features familiar faces from Towie , Love Island and Geordie Shore '' . 13 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` MTV Ex On The Beach '' . www.facebook.com . Jump up ^ `` Jeremy McConnell to star Ex On The Beach ... ' with Stephanie Davis ' ex Sam Reece ' '' . 26 February 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Ex On The Beach Series 7 Cast Tease Major Shock As Start Date And Line - Up Confirmed - EXCLUSIVE - MTV UK '' . Jump up ^ http://www.ok.co.uk/tv/ex-on-the-beach/1153632/marnie-sipmson-ex-on-the-beach-series-8-exes-geordie-shore-casey-johnson-lewis-bloor-aaron-chalmers Jump up ^ `` Här är alla deltagare i `` Ex on the beach '' `` . Expressen . Retrieved 5 May 2015 . Jump up ^ `` LA REVANCHE DES EX - NRJ12 sur NRJ Play '' . Jump up ^ `` Ex On The Beach Double Dutch - Shows - MTV '' . www.mtv.nl . Jump up ^ `` Экс на пляже '' . Friday.ru . Jump up ^ `` De Férias com o Ex Brasil - Programa de TV - MTV Brasil '' . MTV Brasil . Jump up ^ `` EX NA PLAŻY POLSKA - Shows - MTV '' . m.mtv.pl . Jump up ^ `` Exek az édenben '' . VIASAT3 . 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what is the correct chronological order of west african kingdoms

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=History_of_West_Africa&oldid=836809496

History of West Africa - wikipedia History of West Africa Jump to : navigation , search A map of Africa , showing what is considered politically as West Africa , and other countries not considered politically as Western Africa , but geographically part of West Africa . The history of West Africa began with the first human settlements around 4,000 BCE . It has been commonly divided into its prehistory , the Iron Age in Africa , the major polities flourishing , the colonial period , and finally the post-independence era , in which the current nations were formed . West Africa is west of an imagined north - south axis lying close to 10 ° east longitude , bordered by the Atlantic Ocean and Sahara Desert . Colonial boundaries are reflected in the modern boundaries between contemporary West African states , cutting across ethnic and cultural lines , often dividing single ethnic groups between two or more states . Early human settlers arrived in West Africa around 12,000 BCE . In the fifth millennium , as the ancestors of modern West Africans began entering the area , the development of sedentary farming began to take place in West Africa . The Iron industry , in both smelting and forging for tools and weapons , appeared in Sub-Saharan Africa by 1200 BCE , and by 400 BCE , contact had been made with the Mediterranean civilisations , and a regular trade included exporting gold , cotton , metal , and leather in exchange for copper , horses , salt , textiles , and beads . Culture developed further with the Nok culture ( 1000 BCE to 200 or 300 BCE ) , Serer people 's ancient history , and construction of the Senegambian stone circles ( between the third century B.C. and the sixteenth century C.E. ) . The Sahelian kingdoms were a series of kingdoms or empires that were built on the sahel , the area of grasslands south of the Sahara . They controlled the trade routes across the desert , and were also quite decentralised , with member cities having a great deal of autonomy . The Ghana Empire may have been established as early as the 4th century CE . It was succeeded by the Sosso in 1230 , the Mali Empire in the 13th century CE , and later by the Songhai and Sokoto Caliphate . There were also a number of forest empires and states in this time period . Following the collapse of the Songhai Empire , a number of smaller states arose across West Africa , including the Bambara Empire of Ségou , the lesser Bambara kingdom of Kaarta , the Fula / Malinké kingdom of Khasso ( in present - day Mali 's Kayes Region ) , and the Kénédougou Empire of Sikasso . European traders first became a force in the region in the 15th century . The transatlantic African slave trade resumed , with the Portuguese taking hundreds of captives back to their country for use as slaves ; however , it would not begin on a grand scale until Christopher Columbus 's voyage to the Americas and the subsequent demand for cheap colonial labour . As the demand for slaves increased , some African rulers sought to supply the demand by constant war against their neighbours , resulting in fresh captives . European , American and Haitian governments passed legislation prohibiting the Atlantic slave trade in the 19th century , though the last country to abolish the institution was Brazil in 1888 . In 1725 , the cattle - herding Fulanis of Fouta Djallon launched the first major reformist jihad of the region , overthrowing the local animist , Mande - speaking elites and attempting to somewhat democratise their society . At the same time , the Europeans started to travel into the interior of Africa to trade and explore . Mungo Park ( 1771 -- 1806 ) made the first serious expedition into the region 's interior , tracing the Niger River as far as Timbuktu . French armies followed not long after . In the Scramble for Africa in the 1880s the Europeans started to colonise the inland of West Africa , they had previously mostly controlled trading ports along the coasts and rivers . Following World War II , campaigns for independence sprung up across West Africa , most notably in Ghana under the Pan-Africanist Kwame Nkrumah ( 1909 -- 1972 ) . After a decade of protests , riots and clashes , French West Africa voted for autonomy in a 1958 referendum , dividing into the states of today ; most of the British colonies gained autonomy the following decade . Since independence , West Africa has suffered from the same problems as much of the African continent , particularly dictatorships , political corruption and military coups ; it has also seen bloody civil wars . The development of oil and mineral wealth has seen the steady modernization of some countries since the early 2000s , though inequality persists . Contents ( hide ) 1 Geographic background 2 Genetic background 3 Cultural history 3.1 Prehistory 3.2 Iron Age 3.2. 1 Djenné - Djenno 3.2. 2 Nok culture 3.2. 3 Serer people 3.2. 4 Senegambian stone circles 3.2. 5 Sahelian kingdoms 3.2. 5.1 Ghana 3.2. 5.2 Sosso 3.2. 5.3 Mali 3.2. 5.4 Songhai 3.2. 5.5 Sokoto Caliphate 3.2. 6 Forest empires and states 3.2. 6.1 Akan Kingdoms and emergence of Asante Empire 3.2. 6.2 Dahomey 3.2. 6.3 Yoruba 3.2. 6.4 Benin 3.2. 6.5 Niger Delta and Igbo 3.3 Slave trade 3.4 Colonial period 3.5 Scramble for Africa 3.6 Post-colonial West Africa 3.7 Post-Colonial civil wars 3.7. 1 Nigerian Civil War ( 1967 -- 1970 ) 3.7. 2 First Liberian Civil War ( 1989 -- 1997 ) 3.7. 3 Second Liberian Civil War ( 1999 -- 2003 ) 3.7. 4 Sierra Leone Civil War ( 1991 -- 2002 ) 3.7. 5 Guinea - Bissau Civil War ( 1998 -- 1999 ) 3.7. 6 First Ivorian Civil War ( 2002 - 2007 ) 3.7. 7 Second Ivorian Civil War ( 2010 - 2011 ) 4 Health 4.1 Medicine 4.2 Disease 4.2. 1 HIV / AIDS 4.2. 2 Ebola virus disease 4.3 Famine 5 Cuisine 6 See also 7 References 7.1 Citations 7.2 Bibliography Geographic background ( edit ) Satellite imagery of West Africa . West Africa is west of an imagined north - south axis lying close to 10 ° east longitude . The Atlantic Ocean forms the western and southern borders of the West African region . The northern border is the Sahara Desert , with the Ranishanu Bend generally considered the northernmost part of the region . The eastern border is less precise , with some placing it at the Benue Trough , and others on a line running from Mount Cameroon to Lake Chad . The area north of West Africa is primarily desert containing the Western Sahara . Ancient West Africa included the Sahara , which became a desert approximately 3000 BCE . During the last glacial period , the Sahara , extending south far beyond the boundaries that now exist . The part just located at the south of the desert is a steppe , a semi-arid region , called the Sahel . It is the ecoclimatic and biogeographic zone of transition in Africa between the Sahara desert to the north and the Sudanian Savanna to the south . The Sudanian Savanna is a broad belt of tropical savanna that runs east and west across the African continent , from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Ethiopian Highlands in the east . The Guinean region is a traditional name for the region that lies along the Gulf of Guinea . It stretches north through the forested tropical regions and ends at the Sahel . The Guinean Forests of West Africa is a belt of tropical moist broadleaf forests along the coast , running in the west from Sierra Leone and Guinea through Liberia , Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana and Togo , ending at the Sanaga River of Cameroon in the east . The Upper Guinean forests and Lower Guinean forests are divided by the Dahomey Gap , a region of savanna and dry forest in Togo and Benin . The forests are a few hundred kilometres inland from the Atlantic Ocean coast on the southern part of West Africa . Genetic background ( edit ) Map of early diversification of modern humans , with halpogroup L2 entering West Africa . Studies of human mitochondrial DNA suggest that all humans share common ancestors from Africa , originated in the southwestern regions near the coastal border of Namibia and Angola at the approximate coordinates 12.5 ° E , 17.5 ° S with a divergence in the migration path around 37.5 ° E , 22.5 ° N near the Red Sea . A particular haplogroup of DNA , halpogroup L2 , evolved between 87,000 and 107,000 years ago or approx . 90,000 YBP . Its age and widespread distribution and diversity across the continent makes its exact origin point within Africa difficult to trace with any confidence , however an origin for several L2 groups in West or Central Africa seems likely , with the highest diversity in West Africa . Most of its subclades are largely confined to West and western - Central Africa . Because of the large numbers of West Africans enslaved in the Atlantic slave trade , most African Americans are likely to have mixed ancestry from different regions of western Africa . Cultural history ( edit ) See also : West Africa -- Culture Further information : Culture of Africa and History of Africa Colonial boundaries are reflected in the modern boundaries between contemporary West African states , cutting across ethnic and cultural lines , often dividing single ethnic groups between two or more states . In contrast to most of Central , Southern and Southeast Africa , West Africa is not populated by Bantu - speaking peoples . Prehistory ( edit ) The region of western Africa was formed from the ancient craton Atlantica approximately 2 billion years ago when the Earth was beginning to form . Archaeological studies have found that early human settlers arrived in West Africa around 12,000 BCE . Geological and geomorphological studies have revealed that there were significant structural changes and crustal movements that occurred in West Africa like other parts of Africa ( Sowunmi , 2006 ) . Stone industries known as the Stone Age have been found primarily in the region of the Savannah where pastoral tribes existed using chiselled stone blades and spears . The tribesmen of Guinea and the forested regions of the coast were without microliths for thousands of years , but prospered using bone tools and other means . In West Africa , the wet phase ushered in expanding rainforest and wooded savannah from Senegal to Cameroon . Between 9000 and 5000 BCE , Niger -- Congo speakers domesticated the oil palm and raffia palm . Two seed plants , black - eyed peas and voandzeia ( African groundnuts ) were domesticated , followed by okra and kola nuts . Since most of the plants grew in the forest , the Niger -- Congo speakers invented polished stone axes for clearing forest . In the steppes and savannah of the Sahara and Sahel , the Nilo - Saharan speakers started to collect and domesticate wild millet and sorghum between 8000 and 6000 BCE . Later , gourds , watermelons , castor beans , and cotton were also collected and domesticated . The people started capturing wild cattle and holding them in circular thorn hedges , resulting in domestication . They also started making pottery . Fishing , using bone tipped harpoons , became a major activity in the numerous streams and lakes formed from the increased rains . In the fifth millennium , as the ancestors of modern West Africans began entering the area , the development of sedentary farming began to take place in West Africa , with evidences of domesticated cattle having been found for this period , along with limited cereal crops . Around 3000 BCE , a major change began to take place in West , with the invention of harpoons and fish - hooks . In the Aïr Mountains , present - day Niger , copper was smelted independently of developments in the Nile valley between 3000 and 2500 BC . The process used was not well developed , indicating that it was not brought from outside the region ; it became more mature by about 1500 BC . A major migration of Sahel cattle farmers took place in the third millennium BCE , and the pastoralists encountered the developed hunter - gatherers of the Guinea region . Flint was considerably more available there and made the use of microliths in hunting far easier . The migration of the Sahel farmers was probably caused by the final desiccation of the Sahara desert in this millennium , which contributed greatly to West Africa 's isolation from cultural and technological phenomena in Europe and the Mediterranean Coast of Africa . In the western Sahel , the rise of settled communities was largely the result of domestication of millet and sorghum . Archaeology points to sizeable urban populations in West Africa beginning in the 2nd millennium BCE . Symbiotic trade relations developed before the trans - Saharan trade , in response to the opportunities afforded by north - south diversity in ecosystems across deserts , grasslands , and forests . The agriculturists received salt from the desert nomads . The desert nomads acquired meat and other foods from pastoralists and farmers of the grasslands and from fishermen on the Niger River . The forest dwellers provided furs and meat . Dhar Tichitt and Oualata were prominent among the early urban centres , dated to 2000 BCE , in present - day Mauritania . About 500 stone settlements littered the region in the former savannah of the Sahara . Its inhabitants fished and grew millet . It has been found that the Soninke of the Mandé peoples , who , according to their tradition , originate from Aswan , Egypt , were responsible for constructing such settlements . Around 300 BCE , the region became more desiccated and the settlements began to decline , most likely relocating to Koumbi Saleh . From the type of architecture and pottery , it is believed that Tichit was related to the subsequent Ghana Empire . Old Jenne ( Djenne ) began to be settled around 300 BCE , producing iron and with sizeable population , evidenced in crowded cemeteries . Living structures were made of sun - dried mud . By 250 BCE , Jenne was a large , thriving market town . Iron Age ( edit ) The iron industry , in both smelting and forging for tools and weapons , appeared in Sub-Saharan Africa by 1200 BCE , most likely in Egypt . Iron smelting facilities in Niger and Nigeria have been radiocarbon dated to 500 to 1000 BC . The increased use of iron and the spread of ironworking technology led to improved weaponry and enabled farmers to expand agricultural productivity and produce surplus crops , which together supported the growth of urban city - states into empires . By 400 BCE , contact had been made with the Mediterranean civilisations , including that of Carthage , and a regular trade in gold being conducted with the Sahara Berbers , as noted by Herodotus . The trade was fairly small until the camel was introduced , with Mediterranean goods being found in pits as far south as Northern Nigeria . A profitable trade had developed by which West Africans exported gold , cotton cloth , metal ornaments , and leather goods north across the trans - Saharan trade routes , in exchange for copper , horses , salt , textiles , and beads . Later , ivory , slaves , and kola nuts were also traded . Djenné - Djenno ( edit ) This civilization was located in the Niger River Valley in the country of Mali and is considered to be among the oldest urbanized centers and the best known archaeology site in sub-Saharan Africa . This archaeological site is located about 3 kilometres ( 1.9 mi ) away from the modern town , and is believed to have been involved in long distance trade and possibly the domestication of African rice . The site is believed to exceed 33 hectares ( 82 acres ) ; however this is yet to be confirmed with extensive survey work . With the help of archaeological excavations mainly by Susan and Roderick McIntosh , the site is known to have been occupied from 250 B.C. to 900 A.D. The city is believed to have been abandoned and moved where the current city is located due to the spread of Islam and the building of the Great Mosque of Djenné . Previously , it was assumed that advanced trade networks and complex societies did not exist in the region until the arrival of traders from Southwest Asia . However , sites such as Djenné - Djenno disprove this , as these traditions in West Africa flourished long before . Nok culture ( edit ) Nok sculpture , terracotta , Louvre In central Nigeria , around 1000 BCE , the Nok culture developed on the Jos Plateau , until it vanished under unknown circumstances by 200 or 300 CE . It was a highly centralised community . The Nok people produced miniature , lifelike representations in terracotta , including human heads , elephants , and other animals . Iron use , in smelting and forging for tools , appears in Nok culture in Africa at least by 550 BC and possibly earlier , prior to 1000 BC . Based on stylistic similarities with the Nok terracottas , the bronze figurines of the Yoruba kingdom of Ife and the Bini kingdom of Benin are now believed to be continuations of the traditions of the earlier Nokite culture . Serer people ( edit ) Further information : Serer prehistory The prehistoric and ancient history of the Serer people of modern - day Senegambia has been extensively studied and documented over the years . Much of it comes from archaeological discoveries and Serer tradition rooted in the Serer religion . Material relics were found in different Serer countries , most of which refer to the past origins of Serer families , villages and Serer Kingdoms , some of these Serer relics included gold , silver and metals . The known objects found in Serer countries are divided into two types , the remnants of earlier populations , and the laterite megaliths carved planted in circular structures with stones directed towards the east are found only in small parts of the ancient Serer kingdom of Saloum . Senegambian stone circles Senegambian stone circles ( edit ) The Senegambian stone circles are megaliths found in Gambia north of Janjanbureh and in central Senegal . The megaliths found in Senegal and Gambia are sometimes divided into four large sites : Sine Ngayene and Wanar in Senegal , and Wassu and Kerbatch in the Central River Region in Gambia . Researchers are not certain when these monuments were built , but the generally accepted range is between the third century B.C. and the sixteenth century A.D. Archaeologists have also found pottery sherds , human burials , and some grave goods and metals . The monuments consist of what were originally upright blocks or pillars ( some have collapsed ) , made of mostly laterite with smooth surfaces . The construction of the stone monuments shows evidence of a prosperous and organised society based on the amount of labour required to build such structures . The builders of these megaliths are unknown , but some believe that the Serer people are the builders . This hypothesis comes from the fact that the Serer still use funerary houses like those found at Wanar . Sahelian kingdoms ( edit ) The Sahelian kingdoms were a series of kingdoms or empires that were centred on the sahel , the area of grasslands south of the Sahara . The wealth of the states came from controlling the trade routes across the desert . Their power came from having large pack animals like camels and horses that were fast enough to keep a large empire under central control and were also useful in battle . All of these empires were also quite decentralised with member cities having a great deal of autonomy . Ghana ( edit ) See also : Serer history ( medieval era to present ) Ghana Empire at its greatest extent The Ghana Empire may have been an established kingdom as early as the 6th century CE , founded among the Soninke , a Mandé people who lived at the crossroads of this new trade , around the city of Kumbi Saleh . Ghana was first mentioned by Arab geographer Al - Farazi in the late 8th century . After 800 , the empire expanded rapidly , coming to dominate the entire western Sudan ; at its height , the empire could field an army of 200,000 soldiers . Ghana was inhabited by urban dwellers and rural farmers . The urban dwellers were the administrators of the empire , who were Muslims , and the Ghana ( king ) , who practised traditional religion . Two towns existed , one where the Muslim administrators and Berber - Arabs lived , which was connected by a stone - paved road to the king 's residence . The rural dwellers lived in villages , which joined together into broader polities that pledged loyalty to the Ghana . The Ghana was viewed as divine , and his physical well - being reflected on the whole society . Ghana converted to Islam around 1050 , after conquering Aoudaghost . The Ghana Empire grew wealthy by taxing the trans - Saharan trade that linked Tiaret and Sijilmasa to Aoudaghost . Ghana controlled access to the goldfields of Bambouk , southeast of Koumbi Saleh . A percentage of salt and gold going through its territory was taken . The empire was not involved in production . In the 10th century , however , Islam was steadily growing in the region , and due to various influences , including internal dynastic struggles coupled with competing foreign interests ( namely Almoravid intervention ) . By the 11th century , Ghana was in decline . It was once thought that the sacking of Koumbi Saleh by Berbers under the Almoravid dynasty in 1076 was the cause . This is no longer accepted . Several alternative explanations are cited . One important reason is the transfer of the gold trade east to the Niger River and the Taghaza Trail , and Ghana 's consequent economic decline . Another reason cited is political instability through rivalry among the different hereditary polities . The empire came to an end in 1230 , when Takrur in northern Senegal took over the capital . Sosso ( edit ) The first successor to the Ghana Empire was that of the Sosso , a Takrur people who built their empire on the ruins of the old . Despite initial successes , however , the Sosso king Soumaoro Kanté was defeated by the Mandinka prince Sundiata Keita at the Battle of Kirina in 1240 , toppling the Sosso and guaranteeing the supremacy of Sundiata 's new Mali Empire . Mali ( edit ) Further information : Keita Dynasty The Mali Empire at its greatest extent , c. 1350 The Mali Empire began in the 13th century CE , eventually creating a centralised state including most of West Africa . It originated when a Mande ( Mandingo ) leader , Sundiata ( Lord Lion ) of the Keita clan , defeated Soumaoro Kanté , king of the Sosso or southern Soninke , at the Battle of Kirina in c. 1235 . Sundiata continued his conquest from the fertile forests and Niger Valley , east to the Niger Bend , north into the Sahara , and west to the Atlantic Ocean , absorbing the remains of the Ghana Empire . Sundiata took on the title of mansa . He established the capital of his empire at Niani . Although the salt and gold trade continued to be important to the Mali Empire , agriculture and pastoralism was also critical . The growing of sorghum , millet , and rice was a vital function . On the northern borders of the Sahel , grazing cattle , sheep , goats , and camels were major activities . Mande society was organised around the village and land . A cluster of villages was called a kafu , ruled by a farma . The farma paid tribute to the mansa . A dedicated army of elite cavalry and infantry maintained order , commanded by the royal court . A formidable force could be raised from tributary regions , if necessary . Conversion to Islam was a gradual process . The power of the mansa depended on upholding traditional beliefs and a spiritual foundation of power . Sundiata initially kept Islam at bay . Later mansas were devout Muslims but still acknowledged traditional deities and took part in traditional rituals and festivals , which were important to the Mande . Islam became a court religion under Sundiata 's son Uli I ( 1225 -- 1270 ) . Mansa Uli made a pilgrimage to Mecca , becoming recognised within the Muslim world . The court was staffed with literate Muslims as secretaries and accountants . Muslim traveller Ibn Battuta left vivid descriptions of the empire . Mali reached the peak of its power and extent in the 14th century , when Mansa Musa ( 1312 -- 1337 ) made his famous hajj to Mecca with 500 slaves , each holding a bar of gold worth 500 mithqal . Mansa Musa 's hajj devalued gold in Mamluk Egypt for a decade . He made a great impression on the minds of the Muslim and European world . He invited scholars and architects like Ishal al - Tuedjin ( al - Sahili ) to further integrate Mali into the Islamic world . The Mali Empire saw an expansion of learning and literacy . In 1285 , Sakura , a freed slave , usurped the throne . This mansa drove the Tuareg out of Timbuktu and established it as a center of learning and commerce . The book trade increased , and book copying became a very respectable and profitable profession . Kankou Musa I founded a university at Timbuktu and instituted a programme of free health care and education for Malian citizens with the help of doctors and scholars brought back from his legendary hajj . Timbuktu and Djenné became important centres of learning within the Muslim world . After the reign of Mansa Suleyman ( 1341 -- 1360 ) , Mali began its spiral downward . Mossi cavalry raided the exposed southern border . Tuareg harassed the northern border to retake Timbuktu . Fulani ( Fulbe ) eroded Mali 's authority in the west by establishing the independent Imamate of Futa Toro , a successor to the kingdom of Takrur . Serer and Wolof alliances were broken . In 1545 to 1546 , the Songhai Empire took Niani . After 1599 , the empire lost the Bambouk goldfields and disintegrated into petty polities . Kankou Musa 's successors , however , weakened the empire significantly , leading the city - state of Gao to make a bid for independence and regional power in the 15th century . Under the leadership of Sunni Ali ( r . 1464 -- 1492 ) , the Songhai of Gao formed the Songhai Empire , which would fill the vacuum left by the Mali Empire 's collapse . Songhai ( edit ) Further information : Askiya Dynasty and Sonni Dynasty The Songhai Empire , c. 1500 The Songhai people are descended from fishermen on the Middle Niger River . They established their capital at Kukiya in the 9th century CE and at Gao in the 12th century . The Songhai speak a Nilo - Saharan language . Sonni Ali , a Songhai , began his conquest by capturing Timbuktu in 1468 from the Tuareg . He extended the empire to the north , deep into the desert , pushed the Mossi further south of the Niger , and expanded southwest to Djenne . His army consisted of cavalry and a fleet of canoes . Sonni Ali was not a Muslim , and he was portrayed negatively by Berber - Arab scholars , especially for attacking Muslim Timbuktu . After his death in 1492 , his heirs were deposed by General Muhammad Ture , a Muslim of Soninke origins . Muhammad Ture ( 1493 -- 1528 ) founded the Askiya Dynasty , askiya being the title of the king . He consolidated the conquests of Sonni Ali . Islam was used to extend his authority by declaring jihad on the Mossi , reviving the trans - Saharan trade , and having the Abbasid `` shadow '' caliph in Cairo declare him as caliph of Sudan . He established Timbuktu as a great center of Islamic learning . Muhammad Ture expanded the empire by pushing the Tuareg north , capturing Aïr in the east , and capturing salt - producing Taghaza . He brought the Hausa states into the Songhay trading network . He further centralised the administration of the empire by selecting administrators from loyal servants and families and assigning them to conquered territories . They were responsible for raising local militias . Centralisation made Songhay very stable , even during dynastic disputes . Leo Africanus left vivid descriptions of the empire under Askiya Muhammad . Askiya Muhammad was deposed by his son in 1528 . After much rivalry , Muhammad Ture 's last son Askiya Daoud ( 1529 -- 1582 ) assumed the throne . In 1591 , Morocco invaded the Songhai Empire under Ahmad al - Mansur of the Saadi Dynasty to secure the goldfields of the Sahel . At the Battle of Tondibi , the Songhai army was defeated . The Moroccans captured Djenne , Gao , and Timbuktu , but they were unable to secure the whole region . Askiya Nuhu and the Songhay army regrouped at Dendi in the heart of Songhai territory where a spirited guerrilla resistance sapped the resources of the Moroccans , who were dependent upon constant resupply from Morocco . Songhai split into several states during the 17th century . Morocco found its venture unprofitable . The gold trade had been diverted to Europeans on the coast . Most of the trans - Saharan trade was now diverted east to Bornu . Expensive equipment purchased with gold had to be sent across the Sahara , an unsustainable scenario . The Moroccans who remained married into the population and were referred to as Arma or Ruma . They established themselves at Timbuktu as a military caste with various fiefs , independent from Morocco . Amid the chaos , other groups began to assert themselves , including the Fulani of Futa Tooro who encroached from the west . The Bambara Empire , one of the states that broke from Songhai , sacked Gao . In 1737 , the Tuareg massacred the Arma . Sokoto Caliphate ( edit ) The Fulani were migratory people . They moved from Mauritania and settled in Futa Tooro , Futa Djallon , and subsequently throughout the rest of West Africa . By the 14th century CE , they had converted to Islam . During the 16th century , they established themselves at Macina in southern Mali . During the 1670s , they declared jihads on non-Muslims . Several states were formed from these jihadist wars , including Bundu , the Imamate of Futa Toro , the Imamate of Futa Jallon , and the Massina Empire . The most important of these states was the Sokoto Caliphate or Fulani Empire . In the city of Gobir , Usman dan Fodio ( 1754 -- 1817 ) accused the Hausa leadership of practising an impure version of Islam and of being morally corrupt . In 1804 , he launched the Fulani War as a jihad among a population that was restless about high taxes and discontented with its leaders . Jihad fever swept northern Nigeria , with strong support among both the Fulani and the Hausa . Usman created an empire that included parts of northern Nigeria , Benin , and Cameroon , with Sokoto as its capital . He retired to teach and write and handed the empire to his son Muhammed Bello . The Sokoto Caliphate lasted until 1903 when the British conquered northern Nigeria . Forest empires and states ( edit ) Akan kingdoms and emergence of asante Empire ( edit ) Further information : List of rulers of Asante Ashanti Kente cloth patterns The Akan speak a Kwa Language . The speakers of Kwa languages are believed to have come from East / Central Africa , before settling in the Sahel . By the 12th century , the Akan Kingdom of Bonoman ( Bono State ) was established . Bonoman was a trading state created by the Abron people . Bonoman was a medieval Akan kingdom in what is now the Brong - Ahafo Region of Ghana and eastern Ivory Coast . It is generally accepted as the origin of the subgroups of the Akan people who migrated out of the state at various times to create new Akan states in search of gold . The gold trade , which started to boom in Bonoman as early in the 12th century , was the genesis of Akan power and wealth in the region , beginning in the Middle Ages . During the 13th century , when the gold mines in modern - day Mali started to dry up , Bonoman and later other Akan states began to rise to prominence as the major players in the gold trade . It was Bonoman and other Akan kingdoms like Denkyira , Akyem , Akwamu which were the predecessors to what became the all - powerful Empire of Ashanti . When and how the Ashante got to their present location is debatable . What is known is that by the 17th century an Akan people were identified as living in a state called Kwaaman . The location of the state was north of Lake Bosomtwe . The state 's revenue was mainly derived from trading in gold and kola nuts and clearing forest to plant yams . They built towns between the Pra and Ofin rivers . They formed alliances for defence and paid tribute to Denkyira one of the more powerful Akan states at that time along with Adansi and Akwamu . During the 16th century , Ashante society experienced sudden changes , including population growth because of cultivation of New World plants such as cassava and maize and an increase in the gold trade between the coast and the north . By the 17th century , Osei Kofi Tutu I ( c. 1695 -- 1717 ) , with help of Okomfo Anokye , unified what became the Ashante into a confederation with the Golden Stool as a symbol of their unity and spirit . Osei Tutu engaged in a massive territorial expansion . He built up the Ashante army based on the Akan state of Akwamu , introducing new organisation and turning a disciplined militia into an effective fighting machine . In 1701 , the Ashante conquered Denkyira , giving them access to the coastal trade with Europeans , especially the Dutch . Opoku Ware I ( 1720 -- 1745 ) engaged in further expansion , adding other southern Akan states to the growing empire . He turned north adding Techiman , Banda , Gyaaman , and Gonja , states on the Black Volta . Between 1744 and 1745 , Asantehene Opoku attacked the powerful northern state of Dagomba , gaining control of the important middle Niger trade routes . Kusi Obodom ( 1750 -- 1764 ) succeeded Opoku . He solidified all the newly won territories . Osei Kwadwo ( 1777 -- 1803 ) imposed administrative reforms that allowed the empire to be governed effectively and to continue its military expansion . Osei Kwame Panyin ( 1777 -- 1803 ) , Osei Tutu Kwame ( 1804 -- 1807 ) , and Osei Bonsu ( 1807 -- 1824 ) continued territorial consolidation and expansion . The Ashante Empire included all of present - day Ghana and large parts of Côte d'Ivoire . The ashantehene inherited his position from his mother . He was assisted at the capital , Kumasi , by a civil service of men talented in trade , diplomacy , and the military , with a head called the Gyaasehene . Men from Arabia , Sudan , and Europe were employed in the civil service , all of them appointed by the ashantehene . At the capital and in other towns , the ankobia or special police were used as bodyguards to the ashantehene , as sources of intelligence , and to suppress rebellion . Communication throughout the empire was maintained via a network of well - kept roads from the coast to the middle Niger and linking together other trade cities . For most of the 19th century , the Ashante Empire remained powerful . It was later destroyed in 1900 by British superior weaponry and organisation following the four Anglo - Ashanti wars . Dahomey ( edit ) Further information : History of the Kingdom of Dahomey Dahomey Amazons , an all - women fighting unit . The Dahomey Kingdom was founded in the early 17th century CE when the Aja people of the Allada kingdom moved northward and settled among the Fon . They began to assert their power a few years later . In so doing they established the Kingdom of Dahomey , with its capital at Agbome . King Houegbadja ( c. 1645 -- 1685 ) organised Dahomey into a powerful centralised state . He declared all lands to be owned of the king and subject to taxation . Primogeniture in the kingship was established , neutralising all input from village chiefs . A `` cult of kingship '' was established . A captive slave would be sacrificed annually to honour the royal ancestors . During the 1720s , the slave - trading states of Whydah and Allada were taken , giving Dahomey direct access to the slave coast and trade with Europeans . King Agadja ( 1708 -- 1740 ) attempted to end the slave trade by keeping the slaves on plantations producing palm oil , but the European profits on slaves and Dahomey 's dependency on firearms were too great . In 1730 , under king Agaja , Dahomey was conquered by the Oyo Empire , and Dahomey had to pay tribute . Taxes on slaves were mostly paid in cowrie shells . During the 19th century , palm oil was the main trading commodity . France conquered Dahomey during the Second Franco - Dahomean War ( 1892 -- 1894 ) and established a colonial government there . Most of the troops who fought against Dahomey were native Africans . Yoruba ( edit ) Further information : List of rulers of the Yoruba state of Oyo Oyo Empire and surrounding states , c. 1625 . Traditionally , the Yoruba people viewed themselves as the inhabitants of a united empire , in contrast to the situation today , in which `` Yoruba '' is the cultural - linguistic designation for speakers of a language in the Niger -- Congo family . The name comes from a Hausa word to refer to the Oyo Empire . The first Yoruba state was Ile - Ife , said to have been founded around 1000 CE by a supernatural figure , the first oni Oduduwa . Oduduwa 's sons would be the founders of the different city - states of the Yoruba , and his daughters would become the mothers of the various Yoruba obas , or kings . Yoruba city - states were usually governed by an oba and an iwarefa , a council of chiefs who advised the oba . By the 18th century , the Yoruba city - states formed a loose confederation , with the Oni of Ife as the head and Ife as the capital . As time went on , the individual city - states became more powerful with their obas assuming more powerful spiritual positions and diluting the authority of the Oni of Ife . Rivalry became intense among the city - states . The Oyo Empire rose in the 16th century . The Oyo state had been conquered in 1550 by the kingdom of Nupe , which was in possession of cavalry , an important tactical advantage . The alafin ( king ) of Oyo was sent into exile . After returning , Alafin Orompoto ( c. 1560 -- 1580 ) built up an army based on heavily armed cavalry and long - service troops . This made them invincible in combat on the northern grasslands and in the thinly wooded forests . By the end of the 16th century , Oyo had added the western region of the Niger to the hills of Togo , the Yoruba of Ketu , Dahomey , and the Fon nation . A governing council served the empire , with clear executive divisions . Each acquired region was assigned a local administrator . Families served in king - making capacities . Oyo , as a northern Yoruba kingdom , served as middle - man in the north - south trade and connecting the eastern forest of Guinea with the western and central Sudan , the Sahara , and North Africa . The Yoruba manufactured cloth , ironware , and pottery , which were exchanged for salt , leather , and most importantly horses from the Sudan to maintain the cavalry . Oyo remained strong for two hundred years . It became a protectorate of Great Britain in 1888 , before further fragmenting into warring factions . The Oyo state ceased to exist as any sort of power in 1896 . Benin ( edit ) Further information : Oba of Benin The Kwa Niger -- Congo speaking Edo people . By the mid-15th century , the Benin Empire was engaged in political expansion and consolidation . Under Oba ( king ) Ewuare ( c. 1450 -- 1480 CE ) , the state was organised for conquest . He solidified central authority and initiated 30 years of war with his neighbours . At his death , the Benin Empire extended to Dahomey in the west , to the Niger Delta in the east , along the west African coast , and to the Yoruba towns in the north . Ewuare 's grandson Oba Esigie ( 1504 -- 1550 ) eroded the power of the uzama ( state council ) and increased contact and trade with Europeans , especially with the Portuguese who provided a new source of copper for court art . The oba ruled with the advice from the uzama , a council consisting of chiefs of powerful families and town chiefs of different guilds . Later its authority was diminished by the establishment of administrative dignitaries . Women wielded power . The queen mother who produced the future oba wielded immense influence . Benin was never a significant exporter of slaves , as Alan Ryder 's book Benin and the Europeans showed . By the early 1700s , it was wrecked with dynastic disputes and civil wars . However , it regained much of its former power in the reigns of Oba Eresoyen and Oba Akengbuda . After the 16th century , Benin mainly exported pepper , ivory , gum , and cotton cloth to the Portuguese and Dutch who resold it to other African societies on the coast . In 1897 , the British sacked the city . Niger delta and Igbo ( edit ) Further information : List of rulers of Nri Map of Igboland in southeastern Nigeria Énugwú Umuahia Bight of Biafra Atlantic Ocean Bight of Benin Nsukka Obolo Abakaleke Igrita Elele Ahoada Aba Ogu Ihiala Okigwe Oka Onicha Owerre Obiaruku Agbor Niger River Ugwu Ọcha Atakpa Idu The Niger Delta comprised numerous city - states with numerous forms of government . These city - states were protected by the waterways and thick vegetation of the delta . The region was transformed by trade in the 17th century CE . The delta 's city - states were comparable to those of the Swahili people in East Africa . Some , like Bonny , Kalabari , and Warri , had kings . Others , like Brass , were republics with small senates , and those at Cross River and Old Calabar were ruled by merchants of the ekpe society . The ekpe society regulated trade and made rules for members known as house systems . Some of these houses , like the Pepples of Bonny , were well known in the Americas and Europe . The Igbo primarily lived east of the delta ( but with the Anioma on the west of the Niger River ) . The Kingdom of Nri rose in the 10th century CE , with the Eze Nri being its leader . It was a political entity composed of villages , and each village was autonomous and independent with its own territory and name , each recognised by its neighbours . Villages were democratic with all males and sometimes females a part of the decision - making process . Graves at Igbo - Ukwu ( 800 CE ) contained brass artefacts of local manufacture and glass beads from Egypt or India , indicative of extraregional trade . The Aro Confederacy was a political union orchestrated by the Igbo subgroup , the Aro people , centered in the Arochukwu Kingdom in present - day south - eastern Nigeria . It was founded at the end of the 16th century , and their influence and presence was across Eastern Nigeria into parts of the Niger Delta and Southern Igala during the 18th and 19th centuries . Slave trade ( edit ) See also : Arab slave trade and Atlantic slave trade Following the collapse of the Songhai Empire , a number of smaller states arose across West Africa , including the Bambara Empire of Ségou , the lesser Bambara kingdom of Kaarta , the Fula / Malinké kingdom of Khasso ( in present - day Mali 's Kayes Region ) , and the Kénédougou Empire of Sikasso . 1707 map of West Africa , by Guillaume Delisle European traders first became a force in the region in the 15th century , with the 1445 establishment of a Portuguese trading post at Arguin Island , off the coast of present - day Senegal ; by 1475 , Portuguese traders had reached as far as the Bight of Benin . The transatlantic African slave trade began almost immediately after based on the already well established slave trading capacity serving the Islamic world , with the Portuguese taking hundreds of captives back to their country for use as slaves ; however , it would not begin on a grand scale until Christopher Columbus 's voyage to the Americas and the subsequent demand for cheap colonial labour . In 1510 , the Spanish crown legalised the African slave trade , followed by the English in 1562 . By 1650 the slave trade was in full force at a number of sites along the coast of West Africa , and over the coming centuries would result in severely reduced growth for the region 's population and economy . The expanding Atlantic slave trade produced significant populations of West Africans living in the New World , recently colonised by Europeans . The oldest known remains of African slaves in the Americas were found in Mexico in early 2006 ; they are thought to date from the late 16th century and the mid-17th century . As the demand for slaves increased , some African rulers sought to supply the demand by constant war against their neighbours , resulting in fresh captives . States such as Dahomey ( in modern - day Benin ) and the Bambara Empire - based much of their economy on the exchange of slaves for European goods , particularly firearms that they then employed to capture more slaves . European and American governments passed legislation prohibiting the Atlantic slave trade in the 19th century , though slavery in the Americas persisted in some capacity through the century in the Americas ; the last country to abolish the institution was Brazil in 1888 . Descendants of West Africans make up large and important segments of the population in Brazil , the Caribbean , the United States , and throughout the New World . African Americans in several major US cities who took part in a generic research study , concluded that their common ancestry originated most prominently in western Africa which is consistent with prior genetic studies and the history of slave trade . Colonial period ( edit ) Main article : Colonisation of Africa 1774 map by Malachi Postlethwait In 1725 , the cattle - herding Fulanis of Fouta Djallon launched the first major reformist jihad of the region , overthrowing the local animist , Mande - speaking elites and attempting to somewhat democratise their society . A similar movement occurred on a much broader scale in the Hausa city - states of Nigeria under Uthman dan Fodio ; an imam influenced by the teachings of Sidi Ahmed al - Tidjani , Uthman preached against the elitist Islam of the then - dominant Qadiriyyah brotherhood , winning a broad base of support amongst the common people . Uthman 's Fulani Empire was soon one of the region 's largest states , and inspired the later jihads of Massina Empire founder Seku Amadu in present - day Mali , and the cross-Sudan Toucouleur conqueror El Hadj Umar Tall . At the same time , the Europeans started to travel into the interior of Africa to trade and explore . Mungo Park ( 1771 -- 1806 ) made the first serious expedition into the region 's interior , tracing the Niger River as far as Timbuktu . French armies followed not long after . In 1774 it was noted that the extensive coastline and deep rivers of Africa had not been utilised for ' correspondence or commerce ' , yet maps in this ancient volume clearly show the `` Gum Coast '' , `` Grain Coast '' , `` Ivory Coast '' , and `` Gold Coast '' . Malachy Postlethwayt writes `` It is melancholy to observe that a country , which has near ten thousand miles sea - coast , and noble , large , deep rivers , should yet have no navigation ; streams penetrating into the very center of the country , but of no benefit to it , innumerable people , without knowledge of each other , correspondence , or commerce . '' Scramble for Africa ( edit ) Main article : Scramble for Africa Sokoto Caliphate , 19th century In the Scramble for Africa in the 1880s the Europeans started to colonise the inland of West Africa , they had previously mostly controlled trading ports along the coasts and rivers . Samory Ture 's newly founded Wassoulou Empire was the last to fall , and with his capture in 1898 , military resistance to French colonial rule effectively ended . Post-colonial West Africa ( edit ) Further information : Decolonisation of Africa Following World War II , campaigns for independence sprung up across West Africa , most notably in Ghana under the Pan-Africanist Kwame Nkrumah ( 1909 -- 1972 ) . After a decade of protests , riots and clashes , French West Africa voted for autonomy in a 1958 referendum , dividing into the states of today ; most of the British colonies gained autonomy the following decade . Ghana became the first country of sub-Saharan Africa to achieve independence in 1957 , followed by Guinea under the guidance Sekou Touré the next year . Out of the 17 nations that achieved their independence in 1960 , the Year of Africa , nine were West African countries . Many founding fathers of West African nations , like Nkrumah , Touré , Senghor , Modibo Keïta , Sylvanus Olympio , Félix Houphouët - Boigny , Siaka Stevens and Abubakar Tafawa Balewa , consolidated their power during the post-independence 1960s by gradually eroding democratic institutions and civil society . In 1973 , Guinea - Bissau proclaimed its independence from Portugal , and was internationally recognised following the 1974 Carnation Revolution in Portugal . West African political history has been characterised by African socialism . Senghor , Nkrumah and Touré all embraced the idea of African socialism , whereas Houphouët - Boigny and Liberia 's William Tubman remained suspicious of it . 1983 saw the rise of socialist Thomas Sankara , often titled the `` Che Guevara of Africa '' , to power in Burkina Faso . Since independence , West Africa has suffered from the same problems as much of the African continent , particularly dictatorships , political corruption and military coups . At the time of his death in 2005 , for example , Togo 's Étienne Eyadéma was among the world 's longest - ruling dictators . Inter-country conflicts have been few , with Mali and Burkina Faso 's nearly bloodless Agacher Strip War being a rare exception . Post-colonial civil wars ( edit ) The region of West Africa has seen a number of civil wars in its recent past including the Nigerian Civil War ( 1967 -- 1970 ) , two civil wars in Liberia in 1989 and 1999 , a decade of fighting in Sierra Leone from 1991 -- 2002 , the Guinea - Bissau Civil War from 1998 -- 1999 and a recent conflict in Côte d'Ivoire that began on 2002 ending 2007 and a second conflict in 2010 -- 11 . Nigerian civil war ( 1967 -- 1970 ) ( edit ) Main article : Nigerian Civil War After gaining full independence from the British Empire in 1963 , Nigeria established the first republic . The republic was heavily influenced by British democracy and relied on majority rule . The first republic fell after a successful coup d'état led by southern Nigerian rebels on 15 January 1966 . The fall of the first republic left behind apparent political division between North and South Nigeria . This led to the military governor of south - eastern Nigeria , Colonel Odumegwu Ojukwu , deeming that because of northern massacres and electoral fraud , the Southeast of Nigeria should be an independent state . The independent state became known as the Republic of Biafra . Northern Nigeria opposed the claim of southern secession . The Nigerian government called for police action in the area . The armed forces of Nigeria were sent in to occupy and take back the Republic of Biafra . Nigerian forces seized Biafra in a series of phases . The phases were , the Capture of Nsukka , the Capture of Ogoja , Capture of Abakaliki , and the Capture of Enugu . All of the perpetrated phases and campaigns were successful due to the advantaged army of Nigeria . By 1970 , Biafraian general , Chukwuemeka Odumegwu , fled to the neighboring nation of Côte d'Ivoire . After the flee , Biafra , facing no other option , surrendered due to lack of resources and leadership . Biafra quickly united with the northern Nigeria on 15 January 1970 . The conflict is estimated to have killed roughly 1 million people . First Liberian Civil War ( 1989 -- 1997 ) ( edit ) Main article : First Liberian Civil War Second Liberian Civil War ( 1999 -- 2003 ) ( edit ) Main article : Second Liberian Civil War Sierra Leone civil war ( 1991 -- 2002 ) ( edit ) Main article : Sierra Leone Civil War The civil war began on 23 March 1991 as a result of an attempted overthrow against the administration of president , Joseph Saidu Momoh . The rebels went under the guise of the Revolutionary United Front ( RUF ) led by Foday Sankoh a previous army corporal . The Sierra Leoneian government called for action and soon the Sierra Leone Army ( SLA ) was sent in to control the situation and take back RUF occupied territory . By 1992 president Joseph Momoh was ousted by a successful military coup led by Captain Valentine Strasser . Capitan Strasser , soon established multi-party democratic elections in the region . On 18 January 2002 , the civil war was officially ended by former president Kabbah . During the 11 year conflict , roughly 50,000 Sierra Leoneians were killed with 2,000,000 displaced . Guinea - Bissau civil war ( 1998 -- 1999 ) ( edit ) Main article : Guinea - Bissau Civil War Before the civil war began , an attempted coup d'état took place led by military Brigadier General Ansumane Mané . Mané leading the coup , blamed the presidency of Joao Bernardo Vieira for the poverty and corruption of Guinea Bissau . President Vieira , controlling the armed forces , soon fired Mané from his position of Brigadier General . He was fired on charges of supplying Senegal rebels . On 7 June 1998 , a second coup d'état began . The coup once again failed . Soon after , rebels received aid from the neighboring nations of Senegal and Guinea - Conakry . The conflict sparked a civil war . Many soldiers in the armed forces of Guinea - Bissau joined the side of the rebels . This was in part , due to the soldiers not being paid by the government . The rebels continued to fight from 1998 to 1999 . President Vieira was ousted on 7 May 1999 . By 10 May 1999 , the war ended when President Vieira signed an unconditional surrender in a Portuguese embassy . Approximately 655 were killed as a result of the conflict . First Ivorian civil war ( 2002 - 2007 ) ( edit ) Main article : First Ivorian Civil War In the early 2000s , the Ivory Coast ( also known as Côte d'Ivoire ) experienced an economic rescission . The rescission began as a result of the previous economic boom crashing the economy as a whole . This led to the predominantly Muslim north and predominantly Christian south of the Ivory Coast becoming politically divided . The southern Ivory Coast was in control of the Ivorian government . The north however , was under the power of the rebel movement . The civil war between the two began officially on 19 September 2002 when rebels launched a series of attacks on the south . The city of Abidjan was primarily targeted . Northern rebels were successful in the attacks . As a result of the chaos , president Robert Guéï was killed in the rebellions . The south retailed with military action . France supported the south and sent 2500 soldiers to the region and called for United Nations action . French action in the area went under the guise and codename of Operation Unicorn . By 2004 most fighting in the region ceased . On 4 March 2007 the civil war official ended with the signing of a peace treaty . Second Ivorian Civil War ( 2010 - 2011 ) ( edit ) Main article : Second Ivorian Civil War Health ( edit ) Medicine ( edit ) Further information : Traditional African medicine Traditional African medicine is a holistic discipline involving indigenous herbalism and African spirituality . Practitioners claim to be able to cure various and diverse conditions . Modern science has , in the past , considered methods of traditional knowledge as primitive and backward . Under colonial rule , traditional diviner - healers were outlawed because they were considered by many nations to be practitioners of witchcraft and declared illegal by the colonial authorities , creating a war against witchcraft and magic . During this time , attempts were also made to control the sale of herbal medicines . As colonialism and Christianity spread through Africa , colonialists built general hospitals and Christian missionaries built private ones , with the hopes of making headway against widespread diseases . Little was done to investigate the legitimacy of these practices , as many foreigners believed that the native medical practices were pagan and superstitious and could only be suitably fixed by inheriting Western methods . During times of conflict , opposition has been particularly vehement as people are more likely to call on the supernatural realm . Consequently , doctors and health practitioners have , in most cases , continued to shun traditional practitioners despite their contribution to meeting the basic health needs of the population . In recent years , the treatments and remedies used in traditional African medicine have gained more appreciation from researchers in Western science . Developing countries have begun to realise the high costs of modern health care systems and the technologies that are required , thus proving Africa 's dependence to it . Due to this , interest has recently been expressed in integrating traditional African medicine into the continent 's national health care systems . Disease ( edit ) Disease has been a hindrance to human development in West Africa throughout history . The environment , especially the tropical rain - forests , allow many single cell organisms , parasites , and bacteria to thrive and prosper . Prior to the slave trade , West Africans strived to maintain ecological balance , controlling vegetation and game , and thereby minimising the prevalence of local diseases . The increased amount and intensity of warfare due to the slave trade meant that the ecological balance could not be sustained . Endemic diseases became epidemic in scale . Genetic mutations developed that provided increased resistance to disease , such as sickle cell , evident in the Kwa forest agriculturalists from c. 700 C.E. , providing some protection from malaria . HIV / AIDS ( edit ) Further information : HIV / AIDS in Africa In the 1990s , AIDS became a significant problem for the region , particularly in Côte d'Ivoire , Liberia , and Nigeria . The onset of the HIV epidemic in the region began in 1985 with reported cases in Benin and Nigeri , and in nearby countries , such as Côte d'Ivoire , in subsequent years . AIDS was at first considered a disease of gay men and drug addicts , but in Africa it took off among the general population . As a result , those involved in the fight against HIV began to emphasize aspects such as preventing transmission from mother to child , or the relationship between HIV and poverty , inequality of the sexes , and so on , rather than emphasizing the need to prevent transmission by unsafe sexual practices or drug injection . This change in emphasis resulted in more funding , but was not effective in preventing a drastic rise in HIV prevalence . The global response to HIV and AIDS has improved considerably in recent years . Funding comes from many sources , the largest of which are the Global Fund to Fight AIDS , Tuberculosis and Malaria and the President 's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief . As of 2011 , HIV prevalence in western Africa is lowest in Senegal and highest in Nigeria , which has the second largest number of people living with HIV in Africa after South Africa . Nigeria 's infection rate relative to the entire population , however , is much lower ( 3.7 percent ) compared to South Africa 's ( 17.3 percent ) . Ebola virus disease ( edit ) Main articles : Ebola virus disease and 2014 West Africa Ebola virus outbreak Ebola virus disease , first identified in 1976 , typically occurs in outbreaks in tropical regions of Sub-Saharan Africa , including West Africa . From 1976 through 2013 , the World Health Organization reported 1,716 confirmed cases . The largest outbreak to date is the ongoing 2014 West Africa Ebola virus outbreak , which is affecting Guinea , Sierra Leone , Liberia and Nigeria The outbreak began in Guinea in December 2013 , but was not detected until March 2014 , after which it spread to Liberia , Sierra Leone , and Nigeria . The outbreak is caused by the Zaire ebolavirus , known simply as the Ebola virus ( EBOV ) . It is the most severe outbreak of Ebola in terms of the number of human cases and fatalities since the discovery of the virus in 1976 . As of 16 August 2014 , the World Health Organization ( WHO ) reported a total of 2,240 suspected cases and 1,229 deaths ( 1,383 cases and 760 deaths being laboratory confirmed ) . On 8 August , it formally designated the outbreak as a public health emergency of international concern . This is a legal designation used only twice before ( for the 2009 H1N1 ( swine flu ) pandemic and the 2014 resurgence of polio ) and invokes legal measures on disease prevention , surveillance , control , and response , by 194 signatory countries . Various aid organisations and international bodies , including the Economic Community of West African States ( ECOWAS ) , US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( CDC ) , and the European Commission have donated funds and mobilised personnel to help counter the outbreak ; charities including Médecins Sans Frontières , the Red Cross , and Samaritan 's Purse are also working in the area . Famine ( edit ) Further information : Famine § Africa A girl during the Nigerian Civil War of the late 1960s . Pictures of the famine caused by Nigerian blockade garnered sympathy for the Biafrans worldwide . Famine has been an occasional but serious problem in West Africa . In 1680s , famine extended across the entire Sahel , and in 1738 half the population of Timbuktu died of famine . Some colonial `` pacification '' efforts often caused severe famine . The introduction of cash crops such as cotton , and forcible measures to impel farmers to grow these crops , sometimes impoverished the peasantry in many areas , such as northern Nigeria , contributing to greater vulnerability to famine when severe drought struck in 1913 . For the middle part of the 20th century , agriculturalists , economists and geographers did not consider Africa to be famine prone -- most famines were localized and brief food shortages . From 1967 - 1969 large scale famine occurred in Biafra and Nigeria due to a government blockade of the Breakaway territory . It is estimated that 1.5 million people died of starvation due to this famine . Additionally , drought and other government interference with the food supply caused 500 thousand Africans to perish in Central and West Africa . Famine recurred in the 1970s and 1980s , when the west African Sahel suffered drought and famine . The Sahelian famine was associated with the slowly growing crisis of pastoralism in Africa , which has seen livestock herding decline as a viable way of life over the last two generations . Since the start of the 21st century , more effective early warning and humanitarian response actions have reduced the number of deaths by famine markedly . That said , many African countries are not self - sufficient in food production , relying on income from cash crops to import food . Agriculture in Africa is susceptible to climatic fluctuations , especially droughts which can reduce the amount of food produced locally . Other agricultural problems include soil infertility , land degradation and erosion , swarms of desert locusts , which can destroy whole crops , and livestock diseases . The Sahara spreads up to 30 miles per year . The most serious famines have been caused by a combination of drought , misguided economic policies , and conflict . Recent famines in Africa include the 2005 -- 06 Niger food crisis , the 2010 Sahel famine , and in 2012 , the Sahel drought put more than 10 million people in the western Sahel at risk of famine , according to the Methodist Relief & Development Fund ( MRDF ) , due to a month - long heat wave . Cuisine ( edit ) Main article : West African cuisine § History This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( August 2014 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) West African peoples were trading with the Arab world centuries before the influence of Europeans . Spices such as cinnamon were introduced and became part of the local culinary traditions . Centuries later , the Portuguese , French and British further influenced regional cuisines , but only to a limited extent . However , as far as is known , it was European explorers and slaves ships who brought chili peppers and tomatoes from the New World , and both have become ubiquitous components of West African cuisines , along with peanuts , corn , cassava , and plantains . In turn , these slave ships carried African ingredients to the New World , including black - eyed peas and okra . Around the time of the colonial period , particularly during the Scramble for Africa , the European settlers defined colonial borders without regard to pre-existing borders , territories or cultural differences . This bisected tribes and created colonies with varying culinary styles . As a result , it is difficult to sharply define , for example , Senegalese cuisine . Although the European colonists brought many new ingredients to the African continent , they had relatively little impact on the way people cook in West Africa . Its strong culinary traditions lives on despite the influence of colonisation and food migration that occurred long ago . See also ( edit ) Africa portal History portal History of Africa History of Benin History of Burkina Faso History of Cape Verde History of Côte d'Ivoire History of the Gambia History of Ghana History of Guinea History of Guinea - Bissau History of Liberia History of Mali History of Mauritania History of Niger History of Nigeria History of Saint Helena History of Senegal History of Sierra Leone History of Togo Trade & Pilgrimage Routes of Ghana References ( edit ) Citations ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Speth ( 2010 ) , p. 33 Jump up ^ Ham ( 2009 ) , p. 79 Jump up ^ American Geophysical Union . `` Sahara 's Abrupt Desertification Started By Changes In Earth 's Orbit , Accelerated By Atmospheric And Vegetation Feedbacks '' . ScienceDaily . ScienceDaily . Retrieved 19 August 2014 . Jump up ^ Ehret ( 2002 ) Jump up ^ Tishkoff et al. ( 2009 ) , p. 1041 Jump up ^ Tishkoff et al. , Whole - mtDNA Genome Sequence Analysis of Ancient African Lineages , Molecular Biology and Evolution , vol. 24 , no . 3 ( 2007 ) , pp. 757 - 68 . Jump up ^ Soares , Pedro ; Luca Ermini ; Noel Thomson ; Maru Mormina ; Teresa Rito ; Arne Röhl ; Antonio Salas ; Stephen Oppenheimer ; Vincent Macaulay ; Martin B. Richards ( 4 June 2009 ) . `` Correcting for Purifying Selection : An Improved Human Mitochondrial Molecular Clock '' . The American Journal of Human Genetics . 84 ( 6 ) : 82 -- 93 . doi : 10.1016 / j. ajhg. 2009.05. 001 . PMC 2694979 . PMID 19500773 . Retrieved 13 August 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Salas , Antonio et al. , The Making of the African mtDNA Landscape , American Journal of Human Genetics , vol. 71 , no . 5 ( 2002 ) , pp. 1082 -- 1111 . Jump up ^ Atlas of the Human Journey : Haplogroup L2 Archived 6 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine . The Genographic Project , National Geographic . Jump up ^ Tishkoff et al. ( 2009 ) , p. 1043 Jump up ^ Oshita , edited by Celestine Oyom Bassey & Oshita O. ( 2010 ) . Governance and Border Security in Africa . Lagos : Malthouse Press Ltd. for the University of Calabar Press . p. 261 . ISBN 978 - 8422 - 07 - 1 . Retrieved 23 August 2014 . CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Ian Shaw , Robert Jameson . A Dictionary of Archaeology . p28 . Wiley - Blackwell , 2002 . ISBN 0 - 631 - 23583 - 3 Jump up ^ McCarthy , Terence ; Rubisge , Bruce ( 2005 ) . `` 5 '' . In University of the Witwatersrand . School of Geosciences . Story of Earth and Life ( Illustrated ed . ) . Kumba : Struik . p. 148 . ISBN 9781770071483 . 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CNRS -- ORS TO M Jump up ^ Gravrand , Henry : `` La Civilization Sereer -- Pangool '' . Published by Les Nouvelles Editions Africaines du Senegal. 1990 . pp , 9 , 20 & 77 . ISBN 2 - 7236 - 1055 - 1 . Jump up ^ Charles Becker et Victor Martin , Rites de sépultures préislamiques au Sénégal et vestiges protohistoriques , Archives Suisses d'Anthropologie Générale , Imprimerie du Journal de Genève , Genève , 1982 , tome 46 , N ° 2 , p. 261 - 293 Jump up ^ `` Stone Circles of Senegambia '' . UNESCO . Retrieved 24 August 2014 . Jump up ^ Laporte et al. ( 2012 ) , p. 415 Jump up ^ Shillington ( 2005 ) , pp. 80 -- 85 Jump up ^ Iliffe ( 2007 ) , pp. 51 -- 53 Jump up ^ Collins & Burns ( 2007 ) , p. 83 ^ Jump up to : Davidson ( 1991 ) , pp. 173 -- 174 Jump up ^ `` Ancient Ghana '' . BBC World Service . BBC . Retrieved 24 August 2014 . 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Jump up ^ African Socialism ( 1 January 1964 ) . African Socialism . Stanford University Press . pp. 2 -- 3 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8047 - 0203 - 4 . Jump up ^ Dörrie , Peter ( 15 October 2012 ) . `` 25 Years On : The Mixed Legacy of Burkina Faso 's Thomas Sankara , Socialist Soldier '' . Think Africa Press . Archived from the original on 9 October 2014 . Retrieved 20 August 2014 . Jump up ^ `` THE FIRST REPUBLIC '' . http://countrystudies.us . Country Studies . External link in website = ( help ) Jump up ^ `` Nigerian Civil War '' . war-memorial.net . The military governor of the Igbo - dominated south - east , Colonel Odumegwu Ojukwu , citing the northern massacres and electoral fraud , proclaimed with southern parliament the secession of the south - eastern region from Nigeria as the Republic of Biafra , an independent nation . Jump up ^ `` The Nigerian Civil War , Causes , Strategies , And Lessons Learnt '' . africamasterweb.com . Jump up ^ `` Nigerian Civil War ( 1967 - 1970 ) '' . blackpast.org . The Nigerian Army however continued to slowly take territory , and on January 15 , 1970 , Biafra surrendered when its military commander General Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu fled to Cote d'Ivoire . Jump up ^ `` Reopening Nigeria 's civil war wounds '' . BBC . More than one million people died in the three - year Biafran war Jump up ^ `` Sierra Leone profile '' . BBC . Retrieved 29 December 2014 . 1991 - Start of civil war . Former army corporal Foday Sankoh and his Revolutionary United Front ( RUF ) begin campaign against President Momoh , capturing towns on border with Liberia . Jump up ^ `` Sierra Leone Civil War '' . britannica.com . Retrieved 29 December 2014 . An official end to the civil war was declared in January 2002 . By that time , it was estimated that at least 50,000 people had died , with hundreds of thousands more affected by the violence and some 2,000,000 people displaced by the conflict . Jump up ^ `` Guinea - Bissau Civil War : CAUSES OF CONFLICT '' . historyguy.com . Retrieved 28 December 2014 . Former Brigadier General Ansumane Mane attempted a coup against President Joao Bernardo Vieira , who has ruled Guinea - Bissau since 1980 . Mane accused the President of corruption and leading the nation into poverty . Vieira fired Mane from command of the armed forces on charges of selling weapons to the Casamance rebels of southern Senegal . Jump up ^ `` Guinea - Bissau profile - Timeline '' . BBC . Retrieved 28 December 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Guinea - Bissau '' . encyclopedia.com . Retrieved 28 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Uppsala Conflict Data Program Conflict Encyclopedia , Guinea Bissau : government , Fatality estimate : low , http://www.ucdp.uu.se/gpdatabase/gpcountry.php?id=68&regionSelect=2-Southern_Africa# Jump up ^ `` What 's causing the conflict in Ivory Coast ? '' . CNN . Retrieved 28 December 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Guéï , Robert 1941 -- 2002 '' . encyclopedia.com . 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World Health Organization . 8 August 2014 . Retrieved 8 August 2014 . Jump up ^ Dopplick , Renée ( 29 April 2009 ) . `` Swine Flu : Legal Obligations and Consequences When the World Health Organization Declares a `` Public Health Emergency of International Concern '' `` . Inside Justice . Retrieved 6 June 2014 . Jump up ^ Nossiter , Adam ( 28 July 2014 ) . `` Fear of Ebola Breeds a Terror of Physicians '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 29 July 2014 . Jump up ^ Len Milich : Anthropogenic Desertification vs ' Natural ' Climate Trends Archived 11 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Iliffe ( 2007 ) Jump up ^ David Tenenbaum ( 1986 ) . `` Traditional drought and uncommon famine in the Sahel '' . Whole Earth Review , Summer . Retrieved 19 August 2014 . Jump up ^ Timberlake ( 1985 ) , pp. 9 - 17 Jump up ^ Hunger is spreading in Africa , The Christian Science Monitor , 1 August 2005 Jump up ^ http://www.ekklesia.co.uk/node/12566 Bibliography ( edit ) Ajayi , J.F. Ade , and Michael Crowder . History of West Africa ( 2 vol. 1970 - 87 ) Collins , Robert O. ; Burns , James M. ( 2007 ) . A History of Sub-Saharan Africa . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 9780521867467 . Davidson , Basil ( 1971 ) . Great Ages of Man : African Kingdoms . New York , NY : Time Life . LCCN 66 - 25647 . Davidson , Basil ( 1991 ) . Africa in History . New York , NY : Macmillan . Ehret , Christopher ( 2002 ) . The Civilizations of Africa . University Press of Virginia . Ham , Anthony ( 2009 ) . West Africa . Lonely Planet . ISBN 1 - 74104 - 821 - 4 . Hopkins , Antony Gerald . An economic history of West Africa ( 2nd ed . Routledge , 2014 ) Iliffe , John ( 2007 ) . Africans : The History of a Continent . African Studies . 108 ( 2nd ed . ) . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 9781139464246 . Laporte , L. ; Bocoum , H. ; Cros , J. ‐ P. ; Delvoye , A. ; Bernard , R. ; Diallo , M. ; Diop , M. ; Kane , A. ; Dartois , V. ; Lejay , M. ; Bertin , F. ; Quesnel , L. ( June 2012 ) . Carver , Martin , ed . `` Megalithic monumentality in Africa : from graves to stone circles at Wanar , Senegal '' ( PDF ) . Antiquity . Antiquity Publications Ltd. 86 ( 332 ) : 409 -- 427 . Retrieved 22 August 2014 . Onwuanibe , Richard C. ( 1979 ) . `` The philosophy of African medical practice '' . A Journal of Opinion . African Studies Association . 9 ( 3 ) : 25 -- 28 . JSTOR 1166259 . Owusu - Ansah , David . Historical dictionary of Ghana ( Rowman & Littlefield , 2014 ) Shillington , Kevin ( 2005 ) . History of Africa ( 2nd ed . ) . Palgrave Macmillan . ISBN 9780333599570 . Speth , Peter ( 2010 ) . Impacts of Global Change on the Hydrological Cycle in West and Northwest Africa . Springer . ISBN 3 - 642 - 12956 - 0 . Tishkoff , S. A. ; Reed , Floyd A. ; Friedlaender , Françoise R. ; Ehret , Christopher ; Ranciaro , Alessia ; Froment , Alain ; Hirbo , Jibril B. ; Awomoyi , Agnes A. ; Bodo , Jean - Marie ; Doumbo , Ogobara ; Ibrahim , Muntaser ; Juma , Abdalla T. ; Kotze , Maritha J. ; Lema , Godfrey ; Moore , Jason H. ; Mortensen , Holly ; Nyambo , Thomas B. ; Omar , Sabah A. ; Powell , Kweli ; Pretorius , Gideon S. ; Smith , Michael W. ; Thera , Mahamadou A. ; Wambebe , Charles ; Weber , James L. ; Williams , Scott M. ( 2009 ) . `` The genetic structure and history of Africans and African Americans '' ( PDF ) . Science . 324 ( 5930 ) : 1035 -- 1044 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1172257 . PMC 2947357 . PMID 19407144 . Timberlake , L. ( 14 September 1985 ) . The Sahel : drought , desertification and famine . Draper Fund Report . 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real-world example in which hidden variables may be an issue

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Correlation_does_not_imply_causation&oldid=832807579

Correlation does not imply causation - wikipedia Correlation does not imply causation Jump to : navigation , search See also : Illusory correlation In statistics , many statistical tests calculate correlations between variables and when two variables are found to be correlated , it is tempting to assume that this shows that one variable causes the other . That `` correlation proves causation , '' is considered a questionable cause logical fallacy when two events occurring together are taken to have established a cause - and - effect relationship . This fallacy is also known as cum hoc ergo propter hoc , Latin for `` with this , therefore because of this , '' and `` false cause . '' A similar fallacy , that an event that followed another was necessarily a consequence of the first event , is the post hoc ergo propter hoc ( Latin for `` after this , therefore because of this . '' ) fallacy . For example , in a widely studied case , numerous epidemiological studies showed that women taking combined hormone replacement therapy ( HRT ) also had a lower - than - average incidence of coronary heart disease ( CHD ) , leading doctors to propose that HRT was protective against CHD . But randomized controlled trials showed that HRT caused a small but statistically significant increase in risk of CHD . Re-analysis of the data from the epidemiological studies showed that women undertaking HRT were more likely to be from higher socio - economic groups ( ABC1 ) , with better - than - average diet and exercise regimens . The use of HRT and decreased incidence of coronary heart disease were coincident effects of a common cause ( i.e. the benefits associated with a higher socioeconomic status ) , rather than a direct cause and effect , as had been supposed . As with any logical fallacy , identifying that the reasoning behind an argument is flawed does not imply that the resulting conclusion is false . In the instance above , if the trials had found that hormone replacement therapy does in fact have a negative incidence on the likelihood of coronary heart disease the assumption of causality would have been correct , although the logic behind the assumption would still have been flawed . Indeed , a few go further , using correlation as a basis for testing a hypothesis to try to establish a true causal relationship ; examples are the Granger causality test and convergent cross mapping . Contents ( hide ) 1 Usage 2 General pattern 3 Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation 3.1 B causes A ( reverse causation or reverse causality ) 3.2 Third factor C ( the common - causal variable ) causes both A and B 3.3 Bidirectional causation : A causes B , and B causes A 3.4 The relationship between A and B is coincidental 4 Determining causation 4.1 In academia 4.2 Causality construed from counterfactual states 4.3 Causality predicted by an extrapolation of trends 5 Use of correlation as scientific evidence 6 See also 7 References 7.1 Bibliography 8 External links Usage ( edit ) In logic , the technical use of the word `` implies '' means `` is a sufficient circumstance for '' . This is the meaning intended by statisticians when they say causation is not certain . Indeed , p implies q has the technical meaning of the material conditional : if p then q symbolized as p → q . That is `` if circumstance p is true , then q follows . '' In this sense , it is always correct to say `` Correlation does not imply causation . '' However , in casual use , the word `` implies '' loosely means suggests rather than requires . The idea that correlation and causation are connected is certainly true ; where there is causation , there is a likely correlation . Indeed , correlation is used when inferring causation ; the important point is that such inferences are made after correlations are confirmed as real and all causational relationship are systematically explored using large enough data sets . General pattern ( edit ) For any two correlated events , A and B , the different possible relationships include : A causes B ( direct causation ) ; B causes A ( reverse causation ) ; A and B are consequences of a common cause , but do not cause each other ; A and B both cause C , which is ( explicitly or implicitly ) conditioned on . If A and B cause C , why do A and B have to be correlated ? ; A causes B and B causes A ( bidirectional or cyclic causation ) ; A causes C which causes B ( indirect causation ) ; There is no connection between A and B ; the correlation is a coincidence . Thus there can be no conclusion made regarding the existence or the direction of a cause - and - effect relationship only from the fact that A and B are correlated . Determining whether there is an actual cause - and - effect relationship requires further investigation , even when the relationship between A and B is statistically significant , a large effect size is observed , or a large part of the variance is explained . Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation ( edit ) B causes a ( reverse causation or reverse causality ) ( edit ) Reverse causation or reverse causality or wrong direction is an informal fallacy of questionable cause where cause and effect are reversed . The cause is said to be the effect and vice versa . Example 1 The faster windmills are observed to rotate , the more wind is observed to be . Therefore wind is caused by the rotation of windmills . ( Or , simply put : windmills , as their name indicates , are machines used to produce wind . ) In this example , the correlation ( simultaneity ) between windmill activity and wind velocity does not imply that wind is caused by windmills . It is rather the other way around , as suggested by the fact that wind does n't need windmills to exist , while windmills need wind to rotate . Wind can be observed in places where there are no windmills or non-rotating windmills -- and there are good reasons to believe that wind existed before the invention of windmills . Example 2 When a country 's debt rises above 90 % of GDP , growth slows . Therefore , high debt causes slow growth . This argument by Carmen Reinhart and Kenneth Rogoff was refuted by Paul Krugman on the basis that they got the causality backwards : in actuality , slow growth causes debt to increase . Example 3 Driving a wheelchair is dangerous , because most people who drive them have had an accident . Example 4 In other cases it may simply be unclear which is the cause and which is the effect . For example : Children that watch a lot of TV are the most violent . Clearly , TV makes children more violent . This could easily be the other way round ; that is , violent children like watching more TV than less violent ones . Example 5 A correlation between recreational drug use and psychiatric disorders might be either way around : perhaps the drugs cause the disorders , or perhaps people use drugs to self medicate for preexisting conditions . Gateway drug theory may argue that marijuana usage leads to usage of harder drugs , but hard drug usage may lead to marijuana usage ( see also confusion of the inverse ) . Indeed , in the social sciences where controlled experiments often can not be used to discern the direction of causation , this fallacy can fuel long - standing scientific arguments . One such example can be found in education economics , between the screening / signaling and human capital models : it could either be that having innate ability enables one to complete an education , or that completing an education builds one 's ability . Example 6 A historical example of this is that Europeans in the Middle Ages believed that lice were beneficial to your health , since there would rarely be any lice on sick people . The reasoning was that the people got sick because the lice left . The real reason however is that lice are extremely sensitive to body temperature . A small increase of body temperature , such as in a fever , will make the lice look for another host . The medical thermometer had not yet been invented , so this increase in temperature was rarely noticed . Noticeable symptoms came later , giving the impression that the lice left before the person got sick . In other cases , two phenomena can each be a partial cause of the other ; consider poverty and lack of education , or procrastination and poor self - esteem . One making an argument based on these two phenomena must however be careful to avoid the fallacy of circular cause and consequence . Poverty is a cause of lack of education , but it is not the sole cause , and vice versa . Third factor C ( the common - causal variable ) causes both a and B ( edit ) Main article : Spurious relationship The third - cause fallacy ( also known as ignoring a common cause or questionable cause ) is a logical fallacy where a spurious relationship is confused for causation . It asserts that X causes Y when , in reality , X and Y are both caused by Z . It is a variation on the post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy and a member of the questionable cause group of fallacies . All of these examples deal with a lurking variable , which is simply a hidden third variable that affects both causes of the correlation . A difficulty often also arises where the third factor , though fundamentally different from A and B , is so closely related to A and / or B as to be confused with them or very difficult to scientifically disentangle from them ( see Example 4 ) . Example 1 Sleeping with one 's shoes on is strongly correlated with waking up with a headache . Therefore , sleeping with one 's shoes on causes headache . The above example commits the correlation - implies - causation fallacy , as it prematurely concludes that sleeping with one 's shoes on causes headache . A more plausible explanation is that both are caused by a third factor , in this case going to bed drunk , which thereby gives rise to a correlation . So the conclusion is false . Example 2 Young children who sleep with the light on are much more likely to develop myopia in later life . Therefore , sleeping with the light on causes myopia . This is a scientific example that resulted from a study at the University of Pennsylvania Medical Center . Published in the May 13 , 1999 issue of Nature , the study received much coverage at the time in the popular press . However , a later study at Ohio State University did not find that infants sleeping with the light on caused the development of myopia . It did find a strong link between parental myopia and the development of child myopia , also noting that myopic parents were more likely to leave a light on in their children 's bedroom . In this case , the cause of both conditions is parental myopia , and the above - stated conclusion is false . Example 3 As ice cream sales increase , the rate of drowning deaths increases sharply . Therefore , ice cream consumption causes drowning . This example fails to recognize the importance of time of year and temperature to ice cream sales . Ice cream is sold during the hot summer months at a much greater rate than during colder times , and it is during these hot summer months that people are more likely to engage in activities involving water , such as swimming . The increased drowning deaths are simply caused by more exposure to water - based activities , not ice cream . The stated conclusion is false . Example 4 A hypothetical study shows a relationship between test anxiety scores and shyness scores , with a statistical r value ( strength of correlation ) of +. 59 . Therefore , it may be simply concluded that shyness , in some part , causally influences test anxiety . However , as encountered in many psychological studies , another variable , a `` self - consciousness score '' , is discovered that has a sharper correlation ( +. 73 ) with shyness . This suggests a possible `` third variable '' problem , however , when three such closely related measures are found , it further suggests that each may have bidirectional tendencies ( see `` bidirectional variable '' , above ) , being a cluster of correlated values each influencing one another to some extent . Therefore , the simple conclusion above may be false . Example 5 Since the 1950s , both the atmospheric CO level and obesity levels have increased sharply . Hence , atmospheric CO causes obesity . Richer populations tend to eat more food and produce more CO . Example 6 HDL ( `` good '' ) cholesterol is negatively correlated with incidence of heart attack . Therefore , taking medication to raise HDL decreases the chance of having a heart attack . Further research has called this conclusion into question . Instead , it may be that other underlying factors , like genes , diet and exercise , affect both HDL levels and the likelihood of having a heart attack ; it is possible that medicines may affect the directly measurable factor , HDL levels , without affecting the chance of heart attack . Bidirectional causation : a causes B , and B causes a ( edit ) Causality is not necessarily one - way ; in a predator - prey relationship , predator numbers affect prey numbers , but prey numbers , i.e. food supply , also affect predator numbers . The relationship between a and B is coincidental ( edit ) The two variables are n't related at all , but correlate by chance . The more things are examined , the more likely it is that two unrelated variables will appear to be related . For example : The result of the last home game by the Washington Redskins prior to the presidential election predicted the outcome of every presidential election from 1936 to 2000 inclusive , despite the fact that the outcomes of football games had nothing to do with the outcome of the popular election . This streak was finally broken in 2004 ( or 2012 using an alternative formulation of the original rule ) . A collection of such coincidences finds that for example , there is a 99.79 % correlation for the period 1999 - 2009 between U.S. spending on science , space , and technology ; and the number of suicides by suffocation , strangulation , and hanging . The Mierscheid law , which correlates the Social Democratic Party of Germany 's share of the popular vote with the size of crude steel production in Western Germany . Alternating bald -- hairy Russian leaders : A bald ( or obviously balding ) state leader of Russia has succeeded a non-bald ( `` hairy '' ) one , and vice versa , for nearly 200 years . Determining causation ( edit ) In academia ( edit ) Main articles : Causality and Causality ( physics ) The nature of causality is systematically investigated in several academic disciplines , including philosophy and physics . In academia , there are a significant number of theories on causality ; The Oxford Handbook of Causation ( Beebee , Hitchcock & Menzies 2009 ) encompasses 770 pages . Among the more influential theories within philosophy are Aristotle 's Four causes and Al - Ghazali 's occasionalism . David Hume argued that beliefs about causality are based on experience , and experience similarly based on the assumption that the future models the past , which in turn can only be based on experience -- leading to circular logic . In conclusion , he asserted that causality is not based on actual reasoning : only correlation can actually be perceived . Immanuel Kant , according to Beebee , Hitchcock & Menzies ( 2009 ) , held that `` a causal principle according to which every event has a cause , or follows according to a causal law , can not be established through induction as a purely empirical claim , since it would then lack strict universality , or necessity '' . Outside the field of philosophy , theories of causation can be identified in classical mechanics , statistical mechanics , quantum mechanics , spacetime theories , biology , social sciences , and law . To establish a correlation as causal within physics , it is normally understood that the cause and the effect must connect through a local mechanism ( cf . for instance the concept of impact ) or a nonlocal mechanism ( cf . the concept of field ) , in accordance with known laws of nature . From the point of view of thermodynamics , universal properties of causes as compared to effects have been identified through the Second law of thermodynamics , confirming the ancient , medieval and Cartesian view that `` the cause is greater than the effect '' for the particular case of thermodynamic free energy . This , in turn , is challenged by popular interpretations of the concepts of nonlinear systems and the butterfly effect , in which small events cause large effects due to , respectively , unpredictability and an unlikely triggering of large amounts of potential energy . Causality construed from counterfactual states ( edit ) See also : Verificationism Intuitively , causation seems to require not just a correlation , but a counterfactual dependence . Suppose that a student performed poorly on a test and guesses that the cause was his not studying . To prove this , one thinks of the counterfactual -- the same student writing the same test under the same circumstances but having studied the night before . If one could rewind history , and change only one small thing ( making the student study for the exam ) , then causation could be observed ( by comparing version 1 to version 2 ) . Because one can not rewind history and replay events after making small controlled changes , causation can only be inferred , never exactly known . This is referred to as the Fundamental Problem of Causal Inference -- it is impossible to directly observe causal effects . A major goal of scientific experiments and statistical methods is to approximate as best possible the counterfactual state of the world . For example , one could run an experiment on identical twins who were known to consistently get the same grades on their tests . One twin is sent to study for six hours while the other is sent to the amusement park . If their test scores suddenly diverged by a large degree , this would be strong evidence that studying ( or going to the amusement park ) had a causal effect on test scores . In this case , correlation between studying and test scores would almost certainly imply causation . Well - designed experimental studies replace equality of individuals as in the previous example by equality of groups . The objective is to construct two groups that are similar except for the treatment that the groups receive . This is achieved by selecting subjects from a single population and randomly assigning them to two or more groups . The likelihood of the groups behaving similarly to one another ( on average ) rises with the number of subjects in each group . If the groups are essentially equivalent except for the treatment they receive , and a difference in the outcome for the groups is observed , then this constitutes evidence that the treatment is responsible for the outcome , or in other words the treatment causes the observed effect . However , an observed effect could also be caused `` by chance '' , for example as a result of random perturbations in the population . Statistical tests exist to quantify the likelihood of erroneously concluding that an observed difference exists when in fact it does not ( for example see P - value ) . Causality predicted by an extrapolation of trends ( edit ) See also : Inertia See also : Life - time of correlation When experimental studies are impossible and only pre-existing data are available , as is usually the case for example in economics , regression analysis can be used . Factors other than the potential causative variable of interest are controlled for by including them as regressors in addition to the regressor representing the variable of interest . False inferences of causation due to reverse causation ( or wrong estimates of the magnitude of causation due the presence of bidirectional causation ) can be avoided by using explanators ( regressors ) that are necessarily exogenous , such as physical explanators like rainfall amount ( as a determinant of , say , futures prices ) , lagged variables whose values were determined before the dependent variable 's value was determined , instrumental variables for the explanators ( chosen based on their known exogeneity ) , etc . See Causality # Statistics and economics . Spurious correlation due to mutual influence from a third , common , causative variable , is harder to avoid : the model must be specified such that there is a theoretical reason to believe that no such underlying causative variable has been omitted from the model . Use of correlation as scientific evidence ( edit ) This section 's factual accuracy is disputed . Relevant discussion may be found on Talk : Correlation does not imply causation . Please help to ensure that disputed statements are reliably sourced . ( July 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Much of scientific evidence is based upon a correlation of variables -- they are observed to occur together . Scientists are careful to point out that correlation does not necessarily mean causation . The assumption that A causes B simply because A correlates with B is often not accepted as a legitimate form of argument . However , sometimes people commit the opposite fallacy -- dismissing correlation entirely . This would dismiss a large swath of important scientific evidence . Since it may be difficult or ethically impossible to run controlled double - blind studies , correlational evidence from several different angles may be useful for prediction despite failing to provide evidence for causation . For example , social workers might be interested in knowing how child abuse relates to academic performance . Although it would be unethical to perform an experiment in which children are randomly assigned to receive or not receive abuse , researchers can look at existing groups using a non-experimental correlational design . If in fact a negative correlation exists between abuse and academic performance , researchers could potentially use this knowledge of a statistical correlation to make predictions about children outside the study who experience abuse , even though the study failed to provide causal evidence that abuse decreases academic performance . The combination of limited available methodologies with the dismissing correlation fallacy has on occasion been used to counter a scientific finding . For example , the tobacco industry has historically relied on a dismissal of correlational evidence to reject a link between tobacco and lung cancer , as did biologist and statistician Ronald Fisher . Correlation is a valuable type of scientific evidence in fields such as medicine , psychology , and sociology . But first correlations must be confirmed as real , and then every possible causative relationship must be systematically explored . In the end correlation alone can not be used as evidence for a cause - and - effect relationship between a treatment and benefit , a risk factor and a disease , or a social or economic factor and various outcomes . It is one of the most abused types of evidence , because it is easy and even tempting to come to premature conclusions based upon the preliminary appearance of a correlation . See also ( edit ) Affirming the consequent Alignments of random points Apophenia : Post-hoc analysis Multiple comparisons problem Look - elsewhere effect Data dredging Testing hypotheses suggested by the data Bible code Coincidence # Coincidence and causality Confounding Confusion of the inverse French paradox Design of experiments Joint effect Normally distributed and uncorrelated does not imply independent Pirates and global warming Reproducibility Spurious relationship References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Tufte 2006 , p. 5 Jump up ^ Aldrich , John ( 1995 ) . `` Correlations Genuine and Spurious in Pearson and Yule '' ( PDF ) . Statistical Science . 10 ( 4 ) : 364 -- 376 . doi : 10.1214 / ss / 1177009870 . JSTOR 2246135 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on February 19 , 2006 . Jump up ^ Lawlor DA , Davey Smith G , Ebrahim S ( June 2004 ) . `` Commentary : the hormone replacement - coronary heart disease conundrum : is this the death of observational epidemiology ? '' . Int J Epidemiol. 33 ( 3 ) : 464 -- 467 . doi : 10.1093 / ije / dyh124 . PMID 15166201 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ `` Reinhart - Rogoff , Continued '' . ^ Jump up to : Labossiere , M.C. , Dr. LaBossiere 's Philosophy Pages Jump up ^ Quinn , Graham E. ; Shin , Chai H. ; Maguire , Maureen G. ; Stone , Richard A. ( May 1999 ) . `` Myopia and ambient lighting at night '' . Nature . 399 ( 6732 ) : 113 -- 114 . doi : 10.1038 / 20094 . PMID 10335839 . Jump up ^ CNN , May 13 , 1999 . Night - light may lead to nearsightedness Jump up ^ Ohio State University Research News , March 9 , 2000 . Night lights do n't lead to nearsightedness , study suggests Jump up ^ Zadnik , Karla ; Jones , Lisa A. ; Irvin , Brett C. ; Kleinstein , Robert N. ; Manny , Ruth E. ; Shin , Julie A. ; Mutti , Donald O. ( 2000 ) . `` Vision : Myopia and ambient night - time lighting '' . Nature . 404 ( 6774 ) : 143 -- 144 . doi : 10.1038 / 35004661 . PMID 10724157 . Jump up ^ Gwiazda , J. ; Ong , E. ; Held , R. ; Thorn , F. ( 2000 ) . `` Vision : Myopia and ambient night - time lighting '' . Nature . 404 ( 6774 ) : 144 -- 144 . doi : 10.1038 / 35004663 . PMID 10724158 . Jump up ^ Stone , Richard A. ; Maguire , Maureen G. ; Quinn , Graham E. ( 2000 ) . `` Vision : reply : Myopia and ambient night - time lighting '' . Nature . 404 ( 6774 ) : 144 -- 144 . doi : 10.1038 / 35004665 . Jump up ^ Carducci , Bernardo J. ( 2009 ) . The Psychology of Personality : Viewpoints , Research , and Applications ( 2nd ed . ) . John Wiley & Sons . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4051 - 3635 - 8 . Jump up ^ Ornish , Dean . `` Cholesterol : The good , the bad , and the truth '' ( 1 ) ( retrieved 3 June 2011 ) Jump up ^ `` Spurious Correlations '' . Tylervigen.com . Retrieved 2017 - 10 - 08 . ^ Jump up to : Beebee , Hitchcock & Menzies 2009 Jump up ^ Morris , William Edward ( 2001 ) . `` David Hume '' . The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . Jump up ^ Lloyd , A.C. ( 1976 ) . `` The principle that the cause is greater than its effect '' . Phronesis. 21 ( 2 ) : 146 -- 156 . doi : 10.1163 / 156852876x00101 . JSTOR 4181986 . Jump up ^ Holland , Paul W. ( 1986 ) . `` Statistics and Causal Inference '' . Journal of the American Statistical Association . 81 ( 396 ) : 945 -- 960 . doi : 10.1080 / 01621459.1986. 10478354 . Jump up ^ Pearl , Judea ( 2000 ) . Causality : Models , Reasoning , and Inference . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 9780521773621 . ^ Jump up to : Novella . `` Evidence in Medicine : Correlation and Causation '' . Science and Medicine . Science - Based Medicine . Jump up ^ Nielsen , Michael ( 2012 - 01 - 23 ) . `` If correlation does n't imply causation , then what does ? DDI '' . Michaelnielsen.org . Retrieved 2017 - 10 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` Evidence in Medicine : Correlation and Causation -- Science - Based Medicine '' . Sciencebasedmedicine.org. 2009 - 11 - 18 . Retrieved 2017 - 10 - 08 . Jump up ^ Silver , Nate ( 2015 ) , The Signal and the Noise : Why So Many Predictions Fail -- But Some Do n't ( 2nd ed . ) , New York : Penguin Books , pp. 254 -- 255 Jump up ^ Fisher , Ronald ( July 6 , 1957 ) , `` Dangers Of Cigarette - Smoking '' , The British Medical Journal , London : British Medical Association , 2 : 43 , doi : 10.1136 / bmj. 2.5035. 43 , JSTOR 25383068 -- via JSTOR , ( Registration required ( help ) ) Jump up ^ Fisher , Ronald ( August 3 , 1957 ) , `` Dangers Of Cigarette - Smoking '' , The British Medical Journal , London : British Medical Association , 2 : 297 -- 298 , doi : 10.1136 / bmj. 2.5039. 297 - b , JSTOR 25383439 -- via JSTOR , ( Registration required ( help ) ) Jump up ^ Fisher , Ronald ( 1958 ) , `` Cigarettes , Cancer , and Statistics '' ( PDF ) , The Centennial Review of Arts & Science , East Lansing , Michigan : Michigan State University Press , 2 : 151 -- 166 Jump up ^ Fisher , Ronald ( 1958 ) , `` The Nature of Probability '' ( PDF ) , The Centennial Review of Arts & Science , East Lansing , Michigan : Michigan State University Press , 2 : 261 -- 274 Jump up ^ Fisher , Ronald ( July 12 , 1958 ) , `` Lung Cancer and Cigarettes '' ( PDF ) , Nature , London : Nature Publishing Group , 182 : 108 , doi : 10.1038 / 182108a0 Jump up ^ Fisher , Ronald ( August 30 , 1958 ) , `` Cancer and Smoking '' ( PDF ) , Nature , London : Nature Publishing Group , 182 : 596 , doi : 10.1038 / 182596a0 Bibliography ( edit ) Beebee , Helen ; Hitchcock , Christopher ; Menzies , Peter ( 2009 ) . The Oxford Handbook of Causation . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 162946 - 4 . Tufte , Edward R. ( 2006 ) . `` The Cognitive Style of PowerPoint : Pitching Out Corrupts Within '' ( 2nd ed . ) . Cheshire , Connecticut : Graphics Press . ISBN 0 - 9613921 - 5 - 0 . External links ( edit ) `` The Art and Science of cause and effect '' : a slide show and tutorial lecture by Judea Pearl Causal inference in statistics : An overview , by Judea Pearl ( September 2009 ) Spurious Correlations , site searching and showing such correlations . What Everyone Should Know about Statistical Correlation ( hide ) Informal fallacies Equivocation Equivocation False equivalence False attribution Quoting out of context Loki 's Wager No true Scotsman Reification Question - begging fallacies Circular reasoning / Begging the question Loaded language ( Leading question ) Compound question / Loaded question No true Scotsman Correlative - based fallacies False dilemma ( Perfect solution fallacy ) Denying the correlative Suppressed correlative Fallacies of illicit transference Composition Division Deductive fallacies Accident Converse accident Inductive fallacies Anecdotal evidence Sampling bias ( Cherry picking McNamara fallacy ) Base rate fallacy / Conjunction fallacy Double counting False analogy Hasty generalization / Slothful induction Misleading vividness Overwhelming exception Vagueness / ambiguity Accent Amphibology Continuum fallacy / Sorites paradox False precision Moving the goalposts Slippery slope Questionable cause Animistic ( Furtive ) Correlation proves causation ( Cum hoc ergo propter hoc ) Gambler 's ( inverse ) Post hoc Regression Single cause Slippery slope Texas sharpshooter Third - cause Wrong direction List of fallacies Other types of fallacy Philosophy portal Misuse of statistics Circular analysis Correlation does not imply causation How to Lie with Statistics ( 1954 ) Impression management `` Lies , damned lies , and statistics '' Misleading graph Sampling bias Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Correlation_does_not_imply_causation&oldid=832807579 '' Categories : Causal fallacies Causal inference Covariance and correlation English phrases Misuse of statistics Hidden categories : CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list Pages with login required references or sources Wikipedia articles needing clarification from August 2016 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2015 Articles with unsourced statements from June 2017 Articles with unsourced statements from July 2009 All accuracy disputes Articles with disputed statements from November 2017 Accuracy disputes from July 2015 Articles with unsourced statements from August 2016 Pages using div col without cols and colwidth parameters Pages using Columns - list with deprecated parameters Talk Contents About Wikipedia Български Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Íslenska עברית Magyar Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Português Suomi ไทย Українська 中文 12 more Edit links This page was last edited on 28 March 2018 , at 03 : 05 . 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how did the u.s. navy make an immediate difference in the war

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_the_United_States&oldid=837638644

Military history of the United States - wikipedia Military history of the United States Jump to : navigation , search Military History of the United States Founded Continental Army -- June 14 , 1775 ( 1775 - 06 - 14 ) Service branches United States Army United States Marine Corps United States Navy United States Air Force United States Coast Guard Headquarters The Pentagon , Arlington County , Virginia , U.S. Related articles History List ( show ) American Revolutionary War Whiskey Rebellion Indian Wars Barbary Wars War of 1812 Patriot War Mexican -- American War Utah War Cortina Troubles Reform War American Civil War Las Cuevas War Spanish -- American War Banana Wars Philippine -- American War Boxer Rebellion Border War World War I Russian Civil War World War II Cold War Puerto Rican Nationalist Revolts Korean War 1958 Lebanon crisis Operation Power Pack Vietnam War Korean DMZ Conflict Operation Eagle Claw Multinational Force Lebanon Invasion of Grenada Operation Golden Pheasant Invasion of Panama Persian Gulf War Somali Civil War Kosovo War War on Terror Operation Enduring Freedom Afghanistan Philippines Horn of Africa Trans Sahara Iraq War War in North - West Pakistan Pakistan - United States skirmishes Intervention against ISIL Other U.S. military personnel and expenditures , 1790 -- 2006 . Personnel is shown in orange ( left axis ) ; expenditures are in teal ( right axis ) . The two axes are scaled to visually align for World War II , thus showing the difference between the cost per soldier before and after President Dwight D. Eisenhower 's `` New Look '' policy of the mid-1950s . The military history of the United States spans a period of over two centuries . During those years , the United States evolved from a new nation fighting Great Britain for independence ( 1775 -- 1783 ) , through the monumental American Civil War ( 1861 -- 1865 ) and , after collaborating in triumph during World War II ( 1941 -- 1945 ) , to the world 's sole remaining superpower from the late 20th century to present . The Continental Congress in 1775 established the Continental Army , Continental Navy , and Continental Marines and named General George Washington its commander . This newly formed military , along with state militia forces , the French Army and Navy , and the Spanish Navy defeated the British in 1781 . The new Constitution in 1789 made the president the commander in chief , with authority for the Congress to levy taxes , make the laws , and declare war . As of 2017 , the U.S. Armed Forces consists of the Army , Marine Corps , Navy and Air Force , all under the command of the United States Department of Defense . There also is the United States Coast Guard , which is controlled by the Department of Homeland Security . The President of the United States is the commander - in - chief , and exercises the authority through the Secretary of Defense and the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , which supervises combat operations . Governors have control of each state 's Army and Air National Guard units for limited purposes . The president has the ability to federalize National Guard units , bringing them under the sole control of the Department of Defense . Contents ( hide ) 1 Colonial wars ( 1620 -- 1774 ) 2 War of Independence ( 1775 -- 83 ) 2.1 George Washington 3 Early national period ( 1783 -- 1812 ) 3.1 Barbary Wars 4 War of 1812 5 War with Mexico ( 1846 -- 48 ) 6 American Civil War ( 1861 -- 65 ) 7 Post-Civil War era ( 1865 -- 1917 ) 7.1 Indian Wars ( 1865 -- 91 ) 7.2 Spanish -- American War ( 1898 ) 7.3 Philippine -- American War ( 1899 -- 1902 ) 8 Modernization 9 Banana Wars ( 1898 -- 1935 ) 10 Boxer Rebellion ( 1899 -- 1901 ) 11 Moro Rebellion ( 1899 -- 1913 ) 12 Mexico ( 1910 -- 19 ) 13 World War I ( 1917 -- 18 ) 14 Russian Revolution ( 1918 -- 19 ) 15 1920s : Naval disarmament 16 1930s : Neutrality Acts 17 World War II ( 1941 -- 45 ) 18 Cold War era ( 1945 -- 91 ) 18.1 Postwar military reorganization ( 1947 ) 18.2 Korean War ( 1950 -- 53 ) 18.3 Lebanon crisis of 1958 18.4 Dominican Intervention 18.5 Vietnam War ( 1964 -- 75 ) 18.6 Grenada 18.7 Beirut 18.8 Libya 18.9 Panama 19 Post -- Cold War era ( 1991 -- 2001 ) 19.1 Persian Gulf War ( 1990 -- 91 ) 19.2 Somalia 19.3 Haiti 19.4 Yugoslavia 20 War on Terrorism ( 2001 -- present ) 20.1 Afghanistan 20.2 Philippines 20.3 Iraq 20.4 Syrian and Iraqi intervention 21 Libyan intervention 22 See also 23 References 24 Further reading 24.1 Historiography 25 External links Colonial wars ( 1620 -- 1774 ) ( edit ) Main article : Colonial American military history In 1763 , the indigenous tribes of Pontiac 's Confederacy lay siege to Fort Detroit , a British fort on the American frontier . The beginning of the United States military lies in civilian frontier settlers , armed for hunting and basic survival in the wilderness . These were organized into local militias for small military operations , mostly against Native American tribes but also to resist possible raids by the small military forces of neighboring European colonies . They relied on the British regular Army and Navy for any serious military operation . In major operations outside the locality involved , the militia was not employed as a fighting force . Instead the colony asked for ( and paid ) volunteers , many of whom were also militia members . In the early years of the British colonization of North America , military action in the thirteen colonies that would become the United States were the result of conflicts with Native Americans , such as in the Pequot War of 1637 , King Philip 's War in 1675 , the Yamasee War in 1715 and Father Rale 's War in 1722 . Beginning in 1689 , the colonies became involved in a series of wars between Great Britain and France for control of North America , the most important of which were Queen Anne 's War , in which the British conquered French colony Acadia , and the final French and Indian War ( 1754 -- 63 ) when Britain was victorious over all the French colonies in North America . This final war was to give thousands of colonists , including Virginia colonel George Washington , military experience which they put to use during the American Revolutionary War . War of independence ( 1775 -- 83 ) ( edit ) Main article : American Revolutionary War The Siege of Yorktown was the decisive battle of the American Revolutionary War . The battle was the last major land engagement in the war , with the British Army 's defeat at Yorktown prompting the British to negotiate an end to the conflict . Ongoing political tensions between Great Britain and the thirteen colonies reached a crisis in 1774 when the British placed the province of Massachusetts under martial law after the Patriots protested taxes they regarded as a violation of their constitutional rights as Englishmen . When shooting began at Lexington and Concord in April 1775 , militia units from across New England rushed to Boston and bottled up the British in the city . The Continental Congress appointed George Washington as commander - in - chief of the newly created Continental Army , which was augmented throughout the war by colonial militia . In addition to the Army , Congress also created the Continental Navy and Continental Marines He drove the British out of Boston but in late summer 1776 they returned to New York and nearly captured Washington 's army . Meanwhile , the revolutionaries expelled British officials from the 13 states , and declared themselves an independent nation on July 4 , 1776 . The British , for their part , lacked both a unified command and a clear strategy for winning . With the use of the Royal Navy , the British were able to capture coastal cities , but control of the countryside eluded them . A British sortie from Canada in 1777 ended with the disastrous surrender of a British army at Saratoga . With the coming in 1777 of General von Steuben , the training and discipline along Prussian lines began , and the Continental Army began to evolve into a modern force . France and Spain then entered the war against Great Britain as Allies of the US , ending its naval advantage and escalating the conflict into a world war . The Netherlands later joined France , and the British were outnumbered on land and sea in a world war , as they had no major allies apart from Indian tribes . A shift in focus to the southern American states in 1779 resulted in a string of victories for the British , but General Nathanael Greene engaged in guerrilla warfare and prevented them from making strategic headway . The main British army was surrounded by Washington 's American and French forces at Yorktown in 1781 , as the French fleet blocked a rescue by the Royal Navy . The British then sued for peace . Washington 's surprise crossing of the Delaware River in December 1776 was a major comeback after the loss of New York City ; his army defeated the British in two battles and recaptured New Jersey . George Washington ( edit ) General George Washington ( 1732 -- 99 ) proved an excellent organizer and administrator , who worked successfully with Congress and the state governors , selecting and mentoring his senior officers , supporting and training his troops , and maintaining an idealistic Republican Army . His biggest challenge was logistics , since neither Congress nor the states had the funding to provide adequately for the equipment , munitions , clothing , paychecks , or even the food supply of the soldiers . As a battlefield tactician Washington was often outmaneuvered by his British counterparts . As a strategist , however , he had a better idea of how to win the war than they did . The British sent four invasion armies . Washington 's strategy forced the first army out of Boston in 1776 , and was responsible for the surrender of the second and third armies at Saratoga ( 1777 ) and Yorktown ( 1781 ) . He limited the British control to New York and a few places while keeping Patriot control of the great majority of the population . The Loyalists , on whom the British had relied too heavily , comprised about 20 % of the population but were never well organized . As the war ended , Washington watched proudly as the final British army quietly sailed out of New York City in November 1783 , taking the Loyalist leadership with them . Washington astonished the world when , instead of seizing power , he retired quietly to his farm in Virginia . Patriots had a strong distrust of a permanent `` standing army '' , so the Continental Army was quickly demobilized , with land grants to veterans . General Washington , who throughout the war deferred to elected officials , averted a potential coup d'état and resigned as commander - in - chief after the war , establishing a tradition of civil control of the U.S. military . Early National period ( 1783 -- 1812 ) ( edit ) Main articles : Northwest Indian War , Quasi-War , Barbary Wars , Tecumseh 's War , and Creek War The Battle of Fallen Timbers was a decisive battle in the Northwest Indian War , where American forces defeated the tribes of the Western Confederacy . Following the American Revolutionary War , the United States faced potential military conflict on the high seas as well as on the western frontier . The United States was a minor military power during this time , having only a modest army , marine corps , and navy . A traditional distrust of standing armies , combined with faith in the abilities of local militia , precluded the development of well - trained units and a professional officer corps . Jeffersonian leaders preferred a small army and navy , fearing that a large military establishment would involve the United States in excessive foreign wars , and potentially allow a domestic tyrant to seize power . In the Treaty of Paris after the Revolution , the British had ceded the lands between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River to the United States , without consulting the Shawnee , Cherokee , Choctaw and other smaller tribes who lived there . Because many of the tribes had fought as allies of the British , the United States compelled tribal leaders to sign away lands in postwar treaties , and began dividing these lands for settlement . This provoked a war in the Northwest Territory in which the U.S. forces performed poorly ; the Battle of the Wabash in 1791 was the most severe defeat ever suffered by the United States at the hands of American Indians . President Washington dispatched a newly trained army to the region led by General Anthony Wayne , which decisively defeated the Indian confederacy at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794 . When revolutionary France declared war on Great Britain in 1793 , the United States sought to remain neutral , but the Jay Treaty , which was favorable to Great Britain , angered the French government , which viewed it as a violation of the 1778 Treaty of Alliance . French privateers began to seize U.S. vessels , which led to an undeclared `` Quasi-War '' between the two nations . Fought at sea from 1798 to 1800 , the United States won a string of victories in the Caribbean . George Washington was called out of retirement to head a `` provisional army '' in case of invasion by France , but President John Adams managed to negotiate a truce , in which France agreed to terminate the prior alliance and cease its attacks . Stephen Decatur boarding the Tripolitan gunboat , 3 August 1804 , the First Barbary War Barbary wars ( edit ) Main articles : Barbary Wars , First Barbary War , and Second Barbary War The Berbers along the Barbary Coast ( modern day Libya ) sent pirates to capture merchant ships and hold the crews for ransom . The U.S. paid protection money until 1801 , when President Thomas Jefferson refused to pay and sent in the Navy to challenge the Barbary States , the First Barbary War followed . After the U.S.S. Philadelphia was captured in 1803 , Lieutenant Stephen Decatur led a raid which successfully burned the captured ship , preventing Tripoli from using or selling it . In 1805 , after William Eaton captured the city of Derna , Tripoli agreed to a peace treaty . The other Barbary states continued to raid U.S. shipping , until the Second Barbary War in 1815 ended the practice . War of 1812 ( edit ) `` We have met the enemy and they are ours . '' Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry 's victory on Lake Erie in 1813 was an important battle in the War of 1812 . Main article : War of 1812 By far the largest military action in which the United States engaged during this era was the War of 1812 . With Britain locked in a major war with Napoleon 's France , its policy was to block American shipments to France . The United States sought to remain neutral while pursuing overseas trade . Britain cut the trade and impressed seamen on American ships into the Royal Navy , despite intense protests . Britain supported an Indian insurrection in the American Midwest , with the goal of creating an Indian state there that would block American expansion . The United States finally declared war on the United Kingdom in 1812 , the first time the U.S. had officially declared war . Not hopeful of defeating the Royal Navy , the U.S. attacked the British Empire by invading British Canada , hoping to use captured territory as a bargaining chip . The invasion of Canada was a debacle , though concurrent wars with Native Americans on the western front ( Tecumseh 's War and the Creek War ) were more successful . After defeating Napoleon in 1814 , Britain sent large veteran armies to invade New York , raid Washington and capture the key control of the Mississippi River at New Orleans . The New York invasion was a fiasco after the much larger British army retreated to Canada . The raiders succeeded in the burning of Washington on 25 August 1814 , but were repulsed in their Chesapeake Bay Campaign at the Battle of Baltimore and the British commander killed . The major invasion in Louisiana was stopped by a one - sided military battle that killed the top three British generals and thousands of soldiers . The winners were the commanding general of the Battle of New Orleans , Major General Andrew Jackson , who became president and the Americans who basked in a victory over a much more powerful nation . The peace treaty proved successful , and the U.S. and Britain never again went to war . The losers were the Indians , who never gained the independent territory in the Midwest promised by Britain . War with Mexico ( 1846 -- 48 ) ( edit ) American forces storming Chapultepec Castle during the Mexican - American War . Main article : Mexican -- American War With the rapid expansion of the farming population , Democrats looked to the west for new lands , an idea which became known as `` Manifest Destiny . '' In the Texas Revolution ( 1835 -- 36 ) , the settlers declared independence and defeated the Mexican army , but Mexico was determined to reconquer the lost province and threatened war with the U.S. if it annexed Texas . The U.S. , much larger and more powerful , did annex Texas in 1845 and war broke out in 1846 over boundary issues . In the Mexican -- American War 1846 -- 48 , the U.S. Army under Generals Zachary Taylor and Winfield Scott and others , invaded and after a series of victorious battles ( and no major defeats ) seized New Mexico and California , and also blockaded the coast , invaded northern Mexico , and invaded central Mexico , capturing the national capital . The peace terms involved American purchase of the area from California to New Mexico for $10 million . American civil war ( 1861 -- 65 ) ( edit ) Dead soldiers lie where they fell at Antietam , the bloodiest day in American history . Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation after this battle . Main article : American Civil War Long - building tensions between the Northern and Southern States over slavery suddenly reached a climax after the 1860 election of Abraham Lincoln of the new anti-slavery Republican Party as U.S. President . Southern states seceded from the U.S. and formed a separate Confederacy . Within the Confederate states , many U.S. forts with garrisons still loyal to the Union were cut off . Fighting started in 1861 when Fort Sumter was fired upon . The American Civil War caught both sides unprepared . Neither the North 's small standing army nor the South 's scattered state militias were capable of winning a civil war . Both sides raced to raise armies -- larger than any U.S. forces before -- first with repeated calls for volunteers , but eventually resorting to unpopular large - scale conscription for the first time in U.S. history . The Battle of Gettysburg involved the largest number of casualties of the entire war . The North initially sought a quick victory by trying to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond , Virginia , not far from the U.S. capital at Washington , D.C. The South hoped to win by getting Britain and France to intervene , or else by exhausting the North 's willingness to fight . The Confederates under General Robert E. Lee skillfully and tenaciously defended their capital until the very end , while the North struggled to find any general to match . As the fighting between the two capitals stalled , the North found more success in campaigns elsewhere , using rivers , railroads , and the seas to help move and supply their larger forces , putting a stranglehold on the South -- the Anaconda Plan . The war spilled across the continent , and even to the high seas . After four years of appallingly bloody conflict , with more casualties than all other U.S. wars combined , the North 's larger population and industrial might slowly ground the South down . The resources and economy of the South were ruined , while the North 's factories and economy prospered filling government wartime contracts . The American Civil War is sometimes called the `` first modern war '' due to the mobilization and destruction of the civilian base -- total war -- and due to by many technical military innovations involving railroads , telegraphs , rifles , trench warfare , and ironclad warships with turret guns . Post-civil war era ( 1865 -- 1917 ) ( edit ) American forces led by George Custer suffered a major defeat against the Sioux in the Battle of Little Bighorn . Indian wars ( 1865 -- 91 ) ( edit ) Main article : Indian Wars After the Civil War , population expansion , railroad construction , and the disappearance of the buffalo herds heightened military tensions on the Great Plains . Several tribes , especially the Sioux and Comanche , fiercely resisted confinement to reservations . The main role of the Army was to keep indigenous peoples on reservations and to end their wars against settlers and each other , William Tecumseh Sherman and Philip Sheridan were in charge . A famous victory for the Plains Nations was the Battle of the Little Big Horn in 1876 , when Col. George Armstrong Custer and two hundred plus members of the 7th Cavalry were killed by a force consisting of Native Americans from the Lakota , Northern Cheyenne , and Arapaho nations . The last significant conflict came in 1891 . Charge by the Rough Riders during the Battle of San Juan Hill . Spanish -- American war ( 1898 ) ( edit ) Main article : Spanish -- American War The Spanish -- American War was a short decisive war marked by quick , overwhelming American victories at sea and on land against Spain . The Navy was well - prepared and won laurels , even as politicians tried ( and failed ) to have it redeployed to defend East Coast cities against potential threats from the feeble Spanish fleet . The Army performed well in combat in Cuba . However , it was too oriented to small posts in the West and not as well - prepared for an overseas conflict . It relied on volunteers and state militia units , which faced logistical , training and food problems in the staging areas in Florida . The United States freed Cuba ( after an occupation by the U.S. Army ) . By the peace treaty Spain ceded to the United States its colonies of Puerto Rico , Guam , and the Philippines . The Navy set up coaling stations there and in Hawaii ( which voluntarily joined the U.S. in 1898 ) . The U.S. Navy now had a major forward presence across the Pacific and ( with the lease of Guantánamo Bay Naval Base in Cuba ) a major base in the Caribbean guarding the approaches to the Gulf Coast and the Panama Canal . American soldiers in Manila during the Philippine - American War . Philippine -- American war ( 1899 -- 1902 ) ( edit ) Main article : Philippine -- American War The Philippine -- American War ( 1899 -- 1902 ) was an armed conflict between a group of Filipino revolutionaries and the American forces following the ceding of the Philippines to the United States after the defeat of Spanish forces in the Battle of Manila . The Army sent in 100,000 soldiers ( mostly from the National Guard ) under General Elwell Otis . Defeated in the field and losing its capital in March 1899 , the poorly armed and poorly led rebels broke into armed bands . The insurgency collapsed in March 1901 when the leader Emilio Aguinaldo was captured by General Frederick Funston and his Macabebe allies . Casualties included 1,037 Americans killed in action and 3,340 who died from disease ; 20,000 rebels were killed . Modernization ( edit ) The Navy was modernized in the 1880s , and by the 1890s had adopted the naval power strategy of Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan -- as indeed did every major navy . The old sailing ships were replaced by modern steel battleships , bringing them in line with the navies of Britain and Germany . In 1907 , most of the Navy 's battleships , with several support vessels , dubbed the Great White Fleet , were featured in a 14 - month circumnavigation of the world . Ordered by President Theodore Roosevelt , it was a mission designed to demonstrate the Navy 's capability to extend to the global theater . The Great White Fleet at the Straits of Magellan . The fleet set out to make friendly visits to other countries , and showcase America 's naval power to the world . Secretary of War Elihu Root ( 1899 -- 1904 ) led the modernization of the Army . His goal of a uniformed chief of staff as general manager and a European - type general staff for planning was stymied by General Nelson A. Miles but did succeed in enlarging West Point and establishing the U.S. Army War College as well as the General Staff . Root changed the procedures for promotions and organized schools for the special branches of the service . He also devised the principle of rotating officers from staff to line . Root was concerned about the Army 's role in governing the new territories acquired in 1898 and worked out the procedures for turning Cuba over to the Cubans , and wrote the charter of government for the Philippines . Rear Admiral Bradley A. Fiske was at the vanguard of new technology in naval guns and gunnery , thanks to his innovations in fire control 1890 -- 1910 . He immediately grasped the potential for air power , and called for the development of a torpedo plane . Fiske , as aide for operations in 1913 -- 15 to Assistant Secretary Franklin D. Roosevelt , proposed a radical reorganization of the Navy to make it a war - fighting instrument . Fiske wanted to centralize authority in a chief of naval operations and an expert staff that would develop new strategies , oversee the construction of a larger fleet , coordinate war planning including force structure , mobilization plans , and industrial base , and ensure that the US Navy possessed the best possible war machines . Eventually , the Navy adopted his reforms and by 1915 started to reorganize for possible involvement in the World War then underway . Banana wars ( 1898 -- 1935 ) ( edit ) William Allen Rogers ' cartoon depicting Theodore Roosevelt 's Big Stick policy . The enforcement of this policy in Latin America led to several U.S. interventions in the region , referred to as the Banana Wars . Main article : Banana Wars `` Banana Wars '' is an informal term for the minor intervention in Latin America from 1898 until 1934 . These include military presence in Cuba , Panama with the Panama Canal Zone , Haiti ( 1915 -- 1935 ) , Dominican Republic ( 1916 -- 1924 ) and Nicaragua ( 1912 -- 1925 ) & ( 1926 -- 1933 ) . The U.S. Marine Corps began to specialize in long - term military occupation of these countries , primarily to safeguard customs revenues which were the cause of local civil wars . Boxer Rebellion ( 1899 -- 1901 ) ( edit ) Main article : Boxer Rebellion Moro Rebellion ( 1899 -- 1913 ) ( edit ) Main article : Moro Rebellion The Moro Rebellion was an armed insurgency between Muslim Filipino tribes in the southern Philippines between 1899 and 1913 . Pacification was never complete as sporadic antigovernment insurgency continues into the 21st century , with American advisors helping the Philippine government forces . Mexico ( 1910 -- 19 ) ( edit ) American and Mexican soldiers guarding the border in Ambos Nogales during the Border War . Main article : Border War ( 1910 -- 19 ) The Mexican Revolution involved a civil war with hundreds of thousands of deaths and large numbers fleeing combat zones . Tens of thousands fled to the U.S. President Wilson sent U.S. forces to occupy the Mexican city of Veracruz for six months in 1914 . It was designed to show the U.S. was keenly interested in the civil war and would not tolerate attacks on Americans , especially the April 9 , 1914 , `` Tampico Affair '' , which involved the arrest of American sailors by soldiers of the regime of Mexican President Victoriano Huerta . In early 1916 Pancho Villa a Mexican general ordered 500 soldiers on a murderous raid on the American city of Columbus New Mexico , with the goal of robbing banks to fund his army . The German Secret Service encouraged Pancho Villa in his attacks to involve the United States in an intervention in Mexico which would distract the United States from its growing involvement in the war and divert aid from Europe to support the intervention . Wilson called up the state militias ( National Guard ) and sent them and the U.S. Army under General John J. Pershing to punish Villa in the Pancho Villa Expedition . Villa fled , with the Americans in pursuit deep into Mexico , thereby arousing Mexican nationalism . By early 1917 President Venustiano Carranza had contained Villa and secured the border , so Wilson ordered Pershing to withdraw . World war I ( 1917 -- 18 ) ( edit ) The American Expeditionary Force marches in France , 1918 . Main articles : American entry into World War I and American Expeditionary Forces The United States originally wished to remain neutral when World War I broke out in August 1914 . However , it insisted on its right as a neutral party to immunity from German submarine attack , even though its ships carried food and raw materials to Britain . In 1917 the Germans resumed submarine attacks , knowing that it would lead to American entry . When the United States declared war in early April 1917 , the United States Army was still small by European standards ( most of which had conscription ) and mobilization would take at least a year . Meanwhile , the United States continued to provide supplies and money to Britain and France , and initiated the first peacetime draft . Industrial mobilization took longer than expected , so divisions were sent to Europe without equipment , relying instead on the British and French to supply them . By summer 1918 , a million American soldiers , or `` doughboys '' as they were often called , of the American Expeditionary Force ( AEF ) were in Europe , serving on the Western Front under the command of General John Pershing , with 25,000 more arriving every week . The failure of the German Army 's Spring Offensive exhausted its manpower reserves and they were unable to launch new offensives . The Imperial German Navy and home front then revolted and a new German government signed a conditional surrender , the Armistice , ending the war on the Western Front on November 11 , 1918 . Russian Revolution ( 1918 -- 19 ) ( edit ) The so - called Polar Bear Expedition was the involvement of 5,000 U.S. troops , during the Russian Revolution , in blocking the Bolsheviks in Arkhangelsk , Russia as part of the greater Allied military expedition in the Russian Civil War . 1920s : naval disarmament ( edit ) The Washington Naval Conference was an arms control conference that sought to limit naval armaments amongst the world 's powers . Main article : Washington Naval Conference The U.S. sponsored a major world conference to limit the naval armaments of world powers , including the U.S. , Britain , Japan , and France , plus smaller nations . Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes made the key proposal of each country to reduce its number of warships by a formula that was accepted . The conference enabled the great powers to reduce their navies and avoid conflict in the Pacific . The treaties remained in effect for ten years , but were not renewed as tensions escalated . 1930s : Neutrality Acts ( edit ) After the costly U.S. involvement in World War I , isolationism grew within the nation . Congress refused membership in the League of Nations , particularly due to Article X of the League 's charter . Pursuant to Article X , the charter would have required by contract the United States Military to intervene if a member of the League were attacked ; this prompted the United States Senate to vehemently oppose the Treaty of Versailles . Isolationism further grew after the events of the Nye Committee , which investigated corrupt military spending and fueled the Merchants of death argument , thus increasing anti-war opinions . In response to the growing turmoil in Europe and Asia , the gradually more restrictive Neutrality Acts were passed , which were intended to prevent the U.S. from supporting either side in a war . President Franklin D. Roosevelt sought to support Britain , however , and in 1940 signed the Lend - Lease Act , which permitted an expansion of the `` cash and carry '' arms trade to develop with Britain , which controlled the Atlantic sea lanes . Roosevelt favored the Navy ( he was in effective charge in World War I ) , and used relief programs such as the PWA to support Navy yards and build warships . For example , in 1933 he authorized $238 million in PWA funds for thirty - two new ships . The Army Air Corps received only $11 million , which barely covered replacements and allowed no expansion . Due to the underlying pressure against military involvement by both citizens and politicians , the United States was reluctant to intervene in any overseas conflicts . The involvement that the United States had toward the Japanese Invasion of Manchuria in 1931 only extended as far as non-recognition . Other events such as Benito Mussolini 's Italian Conquest of Ethiopia went ignored by the U.S. along with the League of Nations being unable to act upon the usage of chemical weapons by the Italian fascists . No official involvement was waged during the Spanish Civil War and the Second Sino - Japanese War , though both wars utilized loopholes for U.S. involvement , such as volunteering and using British ships as a middleman for delivering provisions ( since the Neutrality Acts only specified American ships ) . This , along with Roosevelt 's Quarantine Speech , produced mixed opinions among Americans that were still anxious about military involvement . Non-interventionists were mainly constituent in the Republican Party , but other Democratic politicians , such as Louis Ludlow , attempted to pass bills to compromise and even amend the United States Constitution for the purpose of calling for public Referendum to decide military involvement in cases that do not immediately follow an attack on the United States . This amendment was introduced many times , but failed to gain enough support , including opposition even by Roosevelt . The overall neglect for military involvement eventually resulted in appeasement in the early stages of World War II , at the distress of Roosevelt ( who wanted to continue cash - and - carry for the European theatres and the Pacific ) . After being rebuffed by Congress for attempting to reinstate cash - and - carry for the European theatres , Roosevelt eventually won the favor of restoring the arms trade with belligerent nations after Germany 's invasion of Poland , which is said by many to have fixed the United States economy . Total involvement in the war began after the Attack on Pearl Harbor , where isolationism began to cede . World war II ( 1941 -- 45 ) ( edit ) Main articles : Military history of the United States during World War II , United States Army Air Forces during World War II , and Special relationship The explosion aboard the USS Arizona during the attack on Pearl Harbor . Starting in 1940 ( 18 months before Pearl Harbor ) , the nation mobilized , giving high priority to air power . American involvement in World War II in 1940 -- 41 was limited to providing war material and financial support to Britain , the Soviet Union , and the Republic of China . The U.S. entered officially on 8 December 1941 following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , Hawaii . Japanese forces soon seized American , Dutch , and British possessions across the Pacific and Southeast Asia , except for Australia , which became a main American forward base along with Hawaii . The loss of eight battleships and 2,403 Americans at Pearl Harbor forced the U.S. to rely on its remaining aircraft carriers , which won a major victory over Japan at Midway just six months into the war , and on its growing submarine fleet . The Navy and Marine Corps followed this up with an island hopping campaign across the central and south Pacific in 1943 -- 45 , reaching the outskirts of Japan in the Battle of Okinawa . During 1942 and 1943 , the U.S. deployed millions of men and thousands of planes and tanks to the UK , beginning with the strategic bombing of Nazi Germany and occupied Europe and leading up to the Allied invasions of occupied North Africa in November 1942 , Sicily and Italy in 1943 , France in 1944 , and the invasion of Germany in 1945 , parallel with the Soviet invasion from the east . That led to the surrender of Nazi Germany in May 1945 . While the final European Axis Powers were defeated within a year of Operation Overlord , the fighting in Central Europe was especially bloody for the United States , with more US military deaths occurring in Germany than in any other country during the war . General of the Army MacArthur signs on behalf of the Allies In the Pacific , the U.S. experienced much success in naval campaigns during 1944 , but bloody battles at Iwo Jima and Okinawa in 1945 led the U.S. to look for a way to end the war with minimal loss of American lives . The U.S. used atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki to destroy the Japanese war effort and to shock the Japanese leadership , which quickly caused the surrender of Japan . Following the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki , Japan surrendered to the Allied forces on 15 August 1945 , ending 35 years of Japanese occupation of Korean Peninsula . American forces under General John R. Hodge arrived at the southern part of the Korean Peninsula on 8 September 1945 , while the Soviet Army and some Korean Communists had stationed themselves in the northern part of the Korean Peninsula . The United States was able to mobilize quickly , eventually becoming the dominant military power in most theaters of the war ( excepting only eastern Europe ) , and the industrial might of the U.S. economy became a major factor in the Allies ' mobilization of resources . Strategic and tactical lessons learned by the U.S. , such as the importance of air superiority and the dominance of the aircraft carrier in naval actions , continue to guide U.S. military doctrine into the 21st century . World War II holds a special place in the American psyche as the country 's greatest triumph , and the U.S. military personnel of World War II are frequently referred to as `` the Greatest Generation . '' Over 16 million served ( about 11 % of the population ) , and over 400,000 died during the war . The U.S. emerged as one of the two undisputed superpowers along with the Soviet Union , and unlike the Soviet Union , the U.S. homeland was virtually untouched by the ravages of war . During and following World War II , the United States and Britain developed an increasingly strong defense and intelligence relationship . Manifestations of this include extensive basing of U.S. forces in the UK , shared intelligence , shared military technology ( e.g. nuclear technology ) , and shared procurement . Further information : List of United States Army divisions during World War II Cold war era ( 1945 -- 91 ) ( edit ) Main article : Cold War Following World War II , the United States emerged as a global superpower vis - a-vis the Soviet Union in the Cold War . In this period of some forty years , the United States provided foreign military aid and direct involvement in proxy wars against the Soviet Union . It was the principal foreign actor in the Korean War and Vietnam War during this era . Nuclear weapons were held in ready by the United States under a concept of mutually assured destruction with the Soviet Union . Postwar military reorganization ( 1947 ) ( edit ) The National Security Act of 1947 , meeting the need for a military reorganization to complement the U.S. superpower role , combined and replaced the former Department of the Navy and War Department with a single cabinet - level Department of Defense . The act also created the National Security Council , the Central Intelligence Agency , and the Air Force . Korean war ( 1950 -- 53 ) ( edit ) Main article : Korean War American beachhead during the Battle of Inchon The Korean War was a conflict between the United States and its United Nations allies and the communist powers under influence of the Soviet Union ( also a UN member nation ) and the People 's Republic of China ( which later also gained UN membership ) . The principal combatants were North and South Korea . Principal allies of South Korea included the United States , Canada , Australia , the United Kingdom , although many other nations sent troops under the aegis of the United Nations . Allies of North Korea included the People 's Republic of China , which supplied military forces , and the Soviet Union , which supplied combat advisors and aircraft pilots , as well as arms , for the Chinese and North Korean troops . The war started badly for the US and UN . North Korean forces struck massively in the summer of 1950 and nearly drove the outnumbered US and ROK defenders into the sea . However the United Nations intervened , naming Douglas MacArthur commander of its forces , and UN-US - ROK forces held a perimeter around Pusan , gaining time for reinforcement . MacArthur , in a bold but risky move , ordered an amphibious invasion well behind the front lines at Inchon , cutting off and routing the North Koreans and quickly crossing the 38th Parallel into North Korea . As UN forces continued to advance toward the Yalu River on the border with Communist China , the Chinese crossed the Yalu River in October and launched a series of surprise attacks that sent the UN forces reeling back across the 38th Parallel . Truman originally wanted a Rollback strategy to unify Korea ; after the Chinese successes he settled for a Containment policy to split the country . MacArthur argued for rollback but was fired by President Harry Truman after disputes over the conduct of the war . Peace negotiations dragged on for two years until President Dwight D. Eisenhower threatened China with nuclear weapons ; an armistice was quickly reached with the two Koreas remaining divided at the 38th parallel . North and South Korea are still today in a state of war , having never signed a peace treaty , and American forces remain stationed in South Korea as part of American foreign policy . Several hundred Marines were sent to Lebanon during the 1958 crisis to bolster the pro-Western government . Lebanon crisis of 1958 ( edit ) In the Lebanon crisis of 1958 that threatened civil war , Operation Blue Bat deployed several hundred Marines to bolster the pro-Western Lebanese government from July 15 to October 25 , 1958 . Dominican intervention ( edit ) Main article : Operation Power Pack On April 28 , 1965 , 400 Marines were landed in Santo Domingo to evacuate the American Embassy and foreign nationals after dissident Dominican armed forces attempted to overthrow the ruling civilian junta . By mid-May , peak strength of 23,850 U.S. soldiers , Marines , and Airmen were in the Dominican Republic and some 38 naval ships were positioned offshore . They evacuated nearly 6,500 men , women , and children of 46 nations , and distributed more than 8 million tons of food . Vietnam war ( 1964 -- 75 ) ( edit ) Main article : Vietnam War See also : United States Air Force in Thailand and Secret War Formation of Bell UH - 1 Iroquois ca . 1966 The Vietnam War was a war fought between 1955 and 1975 on the ground in South Vietnam and bordering areas of Cambodia and Laos ( see Secret War ) and in the strategic bombing ( see Operation Rolling Thunder ) of North Vietnam . American advisors came in the late 1950s to help the RVN ( Republic of Vietnam ) combat Communist insurgents known as `` Viet Cong . '' Major American military involvement began in 1964 , after Congress provided President Lyndon B. Johnson with blanket approval for presidential use of force in the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution . Fighting on one side was a coalition of forces including the Republic of Vietnam ( South Vietnam or the `` RVN '' ) , the United States , supplemented by South Korea , Thailand , Australia , New Zealand , and the Philippines . The allies fought against the North Vietnamese Army ( NVA ) as well as the National Liberation Front ( NLF , also known as Viet communists Viet Cong ) , or `` VC '' , a guerrilla force within South Vietnam . The NVA received substantial military and economic aid from the Soviet Union and China , turning Vietnam into a proxy war . The military history of the American side of the war involved different strategies over the years . The bombing campaigns of the Air Force were tightly controlled by the White House for political reasons , and until 1972 avoided the main Northern cities of Hanoi and Haiphong and concentrated on bombing jungle supply trails , especially the Ho Chi Minh Trail . The most controversial Army commander was William Westmoreland whose strategy involved systematic defeat of all enemy forces in the field , despite heavy American casualties that alienated public opinion back home . United States Embassy following the Tet Offensive The U.S. framed the war as part of its policy of containment of Communism in south Asia , but American forces were frustrated by an inability to engage the enemy in decisive battles , corruption and incompetence in the Army of the Republic of Vietnam , and ever increasing protests at home . The Tet Offensive in 1968 , although a major military defeat for the NLF with half their forces eliminated , marked the psychological turning point in the war . With President Richard M. Nixon opposed to containment and more interested in achieving détente with both the Soviet Union and China , American policy shifted to `` Vietnamization , '' -- providing very large supplies of arms and letting the Vietnamese fight it out themselves . After more than 57,000 dead and many more wounded , American forces withdrew in 1973 with no clear victory , and in 1975 South Vietnam was finally conquered by communist North Vietnam and unified . Memories and lessons from the war are still a major factor in American politics . One side views the war as a necessary part of the Containment policy , which allowed the enemy to choose the time and place of warfare . Others note the U.S. made major strategic gains as the Communists were defeated in Indonesia , and by 1972 both Moscow and Beijing were competing for American support , at the expense of their allies in Hanoi . Critics see the conflict as a `` quagmire '' -- an endless waste of American blood and treasure in a conflict that did not concern US interests . Fears of another quagmire have been major factors in foreign policy debates ever since . The draft became extremely unpopular , and President Nixon ended it in 1973 , forcing the military ( the Army especially ) to rely entirely upon volunteers . That raised the issue of how well the professional military reflected overall American society and values ; the soldiers typically took the position that their service represented the highest and best American values . In 1983 , American forces , assisted by the Caribbean Peace Force , invaded the island nation of Grenada . Grenada ( edit ) In October , 1983 , a power struggle in Grenada , which had installed a communist - leaning government , led to increased tensions in the region . Neighboring nations asked the U.S. to intervene . The invasion was a hurriedly devised grouping of paratroopers , Marines , Rangers , and special operations forces in Operation Urgent Fury . Over a thousand Americans quickly seized the entire island , taking hundreds of military and civilian prisoners , especially Cubans , who were building a large military airstrip . Beirut ( edit ) In 1983 fighting between Palestinian refugees and Lebanese factions reignited that nation 's long - running civil war . A UN agreement brought an international force of peacekeepers to occupy Beirut and guarantee security . US Marines landed in August 1982 along with Italian and French forces . On October 23 , 1983 , a suicide bomber driving a truck filled with 6 tons of TNT crashed through a fence and destroyed the Marine barracks , killing 241 Marines ; seconds later , a second bomber leveled a French barracks , killing 58 . Subsequently , the US Navy engaged in bombing of militia positions inside Lebanon . While US President Ronald Reagan was initially defiant , political pressure at home eventually forced the withdrawal of the Marines in February 1984 . In 1986 , the USAF conducted air strikes against Libya , in retaliation for the West Berlin discotheque bombing . Libya ( edit ) Main article : Bombing of Libya ( 1986 ) Code - named `` Operation El Dorado Canyon '' , comprised the joint United States Air Force , Navy , and Marine Corps air - strikes against Libya on April 15 , 1986 . The attack was carried out in response to the 1986 Berlin discotheque bombing , and resulted in the killing of 45 officers and 15 civilians . Panama ( edit ) On December 20 , 1989 the United States invaded Panama , mainly from U.S. bases within the then - Canal Zone , to oust dictator and international drug trafficker Manuel Noriega . American forces quickly overwhelmed the Panamanian Defense Forces , Noriega was captured on January 3 , 1990 and imprisoned in the U.S. and a new government was installed . Post -- Cold war era ( 1991 -- 2001 ) ( edit ) U.S. military engagements 1990 -- 2002 Persian Gulf war ( 1990 -- 91 ) ( edit ) The Persian Gulf War was a conflict between Iraq and a coalition force of 34 nations led by the United States . The lead up to the war began with the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in August 1990 which was met with immediate economic sanctions by the United Nations against Iraq . The coalition commenced hostilities in January 1991 , resulting in a decisive victory for the U.S. led coalition forces , which drove Iraqi forces out of Kuwait with minimal coalition deaths . Despite the low death toll , over 180,000 US veterans would later be classified as `` permanently disabled '' according to the US Department of Veterans Affairs ( see Gulf War Syndrome ) . The main battles were aerial and ground combat within Iraq , Kuwait and bordering areas of Saudi Arabia . Land combat did not expand outside of the immediate Iraq / Kuwait / Saudi border region , although the coalition bombed cities and strategic targets across Iraq , and Iraq fired missiles on Israeli and Saudi cities . Before the war , many observers believed the US and its allies could win but might suffer substantial casualties ( certainly more than any conflict since Vietnam ) , and that the tank battles across the harsh desert might rival those of North Africa during World War II . After nearly 50 years of proxy wars , and constant fears of another war in Europe between NATO and the Warsaw Pact , some thought the Persian Gulf War might finally answer the question of which military philosophy would have reigned supreme . Iraqi forces were battle - hardened after 8 years of war with Iran , and they were well equipped with late model Soviet tanks and jet fighters , but the antiaircraft weapons were crippled ; in comparison , the US had no large - scale combat experience since its withdrawal from Vietnam nearly 20 years earlier , and major changes in US doctrine , equipment and technology since then had never been tested under fire . USS Wisconsin fires on Iraqi positions in Kuwait However , the battle was one - sided almost from the beginning . The reasons for this are the subject of continuing study by military strategists and academics . There is general agreement that US technological superiority was a crucial factor but the speed and scale of the Iraqi collapse has also been attributed to poor strategic and tactical leadership and low morale among Iraqi troops , which resulted from a history of incompetent leadership . After devastating initial strikes against Iraqi air defenses and command and control facilities on 17 January 1991 , coalition forces achieved total air superiority almost immediately . The Iraqi air force was destroyed within a few days , with some planes fleeing to Iran , where they were interned for the duration of the conflict . The overwhelming technological advantages of the US , such as stealth aircraft and infrared sights , quickly turned the air war into a `` turkey shoot '' . The heat signature of any tank which started its engine made an easy target . Air defense radars were quickly destroyed by radar - seeking missiles fired from wild weasel aircraft . Grainy video clips , shot from the nose cameras of missiles as they aimed at impossibly small targets , were a staple of US news coverage and revealed to the world a new kind of war , compared by some to a video game . Over 6 weeks of relentless pounding by planes and helicopters , the Iraqi army was almost completely beaten but did not retreat , under orders from Iraqi President Saddam Hussein , and by the time the ground forces invaded on 24 February , many Iraqi troops quickly surrendered to forces much smaller than their own ; in one instance , Iraqi forces attempted to surrender to a television camera crew that was advancing with coalition forces . After just 100 hours of ground combat , and with all of Kuwait and much of southern Iraq under coalition control , US President George H.W. Bush ordered a cease - fire and negotiations began resulting in an agreement for cessation of hostilities . Some US politicians were disappointed by this move , believing Bush should have pressed on to Baghdad and removed Hussein from power ; there is little doubt that coalition forces could have accomplished this if they had desired . Still , the political ramifications of removing Hussein would have broadened the scope of the conflict greatly , and many coalition nations refused to participate in such an action , believing it would create a power vacuum and destabilize the region . Following the Persian Gulf War , to protect minority populations , the US , Britain , and France declared and maintained no - fly zones in northern and southern Iraq , which the Iraqi military frequently tested . The no - fly zones persisted until the 2003 invasion of Iraq , although France withdrew from participation in patrolling the no - fly zones in 1996 , citing a lack of humanitarian purpose for the operation . American soldiers taking fire during the Battle of Mogadishu . The battle led to the withdrawal of U.S. forces in Somalia , and the end of American support for UNOSOM II . Somalia ( edit ) Main articles : Operation Restore Hope and UNOSOM II US troops participated in a UN peacekeeping mission in Somalia beginning in 1992 . By 1993 the US troops were augmented with Rangers and special forces with the aim of capturing warlord Mohamed Farrah Aidid , whose forces had massacred peacekeepers from Pakistan . During a raid in downtown Mogadishu , US troops became trapped overnight by a general uprising in the Battle of Mogadishu . Eighteen American soldiers were killed , and a US television crew filmed graphic images of the body of one soldier being dragged through the streets by an angry mob . Somali guerrillas paid a staggering toll at an estimated 1,000 -- 5,000 total casualties during the conflict . After much public disapproval , American forces were quickly withdrawn by President Bill Clinton . The incident profoundly affected US thinking about peacekeeping and intervention . The book Black Hawk Down was written about the battle , and was the basis for the later movie of the same name . Haiti ( edit ) Main article : Operation Uphold Democracy Operation Uphold Democracy ( September 19 , 1994 -- March 31 , 1995 ) was an intervention designed to reinstate the elected President Jean - Bertrand Aristide , who was reported to have died in office during the bombing of the presidential palace . The operation was effectively authorized by the 31 July 1994 United Nations Security Council Resolution 940 . Yugoslavia ( edit ) During the war in Yugoslavia in the early 1990s , the US operated in Bosnia and Herzegovina as part of the NATO - led multinational implementation force ( IFOR ) in Operation Joint Endeavour . The USA was one of the NATO member countries who bombed Yugoslavia between March 24 and June 9 , 1999 during the Kosovo War and later contributed to the multinational force KFOR . War on Terrorism ( 2001 -- present ) ( edit ) The War on Terrorism is a global effort by the governments of several countries ( primarily the United States and its principal allies ) to neutralize international terrorist groups ( primarily Islamic Extremist terrorist groups , including al - Qaeda ) and ensure that countries considered by the US and some of its allies to be Rogue Nations no longer support terrorist activities . It has been adopted primarily as a response to the September 11 , 2001 attacks on the United States . Since 2001 , terrorist motivated attacks upon service members have occurred in Arkansas and Texas . U.S. Army Special Forces and U.S. Air Force Combat Controllers on horseback in November 2001 . Afghanistan ( edit ) The intervention in Afghanistan ( Operation Enduring Freedom -- Afghanistan ) to depose that country 's Taliban government and destroy training camps associated with al - Qaeda is understood to have been the opening , and in many ways defining , campaign of the broader War on Terrorism . The emphasis on Special Operations Forces ( SOF ) , political negotiation with autonomous military units , and the use of proxy militaries marked a significant change from prior U.S. military approaches . Philippines ( edit ) In January 2002 , the U.S. sent more than 1,200 troops ( later raised to 2,000 ) to assist the Armed Forces of the Philippines in combating terrorist groups linked to al - Qaida , such as Abu Sayyaf , under Operation Enduring Freedom -- Philippines . Operations have taken place mostly in the Sulu Archipelago , where terrorists and other groups are active . The majority of troops provide logistics . However , there are special forces troops that are training and assisting in combat operations against the terrorist groups . A Marine Corps M1 Abrams tank patrols a Baghdad street in April 2003 . Iraq ( edit ) Main article : History of Iraq ( 2003 -- 11 ) After the lengthy Iraq disarmament crisis culminated with an American demand that Iraqi President Saddam Hussein leave Iraq , which was refused , a coalition led by the United States and the United Kingdom fought the Iraqi army in the 2003 invasion of Iraq . Approximately 250,000 United States troops , with support from 45,000 British , 2,000 Australian and 200 Polish combat forces , entered Iraq primarily through their staging area in Kuwait . ( Turkey had refused to permit its territory to be used for an invasion from the north . ) Coalition forces also supported Iraqi Kurdish militia , estimated to number upwards of 50,000 . After approximately three weeks of fighting , Hussein and the Ba'ath Party were forcibly removed , followed by 9 years of military presence by the United States and the coalition fighting alongside the newly elected Iraqi government against various insurgent groups . Syrian and Iraqi intervention ( edit ) Main articles : 2014 American - led intervention in Iraq and 2014 US - Coalition intervention in Syria With the emergence of ISIL and its capture of large areas of Iraq and Syria , a number of crises resulted that sparked international attention . ISIL had perpetrated sectarian killings and war crimes in both Iraq and Syria . Gains made in the Iraq war were rolled back as Iraqi army units abandoned their posts . Cities were taken over by the terrorist group which enforced its brand of Sharia law . The kidnapping and decapitation of numerous Western journalists and aid - workers also garnered interest and outrage among Western powers . The US intervened with airstrikes in Iraq over ISIL held territories and assets in August , and in September a coalition of US and Middle Eastern powers initiated a bombing campaign in Syria aimed at degrading and destroying ISIL and Al - Nusra - held territory . By December 2017 , ISIL had no remaining territory in Iraq , following the 2017 Western Iraq campaign . Airstrikes by US and Coalition forces have continued in Syria against the Assad government especially after the Douma chemical attack in 2018 . Libyan intervention ( edit ) Main article : Operation Odyssey Dawn As a result of the Libyan Civil War , the United Nations enacted United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 , which imposed a no - fly zone over Libya , and the protection of civilians from the forces of Muammar Gaddafi . The United States , along with Britain , France and several other nations , committed a coalition force against Gaddafi 's forces . On 19 March 2011 , the first U.S. action was taken when 114 Tomahawk missiles launched by US and UK warships destroyed shoreline air defenses of the Gaddafi regime . The U.S. continued to play a major role in Operation Unified Protector , the NATO - directed mission that eventually incorporated all of the military coalition 's actions in the theater . Throughout the conflict however , the U.S. maintained it was playing a supporting role only and was following the UN mandate to protect civilians , while the real conflict was between Gaddafi 's loyalists and Libyan rebels fighting to depose him . During the conflict , American drones were also deployed . See also ( edit ) Military budget of the United States United States Armed Forces History of the United States Army National Museum of the United States Army History of the United States Marine Corps National Museum of the Marine Corps History of the United States Navy U.S. Navy Museum History of the United States Air Force National Museum of the United States Air Force History of the United States Coast Guard History of civil affairs in the United States armed forces United States and weapons of mass destruction United States Department of Defense Awards and decorations of the United States military United States casualties of war Military of the United States portal History of minorities in the United States Armed Forces United States Armed Forces racial desegregation Military history of African Americans Military history of Asian Americans Military history of Hispanic and Latino Americans Military history of Jewish Americans Military history of Sikh Americans Native Americans in the American Civil War Native Americans and World War II Related lists Timeline of United States military operations United States military deployments List of conflicts in the United States List of military operations List of United States military leaders by rank List of wars involving the United States Military history of Canada Military history of Mexico Military history of the Philippines , American period References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Jim Newton ( 2011 ) . 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Jump up ^ William Braisted , United States Navy in the Pacific , 1897 -- 1909 ( 2008 ) Jump up ^ Brian McAllister Linn , The Philippine War 1899 -- 1902 ( University Press of Kansas , 2000 ) . ISBN 0 - 7006 - 0990 - 3 Jump up ^ Henry J. Hendrix , Theodore Roosevelt 's Naval Diplomacy : The U.S. Navy and the Birth of the American Century ( 2009 ) Jump up ^ James E. Hewes , Jr . From Root to McNamara : Army Organization and Administration , 1900 -- 1963 ( 1975 ) Jump up ^ Paolo Coletta , Admiral Bradley A. Fiske and the American Navy ( 1979 ) Jump up ^ Lester D. Langley , The Banana Wars : United States Intervention in the Caribbean , 1898 -- 1934 ( 2001 ) Jump up ^ Charles Byler , `` Pacifying the Moros : American Military Government in the Southern Philippines , 1899 -- 1913 '' Military Review ( May -- June 2005 ) pp 41 -- 45 . online Jump up ^ John S.D. Eisenhower , Intervention ! : The United States and the Mexican Revolution , 1913 -- 1917 ( 1995 ) Jump up ^ E. Bruce White and Francisco Villa , `` The Muddied Waters of Columbus , New Mexico , '' The Americas 32 # 1 ( July 1975 ) , pp. 72 -- 98 in JSTOR Jump up ^ Friedrich Katz , The Secret War in Mexico : Europe , the United States , and the Mexican Revolution ( 1984 ) Jump up ^ James W. Hurst , Pancho Villa and Black Jack Pershing : The Punitive Expedition in Mexico ( 2007 ) Jump up ^ Friedrich Katz , `` Pancho Villa and the Attack on Columbus , New Mexico , '' American Historical Review 83 # 1 ( 1978 ) , pp. 101 -- 130 in JSTOR Jump up ^ Kendrick A. Clements , `` Woodrow Wilson and World War I , '' Presidential Studies Quarterly 34 : 1 ( 2004 ) . pp 62 +. online edition Jump up ^ Anne Venzon , ed. , The United States in the First World War : An Encyclopedia ( 1995 ) Jump up ^ Edward M. Coffman , The War to End All Wars : The American Military Experience in World War I ( 1998 ) Jump up ^ Robert L. Willett , `` Russian Sideshow '' ( Washington , D.C. , Brassey 's Inc. , 2003 ) , page 267 Jump up ^ Germany and the Soviet Union were not invited . Jump up ^ Emily O. Goldman ( 2010 ) . Sunken Treaties : Naval Arms Control Between the Wars . Pennsylvania State University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 271 - 04129 - 2 . Jump up ^ `` ' The Senate and the League of Nations ' '' . U.S. Senate . Retrieved 22 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Engelbrecht , H.C. ; Hanighen , F.C. ( 15 June 1934 ) . Merchants of Death ( PDF ) . Dodd , Mead & Co . Retrieved 22 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Divine , Robert ( 1969 ) . Roosevelt and World War II . Baltimore , MD , USA : Johns Hopkins University Press . pp. 5 -- 48 . Jump up ^ Jeffery S. Underwood , The Wings of Democracy : The Influence of Air Power on the Roosevelt Administration , 1933 -- 1941 ( 1991 ) pp 34 -- 35 Jump up ^ Safire 1997 , pp. 297 -- 8 . Jump up ^ `` Ludlow Amendment 1938 '' . Retrieved 2006 - 09 - 05 . Jump up ^ `` Roosevelt Week '' . Time Magazine . January 17 , 1938 . Jump up ^ `` All in -- ' over-sexed , over-paid and over here ' '' . Australia 's War 1939 -- 1945 . Retrieved 2 March 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Fact Sheet : Pearl Harbor '' . Naval History & Heritage Command . United States Navy . Retrieved 13 September 2014 . `` Remembering Pearl Harbor '' ( PDF ) ... nationalww2museum.org . The National WWII Museum . Retrieved 13 September 2014 . Shaw , Daron R. ( 15 September 2008 ) . The Race to 270 : The Electoral College and the Campaign Strategies of 2000 and 2004 . University of Chicago Press . p. 162 . ISBN 9780226751368 . Jump up ^ Statistical and accounting branch office of the adjutant general p. 76 Jump up ^ Parrington , Alan ( 1997 ) . `` Mutually Assured Destruction Revisited '' . Airpower Journal . Archived from the original on 20 June 2015 . Retrieved 11 January 2015 . Jump up ^ Allan R. Millett , `` A Reader 's Guide To The Korean War , '' Journal of Military History ( 1997 ) Vol. 61 No. 3 ; p. 583 + online version Jump up ^ James I. Matray , `` Truman 's Plan for Victory : National Self - Determination and the Thirty - Eighth Parallel Decision in Korea , '' Journal of American History , Sept. 1979 , Vol. 66 Issue 2 , pp 314 -- 333 , in JSTOR Jump up ^ Stanley Sandler , ed. , The Korean War : An Encyclopedia ( Garland , 1995 ) Jump up ^ John Prados , Vietnam : The History of an Unwinnable War , 1945 -- 1975 ( 2009 ) Jump up ^ Mark Atwood Lawrence , The Vietnam War : A Concise International History ( 2010 ) Jump up ^ Spencer Tucker , Vietnam ( 2000 ) ; for coverage of wach major operation see Stanley I. Kutler , ed. , Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War ( 1996 ) and Spencer C. Tucker , ed . Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War : A Political , Social , and Military History ( 2001 ) Jump up ^ Mark Clodfelter , The Limits of Air Power : The American Bombing of North Vietnam ( 2006 ) Jump up ^ Lewis Sorley , Westmoreland : The General Who Lost Vietnam ( 2011 ) Jump up ^ Robert D. Schulzinger , Time for War : The United States and Vietnam , 1941 -- 1975 . ( 1997 ) online edition Jump up ^ Patrick Hagopian , The Vietnam War in American Memory : Veterans , Memorials , and the Politics of Healing ( 2009 ) excerpt and text search Jump up ^ George Q. Flynn , The draft , 1940 -- 1973 ( 1993 ) Jump up ^ Bernard Rostker , I want you ! : the evolution of the All - Volunteer Force ( 2006 ) Jump up ^ Vijay Tiwathia , The Grenada war : anatomy of a low - intensity conflict ( 1987 ) Jump up ^ Mark Adkin , Urgent Fury : The Battle for Grenada : The Truth Behind the Largest U.S. Military Operation Since Vietnam ( 1989 ) Jump up ^ Col. Timothy J. Geraghty , USMC ( Ret . ) ( 2009 ) . Peacekeepers at War : Beirut 1983 -- The Marine Commander Tells His Story . Potomac Books , Inc . ISBN 9781597974257 . ch 8 Jump up ^ Thomas Donnelly , Margaret Roth and Caleb Baker , Operation Just Cause : The Storming of Panama ( 1991 ) Jump up ^ Rick Atkinson , Crusade : The Untold Story of the Persian Gulf War ( 1994 ) Jump up ^ Marc J. O'Reilly , Unexceptional : America 's Empire in the Persian Gulf , 1941 -- 2007 ( 2008 ) p 173 Jump up ^ John L. Hirsch and Robert B. Oakley , Somalia and Operation Restore Hope : Reflections on Peacemaking and Peacekeeping ( 1995 ) Jump up ^ John R. Ballard , Upholding democracy : the United States military campaign in Haiti , 1994 -- 1997 ( 1998 ) Jump up ^ Richard C. Holbrooke , To End a War ( 1999 ) excerpt and text search Jump up ^ Christopher N. Koontz , Enduring Voices : Oral Histories of the U.S. Army Experience in Afghanistan , 2003 -- 2005 ( 2008 ) online Jump up ^ `` More than 1,700 bombs dropped in war on ISIL '' . Al Jazeera . October 24 , 2014 . Retrieved January 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` U.S. Steps Up Assault on Libya , Firing Four More Tomahawk Missiles at Air Defense Systems '' . Fox News . 20 March 2011 . Retrieved 21 October 2011 . Jump up ^ Goldman , Julianna ; Johnston , Nicholas ( 21 March 2011 ) . `` Obama Says No Conflict in U.S. Policy , UN Libya Mandate '' . Bloomberg L.P . Retrieved 21 October 2011 . Jump up ^ Hopkins , Nick ( 21 April 2011 ) . `` Drones can be used by Nato forces in Libya , says Obama '' . The Guardian . London . Retrieved 21 October 2011 . Further reading ( edit ) Main article : Bibliography of United States military history Allison , William T. , Jeffrey G. Grey , Janet G. Valentine . American Military History : A Survey from Colonial Times to the Present ( 2nd ed. 2012 ) 416pp Boyne , Walter J. Beyond the Wild Blue : A History of the U.S. Air Force , 1947 -- 2007 ( 2nd ed. 2007 ) 576 pp excerpt Bradford , James C. ( 2003 ) . Atlas of American military history . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 521661 - 5 . Brown , Jerold E. ( 2001 ) . Historical Dictionary of the U.S. Army . Greenwood Publishing Group . ISBN 9780313293221 . Chambers , John Whiteclay ; Fred Anderson ( 1999 ) . The Oxford companion to American military history . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 507198 - 6 . Chambers , John Whiteclay and G. Kurt Piehler , eds . Major Problems in American Military History : Documents and Essays ( 1988 ) 408pp excerpts from primary and secondary sources table of contents Crocker , III , H.W. ( 2007 ) . Do n't Tread on Me : A 400 - Year History of America at War . Random House Digital , Inc . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4000 - 5364 - 3 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Hacker , Barton C. ; Margaret Vining ( 2007 ) . American Military Technology : The Life Story of a Technology . JHU Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8018 - 8772 - 7 . Hagan , Kenneth J. and Michael T. McMaster , eds . In Peace and War : Interpretations of American Naval History ( 2008 ) , essays by scholars Howarth , Stephen ( 1999 ) . To Shining Sea : a History of the United States Navy , 1775 -- 1998 . Norman , OK : U of Oklahoma Press . ISBN 0 - 8061 - 3026 - 1 . Hearn , Chester G. Air Force : An Illustrated History : The U.S. Air Force from 1910 to the 21st Century ( 2008 ) excerpt and text search Isenberg , Michael T. Shield of the Republic : The United States Navy in an Era of Cold War and Violent Peace 1945 -- 1962 ( 1993 ) Lookingbill , Brad D. ( 2010 ) . American Military History . John Wiley and Sons . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4051 - 9052 - 7 . Love , Robert W. , Jr. ( 1992 ) . History of the U.S. Navy 2 vol . Matloff , Maurice ( 1996 ) . American Military History : 1775 -- 1902 . Da Capo Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 938289 - 70 - 8 . ; numerous editions ; Matloff ( 1996 ) . American Military History : 1902 -- 1996 . Da Capo Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 938289 - 71 - 5 . ; numerous editions Millett , Allan R. Semper Fidelis : History of the United States Marine Corps ( 1980 ) excerpt and text search Millett , Allan R. , Peter Maslowski and William B. Feis . For the Common Defense : A Military History of the United States from 1607 to 2012 ( 3rd ed. 2013 ) excerpt and text search Morris , James M. , ed . Readings in American Military History ( 2003 ) 401pp articles by experts Moten , Matthew ( 2014 ) . Presidents and Their Generals : An American History of Command in War . Harvard UP . Muehlbauer , Matthew S. , and David J. Ulbrich . Ways of War : American Military History from the Colonial Era to the Twenty - First Century ( Routledge , 2013 ) , 536pp ; university textbook ; online review Stewart , Richard W. American military history ( 2 vol 2010 ) ; The current ROTC textbook Sweeney , Jerry K. ; Kevin B. Byrne ( 2006 ) . A handbook of American military history . U of Nebraska Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8032 - 9337 - 3 . Urwin , Gregory J.W. ( 1983 ) . The United States Cavalry : an illustrated history , 1776 -- 1944 . University of Oklahoma Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8061 - 3475 - 8 . Utley , Robert M. ( 1984 ) Frontier Regulars : The United States Army and the Indian , 1866 -- 1891 Utley , Robert M. ( 2002 ) Indian Wars Williams , T. Harry ( 1960 ) . Americans at War : The Development of the American Military System . LSU Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8071 - 2474 - 1 . U.S. Department of the Army ( 2001 ) . The Writing of American Military History : A Guide . The Minerva Group , Inc . ISBN 978 - 0 - 89875 - 350 - 9 . Woodward , David R . The American Army and the First World War ( Cambridge University Press , 2014 ) . 484 pp. online review Historiography ( edit ) Grimsley , Mark . `` The American military history master narrative : Three textbooks on the American military experience , '' Journal of Military History ( 2015 ) 79 # 3 pp 782 -- 802 ; review of Allison , Millett , and Muehlbauer textbooks External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Military history of the United States . 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what are the names of the kings two sons

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List of rulers of Númenor - wikipedia List of rulers of Númenor Jump to : navigation , search The following is a list of the twenty - five rulers of Númenor , an island realm in J.R.R. Tolkien 's fictional universe . The Kings of Númenor were Dúnedain men who ruled the kingdom of Númenor . Númenor had twenty - five official rulers , of which there were twenty - two male rulers , and three female rulers . There was also one usurper ( Herulcalmo ) . A list of the rulers of the fictional island of Númenor , ordered by the fictional chronology of their reign . Many of the rulers have two names : Those beginning with `` Tar - '' prefix are titles in Quenya , a fictional elvish language , and those with the `` Ar - '' prefix are titles in Adûnaic , a fictional language of men . This usage does not represent the species of the ruler ; all the figures below are Edain , or humans . Unless specified otherwise , all numbers are dates in the fictional Second age of Middle Earth . Figures marked with an asterisk were functionally or symbolically not recognized as rulers in the historical lore of Middle Earth . Contents ( hide ) 1 I. Elros Tar - Minyatur ( 32 -- 442 ) 2 II . Vardamir Nólimon ( 442 ) 3 III . Tar - Amandil ( 442 -- 590 ) 4 IV . Tar - Elendil ( 590 -- 740 ) 5 V. Tar - Meneldur Írimon ( 740 -- 883 ) 6 VI . Tar - Aldarion Anardil ( 883 -- 1075 ) 7 VII . Tar - Ancalimë ( 1075 -- 1280 ) 8 VIII . Tar - Anárion ( 1280 -- 1394 ) 9 IX . Tar - Súrion ( 1394 -- 1556 ) 10 X . Tar - Telperiën ( 1556 -- 1731 ) 11 XI . Tar - Minastir ( 1731 -- 1869 ) 12 XII . Tar - Ciryatan ( 1869 -- 2029 ) 13 XIII . Tar - Atanamir the Great ( 2029 -- 2221 ) 14 XIV . Tar - Ancalimon ( 2221 -- 2386 ) 15 XV . Tar - Telemmaitë ( 2386 -- 2526 ) 16 XVI . Tar - Vanimeldë ( 2526 -- 2637 ) 17 * Tar - Anducal ( 2637 -- 2657 ) 18 XVII . Tar - Alcarin ( 2657 -- 2737 ) 19 XVIII . Tar - Calmacil ( 2737 -- 2825 ) 20 XIX . Tar - Ardamin ( 2825 -- 2899 ) 21 XX . Ar - Adûnakhôr ( Tar - Herunúmen ) ( 2899 -- 2962 ) 22 XXI . Ar - Zimrathôn ( 2962 -- 3033 ) 23 XXII . Ar - Sakalthôr ( 3033 -- 3102 ) 24 XXIII . Ar - Gimilzôr ( 3102 -- 3177 ) 25 XXIV . Tar - Palantir ( 3177 -- 3255 ) 26 * Tar - Míriel 27 XXV . Ar - Pharazôn ( 3255 -- 3319 ) 28 Ruling Queens of Númenor 28.1 Ruling Queens in Gondor and Arnor 29 Line of Elros family tree 30 See also 31 Notes 32 External links I. Elros Tar - Minyatur ( 32 -- 442 ) ( edit ) Elros Tar - Minyatur ( Y.S. 532 -- S.A. 442 , r . S.A. 32 -- 442 ) was one of the Half - elven of Middle - earth who chose to become a mortal man , and was later crowned the first High King of Númenor . He was born in year 532 of the First Age to Eärendil and Elwing . Elros 's name may mean `` Elf of the Spray '' based on a tale from his early childhood . Maedhros and Maglor , in an effort to wrest the Silmaril from Elwing and her people , attacked the settlement at the Mouths of Sirion , slaying many and driving Elwing over the sea . After the battle they found her children , Elros and his twin brother , Elrond , and taking pity on them , they raised them as their foster - children as an act of repentance . They later left them to be found in a cave where Elros was playing in a waterfall at the entrance and his brother was hiding in the back of the cave . Thus he was named `` Elf of the Spray '' . In The Silmarillion , Christopher Tolkien interprets Elros as meaning `` Star - foam '' . As Half - elven , he and his brother were given the choice to be Elves or Men . Elros chose to become one of the Edain , while Elrond elected to remain an Elf . As a reward for the valour of the Edain against the dark forces of Morgoth , the Valar raised an island for them to dwell in , protected from the dangers of Middle - earth . Elros and the surviving Edain set sail over Sea and , guided by the Star of Eärendil , they came to the great Isle of Elenna , westernmost of all Mortal lands . There they founded the realm of Númenor , or Westernesse . The Valar also granted Elros and his heirs substantially longer life - spans . In year 32 of the Second Age Elros became the first King of Númenor , taking the Quenya name Tar - Minyatur , meaning `` High First - ruler '' . This was the convention by which most succeeding kings of Númenor took their royal title . He was the heir to the lordship of all three of the houses of the Edain , whose remnants formed the population of Númenor . As such , he and his descendants possessed heirlooms from great heroes and lords of the First Age : the Ring of Barahir , the Axe of Tuor , the Bow of Bregor , and Aranrúth , the sword of Thingol . He ruled for 410 years until he voluntarily abdicated the throne as well as his life in S.A. 442 , at age 500 . Adûnaic name : Indilzar . II . Vardamir Nólimon ( 442 ) ( edit ) Vardamir Nólimon ( S.A. 61 -- 471 , r . S.A. 442 ) was the oldest child of Elros Tar - Minyatur , and heir to the Kingship of Númenor . His first name means probably `` Lofty Jewel '' and his byname , `` The Knowledgeable '' . He was noted as an exceptional scholar whose only desire was to study , not to rule . His character fitted well in with his extraordinary fate : as the son of a king who had been granted a longer life - span than any other mortal man , Vardamir was never likely to survive Elros by long . When Elros finally died , Vardamir was a very old man , and immediately abdicated in favour of his son , Tar - Amandil . He was counted as the second King of Númenor , having nominally ruled for a single year . He died in S.A. 471 aged 410 years . He had four children : Tar - Amandil ( b . S.A. 192 -- d . S.A. 603 ) , eldest son and successor ; Vardilmë ( b . S.A. 203 ) , daughter ; Aulendil ( b . S.A. 213 ) , son ; Nolondil ( b . S.A. 222 ) , son . Iii . Tar - Amandil ( 442 -- 590 ) ( edit ) Tar - Amandil ( S.A. 192 -- 603 , r . S.A. 442 -- 590 ) was the third King of Númenor , but its second ruler . Tar - Amandil 's father , Vardamir Nólimon , declined to take the throne upon the death of his father , Elros Tar - Minyatur , the grandfather of Tar - Amandil , and so Tar - Amandil is actually the second ruling monarch , but Vardamir Nólimon is still counted in the list of Kings . Tar - Amandil 's name means `` Aman - lover '' . Tar - Amandil abdicated in S.A. 590 and was succeeded by his own son , Tar - Elendil . He died in S.A. 603 at the age of 411 years . Tar - Amandil had three children : Tar - Elendil ( b . S.A. 350 -- d . S.A. 751 ) , his eldest son and successor ; Eärendur ( b . S.A. 361 ) , son ; Mairen ( b . S.A. 377 ) , daughter . Adûnaic name : Ar - Aphanuzîr . Iv . Tar - Elendil ( 590 -- 740 ) ( edit ) Tar - Elendil ( S.A. 350 -- 751 , r . S.A. 590 -- 740 ) was the fourth King of Númenor , succeeding his father Tar - Amandil . He was considered to be a master of lore and a notable scholar . His name in Quenya can mean either ' Elf - Friend ' or ' Star - Lover ' : but it is unlikely that the former would be given as a name when all of the Númenóreans were Elf - friends . The name `` Elendil '' was translated to Adûnaic as ' Nimruzîr ' . His oldest child was Silmariën , a daughter , and his second child was Isilmë , yet another daughter . Silmariën would have become Queen according to the principle of full cognatic primogeniture . However , the laws dictating succession at the time followed the principle of agnatic primogeniture , preventing women from ruling . Consequently , he was succeeded by his third child and oldest son Tar - Meneldur . He is the direct ancestor of all subsequent Kings of Númenor through his son . Through his daughter , Tar - Elendil is direct ancestor to the Lords of Andúnië , the Kings of Gondor , the Kings of Arnor ( and its successor states ) , all the way to the Kings of the Reunited Kingdom . From the time of the reign of Tar - Elendil , Númenóreans began to make contact with Middle - earth more actively . It was in S.A. 600 that Vëantur , the Captain of King 's Ships , sailed from Númenor to the Middle - earth for the first time . Tar - Elendil died in S.A. 751 , at the age of 401 years . Adûnaic name : Ar - Nimruzîr . V. Tar - Meneldur Írimon ( 740 -- 883 ) ( edit ) Tar - Meneldur ( S.A. 543 -- 942 , r . S.A. 740 -- 883 ) was the fifth King of Númenor . His right name was ' Írimon ' , which means ' Man of desire ' in Quenya ; a keen astronomer , Tar - Meneldur took the name of ' Tar - Meneldur ' ( ' Lover of the Heavens ' ) upon his accession . His two older sisters were Silmariën and Isilmë . Tar - Meneldur married Almarian and had three children : Anardil , son ; later known as Aldarion ; Ailinel , daughter -- she would become the mother of Soronto ; Almiel , daughter . During the rule of Tar - Meneldur contact with the Middle Men of Eriador was re-established , guided by the Elves of Lindon , under Gil - galad . Tar - Meneldur encouraged the seafarers , and allowed his son Aldarion to establish a guild of seafarers , which became one of the most powerful organisations in Númenor . Many voyages along the coasts were made at this time , and the first settlements were made in Middle - earth by Númenórean explorers , although none of them permanent yet . These early settlements were however the later cores of Arnor and Gondor , and the re-established contact of Númenóreans with their distant kin allowed the Adûnaic tongue to merge with local , far akin languages , eventually leading to the Westron speech . This would in later years prove to be one of the greatest assets to the power of Númenor in Middle - earth . Near the end of Tar - Meneldur 's rule reports came in that evil began to stir in the east of Middle - earth ( the first awakenings of Sauron , as was later learned ) , and Gil - galad requested the aid of Tar - Meneldur . Recognizing his son Aldarion was more aware of the troubles , and was a powerful leader of men , Meneldur resigned in favour of his son , far earlier than was expected . Meneldur , together with his wife Almarian , attempted to mediate between his son Aldarion and his betrothed , Erendis , who had become estranged . For a time they were successful , and Aldarion and Erendis were wed , but Aldarion soon left again for sea . It was during the long absence in Middle - earth , a time during which Aldarion was instructed by Gil - galad , that Erendis left the royal court for her home . By the time Aldarion returned even Meneldur 's best attempts could not seal the breach . Meneldur died in S.A. 942 , at the age of 399 years . Meneldur 's eldest sister Silmariën would have been Ruling Queen by later changes in the laws . She founded the line of the Lords of Andúnië . Vi . Tar - Aldarion Anardil ( 883 -- 1075 ) ( edit ) Main article : Tar - Aldarion Tar - Aldarion ( S.A. 700 -- 1098 , r . S.A. 883 -- 1075 ) was the sixth King of Númenor , succeeding his father , Tar - Meneldur . Tar - Aldarion is an ambiguous figure in the history of Númenor and the Dúnedain . He was driven , intelligent and capable , usually generous in spirit , often farsighted , and perceptive . Yet he was also self - centred , indifferent to the concerns of others in daily life , and ambitious for greater power . He was away from home for years at a time , and could be said to have neglected his duties as husband , father , and Heir to the Sceptre , his attention was away from home to the point that he knew less of Númenor than the Heir to the Sceptre should . Yet he was the first of the Dúnedain to perceive the rising threat of Sauron , he gave needed aid to the Elven King Gil - galad and laid the foundation for the future alliance of the Elves and the Men of Númenor against Sauron . Without the foundations laid by Aldarion , his descendant Tar - Minastir could not have rescued Middle - earth from utter disaster in the first War of the Rings in the middle of the Second Age . His foresight enabled Númenor to construct a mighty navy without destroying her forest lands , and as King he ruled competently , keeping order at home and expanding Númenor 's strength abroad . However , his domestic failings had their public cost : upon his death his daughter Queen Tar - Ancalimë abandoned his policies of aid to Gil - galad , and let his works lie unmaintained , and her upbringing left her hostile to marriage and domestic life to such a degree that not only was her own personal life blighted , but she brought misery on her female descendants in the first and second degree as well . Also , though Aldarion 's foresight and efforts made it possible for the Dúnedain to prevent disaster , by saving the Elves and northwestern Middle - earth from being overrun by Sauron in the time of Tar - Minastir , his voyages laid the first seed of the ever - growing , driving restlessness that would in time enable the corruption of the Dúnedain , and the hunger for power and glory and immortality that would eventually bring the Downfall of Númenor in S.A. 3319 . His father Tar - Meneldur seems to have instinctively sensed some danger in this , his heart wished to forbid Aldarion 's first great sea voyage , sensing some peril in it that he did not understand , and in later years he consciously came to believe that the voyages of Aldarion and his Guild of Venturers were encouraging the Dúnedain in unhealthy ambitions and desires . The tale of their marriage and estrangement survived the Downfall of Númenor as `` Aldarion and Erendis , or The Mariner 's Wife '' . Adûnaic name : Ar - Balkumagân . Vii . Tar - Ancalimë ( 1075 -- 1280 ) ( edit ) Tar - Ancalimë ( S.A. 873 -- 1285 , r . 1075 -- 1280 ) was the seventh ruler and first Ruling Queen of Númenor . She was the daughter of Aldarion and Erendis and succeeded her father to the throne . Her name means `` Most bright '' . She married the nobleman Hallacar , son of Hallatan of Hyarastorni . Both Tar - Ancalimë and Hallacar were fifth - generation descendants of King Vardamir Nólimon , and the marriage was more one of politics than of love . The Queen aimed to produce an heir in order to secure her throne from her first cousin Soronto . Following the birth of their son , Hallacar and Tar - Ancalimë lived apart . Tar - Ancalimë was raised by her mother Erendis and a childhood companion was Zamîn . Her mother 's tragic married life might have influenced Tar - Ancalimë 's rejection of her husband . She was succeeded by her son , Tar - Anárion . She died in year 1285 of the Second Age , at the age of 412 years . Viii . Tar - Anárion ( 1280 -- 1394 ) ( edit ) Tar - Anárion ( S.A. 1003 -- 1404 , r . S.A. 1280 -- 1394 ) was the eighth ruler of Númenor , succeeding his mother , Tar - Ancalimë . His name means `` Sun - son '' or `` Child of the Sun '' . Little is said about Tar - Anárion 's rule apart from him surrendering the Sceptre in S.A. 1394 . His two eldest children were female , but both declined the throne for uncertain reasons , and they disliked and feared their grandmother Ancalimë , who would refuse to let them marry . Therefore , he was succeeded by his son , Tar - Súrion . Ix . Tar - Súrion ( 1394 -- 1556 ) ( edit ) Tar - Súrion ( S.A. 1174 -- 1574 , r . S.A. 1394 -- 1556 ) was the ninth ruler of Númenor , succeeding his father Tar - Anárion . Tar - Súrion had two older sisters , but they were said to have no interest in ruling , so he became King . His name means `` Wind - son '' . The Elves of Eregion conceived of the forging of the Rings of Power during his reign . He was succeeded by his oldest child , his daughter , Tar - Telperiën . Through his second child and oldest son Isilmo , he was grandfather to Tar - Minastir . X . Tar - Telperiën ( 1556 -- 1731 ) ( edit ) Tar - Telperiën ( S.A. 1320 -- 1731 , r . 1556 -- 1731 ) was the tenth ruler and second Ruling Queen of Númenor . She succeeded her father , King Tar - Súrion ( who was King either because his two elder sisters had no interest in ruling , or because they had been forced to surrender their claims in youth by Tar - Ancalimë ) . Tar - Telperiën ruled for 175 years . During her reign , the Rings of Power were forged , and Sauron conquered Eriador . She appears to have done little to react to these events . She refused to marry and bore no children . She was succeeded by Tar - Minastir , the son of her younger brother , Isilmo ( who it is presumed was already dead ) . According to Tolkien 's `` The Line of Elros , '' she died in year 1731 of the Second Age at the age of 411 years . However , this conflicts with material published in The Lord of the Rings , and elsewhere , stating that Tar - Minastir was king at the time of the Númenórean intervention against Sauron in the year 1700 of the Second Age . Xi . Tar - Minastir ( 1731 -- 1869 ) ( edit ) Tar - Minastir ( S.A. 1474 -- 1873 , r . S.A. 1731 -- 1869 ) was the eleventh ruler of Númenor . He was the son of Isilmo and succeeded his aunt , Queen Tar - Telperiën , when she died . He was the grandson of King Tar - Súrion . His name means `` Tower - watcher '' , which perhaps signifies `` The Vigilant '' . Sauron invaded Eriador from Calenardhon in S.A. 1695 and realms of Eregion fell . Sauron advanced to Lindon and Rivendell . In S.A. 1700 Tar - Minastir sent a navy under the command of Ciryatur , to save Lindon . Ciryatur 's forces stopped Sauron 's army at the river Gwathló ; reinforcements from Lindon and Tharbad helped defeat Sauron at the Battle of Gwathló . Sauron retreated to Mordor in S.A. 1701 . From around the 19th century in the S.A. , Númenóreans began establishing permanent settlements in Middle - earth , including Umbar . He abdicated under pressure from his son in S.A. 1869 who succeeded him as Tar - Ciryatan . Xii . Tar - Ciryatan ( 1869 -- 2029 ) ( edit ) Tar - Ciryatan ( S.A. 1634 -- 2035 , r . S.A. 1869 -- 2029 ) , or Ar - Balkumagân in Adûnaic was the twelfth ruler of Númenor . He succeeded his father , Tar - Minastir , as king . Tar - Ciryatan was a great ship builder , and he waged war upon Middle - earth , bringing its treasures back to Númenor . During his reign the first signs of the Shadow began to fall upon Númenor . His name means `` Ship - builder '' ( see also Círdan ) . He abdicated in S.A. 2029 and was succeeded by his son , Tar - Atanamir . Xiii . Tar - Atanamir the great ( 2029 -- 2221 ) ( edit ) Tar - Atanamir ( S.A. 1800 -- 2221 , r . S.A. 2029 -- 2221 ) , also known as Atanamir the Great , was the thirteenth King of Númenor . He succeeded his father , King Tar - Ciryatan . His name means `` Jewel of Man '' . Tar - Atanamir was the first King to speak out against the Ban of the Valar , and to advocate opposition to the Valar themselves . He was also the first king who was unwilling to give up his throne voluntarily before his death , and to let himself die while he was still strong in mind and body . Death instead took him by force and thus his reign ended . Every king afterwards refused to renounce his reign . His reign is thus generally considered to constitute the beginning of Númenor 's moral decline . He was succeeded by his son , Tar - Ancalimon . Xiv . Tar - Ancalimon ( 2221 -- 2386 ) ( edit ) Tar - Ancalimon ( S.A. 1986 -- 2386 , r . S.A. 2221 -- 2386 ) was the fourteenth ruler of Númenor . His name means `` Most Bright '' . During Tar - Ancalimon 's reign , two opposing parties arose among Númenóreans : the Elf - friends , or Elendili ( also called `` The Faithful '' ) , advocated continuing devotion to the Valar and friendship with the Elves , and the `` King 's Men '' who propounded Man 's independence and self - determination , seeing how they had reached the apex of their might . This split would culminate in the Fall of Númenor . In Tar - Ancalimon 's time the eagles of Manwë that had nested in the royal palace since the earliest days of the kingdom left and returned to Valinor , further evidence of the growing estrangement between Númenor 's rulers and the Valar . Rulers after Tar - Ancalimon also neglected the custom of offering `` first - fruits '' to Eru . Tar - Ancalimon was succeeded by his son , Tar - Telemmaitë . Xv . Tar - Telemmaitë ( 2386 -- 2526 ) ( edit ) Tar - Telemmaitë ( S.A. 2136 -- 2526 , r . S.A. 2386 -- 2526 ) was the 15th ruler of Númenor . He succeeded his father , Tar - Ancalimon , and was succeeded by his daughter , Tar - Vanimeldë . His name means `` Silver - handed '' , reflecting his greed for the precious metal mithril . Xvi . Tar - Vanimeldë ( 2526 -- 2637 ) ( edit ) Tar - Vanimeldë ( S.A. 2277 -- 2637 , r . 2526 -- 2637 ) was the sixteenth ruler and third ruling Queen of Númenor . She was the daughter and heiress of Tar - Telemmaitë . She had little interest in ruling , however , and left the day - to - day chores of monarchy to her husband , the nobleman Herucalmo . Her name means `` Beautiful Beloved '' . Tar - Vanimeldë ruled for 111 years . When she died in 2637 of the Second Age at the age of 360 years , the Kingship should have gone to her son , Tar - Alcarin , but Herucalmo usurped the throne and ruled for twenty years as King Tar - Anducal . His rule was not considered legitimate , and in the official records Vanimeldë was directly followed by Alcarin . * Tar - Anducal ( 2637 -- 2657 ) ( edit ) Tar - Anducal was the ruling name of Herucalmo , the consort to ruling Queen Tar - Vanimeldë of Númenor . He was much younger than his wife . Tar - Vanimeldë had little interest in ruling , and Herucalmo served as her regent . When she died , the throne should have gone to their son , Tar - Alcarin , but Herucalmo usurped the throne and ruled under the name Tar - Anducal ( `` Light of the West '' ) from S.A. 2637 to 2657 . After Tar - Anducal 's death , Tar - Alcarin finally succeeded to his rightful throne . Xvii . Tar - Alcarin ( 2657 -- 2737 ) ( edit ) Tar - Alcarin ( S.A. 2406 -- 2737 , r . S.A. 2657 -- 2737 ) was the seventeenth ruler of Númenor . His parents were the ruling Queen , Tar - Vanimeldë , and her consort , Herucalmo . Tar - Alcarin should have succeeded his mother upon her death , but Herucalmo usurped the throne and held it for twenty years before he died , and Tar - Alcarin rightfully gained the throne . His name means `` Glorious '' . The period in which he ruled was still a mostly peaceful one in Númenor , but in Middle - earth Sauron ruled the lands , and the shadow had fallen on Númenor as well . Herucalmo 's usurping of the throne was generally considered an evil deed by the people . Tar - Alcarin ruled for eighty years , then was succeeded by his son , Tar - Calmacil . Xviii . Tar - Calmacil ( 2737 -- 2825 ) ( edit ) Tar - Calmacil ( S.A. 2516 -- 2825 , r . S.A. 2737 -- 2825 ) , was the eighteenth ruler of Númenor . He succeeded his father , Tar - Alcarin , as King . His name means `` Bright Sword '' , which he took in recognition of the territorial victories he had in Middle - earth as a renowned captain of Númenor . He was also as the first King to have recorded an Adûnaic equivalent of his name : Ar - Belzagar . This signalled the rise of a faction known as the King 's Men who were opposed to the Ban of the Valar . There is a discrepancy in Tolkien 's writings as to Tar - Calmacil 's successor : Tar - Ardamin , his son , or Ar - Adûnakhôr , his grandson . Specifically , in Appendix A of The Lord of the Rings , Ar - Adûnakhôr is listed as his successor , but in the more expanded `` Line of Elros : Kings of Númenor '' from Unfinished Tales , he is succeeded by Tar - Ardamin . Christopher Tolkien suggests that the name was accidentally omitted . Adûnaic name : Ar - Belzagar . Tar - Calmacil was the first Ruler to officially use an Adûnaic name . Xix . Tar - Ardamin ( 2825 -- 2899 ) ( edit ) Tar - Ardamin ( S.A. 2618 -- 2899 , r . S.A. 2825 -- 2899 ) , Ar - Abattârik in Adûnaic , is sometimes listed in the list of rulers of Númenor but is sometimes omitted . He was the son of King Tar - Calmacil , and if he is counted as one of the rulers , then he is the nineteenth in the line of rulers . In Adûnaic his name means `` Pillar of the World '' ; in Quenya , it may mean `` First of the World '' . Tar - Ardamin is omitted in the list of rulers of Númenor in Appendix A of The Lord of the Rings , but is mentioned briefly in Unfinished Tales . J.R.R. Tolkien 's son Christopher , who compiled and edited Unfinished Tales , speculates in an endnote to the chapter `` The Line of Elros : Kings of Númenor '' that while Tolkien may have had a reason behind the omission that he never elaborated on , a simple textual error is more likely , as the numbering of the kings was never altered . Tar - Ardamin 's son , Ar - Adûnakhôr , is generally counted as the twentieth ruler . Tar - Ardamin is omitted from the list published in The Lord of the Rings , but he does appear in Unfinished Tales . In Appendix A of The Lord of the Rings , Tar - Calmacil was followed by Ar - Adûnakhôr . His name was apparently dropped in error . Xx . Ar - Adûnakhôr ( Tar - Herunúmen ) ( 2899 -- 2962 ) ( edit ) Ar - Adûnakhôr ( S.A. 2709 -- 2962 , r . S.A. 2899 -- 2962 ) was the twentieth ruler of Númenor . He opposed the Valar , and thus took his official name in the Adûnaic tongue instead of using the traditional Quenya form Tar - Herunúmen . The name he choose was considered by some as blasphemous -- in both languages it means `` Lord of the West '' , a title reserved for Manwë , Lord of the Valar . There is some question as to whether Ar - Adûnakhôr succeeded his father , Tar - Ardamin , as King , or his grandfather , Tar - Calmacil , but the numbering of the rulers includes Tar - Ardamin in the count . Specifically , Tar - Ardamin does not appear at all in The Lord of the Rings appendices , but he does appear in the chapter `` The Line of Elros '' from Unfinished Tales . He was succeeded by his son , Ar - Zimrathôn . Xxi . Ar - Zimrathôn ( 2962 -- 3033 ) ( edit ) Ar - Zimrathôn ( S.A. 2798 -- 3033 , r . S.A. 2962 -- 3033 ) was the twenty - first ruler of Númenor . Like his father Ar - Adûnakhôr , Ar - Zimrathôn opposed the Valar , and he took his name in the Adûnaic tongue rather than in the traditional Quenya . But Númenórean scholars recorded his Quenya name Tar - Hostamir so as to not offend the Valar . His name in both languages means `` Jewel Gatherer '' , perhaps implying a greedy nature . Ar - Zimrathôn ruled Númenor for seventy - one years , and was succeeded by his son , Ar - Sakalthôr . Xxii . Ar - Sakalthôr ( 3033 -- 3102 ) ( edit ) Ar - Sakalthôr ( S.A. 2876 -- 3102 , r . S.A. 3033 -- 3102 ) was the twenty - second ruler of Númenor . He followed the royal tradition of turning away from the ways of the Valar . He succeeded his father Ar - Zimrathôn as King , ruling Númenor for sixty - nine years , and was succeeded by his son , Ar - Gimilzôr . The traditional Quenya version of his name was `` Tar - Falassion '' . It means `` Shore - son '' or `` Child of the Shore '' . Xxiii . Ar - Gimilzôr ( 3102 -- 3177 ) ( edit ) Ar - Gimilzôr ( S.A. 2960 -- 3177 , r . S.A. 3102 -- 3177 ) was the twenty - third ruler of Númenor , succeeding his father Ar - Sakalthôr as King . During his reign Ar - Gimilzôr persecuted the Elf - friends ( Elendili ) , who called for the return of the Númenóreans to the ways of the Valar and the Elves . Use of Elvish was forbidden in Númenor by his order in c . S.A. 3110 . His regnal name was recorded as Tar - Telemnar ( `` Silver - flame '' ) , the Quenya version of his name , a custom meant not to offend the Valar . Ar - Gimilzôr 's wife , Inzilbêth , was secretly an Elf - friend , and she passed on her ways to their son , Tar - Palantir . She was the daughter of Lindórië , who was herself a descendant of Tar - Elendil , the fourth king of Númenor , and also of Tar - Calmacil . Their second son , Gimilkhâd , opposed his elder brother 's policies . In an earlier version her father is shown as Gimilzagar , the second son of Tar - Calmacil . However , this would make Inzilbêth at least 400 years old at the time of her marriage ; despite the long lives of the members of Númenórean royal line , Inzilbêth must have been further removed from Gimilzagar or else the Gimilzagar referred to as her father was not the same Gimilzagar as the son of Tar - Calmacil . Quenya name : Tar - Telemnar . Xxiv . Tar - Palantir ( 3177 -- 3255 ) ( edit ) Tar - Palantir ( S.A. 3035 -- 3255 , r . S.A. 3177 -- 3255 ) was the twenty - fourth ruler of Númenor . His Adûnaic name was Ar - Inziladûn , which means `` Flower of the West '' . Tar - Palantir 's father , Ar - Gimilzôr , whom he succeeded , was an opponent of the Valar and the Elves . But Inzilbêth , the queen , taught her son to be an Elf - friend . Ar - Inziladûn took power in a time of great darkness in Númenor ; ever since Tar - Atanamir , every king had spoken against the Valar and questioned the policies laid out to them . Palantir , however , sought to repent the actions of his predecessors ; he once again tended the White Tree and followed the ancient practices . He had prophesied that the White Tree was tied with the line of the Kings ; should it die , then the line of the Kings would in turn die out . However , there was no response from the Valar ; and Eressëa could not be seen from the tower of Tar - Minastir . A name in Quenya was inscribed in the Scrolls , as was with ancient practices . Palantir in Quenya means `` far sighted , '' as Palantir indeed saw the destruction that would come to Númenor if it kept going down the path it was on . His daughter , Míriel , was his official successor and would have followed his policies , but her rightful place as Queen of Númenor was usurped by her cousin , Ar - Pharazôn . * Tar - Míriel ( edit ) Adûnaic name : Ar - Zimraphel . As the eldest child and according to laws of succession changed since the reign of Tar - Aldarion , Míriel was the rightful Queen , but was forced to wed her cousin Ar - Pharazôn who usurped the throne . Míriel was the daughter of King Tar - Palantir , and the rightful heir of Númenor . She was likely named after Míriel Þerindë , the first wife of Finwe . She should have been Ruling Queen , but her cousin Ar - Pharazôn forced her to marry him so that he himself would gain the title of King , and in effect he usurped the throne . He changed her name to Ar - Zimraphel ( as Ruling Queen she would have preferred the Quenya Tar - ; she would have been Tar - Míriel ) . That she was given her own royal name may imply that she was , technically speaking , considered equal or even higher than her husband , but in all reality he stole the sceptre from her . When Eru Ilúvatar sank Númenor , Míriel attempted to ascend Meneltarma , trying to reach the Hallow on the summit ( presumably she hoped to address Eru and / or the Valar in prayer ) . However , the great wave that rolled over the sinking land overtook her , and she drowned before reaching the summit . Xxv . Ar - Pharazôn ( 3255 -- 3319 ) ( edit ) Ar - Pharazôn the Golden ( S.A. 3118 -- 3319 , r . S.A. 3255 -- 3319 ) , Tar - Calion in Quenya , was the twenty - fifth and last king of Númenor . Ar - Pharazôn was the nephew of King Tar - Palantir and took to wife Tar - Palantir 's daughter , Míriel ( against her will as well as Númenórean law ) . Ar - Pharazôn was the most powerful of all the kings of Númenor . With a great fleet he landed at Umbar , marched on Mordor and took Sauron as a prisoner back to Númenor . Sauron eventually corrupted Ar - Pharazôn , and the king built the `` greatest armament that the world had seen '' to attack Valinor in S.A. 3310 and broke the Ban of the Valar . The King himself perished in the cataclysm that followed , although in the Akallabêth account of this it states that `` Ar - Pharazôn and his mortal warriors who had set foot on Aman were buried by falling hills , imprisoned in the Caves of the Forgotten until the Last Battle and Day of Doom . '' After Ar - Pharazôn , who perished in the Downfall of Númenor , the direct line of Kings was broken . Númenórean rule continued in Middle - earth through the Dúnedain kingdoms of Arnor and Gondor established by Elendil , son of the last Lord of Andúnië , senior surviving descendant of Elros through Silmariën , the daughter of Tar - Elendil , and his heirs . Ruling Queens of Númenor ( edit ) In J.R.R. Tolkien 's Middle - earth legendarium , the Ruling Queens of Númenor were Dúnedain women who ruled the kingdom of Númenor . Out of Númenor 's twenty - five rulers , only three were female . Although the females in Tolkien 's writings generally have less ruling authority than the males , the laws of Númenor were ahead of their time in this fictitious universe . The first monarchy to adopt absolute primogeniture ( Sweden ) did not do so until 1980 . In the early days of Númenor , succession followed the principle of agnatic primogeniture -- that is , rule passed to the oldest male offspring of the King , and expressly forbade the succession of women or cognatic descendants . A similar principle was used by the High Kings of the Noldorin Elves , with whom the Edain of Númenor had had extensive dealings . Silmariën ( born S.A. 521 ) , the progenitor of the line of the Lords of Andúnië -- from which the Kings of Gondor and Arnor later sprung -- was the oldest child of King Tar - Elendil . Under the laws at the time , women were not allowed to rule , so she was passed over in favour of her younger brother , Tar - Meneldur . Nevertheless , Silmariën is one of the most significant of Númenor 's royal family , as she presumably inherited both the sword Narsil and the Ring of Barahir from Tar - Elendil , her father , as these were handed down to her descendants , the Lords of Andúnië and later the Kings of Gondor and Arnor : it is to be presumed that her father , at least , considered her to have a good , maybe even rightful , claim to the throne . Silmariën also probably commissioned the creation of other precious heirlooms to survive into the Fourth Age : the Sceptre of Andúnië , which after the Downfall became the Sceptre of Arnor , and the Star of Elendil , which likewise became a token of royalty in Arnor . Tar - Aldarion , the sixth ruler of Númenor , had only one child : a daughter , Ancalimë . He changed the law to allow absolute primogeniture , under which rule would pass to the oldest child of the ruler , whether male or female . The change of the law is referred to in The Lord of the Rings , Appendix A : `` The sixth King left only one child , a daughter . She became the first Queen ; for it was then made a law of the royal house that the eldest child of the King , whether man or woman , should receive the sceptre . '' This revised law was at first only valid if the daughter married and produced an heir by a certain age , and if she married another member of the royal family ( partially to prevent another marriage as disastrous as that between Tar - Aldarion and Erendis -- the failure of which Aldarion attributed to her lack of royal blood , and the attendant life - span disparity ; but also to prevent control of the crown passing into the hands of another family ) . The former law was later dropped ; the latter endured until the end of the realm . However , the Ruling Queens could choose not to get married at all ( see Tar - Telperiën ) . Ruling Queens in Gondor and Arnor ( edit ) After the destruction of Númenor , the surviving Númenóreans ( led by descendants of Silmariën ) founded the kingdoms of Arnor and Gondor in Middle - earth . At that point , cognatic primogeniture seems to have been abandoned ; none of the rulers of Arnor or Gondor were women , and in the case of Anárion 's children the youngest child Meneldil received the throne , as his older siblings were women . Queen Berúthiel of Gondor , although certainly formidable , was a Queen - consort , and therefore did not rule , at least officially ( and in the event her husband proved his executive superiority over her ) . Arvedui of Arthedain suggested that cognatic primogeniture was abandoned due to the frequent wars in which the Realms in Exile were embroiled . In T.A. 1945 , Arvedui -- who was married to Fíriel , daughter and only surviving child of King Ondoher -- invoked the old Númenórean law to claim that he ( not his wife ) should be granted the throne . In fact , though , his wife 's claims were merely supplementary : his main argument was that his father as heir to the High - Kingship exercised authority over Gondor , and that accordingly in the absence of a close male heir to the dead King , the crown reverted to the High - King , or in this case to his heir ( since he was married to the rightful heiress ) . It was this scorning of Gondorian independence which so annoyed the Southerners as to refuse the couple 's claims : had the throne been claimed by Fíriel herself , or in her name only , there might have been different results . Instead , the Steward Pelendur gave the throne to Eärnil II , a prominent general , and a distant relative of the deceased Ondoher . Eärnil II was a direct male - line descendant of King Telumehtar Umbardacil ( Eärnil 's father was Siriondil , son of Calimmacil , son of Arciryas , son of Telumehtar ) . The Kingship eventually passed to Fíriel 's line , in the person of King Aragorn Elessar . Line of Elros family Tree ( edit ) Below is an incomplete family tree of the Line of Elros as compiled from information in Unfinished Tales . Elros Tar - Minyatur F.A. 525 -- S.A. 442 Vardamir Nólimon S.A. 61 -- 471 Tindómiel Manwendil Atanalcar Tar - Amandil S.A. 192 -- 603 Vardilmë S.A. 203 -- ? Aulendil S.A. 213 -- ? Nolondil S.A. 222 -- ? Tar - Elendil S.A. 350 -- 751 Eärendur S.A. 361 -- ? Mairen S.A. 377 -- ? Silmariën S.A. 521 -- ? ( See Lords of Andúnië ) Isilmë S.A. 532 -- ? Tar - Meneldur S.A. 543 -- 942 Tar - Aldarion S.A. 700 - 1098 Ailinel S.A. 712 -- ? Almiel S.A. 729 -- ? Tar - Ancalimë S.A. 873 -- 1285 Tar - Anárion S.A. 1003 -- 1404 Daughter Daughter Tar - Súrion S.A. 1174 -- 1574 Tar - Telperiën S.A. 1320 -- 1731 Isilmo Tar - Minastir S.A. 1474 -- 1873 Tar - Ciryatan S.A. 1634 -- 2035 Tar - Atanamir S.A. 1800 -- 2221 Tar - Ancalimon S.A. 1986 -- 2386 Tar - Telemmaitë S.A. 2136 -- 2536 Tar - Vanimeldë S.A. 2277 -- 2637 Tar - Anducal Tar - Alcarin S.A. 2406 -- 2737 Tar - Calmacil S.A. 2516 -- 2825 Tar - Ardamin S.A. 2618 -- 2899 Gimilzagar Ar - Adûnakhôr S.A. 2709 -- 2962 Ar - Zimrathôn S.A. 2798 -- 3033 Lords of Andúnië Ar - Sakalthôr S.A. 2876 -- 3102 Inzilbêth Ar - Gimilzôr S.A. 2960 -- 3177 Tar - Palantir S.A. 3035 -- 3255 Gimilkhâd Tar - Míriel S.A. 3117 -- 3319 Ar - Pharazôn S.A. 3118 -- 3319 Vardamir Nólimon Aulendil Vardilmë Tar - Amandil Nolondil Tar - Elendil Mairen Vëantur Eärendur Yávien Oromendil Axantur Elatan Silmariën Isilmë Tar - Meneldur Almarian Caliondo Lindissë Cemendur Ardamir Valandil Orchaldor Ailinel Tar - Aldarion Erendis Almiel Malantur Hallatan Írildë Soronto Tar - Ancalimë Hallacar Nessanië Tar - Anárion See also ( edit ) Middle - earth portal Númenor Edain Aman Notes ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : J.R.R. Tolkien ( 1994 ) . `` The Tale of Years of the First Age '' . In Christopher Tolkien . The War of the Jewels . Boston & New York : Houghton Mifflin . pp. 342 -- 354 . ISBN 0 - 395 - 71041 - 3 . Elrond and Elros are born in the same year , 532 of the Years of the Sun in the First Age . Jump up ^ J.E.A. Taylor ( 1976 ) The Tolkien Companion pp 146 -- 147 Jump up ^ J.R.R. Tolkien , Christopher Tolkien editor , Unfinished Tales of Númenor and Middle - earth ( 2001 ) , p. 171 Jump up ^ `` Tar - Calmacil '' . The Encyclopedia of Arda . Jump up ^ In the earliest version of the tale of the Fall of Númenor ( in The Lost Road and Other Writings ) , Míriel 's name is Tar - Ilien . Jump up ^ The Tale of Years as published in The Lord of the Rings gives Silmariën a birthdate of S.A. 548 , but it is clear that Silmariën was the oldest child of Tar - Elendil , while that of her sister Isilmë is fixed at 532 and her brother at 543 . The reason for this apparent error is that her birthdate was changed from 548 to 521 , but this revision was missed in the Tale of Years ( see Timeline of Arda ) . ( hide ) J.R.R. Tolkien 's legendarium Writings Principal works The Silmarillion The Hobbit The Lord of the Rings The Fellowship of the Ring The Two Towers The Return of the King Other works The Adventures of Tom Bombadil The Road Goes Ever On Posthumous publications Unfinished Tales The Letters of J.R.R. Tolkien The History of Middle - earth ( 12 volumes ) Bilbo 's Last Song The Children of Húrin The History of The Hobbit The Tale of Beren and Lúthien The Fall of Gondolin Fictional universe Characters Peoples Individual Dwarves Individual Elves Individual Hobbits Hobbit families Individual Númenóreans Individual Orcs Kings of Arnor House of Isildur Rangers of the North Arvedui Aragorn Eldarion Kings of Dale Kings of Gondor House of Anárion Eärnil II Kings of Rohan Éomer Théoden Rulers of Númenor Realms Objects Rings of Power One Ring Three Rings Palantír Silmarils Mithril Weapons and armour Sting Concepts Cosmology Ages or timeline Animals Plants Food and drink Wars and battles Rivers Anduin Roads Languages Magic Hobbit Day Secondary works and legacy The Atlas of Middle - earth The Complete Guide to Middle - earth A Guide to Middle - earth The Individuated Hobbit J.R.R. Tolkien : Author of the Century J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia Journeys of Frodo The Lord of the Rings : A Reader 's Companion Images of Middle - Earth Related fiction video games Things named after Tolkien and his works Tolkien 's Ring Tolkien : A Look Behind `` The Lord of the Rings '' External links ( edit ) A History and Complete Chronology of Númenor - A detailed chronology of Númenor , its successor states and their rulers . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= List_of_rulers_of_Númenor&oldid = 837080356 '' Categories : Lists of Middle - earth characters Lists of fictional characters by occupation Lists of fictional monarchs Fictional family trees Fictional queens Middle - earth rulers Hidden categories : All articles that may contain original research Articles that may contain original research from March 2015 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Languages Български Čeština Español Français Italiano ქართული Magyar Nederlands Norsk Polski Русский Slovenščina Svenska Türkçe 文言 中文 7 more Edit links This page was last edited on 18 April 2018 , at 16 : 01 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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who wrote the dong mary did you know

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Mary_Had_a_Little_Lamb&oldid=813760915

Mary had a Little lamb - wikipedia Mary had a Little lamb Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the nursery rhyme . For other uses , see Mary Had a Little Lamb ( disambiguation ) . `` Mary Had a Little Lamb '' Illustration by William Wallace Denslow Nursery rhyme Published May 24 , 1830 Songwriter ( s ) Sarah Josepha Hale , John Roulstone `` Mary Had a Little Lamb '' is an English language nursery rhyme of nineteenth - century American origin . It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 7622 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Background 2 Text 3 Influence 4 Media 5 Uses of the music 6 See also 7 References Background ( edit ) The Redstone School ( 1798 ) , now in Sudbury , Massachusetts , is believed to be the schoolhouse mentioned in the nursery rhyme . The nursery rhyme was first published by the Boston publishing firm Marsh , Capen & Lyon , as an poem by Sarah Josepha Hale on May 24 , 1830 , and was possibly inspired by an actual incident . There are competing theories on the origin and inspiration of this poem . One holds that John Roulstone wrote the first four lines and that the final twelve lines , less childlike than the first , were composed by Sarah Josepha Hale ; others claim that Hale was responsible for the entire poem . As a young girl , Mary Sawyer ( later Mary Tyler ) kept a pet lamb that she took to school one day at the suggestion of her brother . A commotion naturally ensued . Mary recalled : `` Visiting school that morning was a young man by the name of John Roulstone , a nephew of the Reverend Lemuel Capen , who was then settled in Sterling . It was the custom then for students to prepare for college with ministers , and for this purpose Roulstone was studying with his uncle . The young man was very much pleased with the incident of the lamb ; and the next day he rode across the fields on horseback to the little old schoolhouse and handed me a slip of paper which had written upon it the three original stanzas of the poem ... '' Mary Sawyer 's house , located in Sterling , Massachusetts , was destroyed by arson on August 12 , 2007 . A statue representing Mary 's Little Lamb stands in the town center . The Redstone School , which was built in 1798 , was purchased by Henry Ford and relocated to a churchyard on the property of Longfellow 's Wayside Inn in Sudbury , Massachusetts . Text ( edit ) In the 1830s , Lowell Mason set the nursery rhyme to a melody adding repetition in the verses , starting with `` Mary had a little lamb , little lamb , little lamb , Mary had a little lamb whose fleece was white as snow . Influence ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( May 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) William Wallace Denslow 's illustrations for Mary had a little lamb , from a 1901 edition of Mother Goose The rhyme was the first audio recorded by Thomas Edison on his newly invented phonograph in 1877 . It was the first instance of recorded verse . In 1927 , Edison reenacted the recording , which still survives . The earliest recording ( 1878 ) was retrieved by 3D imaging equipment in 2012 . Blues musicians Buddy Guy and Stevie Ray Vaughan both recorded the song : Guy composing his own bluesy version of the song for his album A Man and the Blues in 1968 and Vaughan covering Guy 's version in his 1983 debut album , Texas Flood , with both also infusing the first four lines of the nursery rhyme , `` A-Tisket , A-Tasket '' , into the song . In 1972 , Paul McCartney released a version of the song . Just as he had done with the 16th - century poem Golden Slumbers which was released on The Beatles ' Abbey Road LP in 1969 , he added his own melody to the lyrics . The single was a top 20 hit in Britain although both the choice for and the saccharine arrangement of `` Mary Had a Little Lamb '' did much to erode his standing with leading rock journalists . McCartney played the song during Wings ' 1972 summer tour and it was included in the Spring 1973 James Paul McCartney television special . It is commercially available on the 1993 CD issue of the Wings Wild Life LP . Media ( edit ) Note : This melody is the British version , which is slightly different from the American version . Mary Had a Little Lamb Male singing the first verses of `` Mary Had a Little Lamb '' . Problems playing this file ? See media help . Uses of the music ( edit ) The first Korean musical road , created using grooves cut into the ground and intended to help motorists stay alert and awake plays `` Mary Had a Little Lamb '' and took four days to construct . It can be found close to Anyang , Gyeonggi , South Korea . See also ( edit ) Children 's literature portal Find more aboutMary Had a Little Lambat Wikipedia 's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Learning resources from Wikiversity List of nursery rhymes References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Full text of Poems for our children : including Mary had a little lamb : designed for families , Sabbath schools , and infant schools : written to inculcate moral truths and virtuous sentiments Jump up ^ Mary Had A Little Lamb . Song Facts Jump up ^ Roulstone , John ; Mary ( Sawyer ) and her friends ( 1928 ) . The Story of Mary 's Little Lamb . Dearborn : Mr. & Mrs. Henry Ford . p. 8 . Jump up ^ `` Sterling fire called arson '' . Worcester Telegram & Gazette News . August 14 , 2007 . Retrieved 2014 - 06 - 14 . Jump up ^ Bronze of lamb . The 2 - foot - tall statue and historical marker are on the town common in Sterling , Massachusetts . Jump up ^ `` LOWELL MASON , `` Mary Lamb '' ( music ) in Juvenile Lyre , Or , Hymns and Songs , Religious , Moral , and Cheerful , Set to Appropriate Music , For the Use of Primary and Common Schools , Boston : Richardson , Lord & Holbrook ; Hartford , H. & F.J. Huntington , -- Richards `` . Forgotten Chapters of Boston 's Literary History . Retrieved 2014 - 06 - 14 . ^ Jump up to : Matthew Rubery , ed. ( 2011 ) . `` Introduction '' . Audiobooks , Literature , and Sound Studies . Routledge . pp. 1 -- 21 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 88352 - 8 . Jump up ^ Thomas Edison ( 30 November 1926 ) . `` Mary had a little lamb '' -- via Internet Archive . Jump up ^ Grondahl , Paul ( 2012 - 10 - 26 ) . `` Hear the earliest known recording of voice , music '' . Timesunion.com . Retrieved 2014 - 06 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` Mary Had a Little Lamb '' . Jump up ^ Choo , Joohee ; Lee , Rebecca ( 29 November 2007 ) . `` Singing Streets and Melody Roads '' . ABC News . Retrieved 8 May 2012 . ( hide ) Nursery rhymes ( list ) `` A-Tisket , A-Tasket '' `` Baa , Baa , Black Sheep '' `` Did You Ever See a Lassie ? '' `` Hey Diddle Diddle '' `` Hickory Dickory Dock '' `` Hot Cross Buns '' `` Humpty Dumpty '' `` I 'm a Little Teapot '' `` It 's Raining , It 's Pouring '' `` Jack and Jill '' `` Little Bo Peep '' `` Little Boy Blue '' `` Little Jack Horner '' `` Little Miss Muffet '' `` Mary Had a Little Lamb '' `` Mary , Mary , Quite Contrary '' `` Old King Cole '' `` Old MacDonald Had a Farm '' `` Old Mother Hubbard '' `` Old Woman Who Lived in a Shoe '' `` Peter Piper '' `` Polly Put the Kettle On '' `` Poor Mary '' `` Pop Goes the Weasel '' `` Pussy Cat Pussy Cat '' `` Rain Rain Go Away '' `` Roses Are Red '' `` Rub - a-dub - dub '' `` Simple Simon '' `` Sticks and Stones '' `` The Grand Old Duke of York '' `` The Queen of Hearts '' `` Twinkle , Twinkle , Little Star '' `` Two Little Dickie Birds '' Clapping `` A Sailor Went to Sea '' `` Down Down Baby '' `` Mary Mack '' `` Miss Susie '' `` Miss Lucy '' `` Pat - a-cake '' `` Pretty Little Dutch Girl '' `` Pease Porridge Hot '' Counting `` Duck , duck , goose '' `` Eeny , meeny , miny , moe '' `` One , Two , Buckle My Shoe '' `` One , Two , Three , Four , Five '' `` This Old Man '' `` Tinker , Tailor '' Finger - plays `` Five Little Monkeys '' `` Five Little Ducks '' `` Five Little Speckled Frogs '' `` Itsy Bitsy Spider '' `` Little Robin Redbreast '' `` Round and Round the Garden '' `` This Little Piggy '' Games `` London Bridge '' `` The Muffin Man '' `` Mulberry Bush '' `` Oranges and Lemons '' `` Ring a Ring o ' Roses '' `` The Farmer in the Dell '' Riddle `` As I was going to St Ives '' Lullabies `` Hush , Little Baby '' `` Rock - a-bye Baby '' Rounds `` Ding Dong Bell '' `` Frère Jacques '' `` Kookaburra '' `` Row , Row , Row Your Boat '' `` Scotland 's Burning '' `` Three Blind Mice '' Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mary_Had_a_Little_Lamb&oldid=813760915 '' Categories : Songs about animals Fictional sheep American nursery rhymes Songs about women Hidden categories : All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2017 Articles needing additional references from May 2017 All articles needing additional references Articles with unsourced statements from September 2015 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from May 2017 Articles with hAudio microformats Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikisource Español Français 한국어 Italiano עברית മലയാളം 日本 語 Português Русский Simple English 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 5 December 2017 , at 03 : 08 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

1504052370161796099

what was left of spain's empire by 1914

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=History_of_Palau&oldid=830579133

History of Palau - wikipedia History of Palau Jump to : navigation , search Republic of Palau hide This article has multiple issues . Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages ) This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( November 2013 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This article includes a list of references , but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations . Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations . ( November 2013 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Palau was initially settled around 1000 BC . For the first time , Palau was probably sighted by Europeans early as 1522 , when the Spanish mission of the Trinidad , the flagship of Ferdinand Magellan 's voyage of circumnavigation , sighted two small islands around the 5th parallel north , naming them `` San Juan '' without visiting them . Palau was truly discovered by the Europeans on 28 December 1696 when the first map of Palau was drawn by the Czech missionary Paul Klein based on a description given by a group of Palauans shipwrecked on the Philippine coast on Samar . This map and a letter sent to Europe by Klein in June 1697 had a vast impact on the surge of interest in Palau . It resulted in the first and failed the Jesuit attempts to travel to the islands from the Philippines in 1700 , 1708 and 1709 . The islands were first visited by the Jesuit expedition led by Francisco Padilla on 30 November 1710 , only to leave 2 stranded priests Jacques Du Beron and Joseph Cortyl on the coast of Sonsorol , while the mother ship Santissima Trinidad was being swept away by a storm . Subsequent attempts to save Du Beron and Cortyl learned that they were killed and eaten by the locals . After further attempts , Palau islands were made part of the Spanish East Indies in 1885 . Following Spain 's defeat in the Spanish -- American War in 1898 , the islands were sold to Imperial Germany in 1899 under the terms of the German -- Spanish Treaty , where they were administered as part of German New Guinea . British traders became prominent visitors in the 18th century , followed by expanding Spanish influence in the 19th century . Following its defeat in the Spanish -- American War , Spain sold Palau and most of the rest of the Caroline Islands to Germany in 1899 . Control passed to Japan in 1914 and during World War II the islands were taken by the United States in 1944 , with the costly Battle of Peleliu between September 15 and November 25 with more than 2,000 Americans and 10,000 Japanese killed . The islands passed formally to the United States under United Nations auspices in 1947 as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands . Four of the Trust Territory districts formed a single federated Micronesian state in 1979 , but the districts of Palau and the Marshall Islands declined to participate . Palau , the westernmost cluster of the Caroline Islands , instead opted for independent status in 1978 , approved a new constitution and became the Republic of Palau in 1981 , and signed a Compact of Free Association with the United States in 1982 . After eight referendums and an amendment to the Palauan constitution , the Compact was ratified in 1993 and went into effect on October 1 , 1994 , marking Palau independent de jure ( after Palau was independent de facto since May 25 , 1994 , when the trusteeship cancelled ) . Legislation making Palau an `` offshore '' financial center was passed by the Senate in 1998 . In 2001 , Palau passed its first bank regulation and anti-money laundering laws . Contents ( hide ) 1 Archaeology 2 Pre-contact 3 European contact and discovery in 1696 4 Spanish rule 5 German era 6 Japanese mandate 7 World War II 8 Post-war development 9 See also 10 References 11 External links Archaeology ( edit ) Carbon dating of cave burials show a pygmy population , presumably the result of insular dwarfism , from at least 3,000 , and perhaps as long as 4,500 years ago until about 900 years ago ( 1000 -- 2500 BCE until ca . 1100 CE ) . Pre-contact ( edit ) The Palauan language is an outlier among the Austronesian languages , and so does not shed much light on the origins of the modern population . However , there are some indications that it may derive from the Sunda Islands ( modern Indonesia ) . For thousands of years , Palauans have had a well established matrilineal society , believed to have descended from Javanese precedents . Traditionally land , money , and titles passed through the female line . Only High Ranking Women ( Queens ) hand picked the High Chiefs . Clan lands continue to be passed through titled women and first daughters but there is also a modern patrilineal sentiment introduced by imperial Japan . The Japanese government attempted to confiscate and redistribute tribal land into personal ownership during World War II , and there has been little attempt to restore the old order . Legal entanglements continue amongst the various clans . European contact and discovery in 1696 ( edit ) View of part of the town of Pelew , and the place of Council , 1788 There still is a debate whether the islands were or were not seen by some of the early European discoverers in the 16th century . Historians take note of the early navigational routes of European explorers in the Pacific . There is disagreement as to whether Spaniard Ruy López de Villalobos , who landed in several Caroline Islands , spotted the Palau archipelago in 1543 . No conclusive evidence exists , but some believe he could have seen the tip of a southernmost island in the group . Nevertheless , the true and conscious discovery of Palau came a century later in December 1696 , when a group of islanders shipwrecked on the Philippines island of Samar . They were intervied by the Czech missionary Paul Klein on 28 December 1696 . Klein was not only able to draw the first map of Palau based on a drawing and a set of pebbles on the beach but also to send an important letter in June 1697 to Europe . This map and the letter caused a vast interest in the new islands and resulted in the first and failed Jesuit attempts to travel to Palau from the Philippines in 1700 , 1708 and 1709 . The islands were first visited by the Jesuit expedition led by Francisco Padilla on 30 November 1710 , only to leave two stranded priests Jacques Du Beron and Joseph Cortyl on the coast of Sonsorol , while the mother ship Santissima Trinidad was being swept away by a storm . Spain later started to dominate the islands . Palau had also limited relations with the exterior before the 18th century , mainly with Yap and Java . Had it not been for shipwrecked islanders who took refuge in the Philippines in 1696 , Europeans likely would not have found Palau until much later . Englishman Henry Wilson , captain of the East India Company 's packet ship Antelope , was shipwrecked off the island of Ulong in 1783 . The High Chief of ( Koror ) Palau allowed Captain Wilson to take his son , Prince Lee Boo , to England , where he arrived in 1784 . However , the prince died soon after of smallpox . The East India Company erected a monument over his grave in St Mary 's Churchyard , Rotherhithe . It was Wilson who gave the archipelago the name `` Pelew Islands '' . Spanish rule ( edit ) Aba Thule , King of Palau , 1883 Map of 1888 showing the Spanish East Indies , including Palau Islands ( map without Philippines ) In the late 19th century , possession of the islands was claimed by Britain , Spain , and Imperial Germany . In 1885 , the matter was brought to Pope Leo XIII for a decision . The Pope recognized the Spanish claim , but granted economic concessions to Britain and Germany . Palau then became part of the Spanish East Indies , along with the Mariana Islands , the Marshall Islands . and the rest of the Caroline Islands . They were all administered from the Philippines . Under the Spanish administration , Palau underwent its first forms of extreme foreign influence . Catholicism is the most highlighted amongst all these forms , having been introduced to the native population and accepted rather easily , despite the fact that Palauans were ardent followers of their traditional faith . Elements from the Spanish language were also integrated into the Palauan lexicon ; the Palauan word for hammer , `` martiliong '' , is derived from the Spanish martillo . Even with these forms of influence , Palau has predominantly very little influence from the Spanish occupation compared to other islands within the region , such as Guam . This is partly due to the reason that , aside from Spanish Jesuit missionaries , Spain had very little economic and colonization activity on the islands . After being defeated in 1898 in the Spanish -- American War and losing possession of the Philippine Islands , Spain sold the Palau archipelago to Imperial Germany in the 1899 German -- Spanish Treaty . German era ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( November 2013 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Palau during German colonization : painting by Rudolf Hellgrewe , from Das Buch von unseren Kolonien by Ottomar Beta ( Leipzig , 1908 ) Koror chiefs in 1915 Palau was administered from German New Guinea , and a period of economic development began . German engineers began exploiting the islands ' deposits of bauxite and phosphate , and a rich harvest in copra was made . Although the German occupation had lasted a mere 15 years , major changes in Palauan society had occurred . Many traditional practices among the natives had been outlawed by German administrators , specifically the acts of tattooing and mengol . Tattooing had been a practice reserved for members of higher castes , and the Spanish had tried on numerous occasions to banish the practice . Unlike the Spanish , the Germans had a major foothold on the local traditional government , given the economic benefits many clan heads were gaining . The art of tattooing was banished completely by the late 19th century , and the last tattooed native died in the early 1960s . The practice of mengol is one unique to the islands , and one that was greatly discouraged by all foreign administrations . In mengol young unmarried women from one village are sent to male clubhouses in another or other villages , whether enemy or ally , as a sign of peace or friendship . The actions of these mengol ranged from simple companionship of the men of the clubhouse , much like the Japanese geisha , to sexual favors . However , the mengol were not prostitutes , as even the unmarried daughters of clan heads could be sent off as mengol . Japanese Mandate ( edit ) Koror during the Japanese Mandate The Headquarters of the South Pacific Mandate Under the terms of the Anglo - Japanese Alliance , the Empire of Japan declared war on the German Empire in 1914 and invaded German overseas territories in the Pacific Ocean . Palau was seized by ships of the Japanese navy . After the war , the League of Nations awarded Palau to Japan as a Class C League of Nations Mandate . Japan incorporated the islands as an integral part of its empire , establishing the Nanyo - cho government with Koror Island as the capital . From 1914 to 1922 , the Japanese Imperial Navy had been in control . Civilian control was introduced from 1922 , and Palau was one of six administrative districts within the Mandate . Japan mounted an aggressive economic development program and promoted large scale immigration by Japanese , Okinawans and Koreans . Native Palauans soon became a small minority in their own homeland . The Japanese continued the German mining activities , and also established bonito ( skipjack tuna ) canning and copra processing plants in Palau . Japanese economic activity was so extensive during their occupation , that the industrial capital , Koror , was once termed by Japanese officials and tourists as `` chiisai Tokyo '' , meaning `` little Tokyo . '' The Japanese had perhaps the most profound impact on Palauan society . Under the Japanese government , Palau underwent extreme social , economic , and political changes . Unlike other parts of the Japanese Empire , the local Japanese administration recognized the benefits of utilizing the traditional government to their advantage , given the extreme adherence the natives followed towards their clans and traditions . Under the Japanese government , heads of the Palauan traditional government were replaced by more `` Japanese '' natives , as a way of securing the obedience of the Palauan people . This proved rather successful , as more and more Palauans saw the benefits the Japanese government was providing . Under the Japanese administration , all Palauan children were required to attend school , and by the 1930s , nearly all Palauan children were literate in Japanese , with the exception of children in outlier islands , specifically the Southwest Islands . World War II ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( November 2013 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The Japanese presence made Palau a major target for the Allied forces in World War II . Peleliu was a scene of intense fighting between American and Japanese forces in 1944 . The battle ended in an Allied victory , but at a high cost for both sides . Indeed , the world history recognizes the high cost of dead soldiers from both countries but totally ignored the numbers of dead innocent islanders who never asked to have countries come fight on their small island disrupting the peaceful life they enjoyed for centuries before history books states that these islands were discovered ( It would be great acknowledgement to note that Palau was never lost as it was always there in the first place ) . At the end of the Pacific War , less than five thousand Palauans were left alive with many Palauan families adopting Japanese children into their midst ( those refused passage back to Japan as they were too young and dangerous to travel ) . All surviving Japanese were repatriated after the end of the war . There are still about 100 American servicemen listed as Missing In Action in Palau . Starting in 1993 , a small group of American volunteers called The BentProp Project has searched the waters and jungles of Palau for information that could lead to the identification and recovery of these remains . The Palauan people , in recognition of the basic human hospitality that is unique to all people of the islands all over the planet , allowed the Japanese and US governments to search for their missing soldiers as well as bringing back their remains . Post-war development ( edit ) Palau Museum Bai in 1970s `` Vote No '' sign , Micronesian constitutional referendum in Palau , 1979 This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( November 2013 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) In 1947 , the United Nations decided the United States would administer Palau as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands . In 1979 , Palauans voted against joining the Federated States of Micronesia , the Marshall Islands and the Marianas ( except Guam ) because of language and cultural differences . A long period of transition occurred between 1979 and 1994 , specifically in the capital , Koror , on the topic of relations with the United States . During this period , Palau underwent its first form of civil unrest since the last inter-village war in 1879 . This civil unrest had escalated into extreme violence , resulting in numerous bombings of homes of powerful politicians , intellectuals , influential locals , and the death of two presidents . At one point , the civil struggle had resulted to the point of anarchy , and the King of the Southern Federation of Palau , the Ibedul , assumed responsibility over governing the Palauan islands which thereby established a temporary state of absolute monarchy . After a long period of transition , including the violent deaths of two presidents ( Haruo Remeliik in 1985 and Lazarus Salii in 1988 ) , Palau voted in 1994 to freely associate with the United States while retaining independence under the Compact of Free Association . The New Capitol in Palau See also ( edit ) Imeong Conservation Area References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Francis X . Hezel , SJ . `` Catholic Missions in the Carolines and Marshall Islands '' . Retrieved 15 January 2015 . Jump up ^ `` United States Department of State Palau Archives '' . United States Department of State . Retrieved 29 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Lee R. Berger , Steven E. Churchill , Bonita De Klerk1 , Rhonda L. Quinn ( March 2008 ) . `` Small - Bodied Humans from Palau , Micronesia '' . PLoS ONE . 3 ( 3 ) : e1780 . doi : 10.1371 / journal. pone. 0001780 . PMC 2268239 . PMID 18347737 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ `` About Palau Palau travel guides Journeum '' . www.journeum.com . Retrieved 2018 - 01 - 04 . Jump up ^ Palau National Communications Corporation Jump up ^ https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=Q-6StnGKAIQC&pg=PR132&dq=pablo+clain+carta&hl=en&sa=X&ei=L-6-VMXTNovq8gW52ICQDg&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=pablo%20clain%20carta&f=false Los siete principes de los Angeles : validos del Rey del cielo . Misioneros , y protectores de la Tierra , con la practica de su deuocion Andres Serrano ( ( S.I. ) ) , 1707 Jump up ^ Sandafayre.com on Palauan history Jump up ^ United States Department of State article on Palau ' Jump up ^ Peatty , Nan'Yo : The Rise and Fall of the Japanese in Micronesia Jump up ^ Beasley , Japanese Imperialism External links ( edit ) U.S. State Department Background Note : Palau History of Oceania Sovereign states Australia Federated States of Micronesia Fiji Kiribati Marshall Islands Nauru New Zealand Palau Papua New Guinea Samoa Solomon Islands Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu Associated states of New Zealand Cook Islands Niue Dependencies and other territories American Samoa Christmas Island Cocos ( Keeling ) Islands Easter Island French Polynesia Guam Hawaii New Caledonia Norfolk Island Northern Mariana Islands Pitcairn Islands Tokelau Wallis and Futuna Spanish Empire Timeline Catholic Monarchs Habsburgs Golden Age Encomiendas New Laws in favour of the indigenous Expulsion of the Moriscos Ottoman -- Habsburg wars French Wars of Religion Eighty Years ' War Portuguese Restoration War Piracy in the Caribbean Bourbons Napoleonic invasion Independence of Spanish continental Americas Liberal constitution Carlist Wars Spanish -- American War German -- Spanish Treaty ( 1899 ) Spanish Civil War Independence of Morocco ( Western Sahara conflict ) Territories Kingdoms of Naples , Sicily and Sardinia Milan Union with Holy Roman Empire Netherlands , Belgium , Luxembourg , northernmost France Franche - 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the life and death of charlie st cloud full movie

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Charlie St. Cloud - wikipedia Charlie St. Cloud Jump to : navigation , search For the novel , see The Death and Life of Charlie St. Cloud . Charlie St. Cloud Theatrical release poster Directed by Burr Steers Produced by Marc Platt Ben Sherwood Screenplay by Craig Pearce Based on The Death and Life of Charlie St. Cloud by Ben Sherwood Starring Zac Efron Charlie Tahan Amanda Crew Kim Basinger Ray Liotta Augustus Prew Donal Logue Music by Rolfe Kent Cinematography Enrique Chediak Edited by Padraic McKinley Production company Relativity Media Marc Platt Productions Charlie Film Productions Distributed by Universal Pictures Release date July 30 , 2010 ( 2010 - 07 - 30 ) Running time 99 minutes Country United States Language English Budget $44 million Box office $48.1 million Charlie St. Cloud is a 2010 American drama film based on Ben Sherwood 's best - selling novel , The Death and Life of Charlie St. Cloud published in 2004 by Bantam Books . The film is directed by Burr Steers and stars Zac Efron and Amanda Crew . The story is of Charlie St. Cloud 's choice between keeping a promise he made to his brother , who died in a car accident , or going after the girl he loves . In some markets the film used the complete title of the book . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production 4 Music 5 Reception 6 References 7 External links Plot ( edit ) Charlie St. Cloud is a sailor who wins a boating race on his sailboat , the Splendid Splinter , along with his younger brother Sam . In 2005 , he receives a sailing scholarship to Stanford University . Charlie graduates from Winslow High School and after returning from his graduation ceremony , Charlie promises Sam that they will practice baseball every day until he leaves for Stanford . That night Charlie is supposed to go to a graduation party with his friends , but his mother makes him babysit Sam while she picks up another shift at her job . When Sam watches television , Charlie tries sneaking out to the party . He is caught by Sam , who asks Charlie to drive him to his friend Tommy 's house . Charlie and Sam get into a car accident . During an out - of - body experience , Charlie hugs a badly wounded Sam and reassures him that everything will be fine . Knowing his injuries are fatal , Sam asks Charlie to never leave him alone , saying that if so they will always be together . As Charlie promises , a paramedic named Florio Ferrente revives Charlie ; Sam has died in his arms . At Sam 's funeral , Charlie runs off after being unable to put Sam 's baseball glove in the grave . After a run through the woods , Charlie finds Sam 's spirit and discovers that Sam can interact with him on the physical plane . Charlie fulfills Sam 's dying wish by practicing baseball with him every day at sunset . Five years later , Charlie , who gave up his scholarship , is a caretaker at Waterside Cemetery . At the cemetery , he speaks with Sully , an old friend who died in the Marines . During a trip into town , Charlie visits the boat docks and meets Tess Carroll , a sailor planning to sail solo around the world . The following day , Charlie runs into Florio . Florio is dying of cancer and asks Charlie if he ever wonders why he was saved . Charlie returns to the cemetery and finds Tess injured tending her father 's grave . He takes her to his home to patch her up and they develop a relationship . Sam begins feeling that he is being erased from existence because Charlie is forgetting him when Charlie arrives late for their game . Tess follows Charlie and he explains to her that the more he is in her world , the less he is in Sam 's . Charlie discovers that Tess went missing while sailing through a storm a few days earlier ; Charlie has been seeing her just like he can Sam . Florio 's wife Carla tells Charlie that Florio died the previous night . During one of the evenings Charlie and Tess have together they play hide and seek . Tess sticks a note on the door which says `` come find me '' with a drawing of a boat beneath it . Charlie realizes that Tess is not dead and that he must find her . Along with his friend Alistair and Tess 's coach Tink , Charlie takes a boat to find her . The following sunset , Charlie misses his game with Sam . As Charlie confesses his love for his departed sibling , Sam tells Charlie that he loves him back and moves on from the living world . He appears to Charlie as a shooting star in the sky to reveal Tess ' location . The group finds Tess ' wrecked boat along with her lying on the rocks . Charlie uses his body heat to keep Tess warm until they are found by the Coast Guard . Alistair tells Charlie that Tess had hypothermia and he saved her . Later , Charlie purchases an old dilapidated sail boat from a family - friend and asks Tess if she would like to take a ride with him . However , Tess fears him explaining that she had vivid dreams about them together . Charlie tells Tess that her dreams are memories and recites a quote from her father 's funeral that they spoke about in her dreams . Charlie resigns from his job and goes into the forest to say farewell to Sam , telling him they will always be brothers ; although he is unable to see him , Sam is there and reveals that he is at peace . Sometime in the near future , Charlie and Tess complete repairs to the sail boat and set off to sail around the world . Cast ( edit ) Zac Efron as Charlie St. Cloud Charlie Tahan as Sam St. Cloud Amanda Crew as Tess Carroll Kim Basinger as Claire St. Cloud Ray Liotta as Florio Ferrente Augustus Prew as Alistair Woolley Donal Logue as Tink Weatherbee Tegan Moss as Cindy Dave Franco as Timothy Patrick Sullivan Chris Massoglia as Old Sam ( deleted scenes ) Brenna O'Brien as Cashier in toy store Production ( edit ) A bidding war for the film rights to the book by author Ben Sherwood broke out in April and May 2003 , before the book was published . Three studios competed for the rights . Universal Studios and Marc Platt ( Universal 's president of production ) won the right to make the book into a film , paying a reported $500,000 to $1 million for the rights ( with that figure rising above $1 million if the film is made ) . Ben Sherwood was guaranteed an executive producer credit on the film , and Universal Studios executive producer Donna Langley was assigned to the picture . Joe Johnston was initially chosen to direct . Drafts for the script were written by James Schamus and Lewis Colick , but the final script was written by Craig Pearce . By March 2009 , Johnston had been replaced as director by Burr Steers , and Platt had named himself as producer . Steers helped polish the script . The first lead performer cast in the film was Zac Efron , who turned down the lead role in Paramount Pictures ' remake of Footloose to star in this film . Pre-production had commenced by March 2009 , with filming set to begin in July 2009 . Training with Efron began in Vancouver , British Columbia , in July 2009 , and started production in Upstate New York July 2009 to October 5 . Actress Amanda Crew joined the film as Tess Carroll in July 2009 , and was shooting her scenes the following September . Quite a few scenes in the film were shot in Gibsons , British Columbia , including a scene in the famous ' Beachcombers ' restaurant . Some of the film was also filmed at a Deep Cove school , Seycove Secondary School , in North Vancouver , B.C. Actress Kim Basinger agreed to play Louise St. Cloud ( later Claire ) in mid-August 2009 . Teen actor Chris Massoglia was signed in October 2009 to play a teenaged Sam St. Cloud , but never made it into the final film . Efron wrapped his scenes in late October 2009 . Rolfe Kent wrote the score , with Tony Blondal orchestrating . It was recorded at Skywalker Sound , Marin County , California . Music ( edit ) This is a list of music featured in the film but will not be included in the soundtrack `` Baby Rhys Blues '' by The McKinley South Experience featuring Mick Sihkins `` Helicopter '' by Bloc Party `` Oh , No '' by Andrew Bird `` Rasputin '' by Studio K `` We 're Gonna Play '' by Matthew Barber `` While We Were Dreaming '' by Pink Mountaintops `` California Sun '' by Ramones `` Magic Show '' by Electric Owls `` Pull My Heart Away '' by Jack Peñate Reception ( edit ) Charlie St. Cloud received generally negative reviews from critics . On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 27 % based on 124 reviews with an average rating of 4.6 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus reads , `` Zac Efron gives it his all , but Charlie St. Cloud is too shallow and cloying to offer much more than eye candy for his fans . '' On Metacritic , the film has a score of 37 out of 100 based on 30 critics , indicating `` generally unfavorable reviews '' . Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of `` B + '' on an A+ to F scale . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Fritz , Ben ( July 29 , 2010 ) . `` Movie projector : ' Schmucks , ' cats , dogs and Zac Efron will all open behind ' Inception ' '' . Los Angeles Times . Tribune Company . Retrieved July 30 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Fleming , Michael ( May 5 , 2003 ) . `` U , Platt Triumph in Death Bid '' . Daily Variety . Jump up ^ Fleming , Michael ( July 15 , 2008 ) . `` Platt Wanted at Universal '' . Daily Variety . ^ Jump up to : Fleming , Michael ( March 25 , 2009 ) . `` Face in the Cloud '' . Daily Variety . Jump up ^ Fleming , Michael ; Siegel , Tatiana ( April 21 , 2009 ) . `` Bale Answers the Bell '' . Daily Variety . ^ Jump up to : Fleming , Michael ( August 13 , 2009 ) . `` Basinger Circles St. Cloud '' . Daily Variety . Jump up ^ Fleming , Michael ; Siegel , Tatiana ( May 20 , 2009 ) . `` Footloose Finds Star '' . Daily Variety . Jump up ^ Zwecker , Bill ( March 26 , 2009 ) . `` Scent of a Twilight Star '' . Chicago Sun - Times . Jump up ^ `` Caught in the Act ! '' . People . July 21 , 2009 . Retrieved July 17 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Barnes , Brooks ( October 5 , 2009 ) . `` A High School Star Gives Ross a Boost '' . The New York Times . Retrieved July 17 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Actress Sees St. Cloud Formation '' . The Hollywood Reporter . July 28 , 2009 . Jump up ^ McNary , Dave ( September 13 , 2009 ) . `` Crew , Palicki to Star in Girl '' . Variety . Retrieved July 17 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` More Zac Efron at `` Flynn 's Reach '' ( Molly 's Reach ) in Gibsons `` . Langley Times . October 30 , 2009 . Retrieved July 17 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Fleming , Michael ( August 12 , 2009 ) . `` Actress to Play Thesp 's Mother in Burr Steers Drama '' . Variety . Retrieved July 17 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Kroll , Justin ( October 21 , 2009 ) . `` Players '' . Daily Variety . Retrieved July 17 , 2010 . Jump up ^ As of October 25 , 2009 , the Internet Movie Database listed child actor Charlie Tahan playing the role of Sam . See : Charlie St. Cloud on IMDb . Accessed 2009 - 10 - 25 . Jump up ^ Memberto , Brad ( October 30 , 2009 ) . `` Cirque du Freak : Not Your Father 's Vampires '' . Santa Ynez Valley News . Retrieved July 17 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Couples Watch : Brody & Jayde , Justin & Jessica '' . People . October 26 , 2009 . Retrieved July 17 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Charlie St. Cloud Movie Reviews , Pictures - Rotten Tomatoes '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved July 30 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Charlie St. Cloud Reviews '' . Metacritic . Retrieved November 20 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` CinemaScore '' . cinemascore.com . External links ( edit ) Official website Charlie St. Cloud on IMDb Charlie St. Cloud at Box Office Mojo Charlie St. Cloud at Rotten Tomatoes Charlie St. Cloud at Metacritic ( hide ) Films directed by Burr Steers Igby Goes Down ( 2002 ) 17 Again ( 2009 ) Charlie St. Cloud ( 2010 ) Pride and Prejudice and Zombies ( 2016 ) Emperor : Young Caesar ( TBA ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charlie_St._Cloud&oldid=825896547 '' Categories : 2010 films English - language films American films American coming - of - age films Films about brothers Films shot in Vancouver Films set in Washington ( state ) Films set in 2005 Relativity Media films 2010s romantic drama films Universal Pictures films Films directed by Burr Steers American romantic drama films Films based on American novels Films produced by Marc E. Platt Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from August 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links Talk Contents About Wikipedia Dansk Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Magyar Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska 10 more Edit links This page was last edited on 16 February 2018 , at 01 : 40 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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what led to the development of the blues

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Origins of the blues - wikipedia Origins of the blues Jump to : navigation , search Little is known about the exact origin of the music now known as the blues . No specific year can be cited as the origin of the blues , largely because the style evolved over a long period and existed in approaching its modern form before the term blues was introduced and before the style was thoroughly documented . Ethnomusicologist Gerhard Kubik traces the roots of many of the elements that were to develop into the blues back to the African continent , the `` cradle of the blues '' . One important early mention of something closely resembling the blues comes from 1901 , when an archaeologist in Mississippi described the songs of black workers which had lyrical themes and technical elements in common with the blues . Contents ( hide ) 1 African roots 2 Influence of spirituals 3 Social and economic aspects 4 Blues around 1900 5 Continued development of the blues in the 1910s 6 Growth of the blues ( 1920s onward ) 7 References 8 Notes African roots ( edit ) There are few characteristics common to all blues , as the genre takes its shape from the peculiarities of each individual performance . Some characteristics , however , were present prior to the creation of the modern blues , and are common to most styles of African American music . The earliest blues - like music was a `` functional expression , rendered in a call - and - response style without accompaniment or harmony and unbounded by the formality of any particular musical structure '' . This pre-blues music was adapted from the field shouts and hollers performed during slave times , expanded into `` simple solo songs laden with emotional content '' . Master Kora maker Alieu Suso in the Gambia Many of these blues elements , such as the call - and - response format , can be traced back to the music of Africa . The use of melisma and a wavy , nasal intonation also suggests a connection between the music of West and Central Africa and the blues . The belief that blues is historically derived from the West African music including from Mali is reflected in Martin Scorsese 's often quoted characterization of Ali Farka Touré 's tradition as constituting `` the DNA of the blues '' . Perhaps the most compelling African instrument that is a predecessor to an African - American instrument is the `` Akonting '' , a folk lute of the Jola tribe of Senegambia . It is a clear predecessor to the American banjo in its playing style , the construction of the instrument itself and in its social role as a folk instrument . The Kora is played by a professional caste of praise singers for the rich and aristocracy ( called griots or jalis ) and is not considered folk music . Jola music was actually not influenced much by Islamic and North African / Middle Eastern music , and this may give us an important clue as to how African American music does not , according to many scholars such as Sam Charters , bear hardly any relation to kora music . Rather , African - American music may reflect a hold over from a pre-Islamicized form of African music . The music of the Akonting and that played by on the banjo by elder African - American banjo players , even into the mid 20th century is easily identified as being very similar . The akonting is perhaps the most important and concrete link that exists between African and African - American music . However , while the findings of Kubik and others also clearly attest to the essential Africanness of many essential aspects of blues expression , studies by Willie Ruff and others have situated the origin of `` black '' spiritual music inside enslaved peoples ' exposure to their masters ' Hebridean - originated gospels . African - American economist and historian Thomas Sowell also notes that the southern , black , ex-slave population was acculturated to a considerable degree by and among their Scots - Irish `` redneck '' neighbours . Additionally , there are theories that the four - beats - per - measure structure of the blues might share its origins with the Native American tradition of pow wow drumming . Influence of spirituals ( edit ) A watercolor painting of a camp meeting circa 1839 ( New Bedford Whaling Museum ) . The most important American antecedent of the blues was the spiritual , a form of religious song with its roots in the camp meetings of the Great Awakening of the early 19th century . Spirituals were a passionate song form , that `` convey ( ed ) to listeners the same feeling of rootlessness and misery '' as the blues . Spirituals , however , were less specifically concerning the performer , instead about the general loneliness of mankind , and were more figurative than direct in their lyrics . Despite these differences , the two forms are similar enough that they can not be easily separated -- many spirituals would probably have been called blues had that word been in wide use at the time . Social and economic aspects ( edit ) Emancipation from Freedmen 's viewpoint ; illustration from Harper 's Weekly 1865 Detail from cover of The Celebrated Negro Melodies , as Sung by the Virginia Minstrels , 1843 The social and economic reasons for the appearance of the blues are not fully known . Blues has evolved from an unaccompanied vocal music of poor black laborers into a wide variety of styles and subgenres , with regional variations across the United States . African American work songs were an important precursor to the modern blues ; these included the songs sung by laborers like stevedores and roustabouts , and the field hollers and `` shouts '' of slaves . The first appearance of the blues is not well defined and is often dated between 1870 and 1900 , a period that coincides with the emancipation of the slaves and the transition from slavery to sharecropping and small - scale agricultural production in the southern United States . Several scholars characterize the early 1900s development of blues music as a move from group performances to a more individualized style . They argue that the development of the blues is associated with the newly acquired freedom of the slaves . According to Lawrence Levine , `` there was a direct relationship between the national ideological emphasis upon the individual , the popularity of Booker T. Washington 's teachings , and the rise of the blues . '' Levine states that `` psychologically , socially , and economically , Negroes were being acculturated in a way that would have been impossible during slavery , and it is hardly surprising that their secular music reflected this as much as their religious music did . '' An important reason for the lack of certain knowledge about the origins of the blues is the earliest blues musicians ' tendency to wander through communities , leaving little or no record of precisely what sort of music they played or where it came from . Blues was generally regarded as lower - class music , unfit for documentation , study or enjoyment by the upper - and middle - classes Blues around 1900 ( edit ) An 1890s photo of the tourist steamer Okahumke'e ' on the Ocklawaha River , with black guitarists on board Blue notes pre-date their use in blues . English composer Samuel Coleridge - Taylor 's `` A Negro Love Song '' , from his The African Suite for Piano composed in 1898 , contains blue third and seventh notes . African American composer W.C. Handy wrote in his autobiography of the experience of sleeping on a train traveling through ( or stopping at the station of ) Tutwiler , Mississippi around 1903 , and being awakened by : ... a lean , loose - jointed Negro who had commenced plucking a guitar beside me while I slept . His clothes were rags ; his feet peeped out of his shoes . His face had on it some of the sadness of the ages . As he played , he pressed a knife on the strings in a manner popularized by Hawaiian guitarists who used steel bars ... The effect was unforgettable . His song , too , struck me instantly ... The singer repeated the line ( `` Going ' where the Southern cross ' the Dog '' ) three times , accompanying himself on the guitar with the weirdest music I had ever heard . Handy had mixed feelings about this music , which he regarded as rather primitive and monotonous , but he used the `` Southern cross ' the Dog '' line in his 1914 `` Yellow Dog Rag '' , which he retitled `` Yellow Dog Blues '' after the term blues became popular . `` Yellow Dog '' was the nickname of the Yazoo and Mississippi Valley Railroad . Blues later adopted elements from the `` Ethiopian ( here , meaning `` black '' ) airs '' of minstrel shows and Negro spirituals , including instrumental and harmonic accompaniment . The style also was closely related to ragtime , which developed at about the same time , though the blues better preserved `` the original melodic patterns of African music '' . Since the 1890s , the American sheet music publishing industry had produced a great deal of ragtime music . The first published ragtime song to include a 12 - bar section was `` One o ' Them Things ! '' in 1904 . Written by James Chapman and Leroy Smith , it was published in St. Louis , Missouri , by Jos . Plachet and Son . Another early rag / blues mix was `` I Got the Blues '' published in 1908 by Anthony Maggio of New Orleans In a long interview conducted by Alan Lomax in 1938 , Jelly Roll Morton recalled that the first blues he had heard , probably around 1900 , was played by a singer and prostitute , Mamie Desdunes , in Garden District , New Orleans . Morton sang the blues : `` Ca n't give me a dollar , give me a lousy dime / You ca n't give me a dollar , give me a lousy dime / Just to feed that hungry man of mine '' . The interview was released as The Complete Library of Congress Recordings . Continued development of the blues in the 1910s ( edit ) In 1912 the sheet music industry published another blues composition -- `` Dallas Blues '' by Hart A. Wand of Oklahoma City , Oklahoma . Two other blues - like compositions , precipitating the Tin Pan Alley adoption of blues elements , were also published in 1912 : `` Baby Seals ' Blues '' by Baby F. Seals ( arranged by Artie Matthews ) and `` Memphis Blues '' , another ragtime arrangement with a single 12 - bar section , by W.C. Handy . Also in 1912 ( on November 9 ) , another song , `` The Blues '' , was copyrighted by LeRoy `` Lasses '' White , but not actually published until 1913 . Handy was a formally trained musician , composer and arranger who helped to popularize the blues by transcribing and orchestrating blues in an almost symphonic style , with bands and singers . He became a popular and prolific composer , and billed himself as the `` Father of the Blues '' ; however , his compositions can be described as a fusion of blues with ragtime and jazz , a merger facilitated using the Afro - Cuban habanera rhythm that had long been a part of ragtime ; Handy 's signature work was the St. Louis Blues . Songs from this period had many different structures . A testimony of those times can be found for instance in Henry Thomas 's recordings . However , the twelve - , eight - bar , or sixteen - bar structure based on tonic , subdominant and dominant chords became the most common . Melodically , blues music is marked by the use of the lowered third and dominant seventh ( so - called blue notes ) of the associated major scale . The standard 12 - bar blues form is noted in uncorroborated oral histories as appearing communities throughout the region along the lower Mississippi River during the decade of the 1900s ( and performed in New Orleans at least since 1908 ) . One of these early sites of blues evolution was along Beale Street in Memphis , Tennessee . However , author Eileen Southern has pointed out several contrasting statements by old - time musicians . She cites Eubie Blake as saying `` Blues in Baltimore ? Why , Baltimore is the blues ! '' and Bunk Johnson as claiming that the blues was around in his childhood , in the 1880s . Growth of the blues ( 1920s onward ) ( edit ) One of the first professional blues singers was Ma Rainey , who claimed to have coined the term blues . Classic female urban or vaudeville blues singers were popular in the 1920s , among them Mamie Smith , Gertrude Ma Rainey , Bessie Smith , and Victoria Spivey . Mamie Smith , more a vaudeville performer than a blues artist , was the first African - American to record a blues in 1920 ; her `` Crazy Blues '' sold 75,000 copies in its first month . The musical forms and styles that are now considered the `` blues '' as well as modern `` country music '' arose in the same regions during the nineteenth century in the southern United States . Recorded blues and country can be found from as far back as the 1920s , when the popular record industry developed and created marketing categories called `` race music '' and `` hillbilly music '' to sell music by blacks for blacks and by whites for whites respectively . At the time , there was no clear musical division between `` blues '' and `` country '' , except for the race of the performer , and even that sometimes was documented incorrectly by record companies . References ( edit ) Curiel , Jonathan ( August 15 , 2004 ) . `` Muslim Roots of the Blues '' . SFGate . Archived from the original on September 5 , 2005 . Retrieved August 24 , 2005 . Ewen , David ( 1957 ) . Panorama of American Popular Music . Prentice Hall . ISBN 0 - 13 - 648360 - 7 . Ferris , Jean ( 1993 ) . America 's Musical Landscape . Brown & Benchmark . ISBN 0 - 697 - 12516 - 5 . Garofalo , Reebee ( 1997 ) . Rockin ' Out : Popular Music in the USA . Allyn & Bacon . ISBN 0 - 205 - 13703 - 2 . Hamilton , Marybeth ( 2007 ) . In Search of the Blues . Jonathan Cape . ISBN 9780224060189 . Oliver , Paul ( 1970 ) . Savannah syncopators : African retentions in the blues . Studio Vista . ISBN 0 - 289 - 79828 - 0 . Schuller , Gunther ( 1968 ) . Early Jazz : Its Roots and Musical Development . Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 504043 - 0 . Southern , Eileen ( 1997 ) . The Music of Black Americans . W.W. Norton & Company , Inc . ISBN 0 - 393 - 03843 - 2 . Notes ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Southern , pg. 332 Jump up ^ Kubik , Gerhard ( 1999 ) . Africa and the Blues. Jackson , MI : University Press of Mississippi . ISBN 1 - 57806 - 146 - 6 ^ Jump up to : Southern , pg. 334 ^ Jump up to : Southern , pg. 333 Jump up ^ Garofalo , pg. 44 Jump up ^ Ferris , pg. 229 Jump up ^ Global South : Our Homage To A Great Master - Ali Farka Toure Jump up ^ Paul Kelbie , `` Gospel Truth - Hebrides Invented Church Spirituals '' , The Independent - UK , 9 - 19 - 3 Jump up ^ `` MUSIC : Exploring Native American influence on the blues '' . Jump up ^ Southern , pg. 333 - 334 Jump up ^ Philip V. Bohlman , `` Immigrant , folk , and regional music in the twentieth century '' , in ' The Cambridge History of American Music ' , ed . David Nicholls , 1999 , Cambridge University Press , ISBN 0 - 521 - 45429 - 8 , pg. 285 Jump up ^ http://www.stg.brown.edu/projects/MusicAtlas/Volume2/playpagevol2ch10.html Jump up ^ Lawrence W. Levine , Black Culture and Black Consciousness : Afro - American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom , Oxford University Press , 1977 , ISBN 0 - 19 - 502374 - 9 , pg. 223 Jump up ^ Southern , 332 - 333 Jump up ^ Scott , Derek B. From the Erotic to the Demonic : On Critical Musicology . Oxford University Press ( 2003 ) page 182 : `` A blues idiom is hinted at in `` A Negro Love - Song '' , a pentatonic melody with blue third and seventh in Colridge - Taylor 's African Suit of 1898 , many years before the first blues publications . '' Jump up ^ Parrish , Tim ; Walking Blues : Making Americans from Emerson to Elvis , University of Massachusetts Press ( 2001 ) , p. 185 : `` Handy declares their music to be an endless ' monotony , ' a ' thump - thump - thump ' sound that he associates -- with evident distaste -- with ' cane rows and levee camps ' ( 77 ) . Nor does he admire the enthusiastic dancing the music elicits . '' Jump up ^ Wald , Elijah ; Escaping the Delta : Robert Johnson and the Invention of the Blues , Harper Collins ( 2004 ) , p. 283 : `` When the popular taste for blues asserted itself I took out that old number and changed its name to ' Yellow Dog Blues . ' Other than the name , I altered nothing . '' Jump up ^ Garofalo , pg. 44 Gradually , instrumental and harmonic accompaniment were added , reflecting increasing cross-cultural contact . Garofalo goes on to cite others mentioning the `` Ethiopian airs '' and `` Negro spirituals '' . Jump up ^ Schuller , cited in Garofalo , pg. 27 Jump up ^ Saffle , Michael , Perspectives on American Music , 1900 - 1950 , Routledge ( 2000 ) page 74 : `` Chapman and smith 's `` One O ' Those Things '' ( 1904 ) an earlier blues / rag mix ( see Figure 3.2 ) . '' Jump up ^ Saffle , Michael , Perspectives on American Music , 1900 - 1950 , Routledge ( 2000 ) page 74 : `` In Maggio 's `` I Got the Blues '' ( 1908 ) , a twelve - bar blues in G Major is followed by a section in G minor , ending with a rag riff ( see Figure 3.1 ) . Jump up ^ Hamilton , Marybeth ( 2007 ) . pp. 130 -- 132 . Missing or empty title = ( help ) Jump up ^ Samuel B. Charters , The Country Blues ( Da Capo Press , 1975 ) , ISBN 0 - 306 - 80014 - 4 , pages 34 - 35 : `` The first was Hart Wand 's `` Dallas Blues '' , published in March ; the second was Arthur Seals 's `` Bab Seals ' Blues '' , published in August ; Handy finally brought out his blues in September . Both Handy and Arthur Seals were Negroes , but the music that they titled `` blues is more or less derived from the standard popular musical styles of the `` coon - song '' and `` cake - walk '' type . It is ironic the first published piece in the Negro `` blues idiom '' , Dallas Blues , was by a white man , Hart Wand . '' Jump up ^ Saffle , Michael , Perspectives on American Music , 1900 - 1950 , Routledge ( 2000 ) page 74 : `` White 's `` Original Chicago Blues '' ( 1915 ) is a later blues / rag almagam , as is `` The Memphis Blues . '' Jump up ^ Garofalo , pg. 27 ; Garofalo cites Barlow in Handy 's sudden success demonstrated ( the ) commercial potential of ( the blues ) , which in turn made the genre attractive to the Tin Pan Alley hacks , who wasted little time in turning out a deluge of imitations . ( parentheticals in Garofalo ) Jump up ^ Monge , Luigi ; David Evans . `` New Songs of Blind Lemon Jefferson '' . Journal of Texas Music History 3 : 2 ( Fall 2003 ) , p. 19 : `` In fact , in addition to its textual relationship in the first stanza to ' Michigan Water Blues , ' Jefferson 's ' Light House Blues ' is related textually and musically to an even older song , ' The Negro Blues ' / ' Nigger Blues ' by Leroy ' Lasses ' White of Dallas . White registered his tune with a set of fifteen three - line stanzas for copyright on November 9 , 1912 , under the former title . In 1913 , a shortened version of the piece was published under the latter infelicitous title , containing only six stanzas , five of which are close variants of stanzas in the longer version and one of which is new . '' Jump up ^ Garofalo , pg. 27 Jump up ^ Morales , pg. 277 Jump up ^ Garofalo , pgs. 46 - 47 Jump up ^ Ewen , pg. 143 Jump up ^ Hawkeye Herman , General background on African American Music , Blues Foundation , Essays : What is the blues ? `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on December 10 , 2008 . Retrieved October 15 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Garofalo , pgs. 44 - 47 As marketing categories , designations like race and hillbilly intentionally separated artists along racial lines and conveyed the impression that their music came from mutually exclusive sources . Nothing could have been further from the truth ... In cultural terms , blues and country were more equal than they were separate . Garofalo claims that artists were sometimes listed in the wrong racial category in record company catalogues . ( hide ) Blues Musical form Blue note Blues scale Call and response Eight - bar blues Musical improvisation Shuffles Traditional blues verses Twelve - bar blues Walking bass Origins Origins Spirituals Work songs American folk music Coon songs Typical instruments Acoustic guitar Electric guitar Resonator guitar Slide guitar Harmonica Blues harp Piano Bass guitar Upright bass Washtub bass Drums Regional styles British blues Canadian blues Chicago blues Delta blues Detroit blues Hill country blues Kansas City blues Louisiana blues New Orleans blues Memphis blues Piedmont blues St. Louis blues Swamp blues Texas blues West Coast blues Subgenres Boogie - woogie Classic female blues Country blues Electric blues Fife and drum blues Jump blues Piano blues Fusion genres Blues rock Gospel blues Punk blues Rhythm and blues Soul blues Related styles Blue grass Hokum Jazz Jug band Ragtime Rock and roll Lists Blues genres Blues musicians Blues musicians by genre Blues standards Blues festivals Book Portal Blues songs Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Origins_of_the_blues&oldid=802347280 '' Categories : Blues Origins of music genres Hidden categories : Pages with citations lacking titles Talk Contents About Wikipedia Français Simple English Edit links This page was last edited on 25 September 2017 , at 16 : 06 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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how much of the world's cocoa comes from ghana

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Cocoa_production_in_Ghana&oldid=812315326

Cocoa production in Ghana - wikipedia Cocoa production in Ghana Jump to : navigation , search Harvest processing of cocoa beans in Ghana in the 20th century Cocoa is the chief agricultural export of Ghana and the country 's main cash crop . Behind Ivory Coast , Ghana is the second largest cocoa exporter in the world . Cocoa cultivation is not native to the country ; Ghana 's cocoa cultivation , however , is noted within the developing world to be one of the most modeled commodities . Cocoa production occurs in the country 's forested areas : Ashanti Region , Brong - Ahafo Region , Central Region , Eastern Region , Western Region , and Volta Region , where rainfall is 1,000 - 1,500 millimeters per year . The crop year begins in October , when purchases of the main crop begin , with a smaller mid-crop cycle beginning in July . All cocoa , except that which is smuggled out of the country , is sold at fixed prices to the Cocoa Marketing Board . Although most cocoa production is carried out by peasant farmers on plots of less than three hectares , a small number of farmers appear to dominate the trade . Indeed , some studies show that about one - fourth of all cocoa farmers receive just over half of total cocoa income . In 1979 , the government initiated reform of the cocoa sector , focusing on the government 's role in controlling the industry through the Cocoa Marketing Board . The board was dissolved and reconstituted as the Ghana Cocoa Board ( Cocobod ) . In 1984 it underwent further institutional reform aimed at subjecting the cocoa sector to market forces . Cocobod 's role was reduced , and 40 percent of its staff , or at least 35,000 employees , were dismissed . Furthermore , the government shifted responsibility for crop transport to the private sector . Subsidies for production inputs ( fertilizers , insecticides , fungicides , and equipment ) were removed , and there was a measure of privatization of the processing sector through at least one joint venture . In addition , a new payment system known as the Akuafo Check System was introduced in 1982 at the point of purchase of dried beans . Formerly , produce buying clerks had often held back cash payments , abused funds , and paid farmers with false checks . Under the Akuafo system , a farmer was given a check signed by the produce clerk and the treasurer that he could cash at a bank of his choice . Plantation divestiture proceeded slowly , however , with only seven of fifty - two plantations sold by the end of 1990 . Although Ghana was the world 's largest cocoa producer in the early 1960s , by the early 1980s production had dwindled almost to the point of insignificance . The drop from an average of more than 450,000 tons per year to a low of 159,000 tons in 1983 - 84 has been attributed to aging trees , widespread disease , bad weather , and low producer prices . In addition , bush fires in 1983 destroyed some 60,000 hectares of cocoa farms , so that the 1983 - 84 crop was barely 28 percent of the 557,000 tons recorded in 1964 - 65 . Output then recovered to 228,000 tons in 1986 - 87 . Revised figures show that production amounted to 301,000 tons in 1988 - 89 , 293,000 tons in 1990 - 91 , and 305,000 tons in 1992 - 93 . After declining to 255,000 tons in 1993 - 94 , the crop was projected to return to the 300,000 ton range in 1994 - 95 . In the early 1990s , Cocobod continued to liberalize and to privatize cocoa marketing . The board raised prices to producers and introduced a new system providing greater incentives for private traders . In particular , Cocobod agreed to pay traders a minimum producer price as well as an additional fee to cover the buyers ' operating and transportation costs and to provide some profit . Cocobod still handled overseas shipment and export of cocoa to ensure quality control . In addition to instituting marketing reforms , the government also attempted to restructure cocoa production . In 1983 farmers were provided with seedlings to replace trees lost in the drought and trees more than thirty years old ( about one - fourth of the total number of trees in 1984 ) . Until the early 1990s , an estimated 40 hectares continued to be added to the total area of 800,000 hectares under cocoa production each year . In addition , a major program to upgrade existing roads and to construct 3,000 kilometers of new feeder roads was launched to ease the transportation and sale of cocoa from some of the more neglected but very fertile growing areas on the border with Ivory Coast . Furthermore , the government tried to increase Ghana 's productivity from 300 kilograms per hectare to compete with Southeast Asian productivity of almost 1,000 kilograms per hectare . New emphasis was placed on extension services , drought and disease research , and the use of fertilizers and insecticides . The results of these measures were to be seen in rising cocoa production from the 1990s to the present . Recent growth ( edit ) Cocoa beans and cocoa harvest processing Ghana 's cocoa production grew an average of 16 % between 2000 -- 03 . Cocoa has a long production cycle , far longer than many other tropical crops , and new hybrid varieties need over five years to come into production , and a further 10 to 15 years for the tree to reach its full bearing potential . The reasons for this huge production increase are varied and in fact Ghana 's cocoa yields per hectare are still low by international standards . Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute identify the following as particularly important : Land Labour Fertiliser Insecticide Agricultural equipment Western Sefwi ( suggesting smuggling from Ivory Coast ) Rainfall Cocoa farmer Use of spraying machine This study also suggests that the most important factors in the increased proan are : New land brought under cultivation More intensive use of household labour A good rainfall pattern Effectiveness of farm spraying and increased fertiliser use This study suggests that Ghana 's cocoa farmers are not making the best use of technological innovations in their production and instead their increased production is not sustainable . Bringing new land under cultivation is risky , as much of the land was previously forest and after a short period and without adequate attention this land may be exhausted . Intensive use of labour has led to high increases in the cost of labour and may impact profitability , and high rainfall is only periodic . Hybrid system of liberalisation ( edit ) Sunyani Cocoa House in Sunyani , Brong - Ahafo Region , Ghana Ghana Cocoa Board 's experimentation with privatisation has created a hybrid system whereby despite all exports being controlled by the state , there are now around 25 private companies buying the crop in all areas of the country where it is grown . After 14 years , the successes and failures of this hybrid system have been the subject of a study by researchers at the Overseas Development Institute . Competition was clearly found to have increased production levels throughout the country , yet access to credit remained one of the most important factors determining the level of competition . Farmers rarely made the most of all the available options to sell their crop ( often they only made use of one ) . Their choice was based on the ability of a company to pay promptly in cash and thus there were only five major players on the market : PBC ( formerly state - owned ) , Kuapa Kokoo ( a hugely successful farmers - based cooperative working on fair trade principle ) , Adwumapa ( a Ghanaian buying company ) , Olam and Armajaro ( both foreign - owned companies , from Singapore and the UK respectively ) . Another key determining factor is the distance of the plantation from the main market , as more remote farms more often found it easier to sell to the formerly state - owned PBC . This hybrid scheme benefits a variety of players : The state , which maintains a monopoly on all exports and makes a substantially higher return from taxation than other cocoa regions ; The traders , who compete for the purchase of higher volumes of the export crop on non-price terms throughout the cocoa belt areas ; and The farmers , who are guaranteed a minimum floor price regardless of their geographical location . Researchers at the ODI therefore suggest that liberalisation has been good for producers by : providing farmers with more choice of buyers ; delivering cash payments promptly ; and maintaining stability in producer prices throughout the season . Yet the question remains for policy - makers as to the benefits of the state controlling an export monopoly and its strong presence of the public sector in the internal market , whether there should be even more liberalisation , and whether it is providing the right incentives for producers to develop better ( and sustainable ) farming practices . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Supply Chain Risk Assessment : Cocoa in Ghana '' . Forum for Agricultural Risk Management in Development . Retrieved 21 September 2013 . Jump up ^ `` UPDATE 1 - Ghana signs $1.2 bln cocoa loan for 2013 / 14 crop purchases '' . Reuters . September 20 , 2013 . Retrieved 21 September 2013 . Jump up ^ Salm & Falola 2002 , p. 15 . Jump up ^ Bulir 1998 , p. 4 . ^ Jump up to : Clark , Nancy L. `` Agriculture '' ( and subchapters ) . A Country Study : Ghana ( La Verle Berry , editor ) . Library of Congress Federal Research Division ( November 1994 ) . This article incorporates text from this source , which is in the public domain. ( 1 ) ^ Jump up to : Marcella Vigneri 2007 Drivers of cocoa production growth in Ghana Overseas Development Institute ^ Jump up to : Marcella Vigneri and Paulo Santos 2007 Ghana and the cocoa marketing dilemma : What has liberalisation without price competition achieved ? Overseas Development Institute Bibliography Bulir , Ales ( 1 June 1998 ) . The Price Incentive to Smuggle and the Cocoa Supply in Ghana , 1950 - 96 . International Monetary Fund . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4518 - 9707 - 4 . Salm , Steven J. ; Falola , Toyin ( 1 January 2002 ) . Culture and Customs of Ghana . Greenwood Publishing Group . ISBN 978 - 0 - 313 - 32050 - 7 . Economy of Ghana Currency : Ghanaian cedi Banking Offshore / Private Capital Bank National Investment Bank Prudential Bank Limited UniBank Retail / Savings Agricultural Development Bank of Ghana CAL Bank GCB Bank Ltd Home Finance Company UT Bank Savings and loan ABii National Savings and Loans Company Insurance Enterprise Group SIC Insurance Company Vanguard Assurance Company Limited Communications Communications New media Electricity Transportation Water supply and sanitation Water privatization Industries Companies Agriculture Cocoa Salt Healthcare Manufacturing Mining Petroleum Tourism Trade unions Ghana Federation of Labour Trades Union Congress of Ghana Ghana templates Ghana topics Chocolate Overview Outline History ( in Spain ) Theobroma Theobroma Theobroma cacao Theobroma grandiflorum Theobroma bicolor Components Cocoa bean Cocoa butter Cocoa solids Chocolate liquor Drugs Anandamide Caffeine Phenethylamine Theobromine Theophylline Types Baking Compound Couverture Dark Milk Modeling Organic White Raw Products Chocolate bar brands Chocolate beverages Chocolate biscuit Chocolate brownie Chocolate cake Chocolate chip Chocolate chip cookie Chocolate coins Chocolate crackles Chocolate gravy Chocolate ice cream Chocolate liqueur Chocolate milk Chocolate pudding Chocolate spread Chocolate syrup Chocolate truffle Chocolate - covered foods Cioccolato di Modica Fudge Ganache Hot chocolate Mint chocolate Mocaccino Mole sauce Belgian chocolate Swiss chocolate Processes Aerated chocolate Broma process Chocolate bloom Chocolate temper meter Conche Dutch process Enrober Sugar crust Industry Big Chocolate Children in cocoa production Chocolaterie Chocolatier The Dark Side of Chocolate European Cocoa and Chocolate Directive Ghana Cocoa Board Ghana production Harkin -- Engel Protocol International Cocoa Organization Ivory Coast production Manufacturers ( vertical ) Nigeria production Philippine chocolate industry World Cocoa Foundation Other topics Chocoholic Chocolate fountain Chocolate museums Chocolatiers Health effects United States military chocolate Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cocoa_production_in_Ghana&oldid=812315326 '' Categories : Economy of Ghana Cocoa production Chocolate industry Talk About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 27 November 2017 , at 05 : 51 . 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how do they cut a person in half trick

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Sawing_a_woman_in_half&oldid=806519376

Sawing a woman in half - wikipedia Sawing a woman in half Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the magic trick . For the act of literally being sawn in half , see Death by sawing . Magician P.T. Selbit performing a version of the trick in 1937 Sawing a woman in half is a generic name for a number of stage magic tricks in which a person ( traditionally a female assistant ) is apparently sawn or divided into two or more pieces . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Effects and variations 2.1 The Selbit sawing 2.2 Goldin 's box sawings 2.3 Wakeling 2.4 The thin model 2.5 Transparent boxes 2.6 Double sawing 2.7 Jigsaw 2.8 Bow saw 2.9 Buzzsaw 2.10 Death Saw 2.11 Modern Art 2.12 Criss Angel 's pulling a woman apart 3 Methods and exposure 4 Famous performances and depictions 5 Critical responses and twists 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading History ( edit ) There remains a debate about the origin of sawing illusions , with some sources saying a magician named Torrini may have performed the first version in front of Pope Pius VII in 1809 . However it is more likely that the story is a fiction which has its roots in the writings of the famous French magician Jean Robert - Houdin . In his Memoirs , written in 1858 , Robert - Houdin described a sawing illusion performed by a magician named Torrini . Modern magic inventor and historian Jim Steinmeyer has concluded that there was probably no real Torrini and the story was merely a way for Robert - Houdin to play with ideas . It was suggested during a court case in 1922 that the trick can be traced back to ancient Egypt , however this claim has not been substantiated . Wherever the idea originated , until the 1920s it remained just an idea for an effect , rather than a practical application of a method . It is generally accepted that the first public performance of a sawing illusion was achieved by British magician P.T. Selbit in January 1921 at the Finsbury Park Empire theatre in London . In fact Selbit had previously performed the illusion in December 1920 before a select audience of promoters and theatrical agents at the St. George 's Hall , London , to try to persuade one of them to book his new act for public shows . His trick , which he billed as `` Sawing Through A Woman '' , was significantly different from what a modern audience would expect . Selbit 's assistant was locked inside a closed wooden crate and could not be seen . The impression that she could not evade the saw was created by the confined space in the box and by ropes tied to her hands , feet , and neck , which were held throughout the illusion by spectators from the audience . The question of who was the first woman to be sawn in half has received much less publicity than the question of which magician first presented the illusion . According to Jim Steinmeyer the woman who participated in the December 1920 demonstration was Jan Glenrose , who was Selbit 's main assistant at that time and who was also the partner of magician Fred Culpitt . In the public performance the role of victim was taken by principal assistant , Betty Barker . A later iteration of Horace Goldin 's version of the trick , with a buzzsaw blade Later in 1921 , Horace Goldin , a magician working in the United States , presented the first version which might look familiar to modern audiences . Goldin 's assistant lay in a box from which her feet , head and hands protruded . Goldin sawed through the middle of the box , inserting metal sheets to cover the cut ends , and then pushed the two halves a little way apart . This process was then reversed , and the assistant released unharmed . Goldin later developed a sawing illusion that dispensed with boxes and used a large buzzsaw . The success of Selbit and then Goldin led to more and more magicians trying to imitate them with copies or improved versions of sawing illusions . By November 1921 the Thayer magic company in America was advertising a version for sale . A complete prop from Thayer would cost $175 or they would sell plans for $5 . Effects and variations ( edit ) There are many sawing tricks with significant differences in their basic effect . In some , the illusion is merely of a blade passing through an assistant 's body , while in others it appears that the assistant is severed into two pieces that are moved apart . Some so - called `` sawing '' illusions do not actually involve a saw but instead use plain blades or blunt dividing panels . One major group of tricks involves an assistant in a box , which conceals his or her body from view while any cutting takes place . This group includes the `` Selbit '' , `` Wakeling '' and `` Thin Model '' tricks as well as several versions associated with Horace Goldin . Most `` box '' sawings give the illusion of the two halves of the assistant being moved apart , although there are versions where the effect is simply that a blade must have passed through the assistant 's body . In some versions the box completely covers the assistant while in others the assistant 's head , hands and feet remain in view during the trick . The Selbit sawing ( edit ) Several volunteers are recruited from the audience . One or more of these people are invited to tie ropes around the assistant 's wrists , ankles and neck . The assistant then steps into a wooden crate or box , which is similar in proportion to but slightly larger than a coffin . The ropes are threaded through holes in the box and the ends are given to volunteers , who are instructed to pull them tight and keep hold of them ( the neck rope has an added knot to prevent the assistant being strangled ) . The assistant is thus secured in a standing spreadeagle position in the box . The box is then closed and lifted into a horizontal position on a set of trestles . The magician then slides glass plates through the crate ( and apparently through his assistant ) . The magician then saws right through the centre of the box , dividing it into two . The sections are pulled slightly apart and the assistant 's torso is visible . The impression is that the saw blade must have passed through the assistant 's midriff . The assistant is then released from the box and is revealed to be unharmed . This was the illusion performed at the Finsbury Park Empire theatre in London on 17 January 1921 . Goldin 's box sawings ( edit ) Goldin presented several sawing illusions that involved a box . To audiences they all appeared largely similar but they involved differing methods , which were steadily improved as time went on and as earlier methods were exposed . His first performance was at the Society of American Magicians annual banquet at the McAlpin Hotel , New York , on 3 June 1921 . On that occasion the trick was not well received . The box he used was large and not very deceptive and instead of an attractive woman he employed a bellboy as an assistant . The impression given was that he was clumsily and hurriedly trying to cash in on Selbit 's success in Britain . However fellow magician Howard Thurston , who was in the audience , realised the potential of the trick and persuaded Goldin to let him help in its development . Thurston employed an established magician and prop builder named Harry Jansen to perfect the illusion . Jansen 's improved version of the apparatus featured a smaller box from which the victim 's head and feet would protrude during the sawing . Goldin , Thurston and various other magicians employed by Goldin toured the United States performing this trick with great success at theatres belonging to the Keith - Orpheum group . Goldin had great promotional acumen and was fond of resorting to legal action to block anyone else , including Selbit , from competing with him in the USA . As a result , Goldin was sometimes wrongly credited as the originator of the sawing illusion . The basic form of Goldin 's box sawings was as follows . The magician presents a box which is similar in size and proportion to that used in the Selbit sawing but which is already in a horizontal position . An assistant climbs into the box and lies down . In the process her head and hands are seen to emerge from holes in one end of the box and her feet from the other . The box is closed and then sawn through across the middle . Dividers are placed into the box either side of the cut and it is then pulled apart so the sections can be seen clearly separated . The assistant 's head and hands are seen sticking out of one section and her feet out of the other . The box is then pushed together again and opened and the assistant emerges unharmed . Wakeling ( edit ) The magician presents a rectangular table just big enough to accommodate a person lying upon it . An assistant is introduced and several assistants are recruited from the audience . The magician presents a set of restraints consisting of a sturdy collar and a pair of ankle straps , each attached to a length of chain or rope . The assistant sits on the table with her legs stretched out and volunteers are invited to fasten the restraints around her neck and ankles . The ropes or chains are threaded through holes in the table and the ends given to volunteers , who are instructed to pull them tight and hold them that way throughout the illusion . The assistant is thus pulled down onto her back and secured in that position . Two halves of a large box are presented and fixed in place over the assistant , covering her completely . Side panels are opened to show the assistant is still in place lying flat on her back . The assistant is then divided into two . Sometimes the division is accomplished merely by pushing two metal dividing panels into slots near where the two halves meet . Sometimes the cutting of the assistant is emphasised by sawing between the two halves of the box before sliding the dividers into place . Catches are released to allow the table to be separated into two halves along with the box . The halves are parted and the assistant thus appears to have been cut into two completely disconnected pieces . The box and table are then pushed together , the restraints are released and the box is opened to allow the assistant to emerge unharmed . This version of the trick is generally associated with magician and inventor Alan Wakeling . Whilst Wakeling performed this illusion and perfected aspects of it , the general configuration and method have been attributed to an earlier magician , Virgil Harris Mulkey ( 1900 -- 1989 ) , aka . `` The Great Virgil '' , who first performed it in 1942 and later passed on the idea to Wakeling . The thin model ( edit ) The thin model sawing is one of the most common variants performed by contemporary magicians . The basic arrangement and sequence of events is similar to that described for the Goldin box sawings ( see above ) . However the box appears very shallow in comparison to Goldin 's , which was large by modern standards . The ends of the box are initially open when the assistant climbs in . Once the assistant is lying down she is secured in place by having stocks placed over her neck and ankles . The stocks form the ends of the box . The shallow box adds to the impression that the assistant could not possibly find room to evade the saw blade even if she could release herself from the stocks and try to curl up in one half of the box . Transparent boxes ( edit ) Magician Les Arnold is reported to have been the first to have devised a clear box sawing ( known as the `` Crystal Sawing '' ) as far back as 1976 . The Pendragons performed a variation called `` Clearly Impossible '' , in which the box used is both particularly slim and also transparent . The concept of `` Clearly Impossible '' has been credited to Jonathan Pendragon and the major distinguishing feature of The Pendragons ' illusion from the Les Arnold concept is that the transparent boxes are seemingly never covered . Double sawing ( edit ) The `` double sawing illusion '' is a way of adding an extra effect to box - type sawings . It is generally associated with the `` thin - model '' sawing apparatus . The magician saws two people in half using two sets of apparatus . The people are usually chosen or dressed so as to be clearly distinguishable . For example , they might be in different colored costumes , of different skin colors , or of different genders . After the box halves are separated they are jumbled up and then re-assembled so that the bottom half of one box is matched to the top of the other and vice versa . When the victims emerge , each appears to have been given the other 's lower half . The creation of this version has been credited to magician Alan Wakeling , who devised it for fellow magician Channing Pollock to perform . Jigsaw ( edit ) An assistant lies down on a table . A frame is placed over her middle . The magician then presents an electric jigsaw and proceeds to align the blade into a slot in the frame . The magician switches on the saw and apparently uses it to slice through the assistant 's waist , which remains obscured by the frame . The saw emerges from the opposite side of the frame . Once the sawing is finished the frame is removed and the assistant is revealed to be in one piece . Bow saw ( edit ) This variant begins in a similar way to the jig sawing , with the assistant lying on a table and having a frame fixed over her midriff . The magician then presents a bow saw and proceeds to saw through the assistant , with the blade guided within the frame . Once the blade has apparently passed all the way through the assistant the frame is released and removed . It is then revealed that the assistant is encircled by the handle and blade of the bow saw . Then he / she will have a member of audience come up and look at the props . Buzzsaw ( edit ) A large apparatus is presented , consisting of a sturdy frame supporting a large buzzsaw or circular saw and a table sufficiently large to carry a person lying flat . It is shown that the table travels beneath the saw , leaving little or no gap , so that anything placed upon it in the path of the saw would be sliced through . The table is moved either by an electric mechanism or by some form of manual crank . The buzzsaw is generally driven by an electric motor . To demonstrate the saw is completely genuine , a piece of wood is placed on the table and sliced in two in full view . An assistant is introduced and placed in a horizontal position on the table . Sometimes the magician might give the impression of hypnotizing the assistant into a rigid trance before having her lifted onto the table . She is secured in place with two metal `` straps '' that close over her waist and which align close to the plane of the saw . She might also be further secured with straps or manacles at her wrists and ankles . A strip of wood is pushed beneath her waist in line with the saw . The saw is then started and the table set in motion . The saw visibly passes through the assistant and generally sounds like it is sawing through something . Once the table reaches the end of its travel and the saw is switched off the assistant is released and shown to be in one piece and uninjured . The strip of wood that had been placed beneath her is shown to have been sawn into two strips , thus reinforcing that the saw really did cut in the manner it appeared to . Harry Blackstone , Sr. was performing this effect in the United States in the 1930s . Death saw ( edit ) The Death Saw is presented as an escape gone wrong . Its best known performer is David Copperfield . The performer is secured to a table beneath a large buzzsaw or blade , which is set to descend upon them under the control of a timing mechanism . After being secured with various manacles the performer is enclosed in a box . The saw is then set going . After a while the sides of the box fall away to reveal the performer struggling to escape the manacles . Finally the saw drops before the performer has time to escape . The blade slices right through the performer 's body . The two halves of the table are rolled apart so that the performer is clearly separated into two sections . The performer then appears to command the whole process to reverse : The body halves go back together , the saw rises , the box closes . Finally the performer emerges unharmed from the box . Copperfield has claimed exclusive rights to this illusion , however others , including Tennessee - based illusion builder Jeff Davis , have asserted that the method and effect were previously published in two magazine articles during the 1960s . The March 1965 edition of The Linking Ring contains text and diagrams from an Indian author called B. Rakshit giving the basic sawing method . An article in the September 1969 Genii Magazine outlines the routine including the idea of the saw descending a tower . Modern Art ( edit ) For other uses , see Modern art ( disambiguation ) . Although not generally classified as a `` sawing '' illusion , Modern Art is sometimes billed as an `` upright dividing the lady in two '' . The prop is a vertical cabinet which stands alongside a table - like structure that is half its height . The assistant enters the cabinet through a door in the side away from the table structure . The assistant 's face can be seen peering from an opening at the top of the cabinet and a panel at the bottom of the front of the cabinet is opened to show the assistant 's legs . A sword or blade is then placed into a slot at the point where the top of the half - height table meets the cabinet . The top of the cabinet then slides across onto the table , giving the impression that the top half of the assistant has been moved sideways and in the process been severed from the legs by the blade . Panels in the front of the cabinet are opened to show the top and bottom halves of the assistant apparently separate . The top of the cabinet is then slid back into its original position and the assistant emerges unharmed . The effect and method are credited to designer Jim Steinmeyer . Criss Angel 's pulling a woman apart ( edit ) Criss Angel performed a trick in which he appeared to pull a woman in half with his hands during an outdoor performance and half of her crawled away . The trick involved a woman with sacral agenesis and a contortionist . Magician and historian Ricky Jay has written that a version of this trick was previously performed by another magician . The magician that inspired Criss Angel 's trick was Rajah Raboid , who performed this trick with Johnny Eck and his twin brother , Robert , in 1937 . Methods and exposure ( edit ) Variant 1 . Variant 2 . As suggested by the various effects , detailed above , there are numerous methods for accomplishing sawing illusions . Over the years a number of these have been exposed and several have been published and are easily obtainable . Publishing of magic methods has proved a controversial subject at times . It has involved battles between those determined to expose methods and magicians , who have sometimes resorted to legal action to try to preserve secrecy . The sawing illusion has had a prominent role in the history of such battles and has thus contributed to case law . In September 1921 , motivated by concerns about preventing competition from other magicians who might copy him , Horace Goldin forwent secrecy and applied for a patent for Sawing a woman in half . He was awarded U.S. patent number 1,458,575 on 12 June 1923 . The following is an outline summary the patent : One variant presents the front of the box to the audience ( A ) . Expecting the box is the size of an ordinary chest , they may assume that the `` victim '' is arranged ( B ) , crossing the path of the saw . In reality , the box may be deeper ( which the audience can not see from their perspective ) , and the `` victim '' curled up to clear the blade ( C ) . Another variant has a false table on which the box rests . This allows the carved out table to be used as a place for the woman to crawl up in and avoid the saw . Her feet are replaced with fakes that are moved with electric motors . These motors have the ability to move the feet , but only slightly , as no technology exists to make realistic - looking feet of flesh or the ability to move the toes of the feet ; this means that all fake feet must be wearing shoes during the performance . This method is generally not in use today , as the false table must be extremely thick to conceal the assistant . Penn and Teller use the second variant of this trick on a regular basis in Las Vegas . They have also performed this trick on television at least twice : on Home Improvement and during the 2007 NBA All - Star Weekend . They always reveal how the trick is done . Famous performances and depictions ( edit ) A number of performances or depictions of sawing illusions have achieved particular fame or notoriety . P.T. Selbit 's original performances in London in January 1921 were special because the effect was new and shocking to audiences of the time . Such was the impact of Selbit 's creation that , for decades afterwards , other magicians would try to emulate and improve on what he had done , thus affecting the course of stage magic history . In 1956 , Indian illusionist P.C. Sorcar used a buzzsaw to cut his wife in two during a televised performance . Just when he had divided her the host quickly signed off and the show ended . This caused horrified viewers to believe she had accidentally been killed . In reality , it was a live television broadcast and time had run out . In the 1957 Friz Freleng cartoon Show Biz Bugs , Bugs Bunny asks for a volunteer for this trick , and Daffy Duck happily obliges , throughout attempting to expose the fraud of this trick . After the trick is over , Daffy tries to show the audience he is n't cut in half , only for his upper and lower halves to jump whenever he is angry . ( His response : `` Hmmph . It 's a good thing I got Blue Cross . '' ) Live performances by Peruvian magician Richiardi Jr are often cited as the most horrific presentations of a sawing illusion . Richiardi used a buzzsaw prop similar to that employed by Sorcar but he greatly added to the shock value by incorporating fake blood and entrails , which were sprayed over the stage ( and sometimes beyond it ) as the saw went to work . The 1962 Alfred Hitchcock Presents episode `` The Sorcerer 's Apprentice '' depicted sawing a woman in half . The NBC Television Network and sponsor Revlon determined the episode was too gory and chose not to air it . Critical responses and twists ( edit ) Jim Steinmeyer has argued that Selbit 's introduction of the sawing illusion was a turning point in the history of magic after which gentler styles represented by the likes of John Nevil Maskelyne were in irreversible decline to be replaced by more sensational presentations that owed something to the shock effect of Grand Guignol theatre . In particular , Steinmeyer identifies the sawing illusion as the beginning of a fashion for magic featuring female assistants in the role of victim . He says the cliche of `` pretty ladies teased and tortured by magicians '' was not a cliche prior to Selbit 's illusion . Male assistants were common in magic history and in the Victorian era ; the cumbersome clothes imposed on women by the fashions of the time made it impractical for them to squeeze into confined spaces required by some tricks . Changing fashions in the early 20th century made Selbit 's choice of a female victim a practical proposition . It was also true that an illusion designed for a lithe woman might be more compact and deceptive than one tailored to fit a man . However , more controversially , a combination of the emancipation of women and a population desensitized by war and exposed to new entertainment phenomena meant Selbit 's choice struck a chord in the public imagination . In Steinmeyer 's words : `` beyond the practical concerns , the image of the woman in peril became a specific fashion in entertainment '' . Modern magicians , including female performers , have responded by placing a male performer in the role originally filled by a woman . Magician Dorothy Dietrich , who established herself as a leading magician as a teenager has been called the `` First woman to saw a man in half . '' Australian magician Sue - Anne Webster performs a variation on the `` thin model '' sawing in which she saws husband Tim Ellis in two with a chainsaw . See also ( edit ) Clearly Impossible , variant on the trick Zig Zag Girl another variant Hemicorporectomy , when a person is actually cut in half Magician 's assistant References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Brown , Gary R. `` Sawing a Woman in Half '' . AmericanHeritage.com . Retrieved 2007 - 03 - 29 . ^ Jump up to : Steinmeyer , Jim ( 2003 ) . Hiding the Elephant : How Magicians Invented the Impossible . William Heinemann / Random House . pp. 277 -- 295 . ISBN 0 - 434 - 01325 - 0 . Jump up ^ Goldin v. Clarion Photoplays , New York ( Dec 1922 ) Yale Law Journal , Vol. 32 , No. 2 , p. 201 Jump up ^ Steinmeyer , Jim ; Neil Gaiman ( October 2006 ) . Art and Artifice : And Other Essays of Illusion . Da Capo Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7867 - 1806 - 1 . ^ Jump up to : This performance was recreated in the final episode of the six - part BBC Television documentary series Magic , originally broadcast in 2004 . See Magic on IMDb ^ Jump up to : `` US Patent 1,458,575 '' . United States Patent and Trademark Office . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 03 . Jump up ^ Charvet , David and Julie ( 1991 ) . `` The Great Virgil '' . Charvet Studios : 78 -- 79 . Jump up ^ Stephen Mulhern performing the UK TV debut of the Les Arnold Crystal Sawing on ITV 's Magic Numbers ( 1 ) Jump up ^ `` Press Release : `` Best of the Best '' return for Cincinnati Playhouse in the Park 's Annual Tribute to Illusion `` . Cincinnati Playhouse. 7 June 2004 . Archived from the original on 20 February 2008 . Retrieved 17 June 2008 . Jump up ^ The Pendragons performing Clearly Impossible in Cincinnati 1998 PBS TV Special ( 2 ) Jump up ^ Lawton , Joan ( January 2005 ) . `` Web Extra : Alan Wakeling '' . Magic magazine . Retrieved 2007 - 06 - 14 . Jump up ^ Rakshit , B. ( March 1965 ) . `` Rakshit 's version of sawing through woman '' . The Linking Ring . International Brotherhood of Magicians : 78 -- 79 . Jump up ^ `` The Magic of Japan '' . Genii Magazine . The Genii Corporation . September 1969 . Jump up ^ `` Illusion Hotline : Who Owns The Rights '' . magicauction.com . Retrieved 2008 - 06 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Criss Angel and Half a Woman Video '' . Retrieved 2007 - 03 - 28 . Jump up ^ `` Pulled Apart '' . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 02 . Jump up ^ Jay , Ricky ( October 1998 ) . Learned Pigs & Fireproof Women . Noonday Press . ISBN 0 - 374 - 52570 - 6 . Jump up ^ `` Illusion Device '' . Google . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 03 . Jump up ^ Dawes , A.E. , et al. Making Magic . London : Multimedia Books , Ltd , 1993 . Jump up ^ The New York Times `` HOUDINI -- THE GREATEST SHOWMAN OF ALL ? '' . New York Times . 1 November . Check date values in : date = ( help ) Jump up ^ Weekly World News Dorothy Dietrich First Lady of Magic . Weekly World News . 20 January . Check date values in : date = ( help ) Jump up ^ The topic of assistants portrayed as victims in violent illusions was featured in `` Violent magic '' the final episode of the six - part BBC television documentary series Magic in 2004 , see `` UK Magic News '' . Magicweek.co.uk. 20 November 2004 . Retrieved 2007 - 04 - 03 . Further reading ( edit ) Jim Steinmeyer , Art and Artifice : And other essays of illusion . Carroll & Graf , September 2006 . ISBN 0 - 7867 - 1806 - 4 . ( Includes essays on Selbit and Goldin and their sawing illusions . ) ( hide ) Magic and illusion General Assistants Clubs Conventions Exposure Mentalists Stores Genres Bizarre Card Cardistry ( history ) Children 's Close - up magic Coin Escapology Gospel Mathemagic Mental Platform Séance Stage Street Tricks and techniques Levitation Equivocation Misdirection Sleight of hand Lists Conjuring terms Films about magicians Magicians Manufacturers Museums Publications Timeline Tricks History Indian magicians The Discoverie of Witchcraft Modern Magic Tarbell Course Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sawing_a_woman_in_half&oldid=806519376 '' Categories : Magic tricks Women in theatre Hidden categories : CS1 errors : dates All accuracy disputes Articles with disputed statements from January 2011 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Eesti Español Français Polski Русский Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 22 October 2017 , at 15 : 26 . About Wikipedia

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the need to recognize and empower the girl child wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Women%27s_empowerment&oldid=838510440

Women 's empowerment - Wikipedia Women 's empowerment Jump to : navigation , search This article is written like a personal reflection or opinion essay that states a Wikipedia editor 's personal feelings about a topic . Please help improve it by rewriting it in an encyclopedic style . ( July 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Former First Lady Michelle Obama greets students during a Room to Read event with First Lady Bun Rany of Cambodia in support of the Let Girls Learn initiative , at Hun Sen Prasat Bakong High School in Siem Reap , Cambodia , March 21 , 2015 . Women 's empowerment is the process in which women expand and recreate what it is that they can be , do , and accomplish in a circumstance that they previously were denied . Alternatively , it is the process for women to redefine gender roles that allows for them to acquire the ability to choose between known alternatives whom have otherwise been restricted from such an ability . There are several principles defining women 's empowerment such as , for one to be empowered , they must come from a position of disempowerment . Furthermore , one must acquire empowerment themselves rather than have it given to them by an external party . Other studies have found that empowerment definitions entail people having the capability to make important decisions in their lives while also being able to act on them . Lastly , empowerment and disempowerment is relative to other at a previous time ; therefore , empowerment is a process , not a product . Women empowerment has become a significant topic of discussion in development and economics . It can also point to the approaches regarding other trivialized genders in a particular political or social context . Women 's economic empowerment refers to the ability for women to enjoy their right to control and benefit from resources , assets , income and their own time , as well as the ability to manage risk and improve their economic status and well being . While often interchangeably used , the more comprehensive concept of gender empowerment refers to people of any gender , stressing the distinction between biological and gender as a role . It thereby also refers to other marginalized genders in a Contents ( hide ) 1 Importance of women 's empowerment in societies 2 Methods 2.1 Economic Empowerment 2.2 Political Empowerment 3 Measurement and Assessment 4 Barriers 5 The role of education 6 The Internet as a tool of empowerment 7 Ongoing Projects 7.1 U.S. Involvement 8 See also 9 Sources 10 References 11 Further reading Importance of women 's empowerment in societies ( edit ) Entire nations , businesses , communities and groups can benefit from the implementation of programs and policies that adopt the notion of women empowerment . Empowerment of women is a necessity for the very development of a society , since it enhances both the quality and the quantity of human resources available for development . Empowerment is one of the main procedural concerns when addressing human rights and development . The Human Development and Capabilities Approach , the Millennium Development Goals , the Sustainable Development Goals , and other credible approaches / goals point to empowerment and participation as a necessary step if a country is to overcome the obstacles associated with poverty and development . Methods ( edit ) Scholars have identified two forms of empowerment , economic empowerment and political empowerment . Economic empowerment ( edit ) Economic empowerment increases women 's agency , access to formal government programs , mobility outside the home , economic independence , and purchasing power . Policy makers are suggested to support job training to aid in entrance in the formal markets . One recommendation is to provide more formal education opportunities for women that would allow for higher bargaining power in the home . They would have more access to higher wages outside the home ; and as a result , make it easier for women to get a job in the market . Strengthening women 's access to property inheritance and land rights is another method used to economically empower women . This would allow them better means of asset accumulation , capital , and bargaining power needed to address gender inequalities . Often , women in developing and underdeveloped nations are legally restricted from their land on the sole basis of gender . Having a right to their land gives women a sort of bargaining power that they would n't normally have ; in turn , they gain more opportunities for economic independence and formal financial institutions . Another popular methodology for women 's economic empowerment also includes microcredit . Microfinance institutions aim to empower women in their community by giving them access to loans that have low interest rates without the requirement of collateral . More specifically , they aim to give microcredit to women whom want to be entrepreneurs . The success and efficiency of microcredit and microloans is controversial and constantly debated . Some critiques claim that microcredit alone does n't guarantee women have control over the way it is used . Microfinance institutions do n't address cultural barriers that allow men to still control household finances ; as a result , microcredit may simply be transferred to the husband . Microcredit does n't relieve women of household obligations , and even if women have credit , they do n't have the time to be as active in the market as men . Political empowerment ( edit ) Political empowerment supports creating policies that would best support gender equality and agency for women in both the public and private spheres . Popular methods that have been suggested are to create affirmative action policies that have a quota for the number of women in policy making and parliament positions . As of 2017 , the global average of women whom hold lower and single house parliament positions is 23.6 percent . Further recommendations have been to to increase women 's rights to vote , voice opinions , and the ability to run for office with a fair chance of being elected . Because women are typically associated with child care and domestic responsibilities in the home , they have have less time dedicated to entering the labour market and running their business . Policies that increase their bargaining power in the household would include policies that account for cases of divorce , policies for better welfare for women , and policies that give women control over resources ( such as property rights ) . However , participation is not limited to the realm of politics . It can include participation in the household , in schools , and the ability to make choices for oneself . Some theorists believe that bargaining power and agency in the household must to be achieved before one can move onto broader political participation . When women have the agency to do what they want , a higher equality between men and women is established . Measurement and assessment ( edit ) Women empowerment can be measured through the Gender Empowerment Measure ( GEM ) , which shows women 's participation in a given nation , both politically and economically . GEM is calculated by tracking `` the share of seats in parliament held by women ; of female legislators , senior officials and managers ; and of female profession and technical workers ; and the gender disparity in earned income , reflecting economic independence '' . It then ranks countries given this information . Other measures that take into account the importance of female participation and equality include : the Gender Parity Index and the Gender - related Development Index ( GDI ) . Some critiques of GEM is that it is not concerned with factors regarding society , such as gender , religion , cultural context , legal context , and violations of women 's rights . Gender empowerment measure attempts to makes a consistent standardized approach to measure women 's empowerment ; in doing so , it has been critiqued that the GEM does n't account for variation in historical factors , female autonomy , gender segregation , and women 's right to vote . The Gender - related Development Index ( GDI ) is a way in which the United Nations Development Programme ( UNDP ) measures the inequality between genders within a country . Some critique of this measurement is that , because GDI calculations rely solely on the achievement distribution between males and females of a population , GDI does n't measure gender inequality ; rather , it measures absolute levels on income , education and health A more qualitative form of assessing women 's empowerment is to identify constraints to action . This allows for the identification of power relations between genders . Because this is a participatory process , it facilitates conversation on gender discrimination . Comparing constraints on women at a later time also allows for any changes or expansion to be better identified . The evaluation of the development of women 's agency allows for an evaluation of actions taken . These assessments must also be based on the action taken by women , and not external groups . External groups can help facilitate women 's empowerment , but can not bestow it on them . Barriers ( edit ) Many of the barriers to women 's empowerment and equity lie ingrained in cultural norms . Many women feel these pressures , while others have become accustomed to being treated inferior to men . Even if men , legislators , NGOs , etc. are aware of the benefits women 's empowerment and participation can have , many are scared of disrupting the status of the women and continue to let societal norms get in the way of development . Research shows that the increasing access to the internet can also result in an increased exploitation of women . Releasing personal information on websites has put some women 's personal safety at risk . In 2010 , Working to Halt Online Abuse stated that 73 % of women were victimized through such sites . Types of victimization include cyber stalking , harassment , online pornography , and flaming . Sexual harassment in particular is a large barrier for women in the workplace . It appears in almost all industries , but is most notable in the following : business , trade , banking and finance , sales and marketing , hospitality , civil service , and education , lecturing and teaching . According to the International Labour Organisation ( ILO ) , sexual harassment is a clear form of gender discrimination based on sex , a manifestation of unequal power relations between men and women . Furthermore , the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women ( CEDAW ) is urging for increased measures of protection for women against sexual harassment and violence in the workplace . 54 % ( 272 ) had experienced some form of workplace sexual harassment. 79 % of the victims are women ; 21 % were men . Recent studies also show that women face more barriers in the workplace than do men . Gender - related barriers involve sexual harassment , unfair hiring practices , career progression , and unequal pay where women are paid less than men are for performing the same job . When taking the median earnings of men and women who worked full - time , year - round , government data from 2014 showed that women made $0.79 for every dollar a man earned . The average earnings for working mothers came out to even less -- $0.71 for every dollar a father made , according to a 2014 study conducted by the National Partnership for Women and Children . While much of the public discussion of the `` wage gap '' has focused around women getting equal pay for the same work as their male peers , many women struggle with what is called the `` pregnancy penalty '' . The main problem is that it is difficult to measure , but some experts say that the possibility of having a baby can be enough for employers to push women back from their line . Therefore , women are put in a position where they need to make the decision of whether to maintain in the workforce or have children . This problem has sparked the debate over maternity leave in the United States . However , despite the struggle for equal pay in the United States , the tech industry has made progress in helping to encourage equal pay across gender . In March 2016 , tech career website Dice released a study of more than 16,000 tech professionals that found that when you compare equivalent education , experience and position , there is no pay gap -- and has n't been for the last six years . This new industry is paving a way for other companies to do the same . However , this industry also struggles to employ women in executive positions . This is partially due to the barrier of sexual harassment and pregnancy that was aforementioned . Such barriers make it difficult for women to advance in their workplace or receive fair compensation for the work they provide . The Role of education ( edit ) It is said that education increases `` people 's self - confidence and enables them to find better jobs and they can work shoulder to shoulder with men. They engage in public debate and make demands on government for health care , social security and other entitlements '' . In particular , education empowers women to make choices that improve their children 's health , their wellbeing , and chances of survival . Education informs others of preventing and containing disease , and it is an essential element of efforts to reduce malnutrition . Furthermore , it empowers women to make choices that can improve their welfare , including marrying beyond childhood and having fewer children . Crucially , education can increase women 's awareness of their rights , boost their self - esteem , and provide them the opportunity to assert their rights . Despite significant improvements in recent decades , education is not universally available and gender inequalities persist . A major concern in many countries is not only the limited numbers of girls going to school , but also the limited educational pathways for those that step into the classroom . More specifically , there should be more efforts to address the lower participation and learning achievement of girls in science , technology , engineering and mathematics ( STEM ) education . The Internet as a tool of empowerment ( edit ) The growing access of the web in the late 20th century has allowed women to empower themselves by using various tools on the Internet . With the introduction of the World Wide Web , women have begun to use social networking sites like Facebook and Twitter for online activism . Through online activism , women are able to empower themselves by organizing campaigns and voicing their opinions for equality rights without feeling oppressed by members of society . For example , on May 29 , 2013 , an online campaign started by 100 female advocates forced the leading social networking website , Facebook , to take down various pages that spread hatred about women . In recent years , blogging has also become a powerful tool for the educational empowerment of women . According to a study done by the University of California , Los Angeles , medical patients who read and write about their disease are often in a much happier mood and more knowledgeable than those who do not . By reading others ' experiences , patients can better educate themselves and apply strategies that their fellow bloggers suggest . With the easy accessibility and affordability of e-learning ( electronic learning ) , women can now study from the comfort of their homes . By empowering themselves educationally through new technologies like e-learning , women are also learning new skills that will come in handy in today 's advancing globalized world . Ongoing projects ( edit ) The UN came out with a set of goals called the Sustainable Development Goals , or SDGs , to help make the world a better place . Of the 17 , the fourth goal works to allow access to education for all people alike . A large effort has been made to include women in schools to better their education . Similarly , the fifth goal focuses on empowering women and girls to achieve gender equality through equal access to various types of opportunities ( health care , education , work , etc . ) . There are also some prominent non-profits that help empower women : She Should Run Girls Not Brides The Malala Fund Women in Defense Women for Women International Every Mother Counts U.S. involvement ( edit ) The U.S. provides foreign aid to third world countries in various forms , one of which is by providing education programs . There are currently bills in Congress that work to ensure education to girls , one of which is the Protecting Girls ' Access to Education Act . These are enacted with the belief that proper education will pull them out of poverty and reduce exploitation . See also ( edit ) Feminism Women empowerment in Nigeria Women 's rights Women in the workforce Sources ( edit ) This article incorporates text from a free content work . License statement : Cracking the code : girls ' and women 's education in science , technology , engineering and mathematics ( STEM ) , 11 , UNESCO . To learn how to add open license text to Wikipedia articles , please see Wikipedia : Adding open license text to Wikipedia . For information on reusing text from Wikipedia , please see the terms of use . This article incorporates text from a free content work . Licensed under CC - BY - SA IGO 3.0 License statement : Mobile phones and literacy : Empowerment in Women 's Hands ; A Cross-Case Analysis of Nine Experiences , 33 , UNESCO , UNESCO . UNESCO . To learn how to add open license text to Wikipedia articles , please see Wikipedia : Adding open license text to Wikipedia . For information on reusing text from Wikipedia , please see the terms of use . References ( edit ) Further reading ( edit ) Heldman , Caroline ; Frankel , Laura Lazarus ; Holmes , Jennifer ( April -- June 2016 ) . `` '' Hot , black leather , whip '' The ( de ) evolution of female protagonists in action cinema , 1960 -- 2014 `` . Sexualization , Media , and Society . Sage. 2 ( 2 ) . doi : 10.1177 / 2374623815627789 . Pdf . ( Includes a section titled `` The Empowerment Question '' ) . Traditional functions of the family and the role of women Women Participation in Real Estate Industry ^ Jump up to : Kabeer , Naila . `` Gender equality and women 's empowerment : A critical analysis of the third millennium development goal 1 . '' Gender & Development 13.1 ( 2005 ) : 13 - 24 . ^ Jump up to : Mosedale , Sarah ( 2005 - 03 - 01 ) . `` Assessing women 's empowerment : towards a conceptual framework '' . Journal of International Development . 17 ( 2 ) : 243 -- 257 . doi : 10.1002 / jid. 1212 . ISSN 1099 - 1328 . Jump up ^ Oxfam ( Forthcoming ) , `` Women 's Economic Empowerment Conceptual Framework '' ^ Jump up to : Deneulin , Séverine ; Lila Shahani , eds. ( 2009 ) . `` An Introduction to the Human Development and Capability Approach : Freedom and Agency '' ( PDF ) . Sterling , VA : Earthscan . Jump up ^ Gupta , Kamla ; Yesudian , P. Princy ( 2006 ) . `` Evidence of women 's empowerment in India : a study of socio - spatial disparities '' . GeoJournal . doi : 10.1007 / s10708 - 006 - 7556 - z . Jump up ^ U.N. General Assembly , 55th Session leke berrand fezer ( 8 September 2000 ) . `` United Nations Millennium Declaration '' ( PDF ) . ( A / 55 / L. 2 ) . Retrieved January 2 , 2008 . ^ Jump up to : Kabeer , Naila . `` Contextualising the Economic Pathways of Women 's Empowerment : Findings from a Multi-Country Research Programme . '' ( 2011 ) . ^ Jump up to : `` Regional Organizations , Gender Equality and the Political Empowerment of Women '' . UNDP . Retrieved 2018 - 04 - 08 . ^ Jump up to : Duflo , Esther ( 2012 ) . `` Women Empowerment and Economic Development '' . Journal of Economic Literature. 50 ( 4 ) : 1051 -- 1079 . Jump up ^ `` World Survey on the Role of Women In Development '' . Women 's Control over Economic Resources and Access to Financial Resources , including Microfinance ( PDF ) ( Report ) . New York : United Nations . 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Geleta , Esayas Bekele . `` Microfinance and the politics of empowerment : a critical cultural perspective . '' Journal of Asian and African Studies 49.4 ( 2014 ) : 413 - 425 . Jump up ^ Parmar , A. ( 2003 ) . `` Microcredit , Empowerment , and Agency : Re-evaluating the Discourse '' . Canadian Journal of Development Studies . 24 ( 3 ) : 461 -- 76 . doi : 10.1080 / 02255189.2003. 9668932 . Jump up ^ Ellis , Amanda . Gender and economic growth in Kenya : Unleashing the power of women . World Bank Publications , 2007 . Jump up ^ Nussbaum , Martha C. ( 2000 ) . `` Introduction '' . Women and Human Development : The Capabilities to Approach . Cambridge , UK : Cambridge University Press . pp. 1 -- 33 . ISBN 9781139459358 . ^ Jump up to : Charmes , Jacques , and Saskia Wieringa . `` Measuring women 's empowerment : an assessment of the gender - related development index and the gender empowerment measure . '' Journal of Human Development 4.3 ( 2003 ) : 419 - 435 . Jump up ^ Pillarisetti , J. ; McGillivray , Mark ( 1998 - 06 - 01 ) . `` Human Development and Gender Empowerment : Methodological and Measurement Issues '' . Development Policy Review . 16 ( 2 ) : 197 -- 203 . doi : 10.1111 / 1467 - 7679.00059 . ISSN 1467 - 7679 . ^ Jump up to : Mosedale , Sarah ( 2005 - 03 - 01 ) . `` Assessing women 's empowerment : towards a conceptual framework '' . Journal of International Development . 17 ( 2 ) : 243 -- 257 . doi : 10.1002 / jid. 1212 . ISSN 1099 - 1328 . Jump up ^ Nussbaum , Martha C. ( 1995 ) . `` Introduction '' . In Martha C. Nussbaum & Jonathan Glover . Women , Culture , and Development : A Study of Human Capabilities . Oxford : Clarendon Press . pp. 1 -- 15 . ISBN 9780198289647 . Jump up ^ `` World Survey on the Role of Women In Development '' . Women 's Control over Economic Resources and Access to Financial Resources , including Microfinance ( PDF ) ( Report ) . New York : United Nations . 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Sutton , J. & Pollock , S. ( 2000 ) . `` Online Activism for Women 's Rights '' . Cyber Psychology & Behavior . 3 ( 5 ) : 699 -- 706 . doi : 10.1089 / 10949310050191700 . Jump up ^ Morahan - Martin , J. ( 2000 ) . `` Women and the Internet : Promise and Perils '' . Cyber Psychology & Behavior . 3 ( 5 ) : 683 -- 691 . doi : 10.1089 / 10949310050191683 . ^ Jump up to : `` Statistics '' . AWARE RSS . AWARE. 22 April 2010 . Retrieved 19 May 2016 . Jump up ^ Stein , A.I. ( 2009 ) . `` Women Lawyers Blog for Workplace Equality : Blogging as a Feminist Legal Method '' . Yale Journal of Law and Feminism. 20 ( 2 ) : 357 -- 408 . ^ Jump up to : Safia Samee Ali ( April 11 , 2016 ) . `` ' Motherhood Penalty ' Can Affect Women Who Never Even Have a Child '' . NBC News . Jump up ^ Marniemi , J. ; Parkki , M.G. ( 1975 - 09 - 01 ) . `` Radiochemical assay of glutathione S - epoxide transferase and its enhancement by phenobarbital in rat liver in vivo '' . Biochemical Pharmacology . 24 ( 17 ) : 1569 -- 1572 . ISSN 0006 - 2952 . PMID 9 . ^ Jump up to : UNDP. 2013 . Human Development Report . The Rise of the South . Human Progress in a Diverse World ; New York , UNDP . Jump up ^ UNESCO . 2014 . EFA Global Monitoring Report 2013 / 2014 : Teaching and Learning , Paris , UNESCO . Jump up ^ UNESCO ( 2015 ) . Mobile phones and literacy : Empowerment in Women 's Hands ; A Cross-Case Analysis of Nine Experiences ( PDF ) . 33 : UNESCO . ISBN 978 - 92 - 3 - 100123 - 9 . Jump up ^ Cracking the code : girls ' and women 's education in science , technology , engineering and mathematics ( STEM ) . Paris : UNESCO . 2017 . p. 11 . ISBN 9789231002335 . Jump up ^ Churchyard , N. ( 2009 ) . `` The Question of Empowerment : Women 's Perspective on Their Internet Use '' . Gender , Technology and Development . 13 ( 3 ) : 341 -- 363 . doi : 10.1177 / 097185241001300302 . Jump up ^ McVeigh , T. ( June 6 , 2013 ) . `` Online Feminist activists of the digital age '' . Taipei Times . ^ Jump up to : Stephan , P. ( August 13 , 2013 ) . `` Breast cancer patients blog their blues away '' . breastcancer.about.com . Jump up ^ Radovic - Markovic , M. ; Nelson - Porter , B. & Omolaja , M. ( 2012 ) . `` The new alternative women 's entrepreneurship education : E-learning and virtual universities '' ( PDF ) . International Women Online Journal of Distance Education . 1 ( 2 ) : 46 -- 54 . ISSN 2147 - 0367 . Jump up ^ `` Sustainable development goals - United Nations '' . United Nations Sustainable Development . Retrieved 2018 - 03 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` Education - United Nations Sustainable Development '' . United Nations Sustainable Development . Retrieved 2018 - 03 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` United Nations : Gender equality and women 's empowerment '' . United Nations Sustainable Development . Retrieved 2018 - 03 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` 10 Amazing Nonprofits Empowering Women in 2017 - The Power of Purpose '' . The Power of Purpose. 2017 - 01 - 26 . Retrieved 2018 - 03 - 29 . Jump up ^ Steve , Chabot , ( 2017 - 10 - 04 ) . `` H.R. 2408 - 115th Congress ( 2017 - 2018 ) : Protecting Girls ' Access to Education Act '' . www.congress.gov . Retrieved 2018 - 03 - 14 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Women%27s_empowerment&oldid=838510440 '' Categories : Women 's studies Women 's rights Human rights concepts Sexuality and gender identity - based cultures Law Egalitarianism Empowerment Women 's empowerment Hidden categories : Wikipedia articles needing style editing from July 2017 All articles needing style editing Wikipedia articles needing clarification from June 2017 Free - content attribution Free content from UNESCO Talk Contents About Wikipedia भोजपुरी Euskara Edit links This page was last edited on 27 April 2018 , at 13 : 42 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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resources of the west region of the united states

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Southwestern_United_States&oldid=822024570

Southwestern United States - wikipedia Southwestern United States Jump to : navigation , search Though regional definitions vary from source to source , Arizona and New Mexico ( in dark red ) are almost always considered the core , modern - day Southwest . The lighter red and striped states may or may not be considered part of this region . The lighter red states are also classified as part of the West by the U.S. Census Bureau , though the striped states are not ( Oklahoma and Texas ) . The Southwestern United States ( also known as the American Southwest ) is the informal name for a region of the western United States . Definitions vary a great deal and have never been standardized -- and many have been proposed . For example , it might include the stretch from east of Los Angeles to El Paso , and from the Mexican border to south of Denver . The population for that particular definition area is around 11 million people , with over half that in the state of Arizona . The largest metropolitan areas are Phoenix ( with a population over 4 million people ) and Las Vegas ( about 2 million ) ; other significant population centers in the Southwest are Albuquerque , El Paso , Denver , Salt Lake City , and Tucson . Most of the area was part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain in the Spanish Empire before becoming part of Mexico . European settlement was almost non-existent outside New Mexico in 1848 , when it became part of the United States through the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ; far southern Arizona was added in the later Gadsden Purchase . Historical population Census Pop . % ± 1850 212,592 -- 1860 604,215 184.2 % 1870 818,579 35.5 % 1880 1,591,749 94.5 % 1890 2,235,527 40.4 % 1900 3,048,710 36.4 % 1910 5,553,697 82.2 % 1920 7,051,861 27.0 % 1930 9,079,645 28.8 % 1940 9,782,337 7.7 % 1950 11,375,319 16.3 % 1960 14,162,145 24.5 % 1970 16,516,978 16.6 % 1980 21,267,998 28.8 % 25,312,392 19.0 % 2000 27,801,498 9.8 % 37,348,008 34.3 % Est. 2017 40,699,411 9.0 % Contents ( hide ) 1 Regional geography 2 History 2.1 Pre-European contact 2.2 Arrival of Europeans 2.3 Becoming states 2.4 From statehood through World War II 2.5 The post-war years through the end of the millennium 2.6 The 2000s 3 Origins of the term and historical / cultural variations 3.1 Historical / archeological 3.2 Geological / topographical 3.3 Ecological 3.4 Cultural 4 Vegetation and terrain 5 Wildlife 6 Climate 7 National monuments , forests and parks 8 Ethnicity 9 Cities and urban areas 9.1 Largest cities and metropolitan areas ( as of 2010 census ) 10 Sports 10.1 Professional 10.2 College 11 Politics of Southwestern states 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References 15 Bibliography 16 External links Regional geography ( edit ) Panoramic view of the southwestern United States The geography of the region is mainly made up by four features : the Mojave , Sonoran , and Chihuahuan Deserts , and the Colorado Plateau ; although there are other geographical features as well , such as a portion of the Great Basin Desert . The deserts dominate the southern and western reaches of the area , while the plateau ( which is largely made up of high desert ) is the main feature north of the Mogollon Rim . The two major rivers of the region are the Colorado River , running in the northern and western areas , and the Rio Grande , running in the east , north to south . The Chihuahuan desert terrain mainly consists of basins broken by numerous small mountain ranges . Formed approximately 8000 years ago , the Chihuahuan Desert is a relatively dry desert , although it is slightly wetter than the Sonoran Desert to the west . The Chihuahuan Desert spreads across the southeastern portion of the region , covering from southeastern Arizona , across southern New Mexico , and the portion of Texas included in the Southwest . While it is the second largest desert in the United States , only a third of the desert is within the United States , with the rest in Mexico . El Paso is the major city in this desert , with other smaller cities being Las Cruces and Roswell in New Mexico . The elevation in the Chihuahuan varies from 1970 to 5500 feet , as there are several smaller mountain ranges contained in the area , namely the San Andres and Doña Anas in New Mexico , and the Franklin Mountains , which span Texas and New Mexico in the Southwest region . The Chihuahuan is a `` rain shadow '' desert , formed between two mountain ranges ( the Sierra Madre Occidental on the west and the Sierra Madre Oriental on the east ) which block oceanic precipitation from reaching the area . The Chihuahuan Desert is considered the `` most biologically diverse desert in the Western Hemisphere and one of the most diverse in the world '' , and includes more species of cacti than any other desert in the world . The most prolific plants in this region are agave , yucca and creosote bushes , in addition to the ubiquitous cacti . Saguaro cactus in the Sonoran Desert . When people think of the desert southwest , the landscape of the Sonoran Desert is what mostly comes to mind . The Sonoran Desert makes up the southwestern portion of the Southwest ; most of the desert lies in Mexico , but its United States component lies on the southeastern border of California , and the western 2 / 3 of southern Arizona . Rainfall averages between 4 -- 12 inches per year , and the desert 's most widely known inhabitant is the saguaro cactus , which is unique to the desert . It is bounded on the northwest by the Mojave Desert , to the north by the Colorado Plateau and to the east by the Arizona Mountains forests and the Chihuahuan Desert . Aside from the trademark saguaro , the desert has the most diverse plant life of any desert in the world , and includes many other species of cacti , including the organ - pipe , senita , prickly pear , barrel , fishhook , hedgehog , cholla , silver dollar , and jojoba . The portion of the Sonora Desert which lies in the Southwestern United States is the most populated area within the region . Six of the top ten major population centers of the region are found within its borders : Phoenix , Tucson , Mesa , Chandler , Glendale , and Scottsdale , all in Arizona . Also within its borders are Yuma and Prescott Arizona . The most northwest portion of the American Southwest is covered by the Mojave Desert . Bordered on the south by the Sonoran Desert and the east by the Colorado Plateau , its range within the region makes up the southeast tip of Nevada , and the northwestern corner of Arizona . In terms of topography , the Mojave is very similar to the Great Basin Desert , which lies just to its north . Within the region , Las Vegas is the most populous city ; other significant areas of human habitation include Laughlin and Pahrump in Nevada , and Lake Havasu City , Kingman , and Bullhead City in Arizona . The Mojave is the smallest , driest and hottest desert within the United States . The Mojave gets less than six inches of rain annually , and its elevation ranges from 3000 to 6000 feet above sea level . The most prolific vegetation is the tall Joshua tree , which grow as tall as 40 feet , and are thought to live almost 1000 years . Other major vegetation includes the Parry saltbush and the Mojave sage , both only found in the Mojave , as well as the creosote bush . The Delicate Arch at Arches National Park The Colorado Plateau varies from the large stands of forests in the west , including the largest stand of ponderosa pine trees in the world , to the Mesas to the east . Although not called a desert , the Colorado Plateau is mostly made up of high desert . Within the Southwest U.S. region , the Colorado is bordered to the south by the Mogollon Rim and the Sonoran Desert , to the west by the Mojave Desert , and to the east by the Rocky Mountains and the Llano Estacado . The Plateau is characterized by a series of plateaus and mesas , interspersed with canyons . The most dramatic example is the Grand Canyon . But that is one of many dramatic vistas included within the Plateau , which includes spectacular lava formations , `` painted '' deserts , sand dunes , and badlands . One of the most distinctive features of the Plateau is its longevity , having come into existence at least 500 million years ago . The Plateau can be divided into six sections , three of which fall into the Southwest region . Beginning with the Navajo section forming the northern boundary of the Southwestern United States , which has shallower canyons than those in the Canyonlands section just to its north ; the Navajo section is bordered to the south by the Grand Canyon section , which of course is dominated by the Grand Canyon ; and the southeastern-most portion of the Plateau is the Datil section , consisting of valleys , mesas , and volcanic formations . Albuquerque is the most populous city within the portion contained in the Southwest region , but Sante Fe , New Mexico and Flagstaff , Arizona , are also significant population centers . Four Corners Monument Geographer D.W. Meinig defines the Southwest in a very similar fashion to Reed : the portion of New Mexico west of the Llano Estacado and the portion of Arizona east of the Mojave - Sonoran Desert and south of the `` canyon lands '' and also including the El Paso district of western Texas and the southernmost part of Colorado . Meinig breaks the Southwest down into four distinct subregions . He calls the first subregion `` Northern New Mexico '' , and describes it as focused on Albuquerque and Santa Fe . It extends from the San Luis Valley of southern Colorado to south of Socorro and including the Manzano Mountains , with an east - west breadth in the north stretching from the upper Canadian River to the upper San Juan River . The area around Albuquerque is sometimes called Central New Mexico . `` Central Arizona '' is a vast metropolitan area spread across one contiguous sprawling oasis , essentially equivalent to the Phoenix metropolitan area . The city of Phoenix is the largest urban center , and located in the approximate center of the area that includes Tempe , Mesa , and many others . Meinig calls the third subregion `` El Paso , Tucson , and the Southern Borderlands '' . While El Paso and Tucson are distinctly different cities , they serve as anchor points to the hinterland between them . Tucson occupies a large oasis at the western end of the El Paso - Tucson corridor . The region between the two cities is a major transportation trunk with settlements servicing both highway and railway needs . There are also large mining operations , ranches , and agricultural oases . Both El Paso and Tucson have large military installations nearby ; Fort Bliss and White Sands Missile Range north of El Paso in New Mexico , and , near Tucson , the Davis - Monthan Air Force Base . About 70 miles ( 110 km ) to the southeast are the research facilities at Fort Huachuca . These military installations form a kind of hinterland around the El Paso - Tucson region , and are served by scientific and residential communities such as Sierra Vista , Las Cruces , and Alamogordo . El Paso 's influence extends north into the Mesilla Valley , and southeast along the Rio Grande into the Trans - Pecos region of Texas . The fourth subregion Meinig calls the `` Northern Corridor and Navajolands '' . A major highway and railway trunk which connects Albuquerque and Flagstaff . Just north of the transportation trunk are large blocks of American Indian land . Phoenix , Tucson , and Las Vegas dominate the westernmost metropolitan areas in the Southwest , while Albuquerque , and El Paso dominate the easternmost metropolitan areas . History ( edit ) Main articles : History of New Mexico , History of Arizona , History of Utah , History of Nevada , History of Colorado , History of Texas , Santa Fe de Nuevo Mexico , and Oasisamerica Pre-european contact ( edit ) Ancient Pueblo Peoples ruins at Chaco Canyon Human history in the Southwest begins with the arrival of the Clovis culture , a Paleo - Indian hunter - gatherer culture which arrived sometime around 9000 BC . This culture remained in the area for several millennia . At some point they were replaced by three great Pre-Columbian Indian cultures : the Ancestral Pueblo people , the Hohokam , and the Mogollon , all of which existed among other surrounding cultures including the Fremont and Patayan . Maize began to be cultivated in the region sometime during the early first millennium BC , but it took several hundred years for the native cultures to be dependent on it as a food source . As their dependence on maize grew , Pre-Columbian Indians began developing irrigation systems around 1500 . Map of Paleo - Indians in the American Southwest and Mexico According to archeological finds , the Ancestral Pueblo people , also known as the Anasazi ( although that term is becoming more and more disused ) , began settling in the area in approximately 1500 BC . Eventually , they would spread throughout the entire northern section of the Southwest . This culture would go through several different eras lasting from approximately 1500 BC through the middle of the 15th century AD : the Basketmaker I , II , and III phases followed by the Pueblo I , II , III , and IV . As the Puebloans transitioned from a nomadic lifestyle to one based on agriculture , their first domiciles were pithouses . The Mogollon culture developed later than the Puebloan , arising in the eastern area of the region at around 300 BC . Their range would eventually extend deep into what would become Mexico , and dominate the southeastern portion of the Southwest . Their settlements would evolve over time from pit - dwellings through pueblos and finally also incorporating cliff - dwellings . The Hohokam were the last of these ancestral cultures to develop , somewhere around 1 AD , but they would grow to be the most populous of the three by 1300 AD , despite being the smallest of the three in terms of area , covering most of the southwest portion . Beginning in approximately 600 AD , the Hohokam began to develop an extensive series of irrigation canals ; of the three major cultures in the Southwest , only the Hohokam developed irrigation as a means of watering their agriculture . Not long after the Hohokam reached the height of their culture , all three major cultures in the Southwest began to decline , for unknown reasons , although severe drought and encroachment from other peoples has been postulated . By the end of the 15th century , all three cultures had disappeared . The modern Indian tribes of the Hopi , Zuni , Acoma , and Laguna trace their ancestry back to the ancestral Puebloans , while the Akimel O'odham and Tohono O'odham claim descent from Hohokam . The area previously occupied by the Mogollon was taken over by an unrelated tribe , the Apache . While it is unclear whether any of the modern Indian tribes are descended from the Mogollon , some archeologists and historians believe that they mixed with Ancestral Puebloans and became part of the Hopi and Zuni . Oraibi pueblo Prior to the arrival of Europeans , the Southwestern United States was inhabited by a very large population of American Indian tribes . The area once occupied by the ancestral Puebloans became inhabited by several American Indian tribes , the most populous of which were the Navajo , Ute , Southern Paiute , and Hopi . The Navajo , along with the Hopi , were the earliest of the modern Indian tribes to develop in the Southwest . Around 1100 AD their culture began to develop in the Four Corners area of the region . The Ute were found over most of modern - day Utah and Colorado , as well as northern New Mexico and Arizona . The Paiutes roamed an area which covered over 45,000 square miles of southern Nevada and California , south - central Utah , and northern Arizona . The Hopi settled the lands of the central and western portions of northern Arizona . Their village of Oraibi , settled in approximately 1100 AD , is one of the oldest continuously occupied settlements in the United States . The Mogollon area became occupied by the Apaches and the Zuni . The Apache migrated into the American Southwest from the northern areas of North America at some point between 1200 and 1500 . They settled throughout New Mexico , eastern Arizona , northern Mexico , parts of western Texas , and southern Colorado . The Zuni count their direct ancestry through the ancestral Puebloans . The modern day Zuni established a culture along the Zuni River in far - eastern Arizona and western New Mexico . Both major tribes of the O'odham tribe settled in the southern and central Arizona , in the lands once controlled by their ancestors , the Hohokam . Arrival of Europeans ( edit ) Narváez expedition ( 1528 -- 36 ) The first European intrusion into the region came from the south . In 1539 , a Jesuit Franciscan named Marcos de Niza led an expedition from Mexico City which passed through eastern Arizona . The following year Francisco Vázquez de Coronado , based on reports from survivors of the Narváez expedition ( 1528 -- 36 ) who had crossed eastern Texas on their way to Mexico City , led an expedition to discover the Seven Golden Cities of Cíbola . The 1582 - 3 expedition of Antonio de Espejo explored New Mexico and eastern Arizona ; and this led to Juan de Oñate 's establishment of the Spanish province of Santa Fe de Nuevo México in 1598 , with a capital founded near Ohkay Oweenge Pueblo , which he called San Juan de los Caballeros . Oñate 's party also attempted to establish a settlement in Arizona in 1599 , but were turned back by inclement weather . In 1610 , Santa Fe was founded , making it the oldest capital in United States . In 1664 Juan Archuleta led an expedition into what is now Colorado , becoming the first European to enter . A second Spanish expedition was led into Colorado by Juan Ulibarrí in 1706 , during which he claimed the Colorado territory for Spain . From 1687 to 1691 the Jesuit priest , Eusebio Kino established several missions in the Santa Cruz River valley ; and Kino further explored southern and central Arizona in 1694 , during which he discovered the ruins of Casa Grande . Beginning in 1732 , Spanish settlers began to enter the region , and the Spanish started bestowing land grants in Mexico and the Southwest US . In 1751 , the O'odham rebelled against the Spanish incursions , but the revolt was unsuccessful . In fact , it had the exact opposite effect , for the result of the rebellion was the establishment of the presidio at Tubac , the first permanent European settlement in Arizona . In 1768 , the Spanish created the Provincia de las Californias , which included California and the Southwest US . Over approximately the next 50 years , the Spanish continued to explore the Southwest , and in 1776 the City of Tucson was founded when the Presidio San Augustin del Tucson was created , relocating the presidio from Tubac . In 1776 , two Franciscan priest , Francisco Atanasio Domínguez and Silvestre Vélez de Escalante , led an expedition from Santa Fe heading to California . After passing through Colorado , they became the first Europeans to travel into what is now Utah . Their journey was halted by bad weather in October , and they turned back , heading south into Arizona before turning east back to Santa Fe . 1846 map : Mexican Alta California ( Upper California ) in pink . In 1804 Spain divided the Provincia de las Californias , creating the province Alta California , which consisted primarily of what would become California , Nevada , Arizona , Colorado , Utah and New Mexico . In 1821 Mexico achieved its independence from Spain and shortly after , in 1824 , developed its constitution , which established the Alta California Territory , which was the same geographic area as the earlier Spanish province . In 1825 , Arizona was visited by its first non-Spanish Europeans , English trappers . In 1836 , the Republic of Texas , which contained the easternmost of the Southwest United States , won its independence from Mexico . In 1845 the Republic of Texas was annexed by the United States , and immediately became a state , bypassing the usual territory phase . The new state still contained portions of what would eventually become parts of other states . In 1846 , the Southwest became embroiled in the Mexican -- American War , partly as a result of the United States ' annexation of Texas . On August 18 , 1846 , an American force captured Santa Fe , New Mexico . On December 16 of the same year , American forces captured Tucson , Arizona , marking the end of hostilities in the Southwest United States . When the war ended with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo on February 2 , 1848 , the United States gained control of all of present - day California , Nevada and Utah , as well as the majority of Arizona , and parts of New Mexico and Colorado ( the rest of present - day Colorado , and most of New Mexico had been gained by the United States in their annexation of the Republic of Texas ) . The final portion of the Southwestern United States came about through the acquisition of the southernmost parts of Arizona and New Mexico through the Gadsden Purchase in 1853 . In 1851 , San Luis became the first European settlement in what is now Colorado . Becoming States ( edit ) United States 1849 -- 1850 United States 1850 - 1853 Of the states of which at least a portion make up the Southwest , Texas was the first to achieve statehood . On December 29 , 1846 the Republic of Texas was annexed , bypassing becoming a territory , and immediately becoming a state . Initially , its borders included parts of what would become several other states : almost half of New Mexico , a third of Colorado , and small portions of Kansas , Oklahoma , and Wyoming . Texas current borders were set in the Compromise of 1850 , where Texas ceded land to the federal government in exchange for $10 million , which would go to paying off the debt Texas had accumulated in its war with Mexico . Following the Mexican Cession , the lands of what had been the Mexican territory of Alta California were in flux : portions of what is now New Mexico were claimed , but never controlled , by Texas . With the Compromise of 1850 , the states of Texas and California were created ( Texas as a slave state , and California as a free state ) , as well as the Utah Territory and New Mexico Territory . The New Mexico Territory consisted of most of Arizona and New Mexico ( excluding a strip along their southern borders ) , a small section of southern Colorado , and the very southern tip of Nevada ; while the Utah Territory consisted of Utah , most of Nevada , and portions of Wyoming and Colorado . The New Mexico Territory was expanded along its southern extent , to its current border , with the signing of the Gadsden Purchase Treaty on December 30 , 1853 , which was ratified by the U.S. Congress , with some slight alterations , in April 1854 . 1860 Colorado Territory map Utah Territory evolution 1850 -- 1868 The Colorado Territory was organized on February 28 , 1861 , created out of lands then currently in the Utah , Kansas , Nebraska , and New Mexico territories . The Nevada Territory was also organized in 1861 , on March 2 , with land taken from the existing Utah Territory . Initially , only the western 2 / 3 of what is currently the State of Nevada was included in the territory , with its boundary to the east being the 116th meridian , and to the south the 37th parallel . In 1862 Nevada 's eastern border shifted to the 115th meridian , and finally to its current position at the 114th meridian in 1866 . The boundary modification in 1866 also included adding the southern triangular tip of the present - day state , taken from the Arizona Territory . From July 24 -- 27 , 1861 a confederate force under the command of Lt. Colonel John Robert Baylor forced the surrender of the small Union garrison stationed at Fort Fillmore , near Mesilla , New Mexico . On August 1 , 1861 , Baylor declared the creation of the Arizona Territory , and claimed it for the confederacy , with Mesilla as its capital . The territory , which had been formed by the portion of the existing New Mexico Territory below the 34th parallel , became official on February 14 , 1862 . Confederate Arizona ( outlined in blue ) Split of Arizona and New Mexico territories , in 1866 , after small portion ceded to Nevada On February 24 , 1863 , the New Mexico Territory was split virtually in half with the creation of the Arizona Territory taking the western half . Nevada was admitted to the Union on October 31 , 1864 , becoming the 36th state . This was followed by the admittance to the Union of Colorado , which became the 38th state on August 1 , 1876 . Confederate Arizona was short - lived , however . By May 1862 confederate forces had been driven out of the region by union troops . That same month a bill was introduced into the U.S. Congress , and in February 24 , 1863 Abraham Lincoln signed the Arizona Organic Act , which officially created the U.S. Territory of Arizona , splitting the New Mexico Territory at the 107th meridian . Utah , as shown above , evolved out of the Utah Territory , as pieces of the original territory created in 1850 were carved out : parts were ceded to Nevada , Wyoming , and Colorado in 1861 ; another section to Nevada in 1862 ; and the final section to Nevada in 1866 . In 1890 , the LDS church issued the 1890 Manifesto , which officially banned polygamy for members of the church . It was the last roadblock for Utah entering the Union , and on January 4 , 1896 Utah was officially granted statehood , becoming the 45th state . In 1869 , John Wesley Powell led a 3 - month expedition which explored the Grand Canyon and the Colorado River . In 1875 , he would publish a book describing his explorations , Report of the Exploration of the Columbia River of the West and Its Tributaries , which was later republished as The Exploration of the Colorado River and Its Canyons . In 1877 silver was discovered in southeastern Arizona . The notorious mining town of Tombstone , Arizona was born to service the miners . The town would become immortalized as the scene of what is considered the greatest gunfight in the history of the Old West , the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral . Copper was also discovered in 1877 , near Bisbee and Jerome in Arizona , which became an important component of the economy of the Southwest . Production began in 1880 , and was made more profitable by the expansion of the railroad throughout the territory during the 1880s . The second transcontinental railroad : the `` Santa Fe Route '' -- 1891 . The early 1880s also saw the completion of the second transcontinental railroad , which ran through the heart of the Southwest , called the `` Sante Fe Route '' . It ran from Chicago , down through Topeka , then further south to Albuquerque , before heading almost due west through northern Arizona to Los Angeles . The repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act in 1893 led to the decline of the silver mining industry in the region . In 1901 , the Santa Fe Railroad reached the south rim of the Grand Canyon , opening the way for a tourism boom , a trend led by restaurant and hotel entrepreneur Fred Harvey . The last two territories within the Southwest to achieve statehood were New Mexico and Arizona . By 1863 , with the splitting off of the Arizona Territory , New Mexico reached its modern borders . They became states within forty days of one another . On January 6 , 1912 , New Mexico became the 47th state in the Union . Arizona would shortly follow , becoming the last of the 48 contiguous United States on February 14 , 1912 . From statehood through world War II ( edit ) The early 1920s saw the Ku Klux Klan gain power in Colorado ; however , the organization lost traction and by the end of the decade they no longer exerted influence in the state . The 1930s saw the beginning of the ski industry in Colorado . Resorts were established in areas such as Estes Park , Gunnison , and on Loveland Pass . At the end of the decade , in 1939 , with the establishment of Alta Ski Area , Utah 's skiing began to be developed . Due to the ski conditions in the state , during WWII , the 10th Mountain Division established Camp Hale in Colorado to train elite ski troops . The post-war years through the end of the millennium ( edit ) In 1967 , Governor John A. Love signed the nation 's first liberalized abortion law . In 1999 , the Columbine High School massacre became the most devastating high - school massacre in United States history , when two students killed 12 of their classmates and one teacher before taking their own lives . The 2000s ( edit ) On July 20 , 2012 , Colorado became the scene of one of the largest mass shooting in U.S. history , the Aurora shooting , which resulted in the deaths of 12 people , with another 70 injured . Also in 2012 , Colorado voters passed law legalizing the recreational use of marijuana . Origins of the term and Historical / cultural variations ( edit ) While this article deals with the core definition for the American Southwest , there are many others . The various definitions can be broken down into four main categories : Historical / Archeological ; Geological / Topographical ; Ecological ; and Cultural . In the 1930s and 1940s , many definitions of the Southwest included all or part of Texas , Oklahoma , New Mexico , Arizona , California , Colorado , and Utah . As time has gone on , the definition of the Southwest as become more solidified and more compact . For example , in 1948 the National Geographic Society defined the American Southwest as all of California , Nevada , Utah , Arizona , Colorado , and New Mexico , and the southernmost sections of Oregon , Idaho , and Wyoming , as well as parts of southwest Nebraska , western Kansas , Oklahoma , and Texas . By 1977 , the Society 's definition had narrowed to only the four states of Utah , Arizona , Colorado , and New Mexico ; and by 1982 the portion of the Southwest in the United States , as defined by the Society , had shrunk to Arizona and New Mexico , with the southernmost strip of Utah and Colorado , as well as the Mojave and Colorado deserts in California . Other individuals who focus on Southwest studies who favored a more limited extent of the area to center on Arizona and New Mexico , with small parts of surrounding areas , include Erna Fergusson , Charles Lummis ( who claimed to have coined the term , the Southwest ) , and cultural geographer Raymond Gastil , and ethnologist Miguel León - Portilla . Historical / archeological ( edit ) As the US expanded westward , the country 's western border also shifted westward , and consequently , so did the location of the Southwestern and Northwestern United States . In the early years of the United States , newly colonized lands lying immediately west of the Appalachian Mountains were detached from North Carolina and given the name Southwest Territory . During the decades that followed , the region known as `` the Southwestern United States '' covered much of the Deep South east of the Mississippi River . However , as territories and eventual states to the west were added after the Mexican -- American War , the geographical `` Southwest '' expanded , and the relationship of these new acquisitions to the South itself became `` increasingly unclear . '' However , archeologist , Erik Reed , gives a description which is the most widely accepted as defining the American Southwest , which runs from Durango , Colorado in the north , to Durango , Mexico , in the south , and from Las Vegas , Nevada in the west to Las Vegas , New Mexico in the East . Reed 's definition is roughly equivalent to the western half of the Learning Center of the American Southwest 's definition , leaving out any portion of Kansas and Oklahoma , and much of Texas , as well as the eastern half of New Mexico . Since this article is about the Southwestern United States , the areas of Sonora and Chihuahua in Mexico will be excluded . The portion left includes Arizona and western New Mexico , the very southernmost part of Utah , southwestern Colorado , the very tip of west Texas , and triangle formed by the southern tip of Nevada . This will be the defined scope which is used in this article , unless otherwise specified in a particular area . Geological / Topographical ( edit ) From this perspective , almost all of the region 's physiographical traits , geological formations , and weather are contained within a box between 26 ° and 38 ° northern latitude , and 98 ° 30 ' and 124 ° western longitude . Ecological ( edit ) When looking at the fauna of the region , there is a broader definition of the American Southwest . The Southwestern Center for Herpetological Research defines the Southwest as being only the states of Arizona , New Mexico , with parts of California , Nevada , Texas , and Utah ; although they include all of those six states in their map of the region , solely for ease of defining the border . Cultural ( edit ) Fig. 2 - Map of the Southwestern United States as per the Learning Center of the American Southwest . Parts of the other states make up the various areas which can be included in the Southwest , depending on the source ( see Figure 1 ) . The Learning Center of the American Southwest ( LCAS ) does not rely on current state boundaries , and defines the American Southwest as parts of Arizona , Colorado , Kansas , New Mexico , Oklahoma , Texas , and Utah ( see Figure 2 ) . Lawrence Clark Powell , a major bibliographer whose emphasis is on the Southwest , defined the American Southwest in a 1958 Arizona Highways article as , `` the lands lying west of the Pecos , north of the ( Mexican ) Border , south of the Mesa Verde and the Grand Canyon , and east of the mountains which wall off Southern California and make it a land in itself . '' Texas has long been the focal point of this dichotomy , and is often considered , as such , the core area of `` the South 's Southwest . '' While the Trans - Pecos area is generally acknowledged as part of the desert Southwest , most of Texas and large parts of Oklahoma are often placed into a sub-region of the South , which some consider southwestern in the general framework of the original application , meaning the `` Western South '' . This is an area containing the basic elements of Southern history , culture , politics , religion , and linguistic and settlement patterns , yet blended with traits of the frontier West . While this particular Southwest is notably different in many ways from the classic `` Old South '' or Southeast , these features are strong enough to give it a separate southwestern identity quite different in nature from that of the interior southwestern states to the west . One of these distinguishing characteristics in Texas -- in addition to being a Confederate state during the Civil War -- is that Indigenous and Spanish American culture never played a central role in the development of this area in relative comparison to the others , as the vast majority of settlers were Anglo and blacks from the South . Although the present day state of Oklahoma was Indian Territory until the early 20th century , many of these American Indians were from the southeastern United States and became culturally assimilated early on . The majority of members of these tribes also allied themselves with the Confederacy during the Civil War . Combined with that , once the territory was open for settlement , southeastern pioneers made up a disproportionate number of these newcomers . All this contributed to the new state having a character that differed from other parts of the Southwest with large American Indian populations . The fact that a majority of residents of Texas and Oklahoma -- unlike those in other `` southwestern '' states -- self - identify as living in the South and consider themselves southerners rather than the West and westerners -- also lends to treating these two states as a somewhat distinct and separate entity in terms of regional classification . Vegetation and terrain ( edit ) A Joshua tree ( yucca brevifolia ) Vegetation of the southwest generally includes various types of yucca , along with saguaro cactus , barrel cactus , prickly pear cactus , desert spoon , creosote bush , sagebrush , and greasewood . Although cacti is thought to only grow in Arizona and New Mexico , many native cacti grow throughout Nevada , Utah , Colorado , and west Texas . Steppe is also located all over the high plains areas in Colorado , New Mexico , and Texas . The mountains of the southwestern states have large tracts of alpine trees . The High Plains in Eastern New Mexico , but also located in Eastern Colorado and West Texas Landscape features of the core southwestern areas include mountains , canyons , mesas , buttes , high broad basins , plateaus , desert lands , and some plains , characteristic of the Basin and Range Province . The entire southwestern region features semi-arid to arid terrain . The far eastern part of southwestern Texas , for example the Texas Hill Country , consists of dry , tall , and rugged rocky hills of limestone and granite . South Texas and the Rio Grande Valley is mostly flat with many places consisting of scrub and bare topsoil , much like the deserts further west . Wildlife ( edit ) The region has an extremely diverse bird population , with hundreds of species being found in the American Southwest . In the Chiricahua Mountains alone , in southeastern Arizona , there can be found more than 400 species . Species include Canadian ( Branta canadensis ) and snow geese , sandhill cranes ( Grus canadensis ) , and the roadrunner , the most famous bird in the region , is found in all states of the Southwest . Birds of prey include the red - tailed hawk ( Buteo jamaicensis ) , Cooper 's hawk ( Accipiter cooperii ) , the osprey ( Pandion haliaetus ) , golden eagles ( Aquila chrysaetos ) , Harris 's hawk ( Parabuteo unicinctus ) , American kestrel ( Falco sparverius ) , peregrine falcon ( Falco peregrinus ) , the gray hawk ( Buteo plagiatus ) , the barn owl ( Tyto alba ) , the western screech owl ( Megascops kennicottii ) , the great horned owl ( Bubo virginianus ) , the elf owl ( Micrathene whitneyi ) , and the burrowing owl ( Athene cunicularia ) Other bird species include the turkey vulture ( Cathartes aura ) , the black vulture ( Coragyps atratus ) , the northern cardinal ( Cardinalis cardinalis ) , the blue grosbeak ( Passerina caerulea ) , the house finch ( Haemorhous mexicanus ) , the lesser goldfinch ( Spinus psaltria ) , the broad - billed hummingbird ( Cynanthus latirostris ) , the black - chinned hummingbird ( Archilochus alexandri ) , Costa 's hummingbird ( Calypte costae ) , Gambel 's quail ( Callipepla gambelii ) , the common raven ( Corvus corax ) , the Gila woodpecker ( Melanerpes uropygialis ) , the gilded flicker ( Colaptes chrysoides ) , the cactus wren ( Campylorhynchus brunneicapillus ) , and the rock wren ( Salpinctes obsoletus ) . Four types of doves call the Southwest home : the white - winged dove ( Zenaida asiatica ) , the mourning dove ( Zenaida macroura ) , the common ground dove ( Columbina passerina ) , and the Inca dove ( Columbina inca ) . Desert bighorn sheep Mammal species include the bobcat , coyote , black bear , black - tailed jackrabbit , desert cottontail , desert bighorn sheep , mule deer , white - tailed deer , gray fox , mountain lion , river otter , long - tailed weasel , western spotted skunk , pronghorn , raccoon , and Ord 's kangaroo rat , all of which can be found in parts of every southwestern state . Elk are found in parts of Colorado , New Mexico , Utah , and Arizona . White - nosed coati , coati , and collared peccary -- or javelina -- in the Southwest are normally found in southern areas of Arizona , New Mexico , and Texas near the Mexican border . Jaguars can be found in the bootheel region of Southwestern New Mexico . The Mexican wolf ( Canis lupus baileyi ) was reintroduced to Arizona and New Mexico in 1998 . A U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service study reported a minimum population of 109 Mexican wolves in southwest New Mexico and southeast Arizona at the end of 2014 . There is a large contingent of snakes native to the region . Among them include : the rosy boa ( Lichanura trivirgata ) ; several sub-species of the glossy snake ( Arizona elegans ) ; the Trans - Pecos ratsnake ( Bogertophis subocularis ) ; several sub-species of shovel - nosed snakes ; several sub-species of kingsnake , including the desert kingsnake ( Lampropeltis getula splendida ) and the Arizona mountain kingsnake ( Lampropeltis pyromelana ) ; the Arizona coral snake ( Micruroides euryxanthus ) ; the western diamondback rattlesnake ( Crotalus atrox ) ; the Trans - Pecos copperhead ( Agkistrodon contortrix pictigaster ) ; the Sonoran sidewinder ( Crotalus cerastes cercobombus ) ; the Arizona black rattlesnake ( Crotalus oreganus cerberus ) ; the western rattlesnake ( Crotalus viridis ) ; the Grand Canyon rattlesnake ( Crotalus oreganus abyssus ) , found only in Arizona ; several sub-species of the ridge - nosed rattlesnake ( Crotalus willardi ) , the most recent rattlesnake species to be discovered in the United States , including the New Mexico ridge - nosed rattlesnake ( Crotalus willardi obscurus ) , and the Arizona ridge - nosed rattlesnake , the state reptile of Arizona ; and the desert massasauga ( Sistrurus catenatus edwardsii ) . Other reptiles in the region include lizards and turtles . Lizards are highly represented in the region , the most distinctive denizen being the Gila monster , native only to the American Southwest and the state of Sonora in Mexico . Other lizards include : Sonoran collared lizard ( Crotaphytus nebrius ) ; several types of geckos , including western banded gecko ( Coleonyx variegatus ) , the common house gecko ( Hemidactylus frenatus ) , and the Mediterranean house gecko ( Hemidactylus turcicus ) , the last two species being non-native to the region but have been introduced ; the desert iguana ( Dipsosaurus dorsalis ) ; the chuckwalla ( Sauromalus ater ) ; the greater earless lizard ( Cophosaurus texanus scitulus ) ; several sub-species of horned lizards ( Phrynosoma ) ; numerous species of spiny lizards ( Sceloporus ) ; Gilbert 's skink ( Plestiodon gilberti ) ; the western skink ( Plestiodon skiltonianus ) ; Trans - Pecos striped whiptail ( Aspidoscelis inornata heptagrammus ) ; and the Arizona night lizard ( Xantusia arizonae ) . Turtles are less numerous than their other reptilian counterparts , but several are found in the region , including : the western painted turtle ( Chrysemys picta bellii ) ; the Rio Grande cooter ( Pseudemys gorzugi ) ; the desert box turtle ( Terrapene ornata luteola ) ; the Big Bend slider ( Trachemys gaigeae gaigeae ) ; the Sonora mud turtle ( Kinosternon sonoriense ) ; and the desert tortoise ( Gopherus agassizii ) . Amphibians include numerous toads and frogs in the American Southwest . Toads which can be found in the region include : the Great Plains toad ( Anaxyrus cognatus ) ; the green toad ( Anaxyrus debilis ) ; the Arizona toad ( Anaxyrus microscaphus ) ; the New Mexico spadefoot ( Spea multiplicata stagnalis ) ; and the Colorado River toad ( Incilius alvarius ) , also known as the Sonoran Desert toad . Frog representation includes : western barking frog ( Craugastor augusti ) ; the canyon tree frog ( Hyla arenicolor ) ; the Arizona treefrog ( Hyla wrightorum ) ; the western chorus frog ( Pseudacris triseriata ) ; Chiricahua leopard frog ( Lithobates chiricahuensis ) ; and the relict leopard frog ( Lithobates onca ) . There are quite a few salamanders throughout the region , including : the Arizona tiger salamander ( Ambystoma mavortium nebulosum ) and the painted ensatina ( Ensatina eschscholtzii picta ) . Climate ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( November 2011 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Sonoran Desert terrain near Tucson The southwestern United States features a semi-arid to arid climate , depending on the location . Much of the Southwest is an arid desert climate , but higher elevations in the mountains in each state , with the exception of West Texas , feature alpine climates with very large amounts of snow . The metropolitan areas of Phoenix , Tucson , Las Vegas , and El Paso hardly ever receive any snow at all , as they are strictly desert lands with mountains . Albuquerque receives less snow than other cities , but still receives significant snowfalls in the winter time . Although it snows in this region , the snow in this part of the United States melts rapidly , often before nightfall . This is due mainly to the higher altitude and abundant sunshine in these states . Nevada and Arizona are both generally arid with desert lands and mountains , and receive large amounts of snow in the higher elevations in and near the mountains . New Mexico , Utah , and Colorado are generally arid , with desert lands and mountains as well . They all receive decent amounts of snow and large amounts of snow in the high elevations in the mountains , although some areas in far southwestern and southern New Mexico do not receive much snow at all . West Texas is generally arid as well but does not receive the same amount of snow that the other southwestern states receive at their high elevations . The terrain of western Texas in the Southwest is the flat , rolling land of the plains , which eventually turns into a desert with some hills , and there are significant mountains as well once you reach the Trans - Pecos area . The term `` High Desert '' is also synonymous with this region . The High Desert is generally defined as the Mojave Desert , which extends from inland southern California into southern Nevada , and southwestern Utah . The High Desert also extends into other parts of the Northwest , such as the Red Desert in southwestern Wyoming . The High Desert is very different from the general desert lands found in Arizona , in the Sonoran Desert . This area of the desert land generally sits at a very high elevation , much higher than the normal desert land , and can receive very cold temperatures at night in the winter ( with the exception of California , southern Nevada and southwestern Utah ) , sometimes near zero degrees on very cold nights . The High Desert also receives a decent amount of snowfall in the winter ( with the exception of California , southern Nevada and southwestern Utah ) but melts very quickly . Monument Canyon , some of the high desert lands found in Colorado Other areas of the Southwest may also be referred to as the `` High Desert '' such as the Colorado Plateau . The desert lands found in Eastern Utah , Northern Arizona , Colorado and New Mexico are usually referred to as the high desert . Colorado has scattered desert lands found in southern , southwestern , western , and the northwestern parts of the state . These scattered desert lands are located in and around areas such as , the Roan Plateau , Dinosaur National Monument , Colorado National Monument , Royal Gorge , Cortez , Dove Creek , Canyons of the Ancients National Monument , Four Corners Monument , Montrose , Blue Mesa Reservoir , Pueblo , San Luis Valley , Great Sand Dunes and Joshua Tree National Park . Besides the Chihuahuan Desert , lands in southwestern and southern New Mexico , they also have scattered desert lands in the northwestern and northern portions of their state , which is referred to as the high desert . During El Niño , winters and springs are generally colder and wetter across southern portions of the region , while the northern portion stays warmer and drier due to a southern jet stream . Under La Niña , the opposite happens , meaning the cool and wet weather tends to stay further north . National monuments , forests and parks ( edit ) The southwestern United States contains many national monuments and parks . Some of the more famous monuments and parks in the Southwest , or along the borders with the Southwest are the Grand Canyon National Park , Navajo National Monument , Four Corners Monument , Colorado National Monument , Great Sand Dunes National Park , Arches National Park , Red Rock Canyon , Big Bend National Park , and the White Sands National Monument . White Sands National Monument In Utah there are also many other monuments and parks such as , Mexican Hat , Bryce Canyon National Park , Canyonlands National Park , Capitol Reef National Park , Zion National Park , Dixie National Forest , Glen Canyon National Recreation Area , Grand Staircase - Escalante National Monument , Arches National Park , Manti - La Sal National Forest , Natural Bridges National Monument , Cedar Breaks National Monument , Hovenweep National Monument ( also in Colorado ) , Monument Valley ( also in Arizona ) , Grand Staircase - Escalante National Monument , and the Rainbow Bridge National Monument . In Arizona there is the Agua Fria National Monument , Canyon de Chelly National Monument , Casa Grande Ruins National Monument , Chiricahua National Monument , Ironwood Forest National Monument , Montezuma Castle National Monument , Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument , Petrified Forest National Park , Pipe Spring National Monument , Saguaro National Park , Sonoran Desert National Monument , Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument , Tonto National Monument , Tumacacori National Historical Park , Tuzigoot National Monument , Vermilion Cliffs National Monument , Walnut Canyon National Monument , and the Wupatki National Monument . In Colorado there is the Mesa Verde National Park , Royal Gorge , Blue Mesa Reservoir , Canyon of the Ancients National Monument , Yucca House National Monument , San Juan National Forest , Uncompahgre National Forest , San Isabel National Forest , Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve , and Bent 's Old Fort National Historic Site . Kasha - Katuwe Tent Rocks National Monument In New Mexico there is the Aztec Ruins National Monument , Bandelier National Monument , Chaco Culture National Historical Park , El Malpais National Monument , El Morro National Monument , Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument , Kasha - Katuwe Tent Rocks National Monument , Pecos National Historical Park , Petroglyph National Monument , Carson National Forest , Santa Fe National Forest , Cibola National Forest , Sevilleta National Wildlife Refuge , Apache - Sitgreaves National Forest , Gila National Forest , Coronado National Forest , Lincoln National Forest , and the Salinas Pueblo Missions National Monument . In the western Texas part of the Southwest , there is Big Bend National Park , Chamizal National Memorial , Fort Davis National Historic Site , and the Guadalupe Mountains National Park . In California and Nevada there is the Death Valley National Park , Joshua Tree National Park , Mojave National Preserve , Humboldt - Toiyabe National Forest , and the Lake Mead National Recreation Area . Ethnicity ( edit ) Phoenix , the most populous city in the southwest El Paso , the second most populous city in the Southwest Las Vegas , the third most populous city in the Southwest Albuquerque , the fourth most populous city in the Southwest Tucson , the fifth most populous city in the Southwest The Southwest is ethnically varied , with significant Anglo American and Hispanic American populations in addition to more regional African American , Asian American , and American Indian populations . Hispanic Americans ( mostly Mexican Americans , with large populations of Spanish Americans ) can be found in large numbers in every major city in the Southwest such as El Paso ( 80 % ) , Albuquerque ( 47 % ) , Phoenix ( 43 % ) , Tucson ( 41 % ) , Las Vegas ( 32 % ) . Very large Hispanic American populations can also be found in the smaller cities such as , Flagstaff ( 18 % ) , Yuma ( 55 % ) , Mesa ( 27 % ) , Glendale ( 36 % ) , St. George ( 10 % ) , Las Cruces ( 56 % ) , Santa Fe ( 48 % ) , and Pueblo ( 48 % ) . Many small towns throughout the southwestern states also have significantly large Latino populations . The largest African American populations in the Southwest can be found in Las Vegas ( 10 % ) , and Phoenix ( 5 % ) . The largest Asian American populations in the southwest can be found in Nevada and Utah , with some significant Asian population in Phoenix . The most significant American Indian populations can be found in New Mexico and Arizona . Cities and urban areas ( edit ) The area also contains many of the nation 's largest cities and metropolitan areas , despite relatively low population density in rural areas . Phoenix is the sixth most populous cities in the country , and Albuquerque and Las Vegas are some of the fastest - growing cities in the United States . Also , the region as a whole has witnessed some of the highest population growth in the United States , and according to the US Census Bureau , in 2008 -- 2009 , Utah was the fastest growing state in America . As of the 2010 Census , Nevada was the fastest growing state in the United States , with an increase of 35.1 % in the last ten years . Additionally , Arizona ( 24.6 % ) , Utah ( 23.8 % ) , Texas ( 20.6 % ) , and Colorado ( 16.9 % ) were all in the top ten fastest growing states as well . Largest cities and metropolitan areas ( as of 2010 census ) ( edit ) Rank City State Population Metro Population Phoenix Arizona 7006144563200000000 ♠ 1,445,632 7006419288700000000 ♠ 4,192,887 El Paso Texas 7005649133000000000 ♠ 649,133 7005804123000000000 ♠ 804,123 Las Vegas Nevada 7005583736000000000 ♠ 583,736 7006195126900000000 ♠ 1,951,269 Albuquerque New Mexico 7005558000000000000 ♠ 558,000 7005887077000000000 ♠ 887,077 5 Tucson Arizona 7005520116000000000 ♠ 520,116 7005980263000000000 ♠ 980,263 6 Mesa Arizona 7005439041000000000 ♠ 439,041 7006419288700000000 ♠ 4,192,887 7 Henderson Nevada 7005257729000000000 ♠ 257,729 7006195126900000000 ♠ 1,951,269 8 Chandler Arizona 7005236123000000000 ♠ 236,123 7006419288700000000 ♠ 4,192,887 9 Glendale Arizona 7005226721000000000 ♠ 226,721 7006419288700000000 ♠ 4,192,887 10 Scottsdale Arizona 7005217385000000000 ♠ 217,385 7006419288700000000 ♠ 4,192,887 Sports ( edit ) Professional ( edit ) Of the four major professional sports in the United States , in the American Southwest only the Phoenix metropolitan area currently has representatives ( in 2017 , the Oakland Raiders of Oakland , California , finalized a deal to move to Las Vegas . ) And they are one of only 13 U.S. cities to have representatives in all four : Arizona Diamondbacks in Major League Baseball , Arizona Cardinals in the National Football League , the Phoenix Suns in the National Basketball Association , and the Arizona Coyotes in the National Hockey League . The Greater Phoenix area is home to the Cactus League , one of two spring training leagues for Major League Baseball ; fifteen of MLB 's thirty teams are now included in the Cactus League . The region has also been the scene of several NFL super bowls . Sun Devil Stadium in Tempe held Super Bowl XXX in 1996 , when the Dallas Cowboys defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers . The University of Phoenix Stadium in Glendale , Arizona hosted Super Bowl XLII on February 3 , 2008 , in which the New York Giants defeated the New England Patriots , as well as Super Bowl XLIX , which resulted in the New England Patriots defeating the Seattle Seahawks 28 - 24 . The U.S. Airways Center hosted both the 1995 and the 2009 NBA All - Star Games . In 1997 , the Phoenix Mercury were one of the original eight teams to launch the Women 's National Basketball Association ( WNBA ) . Indoor American football is represented by the Arizona Rattlers located in Phoenix . The region is also host to several major professional golf events : the LPGA 's Founder 's Cup ; the Phoenix Open and the Shriners Hospitals for Children Open ( in Las Vegas ) of the PGA ; and the Tucson Conquistadores Classic ( in Tucson ) , and the Charles Schwab Cup Championship ( in Scottsdale ) on the Champions Tour of the PGA . NASCAR has two venues within the region : The Phoenix International Raceway , was built in 1964 with a one - mile oval , with a one - of - a-kind design , as well as a 2.5 - mile road course , and the Las Vegas Motor Speedway , a 1,200 - acre ( 490 ha ) complex of multiple tracks for motorsports racing . There are several nationally recognized running events in the region , including The Phoenix Marathon , a qualifier for the Boston Marathon , and the Rock ' n ' Roll Marathon Series in both Phoenix and Las Vegas . Las Vegas is also the end point for the annual Baker to Vegas Challenge Cup Relay , a 120 - mile - long foot race by law enforcement teams from around the world , which is the largest law enforcement athletic event in the world . Las Vegas is the premier boxing venue in the country , and is also known for mixed martial arts events . The Southwest is also home to some of the most prominent rodeos in North America . The Professional Bull Riders association has its headquarters in Pueblo , Colorado . The PBR World Finals are held annually in Las Vegas , which also hosts the National Finals Rodeo , which is the nation 's premier rodeo event . Other major rodeo events include the week - long Fiesta de los Vaqueros in Tucson , the World 's Oldest Rodeo in Prescott , Arizona , the Southwestern International PRCA Rodeo in El Paso , Texas , and the Rodeo de Santa Fe , one of the nation 's premier rodeos . College ( edit ) The Southwest is home to a rich tradition of college sports . The Pac - 12 Conference has two teams in the region , the Arizona State Sun Devils and the University of Arizona Wildcats . The Mountain West Conference also has two teams , the UNLV Rebels and the University of New Mexico Lobos . Conference USA is represented by the University of Texas at El Paso Miners . The Big Sky Conference has two teams : the Lumberjacks of Northern Arizona University in Flagstaff , Arizona , and the Southern Utah University Thunderbirds in Cedar City , Utah . The Western Athletic Conference also has two representatives , the New Mexico State University Aggies in Las Cruces , New Mexico , and the Grand Canyon University Antelopes in Phoenix . Las Vegas is becoming the nexus for NCAA league basketball tournaments . The Mountain West Conference , the Western Athletic Conference , the West Coast Conference , and the Pac - 12 Conference all hold their conference basketball tournaments in Las Vegas . The Southwest is the site of six college football bowl games : the TicketCity Cactus Bowl , formerly known as the Insight Bowl , in Tempe ; the Arizona Bowl in Tucson ; the Fiesta Bowl , played at the University of Phoenix Stadium ; the Las Vegas Bowl ; the New Mexico Bowl in Albuquerque ; and the Sun Bowl in El Paso , Texas . The erstwhile ( 20th century ) `` Southwest Conference '' might `` seem '' to have been named after this region , but it had no teams from Arizona nor New Mexico . All but one of its teams were from schools in Texas . Politics of Southwestern states ( edit ) Presidential electoral votes in Southwestern states since 1952 Year Arizona California Colorado Nevada New Mexico Oklahoma Texas Utah 1952 Eisenhower Eisenhower Eisenhower Eisenhower Eisenhower Eisenhower Eisenhower Eisenhower 1956 Εisenhower Eisenhower Eisenhower Eisenhower Eisenhower Eisenhower Eisenhower Eisenhower 1960 Nixon Nixon Nixon Kennedy Kennedy Kennedy Kennedy Nixon 1964 Goldwater Johnson Johnson Johnson Johnson Johnson Johnson Johnson 1968 Nixon Nixon Nixon Nixon Nixon Nixon Humphrey Nixon 1972 Nixon Nixon Nixon Nixon Nixon Nixon Nixon Nixon 1976 Ford Ford Ford Ford Ford Ford Carter Ford 1980 Reagan Reagan Reagan Reagan Reagan Reagan Reagan Reagan 1984 Reagan Reagan Reagan Reagan Reagan Reagan Reagan Reagan Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush Clinton Clinton Clinton Clinton Bush Bush Bush Clinton Clinton Dole Clinton Clinton Dole Dole Dole 2000 Bush Gore Bush Bush Gore Bush Bush Bush Bush Kerry Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush Bush 2008 McCain Obama Obama Obama Obama McCain McCain McCain 2012 Romney Obama Obama Obama Obama Romney Romney Romney 2016 Trump Clinton Clinton Clinton Clinton Trump Trump Trump See also ( edit ) Water Education Foundation Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Quote : `` The Learning Center of the American Southwest is a collaboration among 48 national park units in four NPS Inventory and Monitoring Networks , three Cooperative Ecosystem Studies Units ( CESUs ) , and several nonprofit partners . 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Retrieved January 30 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Colorado Abortion Law is Signed by Gov. Love '' . Lincoln Evening Journal . April 26 , 1967 . p. 2 . Retrieved July 10 , 2015 -- via Newspapers.com . Jump up ^ `` Investigators focus on accomplices in school shooting '' . Santa Cruz Sentinel. April 28 , 1999 . p. 15 . Retrieved July 10 , 2015 -- via Newspapers.com . Jump up ^ `` Officials release complete list of injured victims in Aurora massacre '' . FoxNews . January 10 , 2013 . Retrieved July 10 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Brown , Jennifer ( July 21 , 2012 ) . `` 12 shot dead , 58 wounded in Aurora movie theater during Batman premier '' . The Denver Post . Retrieved July 10 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Ferner , Matt ( November 6 , 2012 ) . `` Amendment 64 Passes : Colorado Legalizes Marijuana For Recreational Use '' . Huffington Post . Retrieved July 10 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` Encyclopedia of Southern Culture '' . Charles Reagan Wilson and William Ferris . 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Retrieved July 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Caracaras & Falcons '' . Arizona - Sonora Desert Museum . Retrieved July 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Gray Hawk '' . Cornell Lab of Ornithology . Retrieved July 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Owls '' . Arizona - Sonora Desert Museum . Retrieved July 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Vultures '' . Arizona - Sonora Desert Museum . Retrieved July 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Cardinals & Grosbeaks '' . Arizona - Sonora Desert Museum . Retrieved July 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Finches '' . Arizona - Sonora Desert Museum . Retrieved July 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Hummingbirds '' . Arizona - Sonora Desert Museum . Retrieved July 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Quail '' . Arizona - Sonora Desert Museum . Retrieved July 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Common Raven '' . Arizona - Sonora Desert Museum . Retrieved July 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Woodpeckers '' . Arizona - Sonora Desert Museum . Retrieved July 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Wrens '' . Arizona - Sonora Desert Museum . 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Jump up ^ `` Amphibians of the American Southwest '' . Southwestern Center for Herpetological Research . Retrieved July 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ 50 most populous cities in the U.S. , Infoplease.com Jump up ^ `` America 's 20 Fastest - Growing Cities '' . Forbes . Retrieved July 12 , 2015 . Jump up ^ 10 fastest - growing states ^ Jump up to : `` Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places : April 1 , 2010 to July 1 , 2014 '' Check url = value ( help ) . U.S. Census Bureau . Retrieved July 13 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : List of primary statistical areas of the United States Jump up ^ `` Sun , scenery , history mark Spring Training baseball in Arizona , Florida '' . MLB . Retrieved February 12 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Super Bowl XXX '' . onpointevents.com . Retrieved February 14 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Super Bowl XLII : Giants 17 Patriots 14 ; Road Warrior Giants Bring It Home '' . ihavenet.com . Retrieved February 14 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` NBA All - Star Game History '' . NBA.com . Retrieved February 14 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Mercury History '' . Retrieved February 14 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Champion Arizona Rattlers to parade through Phoenix '' . azcentral.com . Retrieved September 10 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` LPGA Vision for Founders Cup Now Long - Term Reality '' . LPGA . November 4 , 2013 . Retrieved February 14 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Waste Management Phoenix Open '' . wmphoenixopen.com . Archived from the original on February 9 , 2014 . Retrieved February 14 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Shriners Hospitals for Children Open '' . Shriners Hospitals for Children Open . Retrieved July 14 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Tucson Classic added to Champions Tour schedule '' . PGA Tour . June 10 , 2014 . Retrieved June 10 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Charles Schwab Cup Championship '' . PGA Tour , Inc . Retrieved July 14 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Timeline '' . phoenixraceway.com . Retrieved February 14 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Las Vegas Motor Speedway '' . Speedway Motorsports , Inc . 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Tucson Rodeo . Retrieved July 14 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Welcome to the World 's Oldest Rodeo ! '' . Prescott Frontier Days . Retrieved July 14 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Southwestern International PRCA Rodeo '' . ELPRODEO.COM . Retrieved July 14 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Rodeo de Santa Fe '' . Rodeo de Santa Fe . Retrieved July 14 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Carp , Steve ( March 13 , 2012 ) . `` Pac - 12 to bring basketball tourney to MGM Grand Garden '' . Las Vegas Review - Journal . Retrieved July 14 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Buffalo Wild Wings Bowl '' . football-bowl.com . Retrieved February 14 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Fiesta Bowl '' . fiestabowl.org . Archived from the original on January 6 , 2009 . Retrieved February 14 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Royal Purple Announced as Bowl Game 's Title Sponsor '' . Las Vegas . September 25 , 2013 . Retrieved July 14 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Gildan New Mexico Bowl '' . ESPN . Retrieved July 14 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Hyundai Sun Bowl '' . Sun Bowl Association . Retrieved July 14 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` See also '' ( the article about the ) Southwest Conference . Bibliography ( edit ) Bozanic , Andrew D.A. , `` Preserving Pictures of the Past : The Packaging and Selling of the American Southwest with an Emphasis on the Historic Preservation , '' Nevada Historical Society Quarterly , 53 ( Fall -- Winter 2010 ) , 196 -- 214 . Burke , Flannery . A Land Apart : The Southwest and the Nation in the Twentieth Century ( U of Arizona Press , 2017 ) , x , 413 pp . Busby , Mark ( 2004 ) . The Southwest : The Greenwood Encyclopedia of American Regional Cultures . Chávez , John R. ( 1984 ) . The Lost Land : The Chicano Image of the Southwest . Albuquerque . De León , Arnoldo . Mexican Americans in Texas : A Brief History ( 2nd ed. 1999 ) Garcia , Richard A. `` Changing Chicano Historiography , '' Reviews in American History 34.4 ( 2006 ) 521 -- 528 in Project MUSE Griffin - Pierce , Trudy . Native Peoples of the Southwest ( 2000 ) Lamar , Howard , ed . The New Encyclopedia of the American West ( Yale U.P. , 1998 ) Meinig , Donald W. Southwest : Three Peoples in Geographical Change , 1600 -- 1970 , ( 1971 ) , Oxford University Press , ISBN 0 - 19 - 501288 - 7 Prampolini , Gaetano , and Annamaria Pinazzi ( eds ) . `` The Shade of the Saguaro / La sombra del saguaro , '' Firenze University Press http://www.fupress.com/ ( 2013 ) Weber , David J. The Mexican Frontier , 1821 -- 1846 : The American Southwest Under Mexico ( 1982 ) External links ( edit ) Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Southwestern United States . 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a man and a woman (un homme et une femme) (vocal)

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=A_Man_and_a_Woman&oldid=818570221

A Man and a Woman - wikipedia A Man and a Woman Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the 1966 French film . For the 1986 sequel , see A Man and a Woman : 20 Years Later . For other uses , see A Man and a Woman ( disambiguation ) . A Man and a Woman French film poster Directed by Claude Lelouch Produced by Claude Lelouch Written by Pierre Uytterhoeven Uncredited : Claude Lelouch Starring Anouk Aimée Jean - Louis Trintignant Music by Francis Lai Cinematography Claude Lelouch Edited by Claude Barrois Uncredited : Claude Lelouch Production company Les Films 13 Distributed by United Artists Release date 12 July 1966 ( 1966 - 07 - 12 ) Running time 102 minutes Country France Language French Box office $14,000,000 ( domestic ) A Man and a Woman ( French : Un homme et une femme ) is a 1966 French film written and directed by Claude Lelouch and starring Anouk Aimée and Jean - Louis Trintignant . Written by Lelouch and Pierre Uytterhoeven , the film is about a young widow and widower who meet by chance at their children 's boarding school and whose budding relationship is complicated by the memories of their deceased spouses . The film is notable for its lush photography , which features frequent segues between full color , black - and - white , and sepia - toned shots , and for its memorable musical score by Francis Lai . A Man and a Woman had a total of 4,272,000 admissions in France and was also the 6th highest - grossing film of the year . In the United States , the film earned $14,000,000 . The film won several awards , including the Palme d'Or at the 1966 Cannes Film Festival , two Golden Globe Awards for Best Foreign Language Film and Best Actress - Drama ( for Aimée ) , and two Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film and Best Original Screenplay . A sequel , A Man and a Woman : 20 Years Later ( Un Homme et une Femme , 20 Ans Déjà ) was released in 1986 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production 3.1 Story and script 3.2 Casting 3.3 Filming 4 Reception 4.1 Box Office 4.2 Critical response 4.3 Awards and nominations 5 Soundtrack 5.1 Track listing 5.2 Chart positions 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Plot ( edit ) A young widow , Anne Gauthier ( Anouk Aimée ) , is raising her daughter Françoise ( Souad Amidou ) alone following the death of her husband ( Pierre Barouh ) who worked as a stuntman and who died in a movie set accident that she witnessed . Still working as a film script supervisor , Anne divides her time between her home in Paris and Deauville in northern France where her daughter attends boarding school . A young widower , Jean - Louis ( Jean - Louis Trintignant ) , is raising his son Antoine ( Antoine Sire ) alone following the death of his wife Valerie ( Valerie Lagrange ) who committed suicide after Jean - Louis was in a near fatal crash during the 24 Hours of Le Mans . Still working as a race car driver , Jean - Louis divides his time between Paris and Deauville where his son also attends boarding school . One day Anne and Jean - Louis meet at the Deauville boarding school after Anne misses the last train back to Paris . Jean - Louis offers her a lift and the two become acquainted during the drive home , enjoying each other 's company . When he drops her off , he asks if she would like to drive up together the following weekend , and she gives him her phone number . After a busy week at the track preparing for the next race , Jean - Louis calls and they meet early Sunday morning and drive to Deauville in the rain . Clearly attracted to each other , they enjoy a pleasant Sunday lunch with their children who get along well . Later that afternoon they go for a boat ride followed by a walk on the beach at sunset . Jean - Louis spends the following week preparing for and driving in the Monte Carlo Rally in southeast France . Every day , Anne closely follows news reports of the race , which takes place in poor weather conditions along the icy roads of the French Riviera . Of the 273 cars that started the race , only 42 were able to finish , including Jean Louis 's white Mustang , number 145 . Watching the television coverage of the conclusion of the race , Anne sends Jean - Louis a telegram that reads , `` Bravo ! I love you . Anne . '' That night at a dinner for the drivers at the Monte Carlo Casino , Jean - Louis receives the telegram and leaves immediately . He jumps into the other Mustang ( number 184 ) used during the race and drives through the night to Paris , telling himself that when a woman sends a telegram like that , you go to her no matter what . Along the way he imagines what their reunion will be like . At her Paris apartment , Jean - Louis learns that Anne is in Deauville , so he continues north . Jean - Louis finally arrives in Deauville and finds Anne and the two children playing on the beach . When they see each other , they run into each other 's arms and embrace . After dropping their children off at the boarding school , Jean - Louis and Anne drive into town where they rent a room and begin to make love with passionate tenderness . While they are in each other 's arms , however , Jean - Louis senses that something is not right . Anne 's memories of her deceased husband are still with her and she feels uncomfortable continuing . Anne says it would be best for her to take the train back to Paris alone . After dropping her off at the station , Jean - Louis drives home alone , unable to understand her feelings . On the train Anne can only think of Jean - Louis and their time together . Meanwhile , Jean - Louis drives south through the French countryside to the Paris train station , just as her train is arriving . As she leaves the train , she spots Jean - Louis and is surprised , hesitates briefly , and then walks toward him and they embrace . Cast ( edit ) Anouk Aimée as Anne Gauthier Jean - Louis Trintignant as Jean - Louis Duroc Pierre Barouh as Pierre Gauthier Valérie Lagrange as Valerie Duroc Antoine Sire as Antoine Duroc Souad Amidou as Françoise Gauthier Henri Chemin as Jean Louis ' co-driver Yane Barry as Jean Louis ' mistress Paul Le Person as Petrol pump attendant Simone Paris as Head Mistress Gerard Sire as Radio commentator Gérard Larrousse as Rally driver Jean Collomb as the servor Clive Roberts as Rally driver Production ( edit ) Story and script ( edit ) According to director Claude Lelouch , the story originated from an experience following his disappointment trying to get a distribution deal for his film Les Grands Moments . As was his habit during troubling times , he went for a long drive and ended up on the shore at Deauville at 2 : 00 am . After a few hours sleep in the car , he was awakened by the sunrise and saw a woman walking on the beach with her daughter and a dog . This sparked his creativity which led to the story and script which he co-wrote with Pierre Uytterhoeven within a month . Casting ( edit ) A key casting decision for Lelouch was Jean - Louis Trintignant . I think Jean - Louis is the actor who taught me how to direct actors . We really brought each other a lot . He changed his method of acting while working with me , and I began to truly understand what directing actors was all about , working with him . I think the relationship between a director and actor is the same relationship as in a love story between two people . One can not direct an actor if you do not love him or her . And he can not be good if he or she does not love you in turn . For the female lead , Trintignant asked Lelouch who his ideal woman would be , and Lelouch indicated Anouk Aimée , who had appeared in Fellini 's La Dolce Vita ( 1960 ) and 81⁄2 ( 1962 ) . Trintignant happened to be a close friend of hers and told him to call her . When he did , she accepted without reading the script . Although early disagreements and the low - budget skeleton crew caused initial tension between the director and actress , they quickly resolved their differences and the two went on to become close friends . Filming ( edit ) Once the script was drafted , the film was made relatively quickly , with one month of preproduction work , three weeks of principal photography , and three weeks editing . Due to budget constraints , he used an older handheld camera that was not soundproof , so blankets were frequently employed to dampen the camera noise . Lelouch is considered a pioneer in mixing different film stocks : black - and - white with color , and 35mm with 16mm and super 8 . For years film critics debated the symbolism of the mixed film stocks , but Lelouch acknowledged that the primary reason was that he was running out of money , and black and white stock was cheaper . His original plan involved shooting strictly in black and white , but when an American distributor offered him $40,000 to film in color , he filmed the outdoor sequences in color , and the indoor scenes in black and white . The music soundtrack was recorded prior to filming , and Lelouch would play the music on the set to inspire the actors . Lelouch encouraged his actors to improvise some of the dialogue , and several key scenes were improvised . The climactic scene at a train station was not scripted at the time of shooting , and Aimée did not know that director Lelouch had decided on the two main characters reuniting at the end . The look of surprise on Aimée 's face is genuine . Reception ( edit ) Box Office ( edit ) The film earned $3 million in the US and $4 million internationally during its initial theatrical release . It was the sixth most popular movie at the French box office in 1966 , after La Grande Vadrouille , Dr Zhivago , Is Paris Burning ? , A Fistful of Dollars and Lost Command . Critical response ( edit ) Upon its theatrical release in the United States , A Man and a Woman received mostly positive reviews . In his review in The New York Times , Bosley Crowther wrote , `` For a first - rate demonstration of the artfulness of a cameraman and the skill at putting together handsome pictures and a strongly sentimental musical score , there is nothing around any better than Claude Lelouch 's A Man and a Woman . '' Crowther lauded the `` beautiful and sometimes breath - taking exposition of visual imagery intended to excite the emotions '' and praised the director for his ability to create something unique from the commonplace : Mr. Lelouch , who was his own script writer as well as director and cameraman , has a rare skill at photographing clichés so that they sparkle and glow with poetry and at generating a sense of inspiration in behavior that is wholly trivial . The review in Variety noted the performances of the lead actors : `` Anouk Aimee has a mature beauty and an ability to project an inner quality that helps stave off the obvious banality of her character , and this goes too for the perceptive Jean - Louis Trintignant as the man . '' On the review aggregator web site Rotten Tomatoes , the film holds a 77 % positive rating from top film critics based on 13 reviews , and an 88 % positive audience rating based on 5,386 reviews . The film was selected for screening as part of the Cannes Classics section at the 2016 Cannes Film Festival . Awards and nominations ( edit ) 1966 Cannes Film Festival Palme d'Or ( Claude Lelouch ) -- Won 1967 Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film -- Won 1967 Academy Award for Best Writing ( Claude Lelouch , Pierre Uytterhoeven ) -- Won 1967 Academy Award Nomination for Best Actress in a Leading Role ( Anouk Aimée ) 1967 Academy Award Nomination for Best Director ( Claude Lelouch ) 1967 Blue Ribbon Award for Best Foreign Language Film ( Claude Lelouch ) -- Won 1967 Cinema Writers Circle Award for Best Foreign Film -- Won 1967 Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement ( Claude Lelouch ) -- Won 1967 Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign - Language Foreign Film -- Won 1967 Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture Actress ( Anouk Aimée ) -- Won 1967 Golden Globe Award Nomination for Best Motion Picture Director ( Claude Lelouch ) 1967 Golden Globe Award Nomination for Best Original Score ( Francis Lai ) 1967 Golden Globe Award Nomination for Best Original Song in a Motion Picture ( Francis Lai , Pierre Barouh ) 1967 Italian National Syndicate of Film Journalists Silver Ribbon for Best Director , Foreign Film ( Claude Lelouch ) -- Won 1967 Laurel Award Nomination for Female Dramatic Performance ( Anouk Aimée ) 1967 National Board of Review of Motion Pictures Award for Top Foreign Film -- Won 1968 BAFTA Award for Best Foreign Actress ( Anouk Aimée ) -- Won 1968 BAFTA Award Nomination for Best Film ( Claude Lelouch ) 1968 Mexican Cinema Journalists Silver Goddess Award for Best Foreign Actress ( Anouk Aimée ) -- Won Soundtrack ( edit ) A Man and a Woman Soundtrack album by Francis Lai Released 1966 Genre Pop , Jazz Label United Artists The soundtrack was written by Francis Lai and earned `` Best Original Score '' nominations at both the BAFTA Awards and Golden Globe Awards in 1967 . The film 's theme song , with music by Francis Lai and lyrics by Pierre Barouh , was also nominated for `` Best Original Song in a Motion Picture '' at the Golden Globe Awards . In Finland it has become one of the most easily recognizable TV advertisement themes , having been used for decades by the cruiseferry brand Silja Line . Pierre Barouh , who plays the deceased husband in the film , also sings the songs in the soundtrack . In a sequence of the film , he makes a brief reappearance singing `` Samba Saravah '' , a French version with lyrics by Barouh himself of the Brazilian song `` Samba da Benção '' written by Baden Powell with original lyrics by Vinicius de Moraes . The song `` Aujourd'hui C'est Toi '' is used as the theme for the BBC 's Panorama current affairs program , plus Rede Globo 's Jornal Hoje midday newscast , and YLE 's Ajankohtainen kakkonen weekly current affairs television program in Finland on TV2 from 1969 to 2015 . Harry James recorded a version of the film 's theme song on his album For Listening And Dancing , released in 1981 on Reader 's Digest RD4A 213 . Track listing ( edit ) Un homme et une femme ( A Man and a Woman ) performed by Nicole Croisille and Pierre Barouh ( 2 : 40 ) Samba Saravah by Pierre Barouh ( 4 : 30 ) Aujourd'hui c'est toi ( Today It 's You ) by Nicole Croisille ( 2 : 06 ) Un homme et une femme ( A Man and a Woman ) ( 2 : 37 ) Plus fort que nous ( Stronger Than Us ) ( 3 : 15 ) Aujourd'hui c'est toi ( Today It 's You ) ( 2 : 35 ) A l'ombre de nous ( In Our Shadow ) by Pierre Barouh ( 4 : 55 ) Plus fort que nous ( Stronger Than Us ) by Nicole Croisille and Pierre Barouh ( 3 : 43 ) A 200 a l'heure ( 124 Miles An Hour ) ( 2 : 30 ) Chart positions ( edit ) Year Chart Position 1968 Australian Kent Music Report Albums Chart Preceded by Disraeli Gears by Cream Australian Kent Music Report number - one album 13 April 1968 -- 14 June 1968 29 June 1968 -- 26 July 1968 Succeeded by Blooming Hits by Paul Mauriat and His Orchestra See also ( edit ) List of submissions to the 39th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film List of French submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` A Man and a Woman , Box Office Information '' . The Numbers . Retrieved March 30 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` A Man and a Woman '' . Internet Movie Database . Retrieved March 30 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Un homme et une femme '' . JP 's Box Office . Retrieved March 30 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Un homme et une femme '' . Festival de Cannes . Archived from the original on August 7 , 2012 . Retrieved March 31 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` The 39th Academy Awards ( 1967 ) Nominees and Winners '' . The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences . Retrieved March 31 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Golden Globe Awards for 1967 '' . Internet Movie Database . Retrieved April 1 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Full cast and crew for A Man and a Woman '' . Internet Movie Database . Retrieved March 30 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Claude Lelouch ( Director ) ( 1994 ) . A Man and a Woman : 37 Years Later ( DVD ) . Burbank : Warner Brothers . ^ Jump up to : Simon , Alex. `` Claude Lelouch '' . The Hollywood Interview . Retrieved March 31 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Erickson , Hal . `` A Man and a Woman '' . Allmovie . Retrieved March 31 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Tino Balio , United Artists : The Company That Changed the Film Industry , University of Wisconsin Press , 1987 p. 231 Jump up ^ `` French Box Office 1966 '' . Box Office Story . ^ Jump up to : Crowther , Bosley ( July 13 , 1966 ) . `` French and Frankly Romantic '' . The New York Times . Retrieved April 1 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Un Homme et une Femme '' . Variety . December 31 , 1965 . Retrieved April 1 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` A Man and a Woman '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved April 1 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Cannes Classics 2016 '' . Cannes Film Festival . 20 April 2016 . Retrieved 21 April 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Awards for A Man and a Woman '' . Internet Movie Database . Retrieved March 31 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Barouh , Pierre ( November 3 , 2005 ) . `` A lifelong ambassador of Brazil '' . RFI Music . Archived from the original on February 10 , 2012 . Retrieved March 31 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` A Man And A Woman ( Original Motion Picture Soundtrack ) '' . Discogs . Retrieved March 30 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Soundtracks for A Man and a Woman '' . Internet Movie Database . Retrieved March 30 , 2012 . External links ( edit ) A Man and a Woman on IMDb A Man and a Woman at AllMovie A Man and a Woman at Rotten Tomatoes Films directed by Claude Lelouch Le propre de l'homme In the Affirmative La femme spectacle 24 heures d'amant ... pour un maillot jaune The Grand Moments Une fille et des fusils A Man and a Woman Live for Life 13 jours en France Love Is a Funny Thing Life Love Death Le voyou Smic Smac Smoc L'aventure , c'est l'aventure La bonne année And Now My Love Mariage Cat and Mouse C'était un rendez - vous The Good and the Bad If I Had to Do It All Over Again Another Man , Another Chance Robert et Robert Us Two The Ones and the Others Edith and Marcel Long Live Life Partir , revenir Attention bandits ! A Man and a Woman : 20 Years Later Itinéraire d'un enfant gâté There Were Days ... and Moons The Beautiful Story All That ... for This ? ! Les Misérables Men , Women : A User 's Manual Chance or Coincidence One 4 All And Now ... Ladies and Gentlemen Les parisiens Le courage d'aimer Crossed Tracks What War May Bring D'un film à l'autre Salaud , on t'aime Un plus une Chacun sa vie et son intime conviction French submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film 1948 -- 1960 Monsieur Vincent ( 1948 ) The Walls of Malapaga ( 1950 ) Forbidden Games ( 1952 ) Gervaise ( 1956 ) Gates of Paris ( 1957 ) My Uncle ( 1958 ) Black Orpheus ( 1959 ) La Vérité ( 1960 ) 1961 -- 1980 Last Year at Marienbad ( 1961 ) Sundays and Cybele ( 1962 ) The Fire Within ( 1963 ) The Umbrellas of Cherbourg ( 1964 ) Pierrot le Fou ( 1965 ) A Man and a Woman ( 1966 ) Live for Life ( 1967 ) Stolen Kisses ( 1968 ) My Night with Maud ( 1969 ) Hoa - Binh ( 1970 ) Ramparts of Clay ( 1971 ) The Discreet Charm of the Bourgeoisie ( 1972 ) Day for Night ( 1973 ) Lacombe , Lucien ( 1974 ) India Song ( 1975 ) Cousin , cousine ( 1976 ) Madame Rosa ( 1977 ) Get Out Your Handkerchiefs ( 1978 ) A Simple Story ( 1979 ) The Last Metro ( 1980 ) 1981 -- 2000 Diva ( 1981 ) Coup de Torchon ( 1982 ) Entre Nous ( 1983 ) So Long , Stooge ( 1984 ) Three Men and a Cradle ( 1985 ) Betty Blue ( 1986 ) Au revoir , les enfants ( 1987 ) La Lectrice ( 1988 ) Camille Claudel ( 1989 ) Cyrano de Bergerac ( 1990 ) Van Gogh ( 1991 ) Indochine ( 1992 ) Germinal ( 1993 ) Wild Reeds ( 1994 ) French Twist ( 1995 ) Ridicule ( 1996 ) Western ( 1997 ) The Dreamlife of Angels ( 1998 ) East / West ( 1999 ) The Taste of Others ( 2000 ) 2001 -- present Amélie ( 2001 ) 8 Women ( 2002 ) Bon Voyage ( 2003 ) The Chorus ( 2004 ) Joyeux Noël ( 2005 ) Avenue Montaigne ( 2006 ) Persepolis ( 2007 ) The Class ( 2008 ) A Prophet ( 2009 ) Of Gods and Men ( 2010 ) Declaration of War ( 2011 ) The Intouchables ( 2012 ) Renoir ( 2013 ) Saint Laurent ( 2014 ) Mustang ( 2015 ) Elle ( 2016 ) BPM ( Beats per Minute ) ( 2017 ) Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film 1947 -- 1955 ( Honorary ) 1947 : Shoeshine -- Vittorio De Sica 1948 : Monsieur Vincent -- Maurice Cloche 1949 : Bicycle Thieves -- Vittorio De Sica 1950 : The Walls of Malapaga -- René Clément 1951 : Rashomon -- Akira Kurosawa 1952 : Forbidden Games -- René Clément 1954 : Gate of Hell -- Teinosuke Kinugasa 1955 : Samurai , The Legend of Musashi -- Hiroshi Inagaki 1956 -- 1975 1956 : La Strada -- Federico Fellini 1957 : Nights of Cabiria -- Federico Fellini 1958 : My Uncle -- Jacques Tati 1959 : Black Orpheus -- Marcel Camus 1960 : The Virgin Spring -- Ingmar Bergman 1961 : Through a Glass Darkly -- Ingmar Bergman 1962 : Sundays and Cybele -- Serge Bourguignon 1963 : 81⁄2 -- Federico Fellini 1964 : Yesterday , Today and Tomorrow -- Vittorio De Sica 1965 : The Shop on Main Street -- Ján Kadár & Elmar Klos 1966 : A Man and a Woman -- Claude Lelouch 1967 : Closely Watched Trains -- Jiří Menzel 1968 : War and Peace -- Sergei Bondarchuk 1969 : Z -- Costa - Gavras 1970 : Investigation of a Citizen Above Suspicion -- Elio Petri 1971 : The Garden of the Finzi Continis -- Vittorio De Sica 1972 : The Discreet Charm of the Bourgeoisie -- Luis Buñuel 1973 : Day for Night -- François Truffaut 1974 : Amarcord -- Federico Fellini 1975 : Dersu Uzala -- Akira Kurosawa 1976 -- 2000 1976 : Black and White in Color -- Jean - Jacques Annaud 1977 : Madame Rosa -- Moshé Mizrahi 1978 : Get Out Your Handkerchiefs -- Bertrand Blier 1979 : The Tin Drum -- Volker Schlöndorff 1980 : Moscow Does Not Believe in Tears -- Vladimir Menshov 1981 : Mephisto -- István Szabó 1982 : Volver a Empezar ( ' To Begin Again ' ) -- José Luis Garci 1983 : Fanny and Alexander -- Ingmar Bergman 1984 : Dangerous Moves -- Richard Dembo 1985 : The Official Story -- Luis Puenzo 1986 : The Assault -- Fons Rademakers 1987 : Babette 's Feast -- Gabriel Axel 1988 : Pelle the Conqueror -- Bille August 1989 : Cinema Paradiso -- Giuseppe Tornatore 1990 : Journey of Hope -- Xavier Koller 1991 : Mediterraneo -- Gabriele Salvatores 1992 : Indochine -- Régis Wargnier 1993 : Belle Époque -- Fernando Trueba 1994 : Burnt by the Sun -- Nikita Mikhalkov 1995 : Antonia 's Line -- Marleen Gorris 1996 : Kolya -- Jan Svěrák 1997 : Character -- Mike van Diem 1998 : Life Is Beautiful -- Roberto Benigni 1999 : All About My Mother -- Pedro Almodóvar 2000 : Crouching Tiger , Hidden Dragon -- Ang Lee 2001 -- present 2001 : No Man 's Land -- Danis Tanović 2002 : Nowhere in Africa -- Caroline Link 2003 : The Barbarian Invasions -- Denys Arcand 2004 : The Sea Inside -- Alejandro Amenábar 2005 : Tsotsi -- Gavin Hood 2006 : The Lives of Others -- Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck 2007 : The Counterfeiters -- Stefan Ruzowitzky 2008 : Departures -- Yōjirō Takita 2009 : The Secret in Their Eyes -- Juan J. Campanella 2010 : In a Better World -- Susanne Bier 2011 : A Separation -- Asghar Farhadi 2012 : Amour -- Michael Haneke 2013 : The Great Beauty -- Paolo Sorrentino 2014 : Ida -- Paweł Pawlikowski 2015 : Son of Saul -- László Nemes 2016 : The Salesman -- Asghar Farhadi Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film Foreign Film -- Foreign Language 1965 -- 1972 Juliet of the Spirits ( 1965 ) A Man and a Woman ( 1966 ) Live for Life ( 1967 ) War and Peace ( 1968 ) Z ( 1969 ) Rider on the Rain ( 1970 ) The Policeman ( 1971 ) The Emigrants ( 1972 ) The New Land ( 1972 ) Foreign Film 1973 -- 1985 The Pedestrian ( 1973 ) Scenes from a Marriage ( 1974 ) Lies My Father Told Me ( 1975 ) Face to Face ( 1976 ) A Special Day ( 1977 ) Autumn Sonata ( 1978 ) La Cage aux Folles ( 1979 ) Tess ( 1980 ) Chariots of Fire ( 1981 ) Gandhi ( 1982 ) Fanny and Alexander ( 1983 ) A Passage to India ( 1984 ) The Official Story ( 1985 ) Foreign Language Film 1986 -- present The Assault ( 1986 ) My Life as a Dog ( 1987 ) Pelle the Conqueror ( 1988 ) Cinema Paradiso ( 1989 ) Cyrano de Bergerac ( 1990 ) Europa Europa ( 1991 ) Indochine ( 1992 ) Farewell My Concubine ( 1993 ) Farinelli ( 1994 ) Les Misérables ( 1995 ) Kolya ( 1996 ) Ma vie en rose ( 1997 ) Central Station ( 1998 ) All About My Mother ( 1999 ) Crouching Tiger , Hidden Dragon ( 2000 ) No Man 's Land ( 2001 ) Talk to Her ( 2002 ) Osama ( 2003 ) The Sea Inside ( 2004 ) Paradise Now ( 2005 ) Letters from Iwo Jima ( 2006 ) The Diving Bell and the Butterfly ( 2007 ) Waltz with Bashir ( 2008 ) The White Ribbon ( 2009 ) In a Better World ( 2010 ) A Separation ( 2011 ) Amour ( 2012 ) The Great Beauty ( 2013 ) Leviathan ( 2014 ) Son of Saul ( 2015 ) Elle ( 2016 ) In the Fade ( 2017 ) Palme d'Or winning films Union Pacific ( 1939 ) Iris and the Lieutenant ( 1946 ) The Lost Weekend ( 1946 ) The Red Meadows ( 1946 ) Brief Encounter ( 1946 ) María Candelaria ( 1946 ) Neecha Nagar ( 1946 ) The Turning Point ( 1946 ) La Symphonie pastorale ( 1946 ) The Last Chance ( 1946 ) Men Without Wings ( 1946 ) Rome , Open City ( 1946 ) The Third Man ( 1949 ) Miss Julie ( 1951 ) Miracle in Milan ( 1951 ) The Tragedy of Othello : The Moor of Venice ( 1951 ) Two Cents Worth of Hope ( 1952 ) The Wages of Fear ( 1953 ) Gate of Hell ( 1954 ) Marty ( 1955 ) The Silent World ( 1956 ) Friendly Persuasion ( 1957 ) The Cranes Are Flying ( 1958 ) Black Orpheus ( 1959 ) La Dolce Vita ( 1960 ) The Long Absence ( 1961 ) Viridiana ( 1961 ) O Pagador de Promessas ( 1962 ) The Leopard ( 1963 ) The Umbrellas of Cherbourg ( 1964 ) The Knack ... and How to Get It ( 1965 ) A Man and a Woman ( 1966 ) The Birds , the Bees and the Italians ( 1966 ) Blowup ( 1967 ) if ... ( 1969 ) MASH ( 1970 ) The Go - Between ( 1971 ) The Working Class Goes to Heaven ( 1972 ) The Mattei Affair ( 1972 ) The Hireling ( 1973 ) Scarecrow ( 1973 ) The Conversation ( 1974 ) Chronicle of the Years of Fire ( 1975 ) Taxi Driver ( 1976 ) Padre Padrone ( 1977 ) The Tree of Wooden Clogs ( 1978 ) Apocalypse Now ( 1979 ) The Tin Drum ( 1979 ) All That Jazz ( 1980 ) Kagemusha ( 1980 ) Man of Iron ( 1981 ) Missing ( 1982 ) Yol ( 1982 ) The Ballad of Narayama ( 1983 ) Paris , Texas ( 1984 ) When Father Was Away on Business ( 1985 ) The Mission ( 1986 ) Under the Sun of Satan ( 1987 ) Pelle the Conqueror ( 1988 ) Sex , Lies , and Videotape ( 1989 ) Wild at Heart ( 1990 ) Barton Fink ( 1991 ) The Best Intentions ( 1992 ) Farewell My Concubine ( 1993 ) The Piano ( 1993 ) Pulp Fiction ( 1994 ) Underground ( 1995 ) Secrets & Lies ( 1996 ) Taste of Cherry ( 1997 ) The Eel ( 1997 ) Eternity and a Day ( 1998 ) Rosetta ( 1999 ) Dancer in the Dark ( 2000 ) The Son 's Room ( 2001 ) The Pianist ( 2002 ) Elephant ( 2003 ) Fahrenheit 9 / 11 ( 2004 ) The Child ( 2005 ) The Wind That Shakes the Barley ( 2006 ) 4 Months , 3 Weeks and 2 Days ( 2007 ) The Class ( 2008 ) The White Ribbon ( 2009 ) Uncle Boonmee Who Can Recall His Past Lives ( 2010 ) The Tree of Life ( 2011 ) Amour ( 2012 ) Blue Is the Warmest Colour ( 2013 ) Winter Sleep ( 2014 ) Dheepan ( 2015 ) I , Daniel Blake ( 2016 ) The Square ( 2017 ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=A_Man_and_a_Woman&oldid=818570221 '' Categories : 1966 films French - language films 1960s romantic drama films French films French drama films Allied Artists films Best Foreign Language Film Academy Award winners Films directed by Claude Lelouch Films featuring a Best Drama Actress Golden Globe - winning performance Films partially in color Films whose writer won the Best Original Screenplay Academy Award Palme d'Or winners Films scored by Francis Lai Best Foreign Language Film Golden Globe winners Hidden categories : Articles containing French - language text Pages using div col with deprecated parameters Articles with hAudio microformats Album infoboxes lacking a cover Music infoboxes with deprecated parameters Talk Contents About Wikipedia Azərbaycanca Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Lëtzebuergesch Magyar Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 January 2018 , at 09 : 06 . 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who plays norman bates brother on bates motel

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Freddie_Highmore&oldid=837580722

Freddie Highmore - wikipedia Freddie Highmore Jump to : navigation , search Freddie Highmore Highmore at the premiere of Bates Motel in March 2013 Alfred Thomas Highmore ( 1992 - 02 - 14 ) 14 February 1992 ( age 26 ) Camden Town , London , England Residence London , England Education Highgate School , London Alma mater Emmanuel College , Cambridge ( B.A. ) Occupation Actor Years active 1999 -- present Parents Edward Highmore ( father ) Sue Latimer ( mother ) Alfred Thomas `` Freddie '' Highmore ( born 14 February 1992 ) is an English actor . He made his professional acting debut in the comedy film Women Talking Dirty ( 1999 ) . He is known for his roles in the films Finding Neverland ( 2004 ) , Charlie and the Chocolate Factory ( 2005 ) , and The Spiderwick Chronicles ( 2008 ) , and in the television series Bates Motel and The Good Doctor . For his roles in the first two , he won two consecutive Critics ' Choice Movie Awards for Best Young Performer . Highmore starred as Norman Bates in the acclaimed A&E drama - thriller series Bates Motel ( 2013 -- 2017 ) , for which he was nominated three times for the Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Actor in a Drama Series and won a People 's Choice Award . In 2017 , Highmore began producing and starring as Dr. Shaun Murphy in the ABC drama series The Good Doctor , for which he was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor . Contents ( hide ) 1 Early life 2 Career 2.1 1999 -- 2004 : Beginnings and Finding Neverland 2.2 2005 -- 2011 : Charlie and the Chocolate Factory and The Spiderwick Chronicles 2.3 2012 -- present : Bates Motel , screenwriting debut and The Good Doctor 3 Personal life 4 Filmography 4.1 Film 4.2 Television 4.3 Video games 4.4 Music videos 5 Awards and nominations 6 References 7 External links Early life ( edit ) Highmore was born on 14 February 1992 in Camden Town , London , into a show business family . His mother , Sue Latimer , is a talent agent whose clients include actors Daniel Radcliffe and Imelda Staunton , and his father , Edward Highmore , is an actor . He has a younger brother named Bertie . His home is in Highgate , North London . Highmore was educated at a primary school in Hampstead Garden Suburb in Hampstead and at Highgate School , an independent school , followed by Emmanuel College , Cambridge , where he earned a Double First in Spanish and Arabic . Career ( edit ) 1999 -- 2004 : beginnings and Finding Neverland ( edit ) Highmore began his acting career with small roles on television at the age of 7 . He made his film debut in Coky Giedroyc 's comedy Women Talking Dirty ( 1999 ) , playing the son of a woman ( Helena Bonham Carter ) who has recently become estranged from her commitment - phobic French lover . In 2001 , Highmore played a young King Arthur in the TNT miniseries The Mists of Avalon , a revisionist take on the Arthurian legends that depicted the women of Camelot as the real power behind the throne . In 2001 , in the BBC miniseries Happy Birthday Shakespeare , he portrayed a young boy who dreams of moving his family to Stratford - upon - Avon . Highmore has acted alongside members of his family in two separate films ; his brother Bertie played his brother in Women Talking Dirty , and his father Edward played his father in Hallmark Entertainment 's television film Jack and the Beanstalk : The Real Story ( 2001 ) . In 2004 , Highmore returned to the big screen for the family adventure film Two Brothers , directed by Jean - Jacques Annaud . He played the son of a French administrator who refuses to believe that his new friend , a tiger cub , might be dangerous after having tasted blood . He next had a major role alongside Kenneth Branagh , Zoë Wanamaker and Eddie Izzard in the fantasy film Five Children and It ( 2004 ) . That same year , Highmore made his breakthrough with a critically acclaimed performance as troubled Peter Llewelyn Davies in Marc Forster 's semi-biographical film Finding Neverland . He received several awards and nominations for the role , including a Critics ' Choice Movie Award for Best Young Performer , and nominations for the Saturn Award for Best Performance by a Younger Actor and the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role . 2005 -- 2011 : Charlie and the Chocolate Factory and the Spiderwick Chronicles ( edit ) Highmore at the San Diego Comic - Con International , 23 July 2009 In 2005 , he portrayed the main role of Charlie Bucket in Tim Burton 's musical fantasy film Charlie and the Chocolate Factory , adapted from the book of the same name by Roald Dahl . He was reportedly recommended by co-star Johnny Depp , with whom Highmore had worked in Finding Neverland ; Depp had been impressed by the young actor 's performance and thus put his name forward for the role . Highmore had not seen the original 1971 version of the film , and decided not to see it until he was done filming so his portrayal of Charlie would not be influenced . For his role , he again won the Critics ' Choice Movie Award for Best Young Performer and was awarded the Satellite Award for Outstanding New Talent . Highmore also lent his voice to the film 's accompanying video game of the same name . He next appeared as a young Max Skinner in Ridley Scott 's comedy - drama film A Good Year , which was released in the UK on 27 October 2006 . Also in 2006 , he began portraying protagonist Arthur Montgomery in the live - action / animated fantasy adventure film Arthur and the Invisibles , released on 13 December 2006 . Two sequels followed : Arthur and the Revenge of Maltazard ( 2009 ) and Arthur 3 : The War of the Two Worlds ( 2010 ) . For the third film and the trilogy 's accompanying video game , Highmore provided voice acting . In 2007 , he lent his voice to the adventure fantasy film The Golden Compass ( 2007 ) and its video game of the same name . He then portrayed the title character in the drama film August Rush ( 2007 ) , alongside Keri Russell , Jonathan Rhys Meyers , and Robin Williams . The story follows a musical prodigy as he searches for his birth parents . This film received a wide release on 21 November 2007 . Highmore next starred in the dual role of American twins Simon and Jared Grace , alongside Sarah Bolger as their sister Mallory , in the fantasy adventure film The Spiderwick Chronicles ( 2008 ) , based on the popular children 's stories of the same name by Tony DiTerlizzi . The film also had a video game , The Spiderwick Chronicles , in which Highmore reprised the characters of Simon and Jared in a voice role . That same year , he provided voice acting for the role of Little Jack in the animated film A Fox 's Tale ( 2008 ) . In 2009 , Highmore voiced the lead character in the animated film Astro Boy , and provided his voice to its accompanying video game , Astro Boy : The Video Game . He then played the main role in Toast , a BBC autobiographical film about chef Nigel Slater , which was aired on 30 December 2010 . The miniseries marked the third time Highmore has worked with Helena Bonham Carter . Also in 2010 , he starred as Hally Ballard , opposite Ving Rhames , in the drama film Master Harold ... and the Boys , based on the play of the same name by Athol Fugard . The following year , he co-starred alongside Emma Roberts in the romantic comedy - drama The Art of Getting By ( 2011 ) . 2012 -- present : Bates Motel , screenwriting debut and the Good Doctor ( edit ) Highmore at PaleyFest for Bates Motel , 10 May 2013 In 2013 , Highmore voiced the title character in the animated adventure film Justin and the Knights of Valour . From 2013 to 2017 , he portrayed the iconic role of Norman Bates , alongside Vera Farmiga as his mother Norma , in the A&E drama - thriller series Bates Motel , a prequel to the Alfred Hitchcock film Psycho that restarts the storyline in the present day . He won a People 's Choice Award in 2016 for his performance , and has received nominations for the Saturn Award for Best Actor on Television ( 2013 ) , the Satellite Award for Best Actor -- Television Series Drama ( 2013 ) , and the Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Actor in a Drama Series ( 2014 -- 2015 , and 2017 ) . Highmore ventured into writing and directing during his time working on the series , writing the fourth season episode `` Unfaithful '' and the fifth season episode `` Inseparable '' , and directing the fifth season episode `` The Body '' . In August 2014 , it was reported that NBC had purchased a comedy pilot script written and executive produced by Highmore and Bates Motel showrunner Kerry Ehrin . However , the pilot was not picked up to series . In 2015 , he appeared in the Libertines ' music video for `` You 're My Waterloo '' , alongside Marama Corlett . In 2016 , Highmore starred in Stephen Poliakoff 's BBC Two seven - part miniseries Close to the Enemy , the coming - of - age comedy - drama film Almost Friends , and Nick Hamm 's political comedy - drama film The Journey . The following year , he began portraying the lead role of Dr. Shaun Murphy in the ABC drama series The Good Doctor , on which he also serves as a producer . In 2017 , he received a nomination for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Drama Series for his performance . Highmore has been cast as the voice of the Duke of Cheshire in the animated film adaptation of The Canterville Ghost . He is attached to play the title character , Baby Face Nelson , in the A&E drama pilot Baby Face , which he co-wrote and will executive produce with Kerry Ehrin . Highmore will also executive produce Ehrin 's drama pilot Long Distance for NBC . Personal life ( edit ) Highmore lives in London , which he has said keeps him grounded . He is close friends with his Bates Motel co-star Vera Farmiga , and is godfather to Fynn , her son with her husband Renn Hawkey . He is a supporter of Arsenal Football Club . Highmore speaks Spanish , French , and Arabic , in addition to his native English . Filmography ( edit ) Film ( edit ) Year Title Role Notes 1999 Women Talking Dirty Sam Two Brothers Raoul Normandin Finding Neverland Peter Llewelyn Davies Five Children and It Robert 2005 Charlie and the Chocolate Factory Charlie Bucket 2006 A Good Year Young Max Skinner 2006 Arthur and the Invisibles Arthur Montgomery 2007 August Rush Evan Taylor aka August Rush 2007 The Golden Compass Pantalaimon Voice role 2008 The Spiderwick Chronicles Jared and Simon Grace 2008 A Fox 's Tale Little Jack Voice role 2009 Astro Boy Toby Tenma / Astro Boy Voice role 2009 Arthur and the Revenge of Maltazard Arthur Montgomery Arthur 3 : The War of the Two Worlds Arthur Montgomery Master Harold ... and the Boys Hally Ballard 2011 The Art of Getting By George Zinavoy 2013 Justin and the Knights of Valour Justin Voice role 2016 The Journey Jack 2016 Almost Friends Charlie Brenner Television ( edit ) Year Title Role Notes 2000 Happy Birthday Shakespeare Steven Green Television film 2001 The Mists of Avalon Young Arthur 2 episodes 2001 Jack and the Beanstalk : The Real Story Son at Playground 2 episodes 2002 I Saw You Oscar Bingley Television film Toast Nigel Slater Television film 2013 -- 2017 Bates Motel Norman Bates 50 episodes Also wrote 2 episodes and directed `` The Body '' 2016 Close to the Enemy Victor Ferguson 7 episodes 2017 Tour de Pharmacy Adrian Baton Television film 2017 -- present The Good Doctor Dr. Shaun Murphy Lead role ; also producer Video games ( edit ) Year Title Role 2005 Charlie and the Chocolate Factory Charlie Bucket 2007 Arthur and the Invisibles Arthur Montgomery 2007 The Golden Compass Pantalaimon 2008 The Spiderwick Chronicles Jared and Simon Grace 2009 Astro Boy : The Video Game Toby Tenma / Astro Boy Music videos ( edit ) The Libertines -- `` You 're My Waterloo '' Awards and nominations ( edit ) Main article : List of awards and nominations received by Freddie Highmore References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Births , Marriages & Deaths Index of England & Wales , 1984 -- 2004 , listed birth name as `` Alfred Thomas Highmore '' . Jump up ^ Ausiello , Michael ( 11 May 2017 ) . `` Good Doctor Medical Drama Starring Bates Motel 's Freddie Highmore Ordered to Series at ABC '' . TVLine . Retrieved 19 September 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Freddie Highmore -- Biography '' . Yahoo ! Movies . Archived from the original on 7 April 2013 . Retrieved 14 April 2013 . Jump up ^ Salisbury , Mark . `` Freddie Highmore keeps it real in music - filled ' August Rush ' '' . Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on 6 November 2007 . Retrieved 9 October 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Freddie Highmore : ' When You 're Eighteen , You Ca n't Act the Kid Anymore ' '' . The Independent . 5 December 2010 . Archived from the original on 17 May 2013 . Retrieved 12 March 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Actor Highmore gains double first '' . The Belfast Telegraph . 3 July 2014 . Retrieved 16 June 2015 . Jump up ^ `` The Freddie Highmore Chronicles '' ( PDF ) . The Washington Post . 17 February 2008 . Retrieved 23 October 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Freddie Highmore cast as titular Charlie and the Chocolate Factory '' . JohnAugust.com. 23 May 2004 . Archived from the original on 24 September 2012 . Retrieved 14 April 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Movies : Details for Arthur and the Vengeance of Maltazard '' . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 8 September 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Movies : Details for Arthur and The War Of Two Worlds '' . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 8 September 2013 . Jump up ^ Freddie Highmore talks August Rush on YouTube Jump up ^ `` Highmore Joins Spiderwick Chronicles '' . Empire . 24 July 2006 . Jump up ^ `` Freddie Highmore Signed for Imagi Studios ' Astro Boy '' ( PDF ) . Imagi Studios . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 29 May 2008 . Retrieved 28 February 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Freddie Highmore and Kristen Bell Join Astro Boy : The Video Game '' . GamersHell.com. 5 July 2009 . Archived from the original on 27 February 2015 . Retrieved 17 June 2013 . Jump up ^ `` New BBC One drama , Helena Bonham Carter and Freddie Highmore star in Toast '' . BBC News . 21 May 2010 . Archived from the original on 4 July 2010 . Jump up ^ Cox , Gordon ( 21 April 2010 ) . `` Roberts , Highmore assigned ' Homework ' '' . Variety . Archived from the original on 27 April 2010 . Retrieved 24 April 2010 . Jump up ^ Goldberg , Lesley ( 14 September 2012 ) . `` A&E 's ' Psycho ' Prequel ' Bates Motel ' Finds its Young Norman '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on 6 October 2015 . Jump up ^ `` People 's Choice Awards 2017 Winners List '' . The Hollywood Reporter. 18 January 2017 . Archived from the original on 19 January 2017 . Jump up ^ McCabe , Joseph ( 28 June 2014 ) . `` Gravity , The Walking Dead , and Breaking Bad Win Big at the Fortieth Annual Saturn Awards '' . Nerdist . Archived from the original on 5 January 2015 . Retrieved 4 February 2015 . Jump up ^ Pond , Steve ( 2 December 2013 ) . `` ' 12 Years a Slave ' Tops Satellite Award Nominations '' . TheWrap . Archived from the original on 8 November 2014 . Retrieved 4 February 2015 . Jump up ^ Sandberg , Bryn Elise ( 19 June 2014 ) . `` Critics ' Choice Television Awards 2014 : Complete Winners List '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on 26 January 2015 . Retrieved 4 February 2015 . Jump up ^ Pedersen , Erik ( 6 May 2015 ) . `` Critics ' Choice TV Awards : ' Justified ' , ' Olive Kitteridge ' , HBO Lead The Field '' . Deadline.com . Archived from the original on 7 May 2015 . Retrieved 6 May 2015 . Jump up ^ Kilday , Gregg ( 6 December 2017 ) . `` Critics ' Choice Awards : ' The Shape of Water ' Leads With 14 Nominations '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved 6 December 2017 . Jump up ^ Saclao , Christian ( 4 April 2016 ) . `` ' Bates Motel ' Star Freddie Highmore On Writing Season 4 , Episode 8 Of A&E 's ' Psycho ' Prequel '' . Design & Trend . Archived from the original on 25 April 2016 . Retrieved 4 May 2016 . Jump up ^ Butler , Elena ( 23 July 2016 ) . `` ' Bates Motel ' : 8 Things to Know About Season 5 , Rihanna 's Casting , and More '' . Collider.com . Archived from the original on 20 December 2016 . Jump up ^ Goldberg , Lesley ( 22 August 2014 ) . `` ' Bates Motel 's ' Freddie Highmore , Kerry Ehrin Sell Comedy to NBC '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on 17 November 2015 . Jump up ^ Monroe , Jazz ( 2 December 2015 ) . `` The Libertines Share Romantic `` You 're My Waterloo '' Video Starring Freddie Highmore `` . Pitchfork Media . Archived from the original on 4 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` BBC Two announces new Stephen Poliakoff drama with stellar cast '' . BBC News . 30 March 2015 . Archived from the original on 3 April 2015 . Jump up ^ Siegel , Tatiana ( 18 August 2015 ) . `` Freddie Highmore , Haley Joel Osment to Star in Coming - of - Age Film ' Holding Patterns ' '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on 31 August 2015 . Jump up ^ McNary , Dave ( 10 September 2015 ) . `` Toronto : John Hurt , Toby Stephens , Freddie Highmore Join ' The Journey ' '' . Variety . Archived from the original on 7 October 2015 . Jump up ^ Goldberg , Lesley ( 24 February 2017 ) . `` ' Bates Motel ' Star Freddie Highmore to Topline ABC 's David Shore Drama '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on 5 March 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Freddie Highmore goes from ' Bates ' killer to life - saving ' Good Doctor ' '' . USA Today . August 6 , 2017 . Retrieved 9 August 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Golden Globes : ' Shape of Water , ' ' Big Little Lies ' Top Nominations '' . The Hollywood Reporter. 11 December 2017 . Retrieved 11 December 2017 . Jump up ^ Kemp , Stuart ( 9 May 2014 ) . `` Cannes : Freddie Highmore Lends Voice to Animated ' Oscar Wilde 's The Canterville Ghost ' '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Archived from the original on 17 November 2015 . Jump up ^ Birnbaum , Debra ( 16 December 2016 ) . `` ' Bates Motel 's ' Freddie Highmore and Kerry Ehrin Sell Drama Pilot to A&E ( EXCLUSIVE ) '' . Variety . Archived from the original on 17 December 2016 . Retrieved 16 December 2016 . Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ( 15 March 2017 ) . `` NBC Buys ' Long Distance ' Drama From ' Bates Motel ' Duo Kerry Ehrin & Freddie Highmore And Producer Danielle Gelber '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved 28 September 2017 . Jump up ^ Ruby , Jennifer ( 3 May 2017 ) . `` Freddie Highmore : ' staying in London and avoiding social media has kept me grounded ' '' . London Evening Standard . Archived from the original on 3 May 2017 . Retrieved 12 June 2017 . Jump up ^ `` TVLine Podcast : Dream Emmy Q&A With Bates Motel 's Freddie Highmore '' . TVLine. 12 June 2017 . Archived from the original on 12 June 2017 . Retrieved 12 June 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Bates Motel : Freddie Highmore on re-imagining Psycho 's serial killer ' '' . London Evening Standard . 12 September 2013 . Archived from the original on 1 January 2018 . Retrieved 1 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Nepales , Rubin V. ( 27 April 2013 ) . `` Freddie Highmore grows up : From ' Chocolate Factory ' to ' Bates Motel ' '' . Philippine Daily Inquirer . Archived from the original on 29 April 2013 . Retrieved 30 January 2018 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Freddie Highmore . Freddie Highmore on IMDb Awards for Freddie Highmore Critics ' Choice Movie Award for Best Young Performer Jonathan Lipnicki ( 1996 ) Jurnee Smollett ( 1997 ) Ian Michael Smith ( 1998 ) Haley Joel Osment ( 1999 ) Jamie Bell ( 2000 ) Dakota Fanning ( 2001 ) Kieran Culkin ( 2002 ) Keisha Castle - Hughes ( 2003 ) Freddie Highmore / Emmy Rossum ( 2004 ) Freddie Highmore / Dakota Fanning ( 2005 ) Paul Dano / Abigail Breslin ( 2006 ) Ahmad Khan Mahmidzada / Nikki Blonsky ( 2007 ) Dev Patel ( 2008 ) Saoirse Ronan ( 2009 ) Hailee Steinfeld ( 2010 ) Thomas Horn ( 2011 ) Quvenzhané Wallis ( 2012 ) Adèle Exarchopoulos ( 2013 ) Ellar Coltrane ( 2014 ) Jacob Tremblay ( 2015 ) Lucas Hedges ( 2016 ) Brooklynn Prince ( 2017 ) Empire Award for Best Newcomer Bryan Singer ( 1996 ) Ewen Bremner ( 1997 ) Gary Oldman ( 1998 ) Vinnie Jones ( 1999 ) Carrie - Anne Moss / Damien O'Donnell ( 2000 ) Jamie Bell ( 2001 ) Orlando Bloom ( 2002 ) Rosamund Pike ( 2003 ) Martine McCutcheon ( 2004 ) Freddie Highmore ( 2005 ) Kelly Reilly ( 2006 ) Brandon Routh / Eva Green ( 2007 ) Sam Riley ( 2008 ) Gemma Arterton ( 2009 ) Aaron Johnson ( 2010 ) Chloë Grace Moretz ( 2011 ) People 's Choice Award for Favorite Cable TV Actor Matt Bomer ( 2015 ) Kevin Hart ( 2016 ) Freddie Highmore ( 2017 ) Saturn Award for Best Performance by a Younger Actor Noah Hathaway ( 1984 ) Barret Oliver ( 1985 ) Carrie Henn ( 1986 ) Kirk Cameron ( 1987 ) Fred Savage ( 1988 ) Adan Jodorowsky ( 1989 / 90 ) Edward Furlong ( 1991 ) Scott Weinger ( 1992 ) Elijah Wood ( 1993 ) Kirsten Dunst ( 1994 ) Christina Ricci ( 1995 ) Lucas Black ( 1996 ) Jena Malone ( 1997 ) Tobey Maguire ( 1998 ) Haley Joel Osment ( 1999 ) Devon Sawa ( 2000 ) Haley Joel Osment ( 2001 ) Tyler Hoechlin ( 2002 ) Jeremy Sumpter ( 2003 ) Emmy Rossum ( 2004 ) Dakota Fanning ( 2005 ) Ivana Baquero ( 2006 ) Freddie Highmore ( 2007 ) Jaden Smith ( 2008 ) Saoirse Ronan ( 2009 ) Chloë Grace Moretz ( 2010 ) Joel Courtney ( 2011 ) Suraj Sharma ( 2012 ) Chloë Grace Moretz ( 2013 ) Mackenzie Foy ( 2014 ) Ty Simpkins ( 2015 ) Tom Holland ( 2016 ) VIAF : 76564503 LCCN : no2005079407 ISNI : 0000 0001 1850 4678 GND : 142250546 SUDOC : 086271989 BNF : cb14596222r ( data ) BNE : XX4746390 SNAC : w63f5ksg Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Freddie_Highmore&oldid=837580722 '' Categories : 1992 births 20th - century English male actors 21st - century English male actors Alumni of Emmanuel College , Cambridge Best Newcomer Empire Award winners English male child actors English male film actors English male screenwriters English male television actors English male video game actors English male voice actors English television directors English television producers Living people Male actors from London People educated at Highgate School People from Camden Town People from Highgate Hidden categories : Use British English from March 2015 Use dmy dates from August 2017 Articles with hCards Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC - ID identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia تۆرکجه Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Baso Minangkabau Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 24 more Edit links This page was last edited on 21 April 2018 , at 18 : 47 . 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when did the assault rifle become available to the public

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Assault_rifle&oldid=838056154

Assault rifle - wikipedia Assault rifle This is the latest accepted revision , reviewed on 24 April 2018 . Jump to : navigation , search This article is about automatic firearms used by many military organizations . For semi-automatic firearms restricted by some United States laws , see assault weapon . The StG 44 , an early German assault rifle , was adopted by the Wehrmacht in 1944 . It fires the 7.92 × 33mm Kurz round . Currently the most used assault rifle in the world along with its variant , the AKM , the AK - 47 was first adopted in 1949 by the Soviet Army . It fires the 7.62 × 39mm M43 round . The M16 was first introduced into service in 1964 with the United States Armed Forces . It fires the 5.56 × 45mm NATO cartridge . An assault rifle is a selective - fire rifle that uses an intermediate cartridge and a detachable magazine . Assault rifles were first used during World War II . Though Western nations were slow to accept the assault rifle concept , by the end of the 20th century they had become the standard weapon in most of the world 's armies , replacing full - powered rifles and sub-machine guns in most roles . Examples include the StG 44 , AK - 47 and the M16 rifle . The term assault rifle is generally attributed to Adolf Hitler , who for propaganda purposes used the German word `` Sturmgewehr '' ( which translates to `` storm rifle '' or `` assault rifle '' ) , as the new name for the MP43 , subsequently known as the Sturmgewehr 44 or StG 44 . However , other sources dispute that Hitler had much to do with coining the new name besides signing the production order . The StG 44 is generally considered the first selective fire military rifle to popularize the assault rifle concept . Today , the term assault rifle is used to define firearms sharing the same basic characteristics as the StG 44 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Characteristics 2 History 2.1 Sturmgewehr 44 2.2 AK - 47 2.3 Battle rifles 2.4 M16 2.5 HK33 2.6 5.56 mm NATO 2.7 AK - 74 2.8 Bullpups 2.9 Heckler & Koch G36 2.10 Compact assault rifles 3 Distinction from assault weapons 4 See also 5 Notes 6 Further reading 7 External links Characteristics ( edit ) The U.S. Army defines assault rifles as `` short , compact , selective - fire weapons that fire a cartridge intermediate in power between submachine gun and rifle cartridges . '' In a strict definition , a firearm must have at least the following characteristics to be considered an assault rifle : It must be capable of selective fire . It must have an intermediate - power cartridge : more power than a pistol but less than a standard rifle or battle rifle , such as the 7.92 × 33mm Kurz , the 7.62 x39mm and the 5.56 x45mm NATO . Its ammunition must be supplied from a detachable box magazine . It must have an effective range of at least 300 metres ( 330 yards ) . Rifles that meet most of these criteria , but not all , are technically not assault rifles , despite frequently being called such . For example : Select - fire M2 Carbines are not assault rifles ; their effective range is only 200 yards . Select - fire rifles such as the FN FAL battle rifle are not assault rifles ; they fire full - powered rifle cartridges . Semi-automatic - only rifles like the Colt AR - 15 are not assault rifles ; they do not have select - fire capabilities . Semi-automatic - only rifles with fixed magazines like the SKS are not assault rifles ; they do not have detachable box magazines and are not capable of automatic fire . History ( edit ) Sturmgewehr 44 ( edit ) Main article : StG 44 Sturmgewehr 44 The Germans were the first to pioneer the assault rifle concept , during World War II , based upon research that showed that most firefights happen within 400 meters and that contemporary rifles were over-powered for most small arms combat . They would soon develop a select - fire intermediate powered rifle combining the firepower of a submachine gun with the range and accuracy of a rifle . The result was the Sturmgewehr 44 , which the Germans produced in large numbers ; approximately half a million were made . It fired a new and revolutionary intermediate powered cartridge , the 7.92 × 33mm Kurz . This new cartridge was developed by shortening the standard 7.92 × 57mm Mauser round and giving it a lighter 125 - grain bullet , that limited range but allowed for more controllable automatic fire . A smaller lighter cartridge also allowed soldiers to carry more ammunition `` to support the higher consumption rate of automatic fire . '' The Sturmgewehr 44 features an inexpensive , easy - to - make , stamped steel design and a 30 - round detachable box magazine . `` This weapon was the prototype of all successful automatic rifles . Characteristically ( and unlike previous rifles and the M - 14 ) it had a straight stock with the barrel under the gas cylinder to reduce the turning moment of recoil of the rifle in the shoulder and thus help reduce the tendency of shots to climb in automatic fire . The barrel and overall length were shorter than a traditional rifle and it had a pistol grip to hold the weapon more securely in automatic fire . The principle of this weapon -- the reduction of muzzle impulse to get usable automatic fire within the actual ranges of combat -- was probably the most important advance in small arms since the invention of smokeless powder . '' AK - 47 ( edit ) Main article : AK - 47 AK - 47 rifle Like the Germans , the Soviets were influenced by experience showing that most combat engagements occur within 400 meters and that their soldiers were consistently outgunned by heavily armed German troops , especially those armed with the Sturmgewehr 44 assault rifles . On July 15 , 1943 , a Sturmgewehr was demonstrated before the People 's Commissariat of Arms of the USSR . The Soviets were so impressed with the Sturmgewehr , that they immediately set about developing an intermediate caliber automatic rifle of their own , to replace the badly outdated Mosin -- Nagant bolt - action rifles and PPSh - 41 submachine guns that armed most of the Soviet Army . The Soviets soon developed the 7.62 × 39mm M43 cartridge , the semi-automatic SKS carbine and the RPD light machine gun . Shortly after World War II , the Soviets developed the AK - 47 assault rifle , which would quickly replace the SKS in Soviet service . The AK - 47 was finalized , adopted and entered widespread service in the Soviet army in the early 1950s . Its firepower , ease of use , low production costs , and reliability were perfectly suited for the Red Army 's new mobile warfare doctrines . In the 1960s , the Soviets introduced the RPK light machine gun , itself an AK - 47 type weapon with a bi-pod , a stronger receiver , and a longer , heavier barrel that would eventually replace the RPD light machine gun . Chinese Type 56 rifle . Note : folding spike bayonet The AK - 47 was widely supplied or sold to nations allied with the USSR , and the blueprints were shared with several friendly nations ( the People 's Republic of China standing out among these with the Type 56 ) . As a result , more AK - type weapons have been produced than all other assault rifles combined . As of 2004 , `` of the estimated 500 million firearms worldwide , approximately 100 million belong to the Kalashnikov family , three - quarters of which are AK - 47s . '' Battle rifles ( edit ) Main article : Battle rifle The M1 Rifle and M1 Carbine The U.S. Army was influenced by combat experience with semi-automatic weapons such as the M1 Garand and M1 Carbine , which enjoyed a significant advantage over enemies armed primarily with bolt - action rifles . Although U.S. Army studies of World War II combat accounts had very similar results to that of the Germans and Soviets , the U.S. Army failed to recognize the importance of the assault rifle concept , and instead maintained its traditional views and preference for high - powered semi-automatic rifles . At the time , the U.S. Army believed that the Sturmgewehr 44 was `` intended in a general way to serve the same purpose as the U.S. carbine '' and was in many ways inferior to the M1 carbine , and was of `` little importance '' . After World War II , the United States military started looking for a single automatic rifle to replace the M1 Garand , M1 / M2 Carbines , M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle , M3 `` Grease Gun '' and Thompson submachine gun . Early experiments with select - fire versions of the M1 Garand proved disappointing . During the Korean War , the select - fire M2 Carbine largely replaced the submachine gun in US service and became the most widely used Carbine variant . Combat experience suggested that the . 30 Carbine round was under - powered . American weapons designers reached the same conclusion as the German and Soviet ones : an intermediate round was necessary , and recommended a small - caliber , high - velocity cartridge . American M14 Senior American commanders had faced fanatical enemies and experienced major logistical problems during WWII and the Korean War , and insisted that a single powerful . 30 caliber cartridge be developed , that could be used by the new automatic rifle , and also by the new general - purpose machine gun ( GPMG ) in concurrent development . This culminated in the development of the 7.62 × 51mm NATO cartridge and the M14 rifle which was basically an improved select - fire M1 Garand with a 20 - round magazine . The U.S. also adopted the M60 GPMG . Its NATO partners adopted the FN FAL and Heckler & Koch G3 rifles , as well as the FN MAG and Rheinmetall MG3 GPMGs . Belgian FN FAL The FN FAL is a 7.62 × 51mm NATO , selective fire , automatic rifle produced by the Belgian armaments manufacturer Fabrique Nationale de Herstal ( FN ) . During the Cold War it was adopted by many North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ) countries , most notably with the British Commonwealth as the L1A1 . It is one of the most widely used rifles in history , having been used by more than 90 countries . The FAL was predominantly chambered for the 7.62 mm NATO round , and because of its prevalence and widespread use among the armed forces of many western nations during the Cold War it was nicknamed `` The right arm of the Free World '' . West German Heckler & Koch G3 The Heckler & Koch G3 is a 7.62 × 51mm NATO , selective fire , automatic rifle produced by the German armament manufacturer Heckler & Koch GmbH ( H&K ) in collaboration with the Spanish state - owned design and development agency CETME ( Centro de Estudios Técnicos de Materiales Especiales ) . The rifle proved successful in the export market , being adopted by the armed forces of over 60 countries . After WWII , German technicians involved in developing the Sturmgewehr 45 , continued their research in France at CEAM . The StG45 mechanism was modified by Ludwig Vorgrimler and Theodor Löffler at the Mulhouse facility between 1946 and 1949 . Vorgrimler later went to work at CETME in Spain and developed the line of CETME automatic rifles based on his improved Stg45 design . Germany eventually purchased the license for the CETME design and manufactured the Heckler & Koch G3 as well as an entire line of weapons built on the same system , one of the most famous being the MP5 SMG . M16 ( edit ) Main article : M16 rifle The first confrontations between the AK - 47 and the M14 ( assault rifle vs battle rifle ) came in the early part of the Vietnam War . Battlefield reports indicated that the M14 was uncontrollable in full - auto and that soldiers could not carry enough ammunition to maintain fire superiority over the AK - 47 . And , while the M2 Carbine offered a high rate of fire , it was under - powered and ultimately outclassed by the AK - 47 . A replacement was needed : A medium between the traditional preference for high - powered rifles such as the M14 , and the lightweight firepower of the M2 Carbine . As a result , the Army was forced to reconsider a 1957 request by General Willard G. Wyman , commander of the U.S. Continental Army Command ( CONARC ) to develop a . 223 caliber ( 5.56 mm ) select - fire rifle weighing 6 lbs ( 2.7 kg ) when loaded with a 20 - round magazine . The 5.56 mm round had to penetrate a standard U.S. helmet at 500 yards ( 460 meters ) and retain a velocity in excess of the speed of sound , while matching or exceeding the wounding ability of the . 30 Carbine cartridge . AR - 10 rifle ArmaLite AR - 15 M16A1 rifle This request ultimately resulted in the development of a scaled - down version of the ArmaLite AR - 10 , called ArmaLite AR - 15 rifle . However , despite overwhelming evidence that the AR - 15 could bring more firepower to bear than the M14 , the Army opposed the adoption of the new rifle . In January 1963 , Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara concluded that the AR - 15 was the superior weapon system and ordered a halt to M14 production . At the time , the AR - 15 was the only rifle available that could fulfill the requirement of a universal infantry weapon for issue to all services . After modifications ( most notably , the charging handle was re-located from under the carrying handle like AR - 10 to the rear of the receiver ) , the new redesigned rifle was subsequently adopted as the M16 Rifle . `` ( The M16 ) was much lighter compared to the M14 it replaced , ultimately allowing Soldiers to carry more ammunition . The air - cooled , gas - operated , magazine - fed assault rifle was made of steel , aluminum alloy and composite plastics , truly cutting - edge for the time . Designed with full and semi-automatic capabilities , the weapon initially did not respond well to wet and dirty conditions , sometimes even jamming in combat . After a few minor modifications , the weapon gained in popularity among troops on the battlefield . '' Despite its early failures the M16 proved to be a revolutionary design and stands as the longest continuously serving rifle in American military history . It has been adopted by many U.S. allies and the 5.56 × 45mm NATO cartridge has become not only the NATO standard , but `` the standard assault - rifle cartridge in much of the world . '' It also led to the development of small - caliber high - velocity service rifles by every major army in the world , including the USSR and People 's Republic of China . Today , many small arms experts consider the M16 the standard by which all other assault rifles are judged . HK33 ( edit ) Main article : Heckler & Koch HK33 HK33A2 During the 1960s other countries would follow the Americans ' lead and begin to develop 5.56 × 45mm assault rifles , most notably Germany with the Heckler & Koch HK33 . The HK33 was essentially a smaller 5.56 mm version of the 7.62 × 51mm Heckler & Koch G3 rifle . As one of the first 5.56 mm assault rifles on the market , it would go on to become one of the most widely distributed assault rifles . The HK33 featured a modular design with a wide range of accessories ( telescoping butt - stocks , optics , bi-pods , etc . ) that could be easily removed and arranged in a variety configurations . 5.56 mm NATO ( edit ) Main article : 5.56 × 45mm NATO The 7.62 × 51mm NATO and 5.56 × 45mm NATO cartridges compared to an AA battery . The adoption of the M16 , the H&K33 , and the 5.56 × 45mm cartridge inspired an international trend towards relatively small - sized , lightweight , high - velocity military service cartridges that allow a soldier to carry more ammunition for the same weight compared to the larger and heavier 7.62 × 51mm NATO cartridge . The 5.56 mm cartridge is also much easier to shoot . In 1961 marksmanship testing , the U.S. Army found that 43 % of ArmaLite AR - 15 shooters achieved Expert , while only 22 % of M - 14 rifle shooters did so . Also , a lower recoil impulse , allows for more controllable automatic weapons fire . In March 1970 , the U.S. recommended that all NATO forces adopt the 5.56 × 45mm cartridge . This shift represented a change in the philosophy of the military 's long - held position about caliber size . By the middle of the 1970s , other armies were looking at assault rifle type weapons . A NATO standardization effort soon started and tests of various rounds were carried out starting in 1977 . The U.S. offered the 5.56 × 45mm M193 round , but there were concerns about its penetration in the face of the wider introduction of body armor . In the end the Belgian 5.56 × 45mm SS109 round was chosen ( STANAG 4172 ) in October 1980 . The SS109 round was based on the U.S. cartridge but included a new stronger , heavier , 62 grain bullet design , with better long range performance and improved penetration ( specifically , to consistently penetrate the side of a steel helmet at 600 meters ) . Also during the 1970s , Finland , Israel , South Africa and Sweden introduced AK type assault rifles in 5.56 × 45mm . During the 1990s , Russia developed the AK - 101 in 5.56 × 45mm NATO for the world export market . In addition , Bulgaria , Czechoslovakia , Hungary , Poland and Yugoslavia ( i.e. , Serbia ) have also rechambered their locally produced assault rifles to 5.56 mm NATO . AK - 74 ( edit ) Main article : AK - 74 AK - 74 rifle `` The AK - 74 assault rifle was a Soviet answer to the US M16 . '' The Soviet military realized that the M16 had better range and accuracy over the AKM , and that its lighter cartridge allows soldiers to carry more ammunition . Therefore , in 1967 , the USSR issued an official requirement to replace the AKM and the 7.62 × 39mm cartridge . They soon began to develop the AK - 74 and the 5.45 × 39mm cartridge . AK - 74 production began in 1974 , and it was unveiled in 1977 , when it was carried by Soviet parachute troops during the annual Red Square parade . It would soon replace the AKM and become the standard Soviet infantry rifle . In 1979 , the AK - 74 saw combat for the first time in Afghanistan , where the lethality of the 5.45 mm rounds led to the Mujahadeen dubbing them `` poison bullets . '' The adoption of the 5.56 mm NATO and the Russian 5.45 × 39mm cartridges cemented the worldwide trend toward small caliber , high velocity cartridges . Bullpups ( edit ) Main article : Bullpup Steyr AUG In 1977 , Austria introduced the 5.56 × 45mm Steyr AUG bullpup rifle , often cited as the first successful bullpup rifle , finding service with the armed forces of over twenty countries . It was highly advanced for the 1970s , combining in the same weapon the bullpup configuration , a polymer housing , dual vertical grips , an optical sight as standard , and a modular design . Highly reliable , light , and accurate , the Steyr AUG showed clearly the potential of the bullpup layout . In 1978 , France introduced the 5.56 × 45mm FAMAS bullpup rifle . In 1985 , the British introduced the 5.56 × 45mm L85 bullpup rifle . In the late 1990s , Israel introduced the 5.56 mm NATO Tavor TAR - 21 . In 1997 , China 's People 's Liberation Army 's adopted QBZ - 95 in the new 5.8 × 42mm cartridge , which they claim is superior to the both 5.56 × 45mm and the 5.45 × 39mm . By the turn of the century , the bullpup assault rifle design had achieved worldwide acceptance . Heckler & Koch G36 ( edit ) Main article : Heckler & Koch G36 Heckler & Koch G36 with a loaded 30 magazine The Heckler & Koch G36 is a 5.56 × 45mm assault rifle , designed in the early 1990s by Heckler & Koch in Germany as a replacement for the heavier 7.62 mm G3 battle rifle . It was accepted into service with the Bundeswehr in 1997 , replacing the G3 . The G36 is gas - operated and feeds from a 30 - round detachable box magazine or 100 - round C - Mag drum magazine . The G36 a made with the extensive use of lightweight , corrosion - resistant synthetic materials in its design ; the receiver housing , stock , trigger group ( including the fire control selector and firing mechanism parts ) , magazine well , handguard and carry handle are all made of a carbon fiber - reinforced polyamide . The receiver has an integrated steel barrel trunnion ( with locking recesses ) and a nylon 66 steel reinforced receiver . The standard German Army versions of the G36 are equipped with unique a ZF 3 × 4 ° dual optical sight that combines a 3 × magnified telescopic sight and an unmagnified reflex sight mounted on top of the telescopic sight . Widely distributed , it has been adopted by over 40 countries and prompted other nations to develop similar composite designs , such as the FX - 05 Xiuhcoatl . Compact assault rifles ( edit ) A USAF security policeman aims his Colt Commando during a live - fire demonstration , part of Operation Desert Shield . Note : large flash hider Following the adoption of the M16 rifle , carbine variants were also adopted for close quarters operations . The CAR - 15 family of weapons served through the Vietnam War . However , these Compact assault rifles had design issues , as `` the barrel length was halved '' to 10 inches which `` upset the ballistics '' , reducing its range and accuracy and leading `` to considerable muzzle flash and blast , so that a large flash suppressor had to be fitted '' . `` Nevertheless , as a short - range weapon it is quite adequate and thus , ( despite ) its caliber , ( the Colt Commando ) is classed as a submachine gun . '' Other compact assault rifles , such as the HK53 , AKS - 74U and the Daewoo K1 , have been made and they have also been called submachine guns . Distinction from assault weapons ( edit ) Main article : Assault weapon The term `` assault rifle '' is sometimes conflated with the term `` assault weapon '' . According to the Associated Press Stylebook , the media should differentiate between `` assault rifles '' , which are capable of fully automatic firing , and `` assault weapons '' , which are semiautomatic and `` not synonymous with assault rifle '' . In the U.S. , civilian ownership of machine guns ( and assault rifles ) has been tightly regulated since 1934 under the National Firearms Act and since 1986 under the Firearm Owners Protection Act . See also ( edit ) List of assault rifles Notes ( edit ) Rose , Alexander . American Rifle , A Biography. 2008 , Bantam Dell Publishing . ISBN 978 - 0 - 553 - 80517 - 8 . Jump up ^ `` '' Assault rifle . '' Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010 . Encyclopædia Britannica Online . 3 July 2010 `` . Britannica.com . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 26 . ^ Jump up to : C. Taylor The Fighting Rifle : A Complete Study of the Rifle in Combat , ISBN 0 - 87947 - 308 - 8 ^ Jump up to : F.A. Moyer Special Forces Foreign Weapons Handbook , ISBN 0 - 87364 - 009 - 8 ^ Jump up to : R.J. Scroggie , F.A. Moyer Special Forces Combat Firing Techniques , ISBN 0 - 87364 - 010 - 1 ^ Jump up to : Musgave , Daniel D. , and Thomas B. Nelson , The World 's Assault Rifles , vol. II , The Goetz Company , Washington , D.C. ( 1967 ) : 1 ^ Jump up to : Firearms : The Life Story of a Technology . by Roger Pauly . Greenwood Publishing Group . 2004 . page 145 & 146 ^ Jump up to : Jane 's Guns Recognition Guide , Ian Hogg & Terry Gander , HarperCollins Publisher , 2005 , p. 287 Sturmgewehr 44 `` This is the father of all assault rifles , developed in Germany in 1941 -- 42 an using a new short cartridge . Originally known as the MP 43 ( Machine Pistol ) for Nazi political reasons , it was renamed the `` Sturmgewehr 44 '' after its successful introduction into battle on the Eastern Front . It introduced the concept of using a short cartridge with limited range in order to permit controllable automatic fire and a compact weapon , and because experience showed that most rifle fire was conducted at ranges under 400 meters . After the war it was examined and dissected by almost every major gunmaking nation and led , in one way and another , to the present - day 5.56 mm assault rifles . '' ^ Jump up to : https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2016/06/a-brief-history-of-the-assault-rifle/489428/ The Atlantic . A Brief History of the Assault Rifle . The gun 's name may have been coined by Adolf Hitler. by MICHAEL SHURKIN . JUN 30 , 2016 ^ Jump up to : `` Machine Carbine Promoted : MP43 Is Now Assault Rifle StG44 , WWII Tactical and Technical Trends , No. 57 , April 1945 '' . Lone Sentry. 2007 - 05 - 10 . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 23 . Jump up ^ Musgave , Daniel D. , and Thomas B. Nelson , The World 's Assault Rifles , vol. II , The Goetz Company , Washington , D.C. ( 1967 ) Jump up ^ Myatt , Major Frederic , Modern Small Arms , Crescent Books , New York ( 1978 ) : 169 Jump up ^ Hogg , Ivan , and John Weeks , Military Small Arms of the 20th Century , third ed. , Hippocrene Books , New York ( 1977 ) : 159 Jump up ^ Chris Bishop , The Encyclopedia of Weapons of World War II , Sterling Publishing Company , Inc. , 2002 , p. 218 Jump up ^ Military Small Arms of the 20th Century , 7th Edition , Ian V. Hogg , page 243 Jump up ^ Rottman , Gordon . The AK - 47 : Kalashnikov - series assault rifles . Osprey Publishing . p. 9 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84908 - 835 - 0 . Jump up ^ `` US Army intelligence document FSTC - CW - 07 - 03 - 70 , November 1970 '' . Gunfax.com . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 26 . Jump up ^ Jane 's Gun Recognition Guide . Ian Hogg & Terry Gander . HarperCollins Publishers . 2005 . page 330 ^ Jump up to : http://pogoarchives.org/labyrinth/09/02.pdf M16 Rifle Case Study . Prepared for the Presidents Blue Ribbon Defense Panel . March 16 , 1970 . By Richard R. Hallock , Colonel U.S. Army ( Retired ) ^ Jump up to : Military Small Arms Of The 20th Century , 7th Edition , 2000 by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks , p. 243 ^ Jump up to : Major Thomas P. Ehrhart Increasing Small Arms Lethality in Afghanistan : Taking Back the Infantry Half - Kilometer . US Army . 2009 ^ Jump up to : http://pogoarchives.org/labyrinth/09/02.pdf M16 Rifle Case Study . Prepared for the President 's Blue Ribbon Defense Panel . March 16 , 1970 . By Richard R. Hallock , Colonel U.S. Army ( Retired ) Jump up ^ Military Small Arms of the 20th Century . 7th Edition . Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks . Krause Publications . 2000 . page 242 -- 243 ^ Jump up to : Weapon Of Mass Destruction . Washingtonpost.com . Retrieved on 2011 - 11 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` AK - 47 Inventor Does n't Lose Sleep Over Havoc Wrought With His Invention '' . USA : FoxNews.com. 6 July 2007 . OCLC 36334372 . Retrieved 3 April 2010 . It was before he started designing the gun that he slept badly , worried about the superior weapons that Nazi soldiers were using with grisly effectiveness against the Red Army in World War II . He saw them at close range himself , while fighting on the front lines . While hospitalized with wounds after a Nazi shell hit his tank in the 1941 battle of Bryansk , Kalashnikov decided to design an automatic rifle combining the best features of the American M1 and the German StG44 . `` Blame the Nazi Germans for making me become a gun designer , '' said Kalashnikov , frail but sharp at age 87 . `` I always wanted to construct agriculture machinery . Jump up ^ `` Born in November 1919 -- one of 18 children , of whom only six survived -- Mikhail Kalashnikov was a Soviet T - 38 tank commander in 1941 , wounded in the shoulder and back when a German shell smashed part of the tank 's armor into his body . `` I was in the hospital , and a soldier in the bed beside me asked : ' Why do our soldiers have only one rifle for two or three of our men , when the Germans have automatics ? ' So I designed one . I was a soldier , and I created a machine gun for a soldier . It was called an Avtomat Kalashnikova , the automatic weapon of Kalashnikov -- AK -- and it carried the date of its first manufacture , 1947 . '' An interview with Mikhail Kalashnikov , Robert Fisk , The Independent ( centrist ) , London , England . April 22 , 2001 . ^ Jump up to : http://armedforcesmuseum.com/ak-47-assault-rifle/ Armed Forces History Museum , AK - 47 assault rifle Jump up ^ Chapter 1 . Symbol of violence , war and culture Archived June 16 , 2012 , at the Wayback Machine ... oneworld-publications.com ^ Jump up to : http://pogoarchives.org/labyrinth/09/02.pdf M16 Rifle Case Study . Prepared for the President 's Blue Ribbon Defense Panel . March 16 , 1970 . By Richard R. Hallock , Colonel U.S. Army ( Retired ) `` Used in quantity against the Soviets at Stalingrad , the German Sturmgewehr made a deep impression on the Russians . They copied the ballistics of the cartridge while improving the configuration and improving the weapon . They standardized the weapon in 1947 as the AK - 47 rifle . '' ^ Jump up to : http://english.pravda.ru/history/02-08-2003/3461-kalashnikov-0/ `` The history of the world - known gun started on July 15th , 1943 , when a captured complex -- an MP - 43 gun and a cartridge -- were demonstrated at a meeting of the arms committee . Chief designer Nikolay Elizarov and chief engineer Pavel Ryazanov created the Soviet `` interim cartridge '' within a very short period of time . The technological support was provided by Boris Syomin . After that , scientists started working on a new fire arms system for that cartridge . '' The History of Kalashnikov Gun . Pravda . 02.08. 2003 Jump up ^ `` Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941 . Kalashnikov , by then a sergeant , was injured within months when a shell stopped his T - 34 tank and sent shrapnel through his shoulder . As Soviet history tells it , while Sgt . Kalashnikov recuperated , he began tinkering with infantry weapons , eventually setting his mind on designing a lightweight automatic assault rifle that would expel the better - armed Nazis from Russian soil . Soviet infantry fought World War II with two basic small arms : one was the badly outdated Mosin -- Nagant Model 1891 bolt - action rifle . The other was the PPSh series of submachine guns , reliable arms that were effective but only at short range . Something better was needed , and that something was in the hands of the Nazi Wehrmacht . It was called the MP44 Sturmgewehr ( assault rifle ) , and it could fire in full or semiautomatic mode . Chambered for a revolutionary new cartridge , a short 7.92 mm round that was less powerful than a full - size rifle cartridge , yet far more powerful than the pistol cartridges for which submachine guns were chambered , the Sturmgewehr made a deep impression on the Soviets who faced it . '' The Father of 100 Million Rifles Mikhail Kalashnikov was a poor russian farm boy who happened to be a mechanical genius , and for better or for worse , the rifle he designed has changed history . Article by C.J. Chivers . Uploaded on February 28 , 2006 Jump up ^ History of AK - 47 Gun -- The Gun Book Review . Popular Mechanics ( 2010 - 10 - 12 ) . Retrieved on 2012 - 02 - 09 . ^ Jump up to : http://www.virginia1774.org/DIA-ST-HB-07-03-74.pdf Small Arms Identification and Operations Guide - Eurasain Communist Countries . by Harold E. Johnson . September 1973 . U.S. Army Foreign Science and Technology Center of the U.S. Army Materiel Command . Jump up ^ https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/oct/10/russia.nickpatonwalsh Interview with AK - 47 rifle inventor Mikhail Kalashnikov . ' I sleep soundly ' Shamed by his parents ' exile , he was determined to do his bit for the Soviet cause . And so Mikhail Kalashnikov invented what was to become the world 's most prolific killing machine . Nick Paton Walsh tracks down the 83 - year - old at his tranquil lakeside . by Nick Paton Walsh . The Guardian , Thursday 9 October 2003 Jump up ^ Interview with AK - 47 rifle inventor Mikhail Kalashnikov . Russia celebrates Mikhail Kalashnikov 's 90th birthday -- the designer who armed the world . This online supplement is produced and published by Rossiyskaya Gazeta ( Russia ) , which takes sole responsibility for the content . ^ Jump up to : Killicoat , Phillip ( April 2007 ) . `` Weaponomics : The Global Market for Assault Rifles '' ( PDF ) . World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 4202 ( Post-Conflict Transitions Working Paper No. 10 ) . Oxford University . Retrieved 3 April 2010 . Jump up ^ Rose , Alexander ( 2009 ) . American Rifle : A Biography . Delta . pp. 403 -- 405 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 553 - 38438 - 3 . Jump up ^ Machine Carbine Promoted , M.P. 43 Is Now `` Assault Rifle 44 '' , Tactical and Technical Trends , No. 57 , April 1945 , U.S. Military Intelligence Service , U.S. War Department publication Jump up ^ The M16 . By Gordon Rottman . Osprey Publishing , 2011 . page 6 Jump up ^ http://www.nramuseum.com/media/940585/m14.pdf CUT DOWN in its Youth , Arguably Americas Best Service Rifle , the M14 Never Had the Chance to Prove Itself . By Philip Schreier , SSUSA , September 2001 , p 24 - 29 & 46 Jump up ^ Gordon Rottman ( 2011 ) . The M16 . Osprey Publishing . p. 6 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84908 - 690 - 5 . Jump up ^ Leroy Thompson ( 2011 ) . The M1 Carbine . Osprey Publishing . p. 35 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84908 - 907 - 4 . Jump up ^ Arms of the Chosin Few . Americanrifleman.org . Retrieved on 2011 - 11 - 23 . Jump up ^ Donald L. Hall An effectiveness study of the infantry rifle ( PDF ) . Report No. 593 . Ballistic Research Laboratories . Maryland . March 1952 ( released March 29 , 1973 ) Jump up ^ Fanaticism And Conflict In The Modern Age , by Matthew Hughes & Gaynor Johnson , Frank Cass & Co , 2005 Jump up ^ `` South to the Naktong -- North to the Yalu '' . History.army.mil . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 23 . Jump up ^ HyperWar : The Big ' L ' - American Logistics in World War II . Ibiblio.org . Retrieved on 2011 - 12 - 24 . Jump up ^ The Logistics of Invasion Archived 2015 - 06 - 22 at the Wayback Machine ... Almc.army.mil . Retrieved on 2011 - 11 - 23 . ^ Jump up to : Col. E.H. Harrison ( NRA Technical Staff ) New Service Rifle Archived 2015 - 11 - 07 at the Wayback Machine . ( PDF ) . June 1957 Jump up ^ Anthony G Williams Assault Rifles And Their Ammunition : History and Prospects Archived June 2 , 2014 , at the Wayback Machine ... Quarry.nildram.co.uk ( revised 3 February 2012 ) . Retrieved on 2011 - 11 - 23 . ^ Jump up to : http://www.smallarmsreview.com/display.article.cfm?idarticles=2434 Small Arms Review , M14 VS . M16 IN VIETNAM , By Robert Bruce Jump up ^ Jane 's International Defense Review . Volume 36 . Jane 's Information Group , 2003 . Page 43 . `` The M14 is basically an improved M1 with a modified gas system and detachable 20 - round magazine . '' Jump up ^ M14 7.62 mm Rifle . Globalsecurity.org ( 1945 - 09 - 20 ) . Retrieved on 2011 - 11 - 23 . Jump up ^ Jane 's Guns Recognition Guide . Ian Hogg & Terry Gander . HarperCollins Publishers . 2005 page 275 Jump up ^ Bishop , Chris . Guns in Combat . Chartwell Books , Inc. ( 1998 ) . ISBN 0 - 7858 - 0844 - 2 . Jump up ^ Woźniak , Ryszard : Encyklopedia najnowszej broni palnej -- tom 2 G - Ł , page 7 . Bellona , 2001 . Jump up ^ Jane 's Guns Recognition Guide . Ian Hogg & Terry Gander . HarperCollins Publishers . 2005 page 288 Jump up ^ Lee Emerson M14 Rifle History and Development . October 10 , 2006 Jump up ^ Green Beret in Vietnam : 1957 -- 73 . Gordon Rottman . Osprey Publishing , 2002 . p. 41 Jump up ^ Hutton , Robert ( ed . ) , The . 223 , Guns & Ammo Annual Edition , 1971 . ^ Jump up to : Danford Allan Kern The influence of organizational culture on the acquisition of the m16 rifle . m-14parts.com . A thesis presented to the Faculty of the US Army Command and General Staff College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree MASTER OF MILITARY ART AND SCIENCE , Military History . Fort Leavenworth , Kansas 2006 ^ Jump up to : Peter G. Kokalis Retro AR - 15 . nodakspud.com Jump up ^ Ezell , Edward Clinton ( 1983 ) . Small Arms of the World . New York : Stackpole Books . pp. 46 -- 47 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 88029 - 601 - 4 . Jump up ^ https://looserounds.com/2015/01/30/the-m14-not-much-for-fighting-a-case-against-the-m14-legend/ The M14 not much for fighting ( A case against the M14 legend ) ^ Jump up to : Report of the M16 rifle review panel . Department of the Army . dtic.mil. 1 June 1968 Jump up ^ GX . The Guard Experience . The Pride of the Guard . by Major Darrin Haas . Volume 10 . Issue 3 . 2013 . Page 67 . `` Nicknamed a ' Mattel toy ' because of its small caliber and lightweight design , the M16 became the standard service rifle for U.S. forces in vietnam in 1967 . The weapon was much lighter compared to the M14 it replaced , ultimately allowing Soldiers to carry more ammunition . The air - cooled , gas - operated , magazine - fed assault rifle was made of steel , aluminum alloy and composite plastics , truly cutting - edge for the time . Designed with full and semi-automatic capabilities , the weapon initially did not respond well to wet and dirty conditions , sometimes even jamming in combat . After a few minor modifications , the weapon gained in popularity among troops on the battlefield . Still in service today , the M16 is being phased out by the M4 carbine . Jump up ^ Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Research , Development , Acquisition ( 1 June 1968 ) , Report of the M16 Review Panel ( PDF ) , M16 Surveys in the Republic of Vietnam , Washington DC : Department of the Army Jump up ^ Small Arms . By Martin J. Dougherty . The Rosen Publishing Group , Dec 15 , 2012 . page 26 ^ Jump up to : Per G. Arvidsson Weapons & Sensors . NATO Army Armaments Group Jump up ^ http://www.vsms.org/Forum/Seite_69_tactical_stuff/120500_Sights_Accessories_Compendium.pdf Compendium Special Operations by Armada . Assault Rifles . by Paolo Valpolini 2 / 2012 `` Among western armies the M4 with its 356 - mm - long barrel remains the benchmark type , although reports from the field have shown some criticism regarding its reliability in sand and dusty environments due to the direct impingement or ' gas - tube ' system that tends to bring carbon blow - back into the chamber , while hot gases used to cycle the weapon generate heat problems . '' Jump up ^ `` Colt literature notes that the fourth generation of the M16 `` still represents the world standard by which all other weapons of this class are judged . Its combat - proven performance is verified by the fact that over eight million M16 weapon systems have been produced and placed in military service throughout the world . '' Soldier Armed . M16A4 Rifle . By Scott R. Gourley . Army Magazine . July 2008 page 75 . ^ Jump up to : Assault Rifles and Their Ammunition : History and Prospects by Anthony G. Williams Archived 2014 - 06 - 02 at the Wayback Machine . ^ Jump up to : `` An Improved Battlesight Zero for the M4 Carbine and M16A2 Rifle '' . Retrieved 2007 - 09 - 11 . ^ Jump up to : `` TM 9 - 1005 - 319 - 10 ( 2010 ) -- Operator 's Manual for Rifle , 5.56 MM , M16A2 / M16A3 / M4 ( Battlesight Zero pages 48 -- 55 ) '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved 2014 - 06 - 03 . Jump up ^ Military Small Arms of the 20th Century . 7th Edition . by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks . Krause Publications 2000 . pages 235 , 258 , 274 , 278 Jump up ^ LEGION Ltd. -- the producer of high quality firearms with period artistic treatment ( threading , engraving , incrustation ) and improved finishing . izhmash.ru Jump up ^ http://www.militaryfactory.com/smallarms/detail.asp?smallarms_id=256 The Kalashnikov AK - 101 is an export assault rifle in operational service withat least nine nations worldwide Jump up ^ Military Small Arms of the 20th Century . 7th Edition . by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks . Krause Publications 2000 . pages 233 , 257 , 266 , 296 Jump up ^ Arsenal AR - M1 5.56 mm assault rifle Archived June 18 , 2014 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` AK - 74 Assault Rifle - Military-Today.com '' . Jump up ^ Tactical Life . Bulgarian AK - 74 5.45 x39mm . The AK - 74 signified the Soviets ' response to the West 's M16 . By Michael Humphreis October 15 , 2013 Jump up ^ Gun Digest Shooter 's Guide to AKs . by Marco Vorobiev . F + W Media , Inc . Jun 15 , 2016 . page 107 Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20110629045720/http://www.izhmash.ru/eng/arc/021205.shtml `` AK - 74 -- Kalashnikov assault rifle , caliber 5.45 mm . In 1967 , pursuant to the Resolution of the CPSU Central Committee and the USSR Council of Ministers , a competition was organized to design an assault rifle fit to use the new 5.45 × 39mm cartridge . The AK - 74 was designed by А . D. Kryakushin 's group under the designer supervision of M.T. Kalashnikov . Based on the competition results , this assault rifle was included in the inventory in 1974 as part of the 5.45 × 39mm small arms complex . The cartridge used in the AK - 74 weighs 1.5 times less as compared with the 7.62 - mm cartridge . The soldier can carry 1.5 times more cartridges without increasing the weight of the portable reserve ammunition . In addition , the bullet speed of the 5.45 - mm caliber is higher . '' Jump up ^ Military Small Arms of the 20th Century . 7th Edition . by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks . Krause Publications 2000 . page 271 Jump up ^ Dockery , Kevin ( 2007 ) . Future Weapons . p. 70 . ISBN 0 - 425 - 21750 - 7 . Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20110629045720/http://www.izhmash.ru/eng/arc/021205.shtml `` AK - 74 -- Kalashnikov assault rifle , caliber 5.45 mm . In 1967 , pursuant to the Resolution of the CPSU Central Committee and the USSR Council of Ministers , a competition was organized to design an assault rifle fit to use the new 5.45 - mm cartridge . The AK - 74 was designed by А . D. Kryakushin 's group under the designer supervision of M.T. Kalashnikov . Based on the competition results , this assault rifle was included in the inventory in 1974 as part of the 5.45 - mm small arms complex . The cartridge used in the AK - 74 weighs 1.5 times less as compared with the 7.62 - mm cartridge . The soldier can carry 1.5 times more cartridges without increasing the weight of the portable reserve ammunition . In addition , the bullet speed of the 5.45 - mm caliber is higher . '' ^ Jump up to : Military Small Arms Of The 20th Century , 7th Edition , 2000 by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks , p. 271 Jump up ^ The AK - 47 : Kalashnikov - series assault rifles . by Gordon L Rottman . Osprey Publishing , Jan 1 , 2012 . page 32 Jump up ^ Mark Urban , War in Afghanistan , p. 133 , Springer , 27 Jul 2016 ^ Jump up to : `` Modern Firearms - HK G36 '' . World.guns.ru . Retrieved 2012 - 12 - 15 . Jump up ^ Woźniak , Ryszard . Encyklopedia najnowszej broni palnej -- tom 2 G - Ł . Bellona. 2001 . pp17 - 21 . Jump up ^ US5513461A - Light - weight automatic rifle . Google.com . Retrieved 2015 - 7 - 15 . Jump up ^ Woźniak , Ryszard . Encyklopedia najnowszej broni palnej -- tom 2 G - Ł . Bellona. 2001 . pp17 - 21 . ^ Jump up to : Military Small Arms Of The 20th Century , 7th Edition , 2000 by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks , p. 166 Jump up ^ Military Small Arms of the 20th Century . 7th Edition . by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks . Krause Publications . 2000 . pages 125 & 166 -- 167 . Jump up ^ Blake , Aaron ( January 17 , 2013 ) . `` Is It Fair to Call Them ' Assault Weapons ' ? '' . The Fix ( blog ) . The Washington Post . Retrieved August 9 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Koerner , Brendan ( September 16 , 2004 ) . `` What Is an Assault Weapon ? At last , you can get a semiautomatic rifle with a bayonet '' . Slate . Retrieved January 26 , 2013 . Further reading ( edit ) Crawford , S. ( 2003 ) . Twenty - First Century Small Arms . MBI Publishing Company . ISBN 0 - 7603 - 1503 - 5 . Cutshaw , C. ( 2006 ) . Tactical Small Arms of the 21st Century . Gun Digest Books . ISBN 0 - 87349 - 914 - X . Halls , Chris ( 1974 ) . Guns in Australia . Sydney : Paul Hamlyn . ISBN 0 - 600 - 07291 - 6 . Lewis , J. ( 2004 ) . Assault Weapons : An In - Depth Look at the Hottest Weapons Around . Krause Publications . ISBN 0 - 87349 - 658 - 2 . Popenker , M. , et al. ( 2004 ) . Assault Rifle : The Development of the Modern Military Rifle and Its Ammunition . Wiltshire : The Crowood Press Ltd . ISBN 1 - 86126 - 700 - 2 . Senich , P. ( 1987 ) . German Assault Rifle : 1935 -- 1945 . Paladin Press . ISBN 0 - 87364 - 400 - X . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Assault rifles . Assault Rifles and their Ammunition : History and Prospects Infantry Magazine on Assault Rifle Cartridges Pre Sturmgewehr Assault Rifles GND : 4332443 - 5 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Assault_rifle&oldid=838056154 '' Categories : Assault rifles German inventions Personal weapons Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Asturianu Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца ) ‎ Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Қазақша Кыргызча Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Winaray 中文 41 more Edit links This page was last edited on 24 April 2018 , at 17 : 09 . 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who sang step by step in the 80s

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=List_of_Hi-NRG_artists_and_songs&oldid=817175700

List of Hi - NRG artists and Songs - wikipedia List of Hi - NRG artists and Songs Jump to : navigation , search Hi - NRG is uptempo disco or electronic dance music usually featuring synthetic bassline octaves . This list contains some examples of Hi - NRG artists and songs . Songs by non-Hi NRG artists are included too . Contents Artists Songs ( 1970s Early 1980s Mid to late 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s ) Albums References Songs ( edit ) 1970s ( edit ) Year Artist Origin Song Label 1977 Donna Summer `` I Feel Love '' Casablanca / GTO 1978 Peter Jacques band `` Fly With the Wind '' Ariola 1978 Sylvester `` You Make Me Feel ( Mighty Real ) '' Fantasy Early 1980s ( edit ) Year Artist Origin Song Label 1980 Donna Summer `` Sunset People '' Casablanca 1981 Boys Town Gang `` Remember Me / Ai n't No Mountain High Enough '' Moby Dick 1981 Patrick Cowley `` Get a Little '' Megatone 1981 Patrick Cowley `` Megatron Man '' Megatone 1981 Patrick Cowley `` Menergy '' Fusion 1981 Carol Jiani `` Hit ' N Run Lover '' Matra 1982 Claudja Barry `` Work Me Over '' Jupiter 1982 Patrick Cowley `` Goin ' Home '' Megatone 1982 Divine `` Native Love ( Step By Step ) '' `` O '' 1982 The Flirts `` Passion '' `` O '' 1982 Roni Griffith `` Spys '' Vanguard 1982 Lime `` Babe , We 're Gonna Love Tonight '' Mantra 1982 Paul Parker `` Right on Target '' Megatone 1982 Q - Feel `` Dancing in Heaven ( Orbital Be-Bop ) '' Jive 1982 Donna Summer `` I Feel Love '' ( Patrick Cowley Remix ) Casablanca 1982 Sylvester `` Do Ya Wanna Funk '' London ( UK ) 1982 The Weather Girls `` It 's Raining Men '' CBS ( UK ) 1982 Viola Wills `` Stormy Weather '' Sunergy Claudja Barry `` For Your Love '' Personal Miquel Brown `` So Many Men , So Little Time '' Record Shack Dead or Alive `` Misty Circles '' ( Dance Mix ) Epic Hazell Dean `` Searchin ' ( I Gotta Find a Man ) '' Proto Divine `` Shoot Your Shot '' `` O '' Frankie Goes to Hollywood `` Relax '' ZTT New Order `` Blue Monday '' Factory William Onyeabor `` Good Name '' Wilfilms Sylvester `` Do n't Stop '' London 1984 Agents Are n't Aeroplanes `` The Upstroke '' Proto ( UK ) 1984 Bronski Beat `` Smalltown Boy '' London 1984 Bronski Beat `` Why ? '' London 1984 Dead or Alive `` You Spin Me Round ( Like a Record ) '' Epic 1984 Hazell Dean `` Whatever I Do ( Wherever I Go ) '' Proto ( UK ) 1984 Divine `` You Think You 're a Man '' Proto 1984 Fancy `` Get Lost Tonight '' Metronome 1984 Fancy `` Slice Me Nice '' Metronome 1984 The Flirts `` Helpless ( You Took My Love ) '' Telefon 1984 Frankie Goes to Hollywood `` Two Tribes '' ZTT 1984 Fun Fun `` Colour My Love '' X-Energy 1984 Fun Fun `` Give Me Your Love '' X-Energy 1984 Freddie Mercury `` Love Kills '' Columbia 1984 Sylvester `` Rock the Box '' Megatone 1984 Evelyn Thomas `` High Energy '' Record Shack ( UK ) 1984 Kim Wilde `` The Second Time '' MCA Mid to late 1980s ( edit ) Year Artist Origin Song Label 1985 Bronski Beat `` Hit That Perfect Beat '' London 1985 Bronski Beat `` Run From Love '' / `` Hard Rain '' London 1985 Bronski Beat and Marc Almond `` I Feel Love '' London 1985 Divine `` Walk Like a Man '' Proto 1985 Madleen Kane `` I 'm No Angel '' TSR 1985 Madleen Kane `` On Fire '' TSR 1985 Lime `` Unexpected Lovers '' Mantra 1985 Barbara Pennington `` Vertigo '' Record Shack 1985 People Like Us `` Reincarnation ( Coming Back For Love ) '' Passion ( UK ) 1985 Sinitta `` So Macho '' Fanfare ( UK ) 1985 Suzy Q `` Computer Music '' J.C. 1985 Taffy `` I Love My Radio '' Ibiza ( Italy ) / Transglobal ( UK ) 1985 Village People `` Sex Over the Phone '' Casablanca 1985 Betty Wright `` Sinderella '' Jamaica 1986 Bananarama `` Venus '' London 1986 Claudja Barry `` Down and Counting '' Epic 1986 The Communards `` Do n't Leave Me This Way '' London 1986 Dead or Alive `` Something In My House '' Epic 1986 Man 2 Man and Man Parrish `` Male Stripper '' Bolts 1986 Stacey Q `` Two of Hearts '' Atlantic 1986 Evelyn Thomas `` How Many Hearts '' Record Shack 1986 Kim Wilde `` You Keep Me Hangin ' On '' MCA Bona - Riah `` House of the Rising Sun '' Rise The Communards `` Never Can Say Goodbye '' London Paul Lekakis `` Boom Boom ( Let 's Go Back to My Room ) '' ZYX / Polydor New Baccara `` Call Me Up '' Bellaphon Pet Shop Boys `` Always on My Mind '' Parlophone Taffy `` Step by Step '' Transglobal Kylie Minogue `` I Should Be So Lucky '' PWL 1988 Erasure `` Knocking on Your Door '' Mute / Sire 1988 Erasure `` Stop ! '' Mute / Sire 1988 Kylie Minogue `` The Loco - Motion '' PWL 1988 New Baccara `` Fantasy Boy '' Bellaphon 1988 Quantize `` The Sun Ai n't Gonna Shine Anymore '' Passion 1989 Boy `` Broken Wings '' Flea 1989 Eartha Kitt and Bronski Beat `` Cha Cha Heels '' Arista 1989 New Baccara `` Touch Me '' Bellaphon 1989 Quantize `` You 've Lost That Lovin ' Feeling '' Passion 1989 Donna Summer `` I Do n't Wanna Get Hurt '' Warner Bros . 1989 Donna Summer `` This Time I Know It 's for Real '' Warner Bros . 1989 Donna Summer `` Whatever Your Heart Desires '' Atlantic / PWL 1990s ( edit ) Year Artist Origin Song Label Quantize `` Stop ! In the Name of Love '' Passion 1991 Pet Shop Boys `` Where the Streets Have No Name ( I Ca n't Take My Eyes off You ) '' Parlophone / EMI 1991 Quantize feat . Adrienne `` Yesterday Once More '' Passion Erasure `` Take a Chance on Me '' Mute 1993 Abigail `` Constant Craving '' ZYX 1993 Abigail `` Losing My Religion '' ZYX 1993 Cappella `` U Got 2 Know '' ZYX 1993 Cappella `` U Got 2 Let the Music '' ZYX 1993 Frankie Goes to Hollywood `` Relax '' ( Jam & Spoon HI N-R-G Remix ) ZTT 1994 Abigail `` Smells Like Teen Spirit '' ZYX 1994 Blur `` Girls & Boys '' ( Pet Shop Boys 12 '' Remix ) ZYX 1994 Cappella `` Move on Baby '' ZYX 1994 Fancy `` Long Way to Paradise '' Koch International 1994 Fancy `` Wait by the Radio '' Koch International 1994 Nicki French `` Total Eclipse of the Heart '' Bags of Fun / Mega 1995 Nicki French `` Did You Ever Really Love Me '' Love This 1995 Nicki French `` For All We Know '' Bags of Fun 1995 Karel `` Live to Tell '' Jellybean 1995 Outta Control `` Tonight It 's Party Time '' Interhit Gina G `` Ooh Aah ... Just a Little Bit '' Eternal Johnna `` Do What You Feel '' PWL International 1997 Miquel Brown `` It 's a Sin '' Infinity 1997 Cappella `` Be My Baby '' ZYX 1997 France Joli `` Breakaway '' Jellybean 1997 Karel `` I Am '' Jellybean 1997 Pet Shop Boys `` Somewhere '' Parlophone / Atlantic 2000s ( edit ) Year Artist Origin Song Label 2000 A Touch of Class ( ATC ) `` Around the World ( La La La La La ) '' King Size 2003 The Knife `` Listen Now '' Rabid Jimmy Somerville `` Come On '' Sony BMG 2006 Moby feat . Debbie Harry `` New York , New York '' Mute 2007 Bloc Party `` Flux '' Wichita 2007 Sophie Ellis - Bextor `` China Heart '' Fascination 2007 Róisín Murphy `` Cry Baby '' EMI 2007 Britney Spears `` Heaven on Earth '' Jive / Zomba 2008 Anastacia `` Heavy Rotation '' Mercury 2008 Donna Summer `` I 'm a Fire '' Burgundy 2009 Bananarama `` Dum Dum Boy '' Fascination 2009 Bananarama `` Love Comes '' Fascination 2009 Silver Columns `` Brow Beaten '' Silver Columns 2010s ( edit ) Year Artist Origin Song Label 2011 Britney Spears `` I Wanna Go '' Jive 2011 Rihanna `` S&M '' Def Jam / SRP 2011 Kim Wilde `` Remember Me '' Columbia SevenOne 2012 Pet Shop Boys `` A Face Like That '' Parlophone 2013 Club 8 `` Stop Taking My Time '' Labrador 2013 Pet Shop Boys `` Axis '' x2 2013 Pet Shop Boys `` Love Is a Bourgeois Construct '' x2 2013 Shit Robot feat . JENR `` Feels Real '' DFA 2014 Todd Terje `` Delorean Dynamite '' Olsen 2015 Belle and Sebastian `` Enter Sylvia Plath '' Matador Albums ( edit ) 1981 : Kim Wilde -- Kim Wilde 1981 : Patrick Cowley -- Megatron Man 1982 : Patrick Cowley -- Mind Warp 1984 : Kim Wilde -- Teases & Dares 1985 : Lime -- Unexpected Lovers 1988 : Dead or Alive -- Nude 1991 : Bananarama -- Pop Life 1995 : Traci Lords -- 1000 Fires 2004 : Bobby Orlando -- I Love Bobby `` O '' ( Volume 1 ) 2007 : Róisín Murphy -- Overpowered 2009 : Bananarama -- Viva 2013 : Patrick Cowley -- School Daze Artists ( edit ) Abigail Bananarama Claudja Barry Biddu Boys Town Gang Bronski Beat Miquel Brown Cappella The Communards Al Corley Corona Patrick Cowley Dead or Alive Hazell Dean Divine Jason Donovan Erasure Fancy The Flirts Frankie Goes to Hollywood Nicki French Fun Fun Eartha Kitt Ian Levine Lime Traci Lords Man 2 Man Kelly Marie Giorgio Moroder Alison Moyet Bobby Orlando Paul Parker Man Parrish People Like Us Pet Shop Boys Real McCoy RuPaul Sinitta Jimmy Somerville Stacey Q Stock Aitken Waterman Donna Summer Suzy Q Sylvester Take That Evelyn Thomas Jeanie Tracy Trans - X Fiachra Trench U.S.U.R.A. Village People The Weather Girls Kim Wilde Viola Wills Tom Wilson References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Butler 2006 , p. 39 . Jump up ^ MacDonald , Ian ( 2003 ) . The People 's Music . Pimlico . p. 151 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 8441 - 3093 - 1 . Donna Summer 's ' I Feel Love ' , a vocal topline ad - libbed over a simple chord - shifted sequence , inaugurated Hi - NRG , anticipating the galloping bass line of much post-House software - sequenced music Jump up ^ Lynskey , Dorian ( 15 October 2004 ) . `` Change the record '' . The Guardian . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Mayer , Michael ( 11 August 2010 ) . `` Five Records : Michael Mayer -- Page 3 of 5 '' . Fact . Retrieved 1 April 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Echols 2010 , p. 146 . Jump up ^ Strong 2002 , p. 359 . ^ Jump up to : Rees & Crampton 1999 , p. 924 . ^ Jump up to : Opperman , Derek ( 18 April 2012 ) . `` The Top 20 Greatest San Francisco Musicians , Nos. 10 - 6 '' . SF Weekly . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Echols 2010 , p. 116 . Jump up ^ Betts 2014 , `` Ai n't No Mountain High Enough -- Diana Ross ( Single ) '' . Jump up ^ Duncan , Chris ( 27 May 2009 ) . `` DJ Chart : Hushpuppy '' . The Skinny . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Marke B ( 22 October 2013 ) . `` Money Shots -- Five Things You Need to Know about Gay Electronic Wizard Patrick Cowley '' . XLR8R . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Flick , Larry ( December 1998 -- January 1999 ) . `` Sylvester '' . Vibe . Vol. 6 no . 7 . p. 208 . ISSN 1070 - 4701 . ^ Jump up to : Needs , Kris . `` Patrick Cowley & Jorge Socarras -- Catholic '' . Record Collector . No. 368 . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Hawkins 1997 . Jump up ^ Birchmeier , Jason . `` Carol Jiani -- Artist Biography '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Henderson , Alex . `` Various Artists -- Music for a Hot Body , Vol. 1 '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Walters , Barry ( 6 July 1999 ) . `` Enter Planet Love '' . The Village Voice . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Divine 's `` Native Love , '' a rowdy hi - NRG anthem previously pillaged by Nitzer Ebb , the Prodigy , even New Order . ^ Jump up to : Burston , Paul ( 2013 ) . `` London Lesbian & Gay Film Festival '' . Time Out . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` 100 Greatest Dance Songs '' . Slant Magazine . 30 January 2006 . Retrieved 25 October 2013 . Jump up ^ Girard , Stephane ( May 2010 ) . `` Optimo -- Fabric 52 '' . Resident Advisor . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Tantum , Bruce ( 14 June 2010 ) . `` Fabric 52 : Optimo '' . Time Out . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ `` 100 Greatest Dance Songs '' . Slant Magazine . 30 January 2006 . Retrieved 25 October 2013 . Jump up ^ Zaleski , Annie ( 16 August 2014 ) . `` The 12 best ' 80s high school movie jams '' . Salon . Retrieved 1 April 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Rauscher , William ( October 2009 ) . `` Patrick Cowley & Jorge Socarras -- Catholic '' . Resident Advisor . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ `` 100 Greatest Dance Songs '' . Slant Magazine . 30 January 2006 . Retrieved 25 October 2013 . Jump up ^ Davis , Sharon . `` Sylvester : Disco Diva '' . Blues & Soul . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Brewster & Broughton 1999 , p. 200 . ^ Jump up to : Perrone , Pierre ( 27 September 2004 ) . `` Izora Rhodes - Armstead '' . The Independent . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Sisario , Ben ( 28 September 2004 ) . `` Izora Armstead , a Singer in the Weather Girls Duo , Dies '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Arena 2013 , p. 37 . Jump up ^ Jones & Kantonen 2000 , p. 239 . Jump up ^ Henderson , Alex . `` Claudja Barry -- No La De Da , Part 2 '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Bush , John . `` Ian Levine -- Artist Biography '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Arena 2013 , p. 72 . ^ Jump up to : Brewster , Bill . `` Gay Pop '' . Djhistory.com . Archived from the original on 5 May 2004 . Jump up ^ `` Angst Music For Sex People : Celebrate 10 Years Of Cosey Club '' . The Quietus. 13 December 2012 . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Arena 2013 , p. 14 . ^ Jump up to : Shaw - Miller 1993 , p. 117 . Jump up ^ Murray , Nick ( 17 September 2014 ) . `` 100 Best Singles of 1984 : Pop 's Greatest Year > 30 -- Frankie Goes to Hollywood , `` Relax '' `` . Rolling Stone . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Reynolds , Simon ( 2009 ) . Rip It Up and Start Again : Postpunk 1978 -- 1984 . New York : Faber & Faber . p. 504 . ISBN 0 - 571 - 21570 - X . ' Relax ' tapped into Hi - NRG 's remorseless , metronomic precision and orgiastic vibe -- the spasming drum roll at the end of the single feels like an amyl nitrite rush . Jump up ^ Reynolds 2011 , p. 265 . Jump up ^ McLean , Callum ( 18 November 2013 ) . `` Release Review : `` Who is William Onyeabor ? '' -- William Onyeabor , Reissue , Out Now `` . ZYX . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Flick , Larry ( 9 March 1996 ) . `` World Wide Message Tribe Spreads ' Rhythm'n'Ministry ' '' . Billboard . Vol. 108 no . 10 . p. 24 . ISSN 0006 - 2510 . ^ Jump up to : O'Brien , Stephen . `` A Brief History of Stock Aitken Waterman '' . Stockaitkenwaterman.itgo.com . Archived from the original on 21 May 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Walters , Barry ( 20 June 2000 ) . `` His beat goes on '' . The Advocate . p. 115 . ISSN 0001 - 8996 . As Bronski Beat 's falsetto leader , Somerville made gay politics a hot pop topic with such hi - NRG dance floor staples as `` Why ? '' and `` Smalltown Boy '' ^ Jump up to : Strong 2002 , p. 242 . Jump up ^ Olsen , Eric ( 15 August 2003 ) . `` Bronski Beat : The Age of Consent '' . Blogcritics . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Barron 2010 , p. 214 . Jump up ^ Reynolds 2011 , p. 416 . Jump up ^ Andrews , Isaac & Nichols 2011 , p. 39 . Jump up ^ Ankeny , Jason . `` Dead or Alive -- Artist Biography '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Knight , Aimee ( 12 May 2014 ) . `` You Think You 're a Man : Why Drag Rocks '' . Rip It Up . Archived from the original on 2 April 2015 . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Reviews > Dance / Disco > Picks > Fancy -- Check It Out '' . Billboard . Vol. 97 no . 25 . 22 June 1985 . p. 67 . ISSN 0006 - 2510 . Jump up ^ Rees , Thomas ( 15 September 2009 ) . `` Sugar & Gold `` Slice Me Nice '' `` . XLR8R . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Reviews > Dance / Disco > Picks > Flirts -- Dancin ' Madly Backwards '' . Billboard . Vol. 97 no . 20 . 18 May 1985 . p. 67 . ISSN 0006 - 2510 . Jump up ^ Lester , Paul . `` Revolutions per minute -- The Power of Love '' . Uncut . ZTT . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Reviews > Dance / Disco > Picks > Fun Fun -- Give Me Your Love '' . Billboard . Vol. 97 no . 21 . 25 May 1985 . p. 75 . ISSN 0006 - 2510 . Jump up ^ Bennun , David ( 10 November 2014 ) . `` Queen album review : Do n't stop them now ... They 're still having such a good time '' . Daily Mail . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Jones & Kantonen 2000 , p. 173 . Jump up ^ `` Pop Profile : Kim Wilde '' . M Magazine . 10 September 2013 . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Robbins , Ira ; Rompers , Terry . `` Bronski Beat '' . Trouser Press . Retrieved 25 October 2013 . Jump up ^ LeRoy , Dan . `` Bronski Beat -- Truthdare Doubledare '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 25 October 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Reviews > Dance > Picks > Bronski Beat -- Hit That Perfect Beat '' . Billboard . Vol. 98 no . 8 . 22 February 1986 . p. 71 . ISSN 0006 - 2510 . Jump up ^ Chin , Brian ( 16 November 1985 ) . `` Dance Trax '' . Billboard . Vol. 97 no . 46 . p. 55 . ISSN 0006 - 2510 . Jump up ^ Eddy , Chuck ( 15 January 2012 ) . `` The 25 Best `` Bad '' Cover Songs -- 9 . Divine `` Walk Like A Man '' ( 1985 ) `` . Complex . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Arena 2013 , p. 121 . ^ Jump up to : Cotler , Amit ( 1 July 2007 ) . `` Offer Nissim '' . Electronic Musician . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Kantor , Justin . `` Barbara Pennington -- Out of the Darkest Night '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` People Like Us : Passion -- PASH 12 46 -- Reincarnation ( Coming Back For Love ) '' . Blues & Soul . No. 438 . 1985 . p. 13 . This band originally hails from Africa so it 's a bit of a surprise to find them performing a commercial slice of Hi - NRG which , compared to other tracks of this ilk , currently doing the rounds , lacks the necessary sparkle . Jump up ^ `` Let he who is without Sinitta ! '' . Western Mail . 29 October 2006 . Retrieved 31 March 2014 . Jump up ^ Smith , Richard ( 1995 ) . Seduced and Abandoned : Essays on Gay Men and Popular Music . London and New York : Cassell . p. 166 . ISBN 0 - 3043 - 3343 - 3 . Jump up ^ Jones , Dylan ( 2012 ) . `` The Village People '' . The Biographical Dictionary of Popular Music . Bedford Square Books . ISBN 978 - 1 - 90912 - 200 - 0 . Jump up ^ Walters , Barry ( 30 March 1999 ) . `` People who love People '' . The Advocate . Here Publishing . p. 90 . ISSN 0001 - 8996 . Jump up ^ `` Reviews > Dance / Disco > Recommended > Betty Wright -- Sinderella '' . Billboard . Vol. 97 no . 8 . 23 February 1985 . p. 67 . ISSN 0006 - 2510 . Jump up ^ Henderson , Alex . `` Stock , Aitken & Waterman -- Artist Biography '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . It was in 1986 that Stock , Aitken & Waterman produced Bananarama 's smash Hi - NRG remake of Shocking Blue 's `` Venus . '' Jump up ^ `` Bananarama : Pop In The First Degree '' . M Magazine . 4 November 2013 . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Henderson , Alex . `` Claudja Barry -- I , Claudja '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Series : 1000 songs everyone must hear -- Part two : Heartbreak '' . The Observer . The Guardian . Retrieved 25 October 2013 . The Communards ' hi - NRG version makes it clear that the song is as concerned with sexual satisfaction as it is with romance ; perhaps more so . Jump up ^ `` Reviews > Dance > Picks > Communards -- Do n't Leave Me This Way '' . Billboard . Vol. 98 no . 38 . 20 September 1986 . p. 73 . ISSN 0006 - 2510 . Jump up ^ Hamilton , John ( 25 October 2012 ) . `` Halloween Playlist : 12 Spooky Songs To Frighten Your Night '' . Idolator . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Moore , John ( 20 November 2008 ) . `` How I nearly made a gay disco anthem '' . The Guardian . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ `` 100 Greatest Dance Songs '' . Slant Magazine . 30 January 2006 . Archived from the original on 27 February 2014 . Jump up ^ Maura ( 2 October 2008 ) . `` Annie Plays Her Trump Card '' . Idolator . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Chin , Brian ( 23 August 1986 ) . `` Dance Trax '' . Billboard . Vol. 98 no . 34 . p. 45 . ISSN 0006 - 2510 . Jump up ^ Mason , Stewart . `` Kim Wilde -- Another Step '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ `` I Survived The ' 80s '' . The Music . 18 May 2013 . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Watson , Graeme ( 12 September 2013 ) . `` Kim Wilde Talks Pop , Parenthood and PVC '' . OutInPerth . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Betts 2014 , `` Never Can Say Goodbye -- The Jackson 5 ( Single ) '' . Jump up ^ Eddy , Chuck . `` Hits You Never Heard Of , Part 6 '' . Rhapsody . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Watson , Graeme ( 5 June 2012 ) . `` Paul Lekakis 25 Years Since ' Boom Boom ' '' . OutInPerth . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Hanson , Amy . `` Baccara -- Artist Biography '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Price , Simon ( 2 July 2006 ) . `` Pet Shop Boys , Tower Of London , London / Pharrell Williams , Hyde Park , London '' . The Independent . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ McAleer 1990 , p. 176 . Jump up ^ Lim , Dennis ( 26 February 2002 ) . `` Your Disco Needs Her '' . The Village Voice . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Robbins , Ira ; Augusto , Troy J. `` Erasure '' . Trouser Press . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Ruhlmann , William . `` Erasure -- Crackers International '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Martínez , Diego ( 26 January 2012 ) . `` Kylie : 25 Years On '' . The WILD Magazine . Archived from the original on 4 April 2015 . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Swash , Rosie ( 26 December 2008 ) . `` Eartha Kitt 's finest moments on YouTube '' . The Guardian . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Henderson , Alex. `` Donna Summer -- Another Place and Time '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Sheffield , Rob ( 17 May 2012 ) . `` Dim All the Lights for Donna Summer '' . Rolling Stone . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Soto , Alfred ( 18 May 2012 ) . `` Donna Summer : Extraordinary girl '' . Resident Advisor . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Robbins , Ira . `` Pet Shop Boys '' . Trouser Press . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ `` The boys are back in town '' . The Scotsman. 22 December 2006 . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Oliver , Nic ( 23 February 2009 ) . `` Erasure -- Total Pop ! The First 40 Hits '' . musicOMH . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Lee , Darren ( 27 February 2009 ) . `` Erasure -- Total Pop ! Erasure 's First 40 Hits '' . The Quietus . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Flick , Larry ( 18 May 1996 ) . `` Brutally Honest Ngedéocello Says A Mouthful '' . Billboard . Vol. 108 no . 20 . p. 26 . ISSN 0006 - 2510 . Jump up ^ Reighley , Kurt B. `` Percentages '' . 10 Percent . No . March -- April 1995 . Browning Grace Communications . p. 104 . a version of R.E.M. 's `` Losing My Religion '' that infuses the soul that Abigail 's 1992 Hi - NRG version lacked . ^ Jump up to : Bush , John . `` Cappella -- U Got 2 Know '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Rees & Crampton 1999 , p. 386 . Jump up ^ Bush , John . `` Abigail -- Smells Like Teen Spirit '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Hammond , Didz ( 31 July 2012 ) . `` Blur -- Parklife ( ' 21 ' reissue ) '' . Drowned in Sound . Retrieved 2 April 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Ankeny , Jason . `` Fancy -- The Hits 1984 - 1994 '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Collar , Matt . `` Nicki French -- Artist Biography '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Walters , Barry ( 7 January 2003 ) . `` 999 Luftballons '' . The Village Voice . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Bush , John . `` Nicki French -- Did You Ever Really Love Me '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Flick , Larry ( 5 August 1995 ) . `` Single Reviews > Dance > Karel -- Live To Tell '' . Billboard . Vol. 107 no . 31 . p. 73 . ISSN 0006 - 2510 . Jump up ^ Flick , Larry ( 8 July 1995 ) . `` Single Reviews > Dance > Outta Control -- Tonight It 's Party Time '' . Billboard . Vol. 107 no . 27 . p. 65 . ISSN 0006 - 2510 . Jump up ^ Flick , Larry ( 19 October 1996 ) . `` Reviews & Previews > New & Noteworthy > Gina G. -- Ooh , Aah ... Just A Little Bit '' . Billboard . Vol. 108 no . 42 . p. 62 . ISSN 0006 - 2510 . Jump up ^ Clements , Paul ( 10 May 2014 ) . `` Eurovision : the best losers , from Gina G to Baccara '' . The Daily Telegraph . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Flick , Larry ( 13 January 1996 ) . `` Three Nervous Records ; Nuyorican Soul Seepage '' . Billboard . Vol. 108 no . 2 . p. 22 . ISSN 0006 - 2510 . ^ Jump up to : Arena 2013 , p. 74 . Jump up ^ Flick , Larry ( 20 September 1997 ) . `` Burrus Branches Out With Hot Single , Set On The Way '' . Billboard . Vol. 109 no . 38 . p. 31 . ISSN 0006 - 2510 . Jump up ^ Flick , Larry ( 4 October 1997 ) . `` Reviews & Previews > Pop > France Joli -- Breakaway '' . Billboard . Vol. 109 no . 40 . p. 90 . ISSN 0006 - 2510 . Jump up ^ Flick , Larry ( 26 April 1997 ) . `` Mary J. Blige Shares Her Soulful , Praiseworthy World '' . Billboard . Vol. 109 no . 17 . p. 35 . ISSN 0006 - 2510 . Jump up ^ Dean , Will ( 19 June 2013 ) . `` Music review : Pet Shop Boys bring cornucopia of hits to London 's O2 Arena '' . The Independent . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Henderson , Alex . `` ATC -- Planet Pop '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 2 April 2015 . Jump up ^ Pytlik , Pytlik , Mark ( 4 December 2006 ) . `` The Knife : The Knife '' . Pitchfork . Retrieved 2 April 2015 . Jump up ^ Love , Josh ( 8 December 2004 ) . `` The Knife -- Deep Cuts '' . Stylus Magazine . Archived from the original on 2 April 2015 . Jump up ^ Mason , Stewart . `` Jimmy Somerville -- Home Again '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Mathieson , Craig ( 14 December 2006 ) . `` Go -- The Very Best of Moby '' . The Age . Retrieved 2 April 2015 . Jump up ^ Davis , Ben ( 19 November 2007 ) . `` Bloc Party -- Flux Single Review '' . Contactmusic.com . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Empire , Kitty ( 20 May 2007 ) . `` Average grades for pop 's head girl '' . The Guardian . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Haider , Arwa ( 21 May 2007 ) . `` Sophie Ellis - Bextor : Trip The Light Fantastic '' . Metro . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Lewis , Darren . `` Live : 02 Wirless Festival Special : Hyde Park ( London ) Part one -- Fri 3rd July 2008 '' . Blues & Soul . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Day , Elizabeth ( 7 October 2007 ) . `` Can anyone save the little girl lost ? '' . The Observer . The Guardian . Retrieved 2 April 2015 . ' Heaven On Earth ' , crafted by ' Gimme More ' producer Danja , is a hi - NRG Moroder-esque dance track whose lyrics veer more into the territory of generic love song fluff Jump up ^ McNulty , Bernadette ( 27 October 2007 ) . `` Pop CDs '' . The Daily Telegraph . Retrieved 2 April 2015 . Jump up ^ O'Brien , Jon . `` Anastacia -- Heavy Rotation '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Costa , Maddy ( 24 October 2008 ) . `` Rock & pop review : Anastacia : Heavy Rotation '' . The Guardian . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Ratliff , Ben ( 19 May 2008 ) . `` Critics ' Choice -- New CDs '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Levine , Nick ( 20 September 2009 ) . `` Bananarama : ' Viva ' '' . Digital Spy . Retrieved 2 April 2015 . Jump up ^ Boyd , Brian ( 25 September 2009 ) . `` Rock / Pop '' . The Irish Times . Retrieved 2 April 2015 . Jump up ^ Cragg , Michael ( 14 September 2009 ) . `` Bananarama -- Viva '' . musicOMH . Retrieved 2 April 2015 . Jump up ^ Freeman , John ( 20 May 2010 ) . `` Silver Columns -- Yes And Dance '' . Clash . No. 50 . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Empire , Kitty ( 28 March 2011 ) . `` Britney Spears Britney Spears : Femme Fatale -- review '' . The Observer . The Guardian . Retrieved 26 October 2013 . `` I Wanna Go '' is all hi - NRG booty calling , with a possible reference to New Order 's `` Blue Monday '' thrown in . Jump up ^ Mackay , Emily ( 3 November 2010 ) . `` Rihanna , ' Loud ' -- Album First Listen '' . NME . Retrieved 4 April 2015 . Jump up ^ O'Brien , Jon . `` Kim Wilde -- Snapshots '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ McNaughton , Mac ( 5 October 2012 ) . `` Pet Shop Boys -- Elysium '' . The Music . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ James , Matt ( 21 May 2013 ) . `` Club 8 : Above the City '' . PopMatters . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . `` Stop Taking My Time '' is a Hi - NRG disco romp à la Nordic neighbour Annie Strand and features , amusingly , a rapping infant . Jump up ^ Green , Thomas H. ( 14 May 2013 ) . `` CD : Club 8 -- Above The City '' . The Arts Desk . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Haider , Arwa ( 5 July 2013 ) . `` Pet Shop Boys : We left major label Parlophone and now we 're in control of our destiny '' . Metro . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Lee , Darren ( 25 June 2013 ) . `` LIVE REPORT : Pet Shop Boys '' . The Quietus . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Album review : Pet Shop Boys , Electric '' . The Scotsman. 14 July 2013 . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Walters , Barry . `` SPIN 's 20 Best Pop Albums of 2013 : 16 -- Pet Shop Boys , Electric ( x2 ) '' . Spin . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Macdonald , Kit ( 23 May 2013 ) . `` Shit Robot feat JENR -- Feels Real '' . Resident Advisor . Retrieved 2 April 2015 . Jump up ^ Burnip , Jonathan ( 28 May 2013 ) . `` Feels Real : Shit Robot '' . DJ Magazine . No. 522 . Retrieved 2 April 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Todd Terje -- Delorean Dynamite '' . DummyMag. 10 February 2014 . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Ritchie , Kevin ( 14 January 2015 ) . `` Belle and Sebastian -- Girls In Peacetime Want To Dance '' . Now . Retrieved 2 April 2015 . Jump up ^ Stone , Doug . `` Kim Wilde -- Kim Wilde '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Mason , Stewart . `` Kim Wilde -- Teases & Dares '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Henderson , Alex . `` Lime -- Unexpected Lovers '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Green , Jim ; Robbins , Ira . `` Dead or Alive '' . Trouser Press . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Mason , Stewart . `` Bananarama -- Pop Life '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Bush , John . `` Juno Reactor -- Artist Biography '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ McGuirk , Mike . `` 1000 Fires by Traci Lords '' . Rhapsody . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Gill , Michael F. ( 24 December 2004 ) . `` Bobby Orlando -- I Love Bobby `` O '' ( Volume 1 ) `` . Stylus Magazine . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Mackay , Emily . `` Róisín Murphy -- London Camden Koko -- 27th November , 2007 '' . Record Collector . No. 346 . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Haider , Arwa ( 17 December 2007 ) . `` The Best Albums of 2007 '' . Metro . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Overpowered ( EMI ) was funky in all senses -- skittering from glacial electro to hi - NRG disco Jump up ^ O'Brien , Jon . `` Bananarama -- Viva '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Viva 's 11 infectious hi - NRG tracks Jump up ^ Levine , Nick ( 24 July 2009 ) . `` Music Interview -- Bananarama '' . Digital Spy . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Arena 2013 , p. 58 . Jump up ^ Jones & Kantonen 2000 , p. 230 . Jump up ^ Buskin , Richard ( December 2011 ) . `` The Buggles ' Video Killed The Radio Star ' '' . Sound on Sound . Retrieved 31 March 2014 . ( Tina Charles ) 's Indian - British producer , Biddu , hired both men as session musicians , and his work in the fields of Hi - NRG and electronic disco had a profound influence on ( Trevor Horn ) 's own production aspirations . Jump up ^ McAleer 1990 , p. 25 . Jump up ^ `` Bronski Beat -- Rainbow Nation '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Graham , Bill ( 14 December 1984 ) . `` Critics Roundup 1984 '' . Hot Press . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . HI - NRG was the club sound that boosted both Evelyn Thomas and the trash dementis of Divine but it also propelled both the Bronski and Frankie Goes To Hollywood . ^ Jump up to : Brewster & Broughton 1999 , p. 196 . ^ Jump up to : Jones & Kantonen 2000 , p. 229 . Jump up ^ Loftus , Johnny . `` Cappella -- Best of Cappella ( ZYX ) '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ RollingStone 1992 , p. 157 . Jump up ^ Jones & Kantonen 2000 , p. 192 . ^ Jump up to : Pareles , Jon ( 14 May 1995 ) . `` Niche Music : Tejano , Rave and , Yes , Bhangra '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Another contender is hi - N.R.G. , a fast , cheerful style , first heard in gay San Francisco clubs in the early 1980 's and now on the pop Top 40 in hits by Corona and the Real McCoy . ^ Jump up to : Walters , Barry ( 23 January 1996 ) . `` Profits and prophets '' . The Advocate . Here Publishing . ISSN 0001 - 8996 . Jump up ^ Jones & Kantonen 2000 , p. 110 . Jump up ^ Potts , Diana . `` Patrick Cowley -- Artist Biography '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Du Noyer 2007 , pp. 184 , 198 . Jump up ^ RollingStone 1992 , p. 185 . Jump up ^ O'Brien , Jon . `` Hazell Dean -- Artist Biography '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2014 . Jump up ^ Watson , Graeme ( 21 December 2012 ) . `` Catching Up with Hazel Dean '' . OutInPerth . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Brewster & Broughton 1999 , pp. 196 , 304 . Jump up ^ Pareles , Jon ( 21 February 1990 ) . `` Reviews / Pop ; Of Broken Hearts and a Broken World '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Many of Erasure 's songs exemplify the post-disco style called hi - N.R.G. - fast and openly artificial , with synthesized riffs bouncing and ticking in every register . Jump up ^ `` Erasure -- Pop '' . The Times . 29 January 2005 . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Jones & Kantonen 2000 , p. 107 . Jump up ^ Martínez , Diego ( 28 November 2011 ) . `` Music to Start the Week With # 010 '' . The WILD Magazine . Archived from the original on 2 April 2015 . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Echols 2010 , p. 229 . Jump up ^ Du Noyer 2007 , p. 198 . Jump up ^ Robbins , Ira . `` Frankie Goes to Hollywood '' . Trouser Press . Retrieved 25 October 2013 . Jump up ^ Henderson , Alex . `` Fun Fun -- Have Fun '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2014 . Jump up ^ Shaw - Miller 1993 , p. 116 . Jump up ^ Jones & Kantonen 2000 , pp. 173 -- 74 , 228 . Jump up ^ Brewster & Broughton 1999 , p. 96 , 104 . Jump up ^ Andrews , Isaac & Nichols 2011 , p. 135 . Jump up ^ Cooper , Sean . `` Man Parrish -- Artist Biography '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Arena 2013 , p. 154 . Jump up ^ `` Kelly Marie -- Artist Biography '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Stone , Doug . `` Bobby Orlando -- Artist Biography '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 11 November 2013 . Jump up ^ Larkin , Colin ( 2011 ) . `` Nomi , Klaus '' . The Encyclopedia of Popular Music ( 5th ed . ) . Omnibus Press . ISBN 0 - 85712 - 595 - 8 . ( Klaus Nomi ) worked with Man Parrish , the New York electro and hi - NRG producer , on his self - titled debut album . Jump up ^ Zuberi , Nabeel ( 2001 ) . Sounds English : Transnational Popular Music . Urbana and Chicago : University of Illinois Press . p. 74 . ISBN 0 - 252 - 02620 - 9 . Neil Tennant and Chris Lowe use electronic instruments and work within and across dance - floor genres such as house , Hi - NRG , techno , and many other subgenres . Jump up ^ Bush , John . `` RuPaul -- Biography '' . AllMusic . Archived from the original on 11 May 2012 . Jump up ^ McAleer 1990 , p. 163 . Jump up ^ O'Brien , Jon . `` Jimmy Somerville -- For a Friend : The Best of Bronski Beat , The Communards & Jimmy Somerville '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Ohanesian , Liz ( 3 July 2009 ) . `` Synthpop and Hi - NRG Star Stacey Q Returns with a New Album , Live Dates '' . LA Weekly . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Aaron , Charles ( 17 September 2014 ) . `` 100 Best Singles of 1984 : Pop 's Greatest Year > 98 -- Dead or Alive , `` You Spin Me Round ( Like a Record ) '' `` . Rolling Stone . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Eurovision 2010 : Pete Waterman '' . BBC News Online . 28 May 2010 . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Andrews , Isaac & Nichols 2011 , p. 133 . Jump up ^ Erlewine , Stephen Thomas . `` Take That -- Artist Biography '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Eventually , the group worked its way toward Hi - NRG dance music , while also pursuing an adult contemporary ballad direction . Jump up ^ `` Profile : Mark Owen '' . BBC News Online . 11 March 2010 . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Owen 's debut single Child showcased a more acoustic , psychedelic sound than his Hi - NRG Take That hits . Jump up ^ Larkin , Colin , ed. ( 1992 ) . `` Johnson , L.J. '' . The Guinness Encyclopedia of Popular Music . 2 : Farian , Frank to Menza , Don . Guinness Publishing . ISBN 978 - 1 - 88226 - 702 - 6 . Archived from the original on 12 March 2012 . Jump up ^ Kantor , Justin . `` Evelyn Thomas -- Have a Little Faith in Me '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . Jump up ^ Flick , Larry ( 25 February 1995 ) . `` N.Y. Hits Home With Crop Of New House Indies '' . Billboard . Vol. 107 no . 8 . p. 31 . ISSN 0006 - 2510 . Jump up ^ Locke , Jesse ( 8 November 2013 ) . `` 6 of the best past and present videos you might have missed '' . Aux . Retrieved 31 March 2014 . Jump up ^ Jones & Kantonen 2000 , p. 228 . Jump up ^ Flick , Larry ( 31 January 1998 ) . `` Reviews & Previews > Pop > Usura -- Open Your Mind '' . Billboard . Vol. 110 no . 5 . p. 26 . ISSN 0006 - 2510 . Jump up ^ McAleer 1990 , p. 190 . Jump up ^ McAleer 1990 , p. 194 . Bibliography ( edit ) Andrews , Marc ; Isaac , Claire ; Nichols , David ( 2011 ) . Pop Life : Inside Smash Hits Australia 1984 - 2007 . Affirm Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 98713 - 267 - 3 . Arena , James ( 2013 ) . First Ladies of Disco : 32 Stars Discuss the Era and Their Singing Careers . McFarland . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7864 - 7581 - 0 . Betts , Graham ( 2014 ) . Motown Encyclopedia . AC Publishing . ISBN 978 - 1 - 31144 - 154 - 6 . Brewster , Bill ; Broughton , Frank ( 1999 ) . Last Night a Dj Saved My Life : The History of the Disc Jockey . Headline Book Publishing . ISBN 0 - 7472 - 6230 - 6 . Butler , Mark Jonathan ( 2006 ) . Unlocking the Groove : Rhythm , Meter , and Musical Design in Electronic Dance Music . Indiana University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 25334 - 662 - 9 . DeCurtis , Anthony ; Henke , James ; George - Warren , Holly , eds. ( 1992 ) . The Rolling Stone Album Guide : Completely New Reviews : Every Essential Album , Every Essential Artist ( 3rd ed . ) . Random House . ISBN 0 - 679 - 73729 - 4 . Du Noyer , Paul ( 2007 ) . Liverpool -- Wondrous Place : From the Cavern to the Capital of Culture . Virgin Books . ISBN 978 - 0 - 75351 - 269 - 2 . Echols , Alice ( 2010 ) . Hot Stuff : Disco and the Remaking of American Culture . W.W. Norton & Company . ISBN 978 - 0 - 3930 - 7701 - 8 . Hawkins , Stan ( 1997 ) . `` The Pet Shop Boys : Musicology , masulinity and banality '' . In Whiteley , Sheila . Sexing the Groove : Popular Music and Gender . Routledge . pp. 118 -- 133 . ISBN 0 - 415 - 14670 - 4 . Jones , Alan ; Kantonen , Jussi ( 2000 ) . Saturday Night Forever : The Story of Disco . A Cappella Books . ISBN 1 - 55652 - 411 - 0 . McAleer , Dave ( 1990 ) . The Omnibus Book of British and American Hit Singles , 1960 - 1990 . Omnibus Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 71192 - 180 - 1 . Barron , Lee ( 2010 ) . `` Camp Transitions : Genre Adaptation and the Hi - NRG / Dance Cover Version '' . In Plasketes , George . Play it Again : Cover Songs in Popular Music . Ashgate Publishing . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7546 - 6809 - 1 . Rees , Dafydd ; Crampton , Luke ( 1999 ) . Q Rock Stars Encyclopedia ( New Revised ed . ) . DK . ISBN 0 - 7513 - 1113 - 8 . Reynolds , Simon ( 2011 ) . Bring the Noise : 20 Years of Writing about Hip Rock and Hip Hop . Soft Skull Press . ISBN 978 - 1 - 59376 - 286 - 5 . Shaw - Miller , Simon ( 1993 ) . The Last Post : Music After Modernism . Manchester University Press . ISBN 0 - 7190 - 3609 - 7 . Strong , Martin C. ( 2002 ) . The Great Scots Musicography : The Complete Guide to Scotland 's Music Makers . Mercat . ISBN 1 - 84183 - 041 - 0 . See also ( edit ) List of Eurobeat artists Hi - NRG Hard NRG Italo disco Eurobeat Eurodance Euro disco Techno New Beat Synergy Space disco Other electronic music genres Ambient Breakbeat Drum and bass Electro Eurodance Freestyle Hardcore Hi - NRG House Industrial Techno Trance Trip hop UK garage ( incl . Dubstep ) Artists Rave scene Para Para Super Eurobeat Ian Levine Stock , Aitken & Waterman Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Hi-NRG_artists_and_songs&oldid=817175700 '' Categories : Hi - NRG Lists of dance musicians Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from December 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links Use dmy dates from November 2013 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 26 December 2017 , at 17 : 57 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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what does the winner of the rap game get

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=The_Rap_Game&oldid=838148132

The Rap Game - wikipedia The Rap Game Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( March 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The Rap Game Genre Reality Starring Jermaine Dupri Country of origin United States Original language ( s ) English No. of seasons No. of episodes 40 Production Running time 42 minutes Production company ( s ) Intuitive Entertainment Release Original network Lifetime Original release January 1 , 2016 ( 2016 - 01 - 01 ) -- present The Rap Game is an American tradition created by Alexis Gearhart , a Pennsylvania resident . < first = Denise url = http://deadline.com/2015/11/queen-latifah-jermaine-dupri-the-rap-game-lifetime-reality-series-1201607253/ title = Queen Latifah & Jermaine Dupri Team On ' The Rap Game ' For Lifetime publisher = Deadline date = 2015 - 11 - 04 accessdate = 2016 - 09 - 25 ) ) < / ref > Contents ( hide ) 1 Series overview 2 Episodes 2.1 Season 1 ( 2016 ) 2.2 Season 2 ( 2016 ) 2.3 Season 3 ( 2017 ) 2.4 Season 4 ( 2017 ) 3 References 4 External links Series overview ( edit ) Season Episodes Originally aired First aired Last aired 9 January 1 , 2016 ( 2016 - 01 - 01 ) February 26 , 2016 ( 2016 - 02 - 26 ) 10 July 22 , 2016 ( 2016 - 07 - 22 ) September 23 , 2016 ( 2016 - 09 - 23 ) 13 January 13 , 2017 ( 2017 - 01 - 13 ) April 7 , 2017 ( 2017 - 04 - 07 ) 13 November 24 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 24 ) February 23 , 2018 ( February 23 , 2018 ) Episodes ( edit ) Season 1 ( 2016 ) ( edit ) No . overall No. in season Title Original air date U.S. viewers ( millions ) `` Welcome to Atlanta '' January 1 , 2016 ( 2016 - 01 - 01 ) 1.14 `` Set the Booth on Fire '' January 8 , 2016 ( 2016 - 01 - 08 ) 1.03 `` Style and Swagga '' January 15 , 2016 ( 2016 - 01 - 15 ) 1.15 `` Betta Step Up '' January 22 , 2016 ( 2016 - 01 - 22 ) 1.33 5 5 `` Gettin ' Schooled '' January 29 , 2016 ( 2016 - 01 - 29 ) 1.17 6 6 `` Shakin ' Things Up '' February 5 , 2016 ( 2016 - 02 - 05 ) 1.34 7 7 `` Fights , Camera , Action ! '' February 12 , 2016 ( 2016 - 02 - 12 ) 1.15 8 8 `` The Final Battle '' February 19 , 2016 ( 2016 - 02 - 19 ) N / A 9 9 `` Reunion '' February 26 , 2016 ( 2016 - 02 - 26 ) 1.22 Season 2 ( 2016 ) ( edit ) No . overall No. in season Title Original air date U.S. viewers ( millions ) 10 `` Who 's Hungry '' July 22 , 2016 ( 2016 - 07 - 22 ) 1.16 11 `` Rep Your City '' July 29 , 2016 ( 2016 - 07 - 29 ) 1.02 12 `` Fresh to Def '' August 5 , 2016 ( 2016 - 08 - 05 ) 1.16 13 `` We Do n't Take No L 's '' August 12 , 2016 ( 2016 - 08 - 12 ) 1.07 14 5 `` Run Back to Wifey '' August 19 , 2016 ( 2016 - 08 - 19 ) 0.97 15 6 `` Stand Out or Sit Down '' August 26 , 2016 ( 2016 - 08 - 26 ) 1.08 16 7 `` Birthday Bash '' September 2 , 2016 ( 2016 - 09 - 02 ) N / A 17 8 `` Battle to the Def '' September 9 , 2016 ( 2016 - 09 - 09 ) 1.24 18 9 `` Finale Pt. 1 '' September 16 , 2016 ( 2016 - 09 - 16 ) 1.19 19 10 `` Finale Pt. 2 '' September 23 , 2016 ( 2016 - 09 - 23 ) 1.36 Season 3 ( 2017 ) ( edit ) No . overall No. in season Title Original air date U.S. viewers ( millions ) 20 `` Look Who 's Back '' January 13 , 2017 ( 2017 - 01 - 13 ) 1.11 21 `` Like a Boss '' January 20 , 2017 ( 2017 - 01 - 20 ) 0.85 22 `` We Have a Dream '' January 27 , 2017 ( 2017 - 01 - 27 ) 1.04 23 `` Poncho vs Dashiki '' February 3 , 2017 ( 2017 - 02 - 03 ) 0.97 24 5 `` Roll Wit It '' February 10 , 2017 ( 2017 - 02 - 10 ) 1.07 25 6 `` So Hype ! '' February 17 , 2017 ( 2017 - 02 - 17 ) 0.96 26 7 `` Fight for Your Spot '' February 24 , 2017 ( 2017 - 02 - 24 ) 1.00 27 8 `` You Thought '' March 3 , 2017 ( 2017 - 03 - 03 ) 1.07 28 9 `` Dat Way '' March 10 , 2017 ( 2017 - 03 - 10 ) 1.09 29 10 `` Shut Up and Train '' March 17 , 2017 ( 2017 - 03 - 17 ) 1.06 30 11 `` Full Court Press '' March 24 , 2017 ( 2017 - 03 - 24 ) 1.07 31 12 `` Do n't Underestimate Nobody '' March 31 , 2017 ( 2017 - 03 - 31 ) 1.18 32 13 `` One Contract , One Chain '' April 7 , 2017 ( 2017 - 04 - 07 ) 1.39 Season 4 ( 2017 ) ( edit ) No . overall No. in season Title Original air date U.S. viewers ( millions ) 33 `` Do n't Mess with Jny '' November 24 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 24 ) 0.68 34 `` Gettin ' Fresh '' December 1 , 2017 ( 2017 - 12 - 01 ) 0.66 35 `` Catch Fire '' December 8 , 2017 ( 2017 - 12 - 08 ) TBD 36 `` Girl , Bye ! '' December 15 , 2017 ( 2017 - 12 - 15 ) TBD 37 5 `` 4 Lit for Life '' December 29 , 2017 ( 2017 - 12 - 29 ) TBD 38 6 `` Do Ya Dance '' January 5 , 2018 ( 2018 - 01 - 05 ) TBD 39 7 `` Quit Biting My Style '' January 12 , 2018 ( 2018 - 01 - 12 ) TBD 40 8 `` Swag Symphony '' January 19 , 2018 ( 2018 - 01 - 19 ) 0.80 41 9 `` I Win '' January 26 , 2018 ( 2018 - 01 - 26 ) TBA 42 10 `` Do n't Hold Back '' February 2 , 2018 ( 2018 - 02 - 02 ) TBA 43 11 `` Sweet 16 Showdown '' February 9 , 2018 ( 2018 - 02 - 09 ) TBA 44 12 `` The Press Got U Stressed '' February 16 , 2018 ( 2018 - 02 - 16 ) TBA 45 13 `` There Can Only Be One '' February 23 , 2018 ( 2018 - 02 - 23 ) TBA References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Tambay A. Obenson ( 2016 - 05 - 13 ) . `` Winner of Season 1 of Lifetime 's `` The Rap Game '' Crowned + Season 2 Ordered `` . IndieWire . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 25 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Rap Game : Episode Guide '' . Zap2it . Retrieved 22 December 2016 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( January 1 , 2016 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 1.1. 2016 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved January 1 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( January 8 , 2016 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 1.8. 2016 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved January 8 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( January 15 , 2016 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 1.15. 2016 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved January 15 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( January 22 , 2016 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 1.22. 2016 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved January 22 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( January 29 , 2016 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 1.29. 2016 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved January 29 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( February 5 , 2016 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 2.5. 2016 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved February 5 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( February 12 , 2016 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 2.12. 2016 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved February 12 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( February 26 , 2016 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 2.26. 2016 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved February 26 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( July 22 , 2016 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 7.22. 2016 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved July 22 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( July 29 , 2016 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 7.29. 2016 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved July 29 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( August 5 , 2016 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 8.5. 2016 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved August 5 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( August 12 , 2016 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 8.12. 2016 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved August 12 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( August 19 , 2016 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 8.19. 2016 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved August 19 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( August 26 , 2016 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 8.26. 2016 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved August 26 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( September 9 , 2016 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 9.9. 2016 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved September 9 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( September 16 , 2016 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 9.16. 2016 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved September 16 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Metcalf , Mitch ( September 23 , 2016 ) . `` UPDATED : SHOWBUZZDAILY 's Top 150 Tuesday Cable Originals & Network Finals : 9.23. 2016 '' . Showbuzz Daily . Retrieved September 23 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Rap Game : Episode Guide '' . tvguide.com . Retrieved 17 February 2017 . Jump up ^ http://www.showbuzzdaily.com/articles/showbuzzdailys-top-150-friday-cable-originals-network-finals-1-19-2018.html External links ( edit ) Official Website The Rap Game on IMDb ( hide ) Lifetime original programming Former Dr. Ruth ( 1984 -- 91 ) Attitudes ( 1985 -- 91 ) The Days and Nights of Molly Dodd ( 1989 -- 91 ) Veronica Clare ( 1991 ) Born Lucky ( 1992 -- 93 ) Debt ( 1996 -- 98 ) Denise Austin 's Daily Workout ( 1997 -- 2008 ) Any Day Now ( 1998 -- 2002 ) Oh Baby ( 1998 -- 2000 ) Maggie ( 1998 ) Strong Medicine ( 2000 -- 06 ) The Division ( 2001 -- 04 ) For the People ( 2002 -- 03 ) 1 - 800 - Missing ( 2003 -- 06 ) Missing ( 2003 -- 06 ) Wild Card ( 2003 -- 05 ) How Clean Is Your House ? ( 2004 -- 05 ) Beach Girls ( 2005 ) Angela 's Eyes ( 2006 ) Cheerleader Nation ( 2006 ) Lovespring International ( 2006 ) Monarch Cove ( 2006 ) Army Wives ( 2007 -- 13 ) Blood Ties ( 2007 ) Gay , Straight or Taken ? ( 2007 ) Side Order of Life ( 2007 ) State of Mind ( 2007 ) Tim Gunn 's Guide to Style ( 2007 - 2008 ) How to Look Good Naked ( 2008 ) Rita Rocks ( 2008 -- 09 ) DietTribe ( 2009 ) Project Runway : All - Star Challenge ( 2009 ) Drop Dead Diva ( 2009 -- 14 ) Models of the Runway ( 2009 - 2010 ) Sherri ( 2009 ) The Fairy Jobmother ( 2010 ) On the Road with Austin & Santino ( 2010 ) Against the Wall ( 2011 ) America 's Most Wanted ( 2011 -- 12 ) America 's Supernanny ( 2011 -- 12 ) Coming Home ( 2011 -- 12 ) Glamour Belles ( 2011 ) Project Accessory ( 2011 ) The Protector ( 2011 ) Abby 's Ultimate Dance Competition ( 2012 -- 13 ) The Client List ( 2012 -- 13 ) Dance Moms : Miami ( 2012 ) The Houstons : On Our Own ( 2012 -- 13 ) Chasing Nashville ( 2013 ) Devious Maids ( 2013 -- 2016 ) Double Divas ( 2013 ) Supermarket Superstar ( 2013 ) Witches of East End ( 2013 -- 14 ) Betty White 's Off Their Rockers ( 2014 ) The Lottery ( 2014 ) Project Runway : Threads ( 2014 ) Raising Asia ( 2014 ) True Tori ( 2014 ) Under the Gunn ( 2014 ) Fashionably Late with Rachel Zoe ( 2015 ) The Lizzie Borden Chronicles ( 2015 ) Living with the Enemy ( 2015 ) Pitch Slapped ( 2016 ) Project Runway : Fashion Startup ( 2016 ) Current Project Runway ( 2009 -- ) Dance Moms ( 2011 -- ) Project Runway All Stars ( 2012 -- ) Preachers ' Daughters ( 2013 -- ) Bring It ! ( 2014 -- ) Little Women : LA ( 2014 -- ) Little Women : NY ( 2015 -- ) Project Runway : Junior ( 2015 -- ) UnREAL ( 2015 -- ) The Rap Game ( 2016 -- ) Little Women : Atlanta ( 2016 -- ) Little Women : Dallas ( 2016 -- ) Mary Kills People ( 2017 -- ) Married at First Sight ( 2017 - ) Upcoming American Princess ( TBA ) You ( 2018 ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Rap_Game&oldid=838148132 '' Categories : 2010s American television series 2016 American television series debuts Lifetime ( TV network ) shows Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from March 2017 All articles needing additional references Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 25 April 2018 , at 06 : 30 . About Wikipedia

8844619839870903

where did the tom turkey get its name

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Wild_turkey&oldid=817321948

Wild turkey - wikipedia Wild turkey Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Wild Turkey ( disambiguation ) . Wild turkey Male ( tom ) wild turkey displaying Conservation status Least Concern ( IUCN 3.1 ) Scientific classification Kingdom : Animalia Phylum : Chordata Class : Aves Order : Galliformes Family : Phasianidae Genus : Meleagris Species : M. gallopavo Binomial name Meleagris gallopavo Linnaeus , 1758 Subspecies 6 , see text Distribution of M. gallopavo The wild turkey ( Meleagris gallopavo ) is an upland ground bird native to North America and is the heaviest member of the diverse Galliformes . It is the same species as the domestic turkey , which was originally derived from a southern Mexican subspecies of wild turkey ( not the related ocellated turkey ) . Although native to North America , the turkey probably got its name from the domesticated variety being imported to Britain in ships coming from the Levant via Spain . The British at the time therefore associated the wild turkey with the country Turkey and the name prevails . Contents ( hide ) 1 Description 2 Habitat 3 Behavior 3.1 Flight 3.2 Vocalizations 3.3 Foraging 3.4 Social structure and mating 4 Predators 5 Range and population 6 Subspecies 6.1 Eastern wild turkey ( Meleagris gallopavo silvestris ) ( Viellot , 1817 ) 6.2 Osceola wild turkey or Florida wild turkey ( M. g . osceola ) ( Scott , 1890 ) 6.3 Rio Grande wild turkey ( M. g . intermedia ) ( Sennett , 1879 ) 6.4 Merriam 's wild turkey ( M. g . merriami ) ( Nelson , 1900 ) 6.5 Gould 's wild turkey ( M. g . mexicana ) ( Gould , 1856 ) 6.6 South Mexican wild turkey ( M. g . gallopavo ) ( Linnaeus , 1758 ) 7 Benjamin Franklin and the U.S. national bird suggestion 8 Significance to Native Americans 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 External links Description ( edit ) Closeup of wild turkey hen Adult wild turkeys have long reddish - yellow to grayish - green legs . The body feathers are generally blackish and dark , sometimes grey brown overall with a coppery sheen that becomes more complex in adult males . Adult males , called toms or gobblers , have a large , featherless , reddish head , red throat , and red wattles on the throat and neck . The head has fleshy growths called caruncles . Juvenile males are called jakes ; the difference between an adult male and a juvenile is that the jake has a very short beard and his tail fan has longer feathers in the middle . The adult male 's tail fan feathers will be all the same length . When males are excited , a fleshy flap on the bill expands , and this , the wattles and the bare skin of the head and neck all become engorged with blood , almost concealing the eyes and bill . The long fleshy object over a male 's beak is called a snood . Each foot has three toes in front , with a shorter , rear - facing toe in back ; males have a spur behind each of their lower legs . Male turkeys have a long , dark , fan - shaped tail and glossy bronze wings . As with many other species of the Galliformes , turkeys exhibit strong sexual dimorphism . The male is substantially larger than the female , and his feathers have areas of red , purple , green , copper , bronze , and gold iridescence . The preen gland ( uropygial gland ) is also larger in male turkeys compared to female ones . In contrast to the majority of other birds , they are colonized by bacteria of unknown function ( Corynebacterium uropygiale ) . Females , called hens , have feathers that are duller overall , in shades of brown and gray . Parasites can dull coloration of both sexes ; in males , coloration may serve as a signal of health . The primary wing feathers have white bars . Turkeys have 5000 to 6000 feathers . Tail feathers are of the same length in adults , different lengths in juveniles . Males typically have a `` beard '' , a tuft of coarse hair ( modified feathers ) growing from the center of the breast . Beards average 230 mm ( 9.1 in ) in length . In some populations , 10 to 20 % of females have a beard , usually shorter and thinner than that of the male . The adult male ( or `` tom '' ) normally weighs from 5 to 11 kg ( 11 to 24 lb ) and measures 100 -- 125 cm ( 39 -- 49 in ) in length . The adult female ( or `` hen '' ) is typically much smaller at 2.5 -- 5.4 kg ( 5.5 -- 11.9 lb ) and is 76 to 95 cm ( 30 to 37 in ) long . Per two large studies , the average weight of adult males is 7.6 kg ( 17 lb ) and the average weight of adult females is 4.26 kg ( 9.4 lb ) . The wings are relatively small , as is typical of the galliform order , and the wingspan ranges from 1.25 to 1.44 m ( 4 ft 1 in to 4 ft 9 in ) . The wing chord is only 20 to 21.4 cm ( 7.9 to 8.4 in ) . The bill is also relatively small , as adults measure 2 to 3.2 cm ( 0.79 to 1.26 in ) in culmen length . The tarsus of the wild turkey is quite long and sturdy , measuring from 9.7 to 19.1 cm ( 3.8 to 7.5 in ) . The tail is also relatively long , ranging from 24.5 to 50.5 cm ( 9.6 to 19.9 in ) . The record - sized adult male wild turkey , according to the National Wild Turkey Federation , weighed 16.85 kg ( 37.1 lb ) , with records of tom turkeys weighing over 13.8 kg ( 30 lb ) uncommon but not rare . While it is usually rather lighter than the waterfowl , after the trumpeter swan ( Cygnus buccinator ) , the turkey has the second heaviest maximum weight of any North American bird . Going on average mass , several other birds on the continent , including the American white pelican ( Pelecanus erythrorhynchos ) , the tundra swan ( Cygnus columbianus columbianus ) and the very rare California condor ( Gymnogyps californianus ) and whooping crane ( Grus americana ) surpass the mean weight of turkeys . On one hand , none of these other species are as sexually dimorphic in size as the wild turkey , but on the other , they are also far less numerous and are not legally hunted unlike the turkey , thousands of which are weighed every year during hunting season . Habitat ( edit ) Eastern subspecies Wild turkeys prefer hardwood and mixed conifer - hardwood forests with scattered openings such as pastures , fields , orchards and seasonal marshes . They seemingly can adapt to virtually any dense native plant community as long as coverage and openings are widely available . Open , mature forest with a variety of interspersion of tree species appear to be preferred . In the Northeast of North America , turkeys are most profuse in hardwood timber of oak - hickory ( Quercus - Carya ) and forests of red oak ( Quercus rubra ) , beech ( Fagus grandifolia ) , cherry ( Prunus serotina ) and white ash ( Fraxinus americana ) . Best ranges for turkeys in the Coastal Plain and Piedmont sections have an interspersion of clearings , farms , and plantations with preferred habitat along principal rivers and in cypress ( Taxodium distichum ) and tupelo ( Nyssa sylvatica ) swamps . In Appalachian and Cumberland plateaus , birds occupy mixed forest of oaks and pines on southern and western slopes , also hickory with diverse understories . Bald cypress and sweet gum ( Liquidambar styraciflua ) swamps of s . Florida ; also hardwood of Cliftonia ( a heath ) and oak in north - central Florida . Lykes Fisheating Creek area of s . Florida has up to 51 % cypress , 12 % hardwood hammocks , 17 % glades of short grasses with isolated live oak ( Quercus virginiana ) ; nesting in neighboring prairies . Original habitat here was mainly longleaf pine ( Pinus palustris ) with turkey oak ( Quercus laevis ) and slash pine ( Pinus caribaea ) `` flatwoods , '' now mainly replaced by slash pine plantations . Behavior ( edit ) Flight ( edit ) Wild turkey in flight Despite their weight , wild turkeys , unlike their domesticated counterparts , are agile fliers . In ideal habitat of open woodland or wooded grasslands , they may fly beneath the canopy top and find perches . They usually fly close to the ground for no more than 400 m ( a quarter mile ) . Vocalizations ( edit ) Turkeys have many vocalizations : `` gobbles '' , `` clucks '' , `` putts '' , `` purrs '' , `` yelps '' , `` cutts '' , `` whines '' , `` cackles '' , and `` kee - kees '' . In early spring , males older than 1 - year - old ( sometimes called gobblers or toms ) and , occasionally to a lesser extent , males younger than 1 - year - old ( sometimes called jakes ) gobble to announce their presence to females and competing males . The gobble can carry for up to a mile . Males also emit a low - pitched `` drumming '' sound ; produced by the movement of air in the air sack in the chest , similar to the booming of a prairie chicken . In addition they produce a sound known as the `` spit '' which is a sharp expulsion of air from this air sack . Hens `` yelp '' to let gobblers know their location . Gobblers often yelp in the manner of females , and hens can gobble , though they rarely do so . Immature males , called jakes , often yelp . Foraging ( edit ) Hen with poults Wild turkeys are omnivorous , foraging on the ground or climbing shrubs and small trees to feed . They prefer eating acorns , nuts and other hard mast of various trees , including hazel , chestnut , hickory , and pinyon pine as well as various seeds , berries such as juniper and bearberry , roots and insects . Turkeys also occasionally consume amphibians and small reptiles such as lizards and snakes . Poults have been observed eating insects , berries , and seeds . Wild turkeys often feed in cow pastures , sometimes visit back yard bird feeders , and favor croplands after harvest to scavenge seeds on the ground . Turkeys are also known to eat a wide variety of grasses . Turkey populations can reach large numbers in small areas because of their ability to forage for different types of food . Early morning and late afternoon are the desired times for eating . Social structure and mating ( edit ) Nest with 10 eggs Males are polygamous , mating with as many hens as they can . Male wild turkeys display for females by puffing out their feathers , spreading out their tails and dragging their wings . This behavior is most commonly referred to as strutting . Their heads and necks are colored brilliantly with red , blue and white . The color can change with the turkey 's mood , with a solid white head and neck being the most excited . They use gobbling , drumming / booming and spitting as signs of social dominance , and to attract females . Courtship begins during the months of March and April , which is when turkeys are still flocked together in winter areas . Males may be seen courting in groups , often with the dominant male gobbling , spreading their tail feathers ( strutting ) , drumming / booming and spitting . In a study , the average dominant male that courted as part of a pair of males fathered six more eggs than males that courted alone . Genetic analysis of pairs of males courting together shows that they are close relatives , with half of their genetic material being identical . The theory behind the team - courtship is that the less dominant male would have a greater chance of passing along shared genetic material than if it were courting alone . When mating is finished , females search for nest sites . Nests are shallow dirt depressions engulfed with woody vegetation . Hens lay a clutch of 10 -- 14 eggs , usually one per day . The eggs are incubated for at least 28 days . The poults are precocial and nidifugous , leaving the nest in about 12 -- 24 hours . Predators ( edit ) Predators of eggs and nestlings include raccoons ( Procyon lotor ) , Virginia opossums ( Didelphis virginiana ) , striped skunks ( Mephitis mephitis ) , gray foxes ( Urocyon cinereoargenteus ) , groundhogs ( Marmota monax ) , other rodents and spotted skunks ( Spilogale ssp . ) . Predators of poults in addition to nestlings and eggs also include several snakes , namely rat snakes ( Elaphe ssp . ) , gopher snakes ( Pituophis catenifer ) and pinesnakes ( Pituophis ssp . ) , and predators mainly on poults include raptors such as bald eagles ( Haliaeetus leucocephalus ) , barred owl ( Strix varia ) , red - shouldered ( Buteo lineatus ) , red - tailed ( Buteo jamaicensis ) , white - tailed ( Geranoaetus albicaudatus ) and Harris 's hawks ( Parabuteo unicinctus ) and even the smallish Cooper 's hawk ( Accipiter cooperii ) and broad - winged hawk ( Buteo platypterus ) ( both likely of very small poults ) . Mortality of poults is greatest in the first 14 days of life , especially of those roosting on the ground , decreasing most notably after half a year , when they attain near adult sizes . Hen with juveniles Predators of both adults and poults include coyotes ( Canis latrans ) , gray wolves ( Canis lupus ) , bobcats ( Lynx rufus ) , cougars ( Puma concolor ) , golden eagles ( Aquila chrysaetos ) and possibly American black bears ( Ursus americanus ) . In addition to poults , hens and adult - sized fledglings ( but not , as far as is known , adult male toms ) are vulnerable to predation by great horned owls ( Bubo virginianus ) , northern goshawk ( Accipiter gentilis ) , domestic dogs ( Canis lupus familiaris ) , domestic cats ( Felis catus ) , and red foxes ( Vulpes vulpes ) . Humans are now the leading predator of adult turkeys . When approached by potential predators , turkeys and their poults usually run away rather than fly away from potential predators , though they may also fly short distances if pressed . Occasionally , if cornered , adult turkeys may try to fight off predators and large male toms can be especially aggressive in self - defense . When fighting off predators , turkeys may kick with their legs , using the spurs on their back of the legs as a weapon , bite with their beak and ram with their relatively large bodies and may be able to deter predators up to the size of mid-sized mammals . Hen turkeys have been seen to chase off at least two species of hawks in flight when their poults are threatened . Occasionally , turkeys may behave aggressively towards humans , especially in areas where natural habitats are scarce . They also have been seen to chase off humans as well . However , attacks can usually be deterred and minor injuries can be avoided by giving turkeys a respectful amount of space and keeping outdoor spaces clean and undisturbed . Range and population ( edit ) The wild turkey in the United States in 1957 ranged from Arizona to southeastern Oklahoma and thence through Tennessee , West Virginia , and New York , and south to Florida and Texas . It formerly ranged north to southeastern South Dakota , southern Wisconsin , southern Ontario , and southwestern Maine . The A.O.U. Checklist also described Upper Pliocene fossils in Kansas , and Pleistocene fossils widely from New Mexico to Pennsylvania and Florida . The Californian turkey , Meleagris californica , is an extinct species of turkey indigenous to the Pleistocene and early Holocene of California . It became extinct about 10,000 years ago . The present Californian wild turkey population derives from wild birds re-introduced during the 1960s and 70s from other areas by game officials . They proliferated after 2000 to become an everyday sight in the East Bay Area by 2015 . At the beginning of the 20th century the range and numbers of wild turkeys had decreased due to hunting and loss of habitat . Game managers estimate that the entire population of wild turkeys in the United States was as low as 30,000 by the late 1930s . By the 1940s , it was almost totally extirpated from Canada and had become localized in pockets in the United States , in the north - east effectively restricted to the Appalachians , only as far north as central Pennsylvania . Game officials made efforts to protect and encourage the breeding of the surviving wild population , and some trapped birds were relocated to new areas , including some in the western states where it was not native . There is evidence that the bird does well when near farmland , which provides grain and also berry - bearing shrubs at its edges . As wild turkey numbers rebounded , hunting became legal in 49 U.S. states ( excluding Alaska ) . In 1973 , the total U.S. population was estimated to be 1.3 million , and current estimates place the entire wild turkey population at 7 million individuals . In recent years , `` trap and transfer '' projects have reintroduced wild turkeys to several provinces of Canada as well , sometimes from across the border in the United States . Attempts to introduce the wild turkey to Britain as a game bird in the 18th century were not successful . George II is said to have had a flock of a few thousand in Richmond Park near London , but they were too easy for local poachers to destroy , and the fights with poachers became too dangerous for the gamekeepers . They were hunted with dogs and then shot out of trees where they took refuge . Several other populations , introduced or escaped , have survived for periods elsewhere in Britain and Ireland , but seem to have died out , perhaps from a combination of lack of winter feed and poaching . Small populations , probably descended from farm as well as wild stock , in the Czech Republic and Germany have been more successful , and there are wild populations of some size following introductions in Hawaii and New Zealand . Subspecies ( edit ) There are subtle differences in the coloration , habitat , and behavior of the different subspecies of wild turkeys . The six subspecies are : Eastern wild turkey Eastern wild turkey ( Meleagris gallopavo silvestris ) ( viellot , 1817 ) ( edit ) This was the turkey species Europeans first encountered in the wild : by the Puritans , the founders of Jamestown , and by the Acadians . Its range is one of the largest of all subspecies , covering the entire eastern half of the United States from Maine in the north to northern Florida and extending as far west as Michigan , Illinois , and into Missouri . In Canada , its range extends into Southeastern Manitoba , Ontario , Southwestern Quebec ( including Pontiac , Quebec and the lower half of the Western Quebec Seismic Zone ) , and the Maritime Provinces . They number from 5.1 to 5.3 million birds . They were first named ' forest turkey ' in 1817 , and can grow up to 4 ft ( 1.2 m ) tall . The upper tail coverts are tipped with chestnut brown . Males can reach 30 lb ( 14 kg ) in weight . The eastern wild turkey is heavily hunted in the Eastern USA and is the most hunted wild turkey subspecies . Osceola wild turkey or Florida wild turkey ( M. g . Osceola ) ( scott , 1890 ) ( edit ) Most common in the Florida peninsula , they number from 80,000 to 100,000 birds . This bird is named for the famous Seminole leader Osceola , and was first described in 1890 . It is smaller and darker than the eastern wild turkey . The wing feathers are very dark with smaller amounts of the white barring seen on other subspecies . Their overall body feathers are an iridescent green - purple color . They are often found in scrub patches of palmetto and occasionally near swamps , where amphibian prey is abundant . Osceola turkeys are the smallest subspecies weighing 16 to 18 pounds . Rio Grande wild turkey has relatively long legs Rio Grande wild turkey ( M. g . Intermedia ) ( sennett , 1879 ) ( edit ) The Rio Grande wild turkey ranges through Texas to Oklahoma , Kansas , New Mexico , Colorado , Oregon , Utah , and was introduced to central and western California , as well as parts of a few northeastern states . It was also introduced to Hawai ʻi in the late 1950s . Population estimates for this subspecies range from 1,022,700 to 1,025,700 . This subspecies , native to the central plain states , was first described in 1879 , and has relatively long legs , better adapted to a prairie habitat . Its body feathers often have a green - coppery sheen . The tips of the tail and lower back feathers are a buff - to - very light tan color . Its habitats are brush areas next to streams , rivers or mesquite , pine and scrub oak forests . The Rio Grande turkey is gregarious . Merriam 's wild turkey ( M. g . Merriami ) ( nelson , 1900 ) ( edit ) The Merriam 's wild turkey ranges through the Rocky Mountains and the neighboring prairies of Wyoming , Montana and South Dakota , as well as much of the high mesa country of New Mexico , Arizona , southern Utah and The Navajo Nation , with number from 334,460 to 344,460 birds . The subspecies has also been introduced into Oregon . The initial releases of Merriam 's turkeys in 1961 resulted in establishing a remnant population of Merriam 's turkeys along the east - slope of Mt . Hood and natural immigration of turkeys from Idaho has established Merriam 's flocks along the eastern border of Oregon . Merriam 's wild turkeys live in ponderosa pine and mountainous regions . The subspecies was named in 1900 in honor of Clinton Hart Merriam , the first chief of the U.S. Biological Survey . The tail and lower back feathers have white tips and purple and bronze reflections . Gould 's wild turkey ( M. g . Mexicana ) ( gould , 1856 ) ( edit ) Gould 's wild turkey Native from the central valleys to the northern mountains of Mexico and the southernmost parts of Arizona and New Mexico . Gould 's wild turkeys are heavily protected and regulated . The subspecies was first described in 1856 . They exist in small numbers in the U.S. but are abundant in northwestern portions of Mexico . A small population has been established in southern Arizona . Gould 's are the largest of the six subspecies . They have longer legs , larger feet , and longer tail feathers . The main colors of the body feathers are copper and greenish - gold . This subspecies is heavily protected owing to its skittish nature and threatened status . South Mexican wild turkey ( M. g . Gallopavo ) ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ( edit ) The south Mexican wild turkey is considered the nominate subspecies , and the only one that is not found in the United States or Canada . In central Mexico , archaeological M. gallopavo bones have been identified at sites dating to 800 -- 100 BC ( 10 ) , ( 11 ) . It is unclear whether these early specimens represent wild or domestic individuals , but domestic turkeys were likely established in central Mexico by the first half of the Classic Period ( c . AD 200 -- 1000 ) . Late Preclassic ( 300 BC -- AD 100 ) turkey remains identified at the archaeological site of El Mirador ( Petén , Guatemala ) represent the earliest evidence of the export of the south Mexican wild turkey ( Meleagris gallopavo gallopavo ) to the ancient Maya world . The south Mexican wild subspecies , M. g . gallopavo , was domesticated either in Mexico or by Preclassic peoples in Mesoamerica , giving rise to the domestic turkey . The Spaniards brought this tamed subspecies back to Europe with them in the mid-16th century ; from Spain it spread to France and later Britain as a farmyard animal , usually becoming the centerpiece of a feast for the well - to - do . By 1620 it was common enough so that Pilgrim settlers of Massachusetts could bring turkeys with them from England , unaware that it had a larger close relative already occupying the forests of Massachusetts . It is one of the smallest subspecies and is best known in Spanish from its Aztec - derived name , guajolote . This wild turkey subspecies is thought to be critically endangered , as of 2010 . Benjamin Franklin and the U.S. National bird suggestion ( edit ) Female wild turkey with young , from Birds of America by John James Audubon The idea that Benjamin Franklin preferred the turkey as the national bird of the United States comes from a letter he wrote to his daughter Sarah Bache on January 26 , 1784 . The main subject of the letter is a criticism of the Society of the Cincinnati , which he likened to a chivalric order , which contradicted the ideals of the newly founded American republic . In one section of the letter , Franklin remarked on the appearance of the bald eagle on the Society 's crest : `` Others object to the Bald Eagle , as looking too much like a Dindon , or Turkey . For my own part I wish the Bald Eagle had not been chosen the Representative of our Country . He is a Bird of bad moral Character . He does not get his Living honestly . You may have seen him perched on some dead Tree near the River , where , too lazy to fish for himself , he watches the Labour of the Fishing Hawk ( osprey ) ; and when that diligent Bird has at length taken a Fish , and is bearing it to his Nest for the Support of his Mate and young Ones , the Bald Eagle pursues him and takes it from him . With all this Injustice , he is never in good Case but like those among Men who live by Sharping & Robbing he is generally poor and often very lousy . Besides he is a rank Coward : The little King Bird not bigger than a Sparrow attacks him boldly and drives him out of the District . He is therefore by no means a proper Emblem for the brave and honest Cincinnati of America who have driven all the King birds from our Country ... I am on this account not displeased that the Figure is not known as a Bald Eagle , but looks more like a Turkey . For in Truth the Turkey is in Comparison a much more respectable Bird , and withal a true original Native of America ... He is besides , though a little vain & silly , a Bird of Courage , and would not hesitate to attack a Grenadier of the British Guards who should presume to invade his Farm Yard with a red Coat on . '' Franklin never publicly voiced opposition to the bald eagle as a national symbol . Significance to native americans ( edit ) Eastern wild turkey ( M. g . silvestris ) hens The wild turkey , throughout its range , plays a significant role in the cultures of many Native American tribes all over North America . Outside of the Thanksgiving feast , it is a favorite meal in eastern tribes . Eastern Native American tribes consumed both the eggs and meat , sometimes turning the latter into a type of jerky to preserve it and make it last through cold weather . They provided habitat by burning down portions of forests to create meadows which would attract mating birds , and thus give a clear shot to hunters . The feathers of turkeys also often made their way into the rituals and headgear of many tribes . Many leaders , such as Catawba chiefs , traditionally wore turkey feather headdresses . Significant peoples of several tribes , including Muscogee Creek and Wampanoag , wore turkey feather cloaks . The turkey clan is one of the three Lenape clans . Movements of wild turkeys inspired the Caddo tribe 's turkey dance . The Navajo people of Southeastern Arizona , New Mexico and Utah call the turkey Tązhii and relate the bird to the corn and seeds which The Turkey in Navajo folklore brought from the Third Navajo World . It is one of the Navajos ' sacred birds , with the Navajo people using the feathers and parts in multiple traditional ceremonies . See also ( edit ) Heritage turkey Turkey calls Turkeypox virus Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ BirdLife International ( 2016 ) . `` Meleagris gallopavo '' . IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . IUCN. 2016 : e. T22679525A92817779 . doi : 10.2305 / IUCN. UK. 2016 - 3. RLTS. T22679525A92817779. en . Retrieved 22 November 2017 . CS1 maint : Uses authors parameter ( link ) Jump up ^ Webster 's II New College Dictionary . Houghton Mifflin Harcourt 2005 , ISBN 978 - 0 - 618 - 39601 - 6 , p. 1217 Jump up ^ Andrew F. Smith ( 2006 ) . The Turkey : An American Story . University of Illinois Press 2006 , ISBN 978 - 0 - 252 - 03163 - 2 , p. 17 . Jump up ^ Dickson , 362 ; `` Why a Turkey Is Called a Turkey '' . Npr.org . Retrieved on 2012 - 12 - 19 . Jump up ^ Wild Turkey Identification and Anatomy . NWTF . Retrieved on 2012 - 12 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Turkey Habitat '' ( PDF ) . Habitat Tracker - Florida State University . Retrieved 2013 - 03 - 12 . Jump up ^ Braun , Markus Santhosh ; Zimmermann , Stefan ; Danner , Maria ; Rashid , Harun - or ; Wink , Michael ( 2016 ) . `` Corynebacterium uropygiale sp . nov. , isolated from the preen gland of Turkeys ( Meleagris gallopavo ) '' . Systematic and Applied Microbiology. 39 ( 2 ) : 88 -- 92 . doi : 10.1016 / j. syapm. 2015.12. 001 . PMID 26776107 . Jump up ^ Hill , Geoffrey E. ; Doucet , Stéphanie M. ; Buchholz , Richard ( 2005 ) . `` The effect of coccidial infection on iridescent plumage coloration in wild turkeys '' . Animal Behaviour. 69 ( 2 ) : 387 -- 94 . doi : 10.1016 / j. anbehav. 2004.03. 013 . Jump up ^ National wild turkey Federation : wild turkey Facts . Nwtf.org . Retrieved on 2012 - 08 - 21 . Jump up ^ Wild Turkey Meleagris gallopavo . animals.nationalgeographic.com Jump up ^ Meleagris gallopavo wild turkey . Animal Diversity Web Jump up ^ CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses by John B. Dunning Jr . ( Editor ) . CRC Press ( 1992 ) , ISBN 978 - 0 - 8493 - 4258 - 5 . Jump up ^ CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses , 2nd Edition by John B. Dunning Jr . ( Editor ) . CRC Press ( 2008 ) , ISBN 978 - 1 - 4200 - 6444 - 5 . Jump up ^ Birds Master Database Search . flmnh.ufl.edu Jump up ^ Biddle , Tami Davis ( 2002 ) . Pheasants , Partridges , and Grouse : A Guide to the Pheasants , Partridges , Quails , Grouse , Guineafowl , Buttonquails , and Sandgrouse of the World ( Princeton Field Guides ) . Princeton University Press . ISBN 978 - 0691089089 . Jump up ^ Welcome to the National Wild Turkey Federation Conserve . Hunt . Share . Nwtf.org . Retrieved on 2012 - 08 - 21 . Jump up ^ Wood , Gerald ( 1983 ) . The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats . ISBN 978 - 0 - 85112 - 235 - 9 . Jump up ^ Dunning , John B. , Jr. ( ed . ) . ( 1992 ) . CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses . CRC Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8493 - 4258 - 5 . Jump up ^ Hogan , C. Michael ( 2008 ) . Wild turkey : Meleagris gallopavo , GlobalTwitcher.com , ed . N. Stromberg Jump up ^ Krakauer , Alan H. ( 2005 ) . `` Kin selection and cooperative courtship in wild turkeys '' . Nature . 434 ( 7029 ) : 69 -- 72 . Bibcode : 2005Natur. 434 ... 69K . doi : 10.1038 / nature03325 . PMID 15744300 . Jump up ^ Baker , B.W. ( 1978 ) . `` Ecological factors affecting wild turkey nest predation on south Texas rangelands '' . Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies. 32 : 126 -- 36 . Jump up ^ Holdstock , D.P. ; Wallace , M.C. ; Ballard , W.B. ; Brunjes , J.H. ; Phillips , R.S. ; Spears , B.L. ; Gipson , P.S. ( 2006 ) . `` Male Rio Grande turkey survival and movements in the Texas Panhandle and southwestern Kansas '' . Journal of Wildlife Management . 70 ( 4 ) : 904 -- 13 . Jump up ^ Pharris , L.D. ; Goetz , R.C. ( 1980 ) . `` An evaluation of artificial wild turkey nests monitored by automatic cameras '' . Proceedings of the National Wild Turkey Symposium. 4 : 108 -- 16 . Jump up ^ Williams , L.E. ; Austin , D.H. ; Eichholz , N.F. ( 1976 ) . `` The breeding potential of the wild turkey hen '' . Proc. Annu . Conf . Southeast . Assoc . Fish and Wildl . Agencies. 30 : 371 -- 6 . Jump up ^ Reagan , J.M. ; Morgan , K.D. ( 1980 ) . `` Reproductive potential of Rio Grande turkey hens in the Edwards Plateau of Texas '' . Proc. Natl . Wild Turkey Symp. 4 : 136 -- 44 . Jump up ^ Peoples , J.C. ; Sisson , D.C. ; Speake , D.W. ( 1995 ) . `` Mortality of wild turkey poults in coastal plain pine forests '' . Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies. 49 : 448 -- 53 . Jump up ^ Beasom , S.L. ; Pattee , O.H. ( 1975 ) . `` An Encounter between a Turkey and a Bullsnake '' . Wilson Bulletin . 87 ( 2 ) : 281 -- 2 . Jump up ^ Dreibelbis , J.Z. ; Melton , K.B. ; Aguirre , R. ; Collier , B.A. ; Hardin , J. ; Silvy , N.J. ; Peterson , M.J. ( 2008 ) . `` Predation of Rio Grande wild turkey nests on the Edwards Plateau , Texas '' . The Wilson Journal of Ornithology. 120 ( 4 ) : 906 -- 10 . Jump up ^ McEwan , L.C. ; Hirth , D.H. ( 1980 ) . `` Food habits of the bald eagle in north - central Florida '' . Condor : 229 -- 31 . Jump up ^ Haucke , H.H. ( 1971 ) . `` Predation by a White - Tailed Hawk and a Harris Hawk on a Wild Turkey Poult '' . Condor. 73 ( 4 ) : 475 . Jump up ^ Glidden , J.W. ; Austin , D.E. ( 1975 ) . `` Natality and mortality of wild turkey poults in southwestern New York '' . Proc. Natl . Wild Turkey Symp. 3 : 48 -- 54 . Jump up ^ MacCracken , J.G. ; Uresh , D.W. ( 1984 ) . `` Coyote foods in the Black Hills , South Dakota '' . The Journal of Wildlife Management : 1420 -- 3 . Jump up ^ Reed , J.E. ; Ballard , W.B. ; Gipson , P.S. ; Kelly , B.T. ; Krausman , P.R. ; Wallace , M.C. ; Wester , D.B. ( 2006 ) . `` Diets of free - ranging Mexican gray wolves in Arizona and New Mexico '' . Wildlife Society Bulletin . 34 ( 4 ) : 1127 -- 33 . Jump up ^ Beasom , S.L. ; Moore , R.A. ( 1977 ) . `` Bobcat food habit response to a change in prey abundance '' . The Southwestern Naturalist : 451 -- 7 . Jump up ^ Maehr , D.S. ; Belden , R.C. ; Land , E.D. ; Wilkins , L. ( 1990 ) . `` Food habits of panthers in southwest Florida '' . The Journal of Wildlife Management : 420 -- 3 . Jump up ^ Lehman , C.P. ; Thompson , D.J. ( 2004 ) . `` Golden Eagle ( Aquila chrysaetos ) predation attempts on Merriam 's turkeys ( Meleagris gallopavo merriami ) in the southern Black Hills , South Dakota '' . Journal of Raptor Research . 38 ( 2 ) : 192 . Jump up ^ Stratman , M.R. ; Pelton , M.R. ( 1999 ) . `` Feeding ecology of black bears in northwest Florida '' . Florida Field Naturalist. 27 ( 3 ) : 95 -- 102 . Jump up ^ Schemnitz , S.D. ; Goerndt , D.L. ; Jones , H. ( 1985 ) . `` Habitat needs and management of Merriam 's turkeys in southcentral New Mexico '' . Proc. Natl . Wild Turkey Symp. 5 : 199 -- 232 . Jump up ^ Golet , G.H. ; Golet , H.T. ; Colton , A. ( 2003 ) . `` Immature Northern Goshawk Captures , Kills , and Feeds on Adult - Sized Wild Turkey '' . Journal of Raptor Research . 37 ( 4 ) : 337 -- 40 . Jump up ^ Goldyn , B. ; Hromada , M. ; Surmacki , A. ; Tryjanowski , P. ( 2003 ) . `` Habitat use and diet of the red fox Vulpes vulpes in an agricultural landscape in Poland '' . Zeitschrift für Jagdwissenschaft. 49 ( 3 ) : 191 -- 200 . doi : 10.1007 / BF02189737 . Jump up ^ ADW : Meleagris gallopavo : INFORMATION . Animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu ( 2006 - 03 - 12 ) . Retrieved on 2012 - 08 - 21 . Jump up ^ Kennamer , James Earl . Predators and Wild Turkeys . NWTF Wildlife Bulletin NO. 16 Jump up ^ Wild Turkey Predators , Wild Turkey Predation : National Wild Turkey Federation . Nwtf.org . Retrieved on 2012 - 12 - 19 . Jump up ^ Wild Turkey Predators . Waterandwoods.net ( 2008 - 09 - 20 ) . Retrieved on 2012 - 12 - 19 . Jump up ^ Johnson , R.R. ( 1961 ) . `` Aerial Pursuit of Hawks by Turkeys '' . The Auk. 78 ( 4 ) : 646 . Jump up ^ Living with wildlife : Turkey : Minnesota DNR . Dnr.state.mn.us . Retrieved on 2012 - 12 - 19 . Jump up ^ The American Ornithologists ' Union Check - list ( 5th ed. , 1957 ) . Jump up ^ Don Roberson , `` Wild Turkey : A Native California Bird ? '' -- with an excellent map of the pre-Columbian range of the Wild Turkey and the sites of various fossils from the late Pleistocene citing Steadman , David W. ( 1980 ) . `` A review of the osteology and paleontology of turkeys ( Aves : Meleagridinae ) '' . Contributions in Science , Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County . 330 : 131 -- 207 . Jump up ^ California Department of Fish and Game . Wild Turkey Guide 2005 . Jump up ^ Rubio , Tena ( November 27 , 2015 ) . `` Like It or Not , Wild Turkeys Proliferate in East Bay '' . kqed.org . Retrieved 27 November 2015 . Jump up ^ Smith , Andrew F. ( 2006 ) . `` The Fall and Rise of the Edible Turkey '' . In Hosking , Richard . Wild Food : Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery 2004 . Totnes , Devon , UK : Prospect Books . p. 298 . ISBN 9781903018439 . Jump up ^ Dickson , pp. 368 - 379 Jump up ^ These birds were imported from Mexico , then called the Spanish West Indies . They did not come from Turkey or India , as was widely believed. `` Talking Turkey '' , World Wide Words . On line . Jump up ^ Dickson , p. 363 ; Maxwell , William Hamilton , The field book ; or , Sports and pastimes of the British islands , by the author of ' Wild sports of the West , p. 540 , London , 1833 , google books Jump up ^ Dickson , pp. 363 - 368 Jump up ^ Kennamer , Mary C. `` NWTF Wildlife Bulletin No. 3 : Rio Grande Wild Turkey '' ( PDF ) . NWTF . Jump up ^ `` Oregon State Dept. of Fish and Wildlife , Wildlife Division , Wild Turkey Management Plan '' . Jump up ^ Thornton , Erin Kennedy ; Emery , Kitty F. ; Steadman , David W. ; Speller , Camilla ; Matheny , Ray ; Yang , Dongya ( 2012 ) . `` Earliest Mexican Turkeys ( Meleagris gallopavo ) in the Maya Region : Implications for Pre-Hispanic Animal Trade and the Timing of Turkey Domestication '' . PLoS ONE . 7 ( 8 ) : e42630 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO ... 742630T . doi : 10.1371 / journal. pone. 0042630 . PMC 3414452 . PMID 22905156 . Jump up ^ `` Benjamin Franklin to Sarah Bache , January 26 , 1784 ''. Library of Congress , Manuscript Division . ^ Jump up to : `` American Heraldry Society MMM / The Arms of the United States : Benjamin Franklin and the Turkey '' . Americanheraldry.org. 2007 - 05 - 18 . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 30 . Jump up ^ Pritzker 367 Jump up ^ Pritzker 381 , 474 Jump up ^ Pritzker 423 Jump up ^ `` Caddo Nation Today . '' Texas Beyond History . ( retrieved 28 Dec 2010 ) References ( edit ) Dickson , James G. , The Wild Turkey : Biology and Management ( A National Wild Turkey Federation and USDA Forest Service book ) , 1992 , Stackpole Books , ISBN 081171859X , 9780811718592 , google books Pritzker , Barry M. A Native American Encyclopedia : History , Culture , and Peoples . Oxford : Oxford University Press , 2000 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 513877 - 1 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to the wild turkey . Wikispecies has information related to Meleagris gallopavo Turkey as U.S. national bird Turkeys from England National Wild Turkey Federation -- Map of the locations of the five sub-species of wild turkey View the turkey genome in Ensembl `` Wild turkey media '' . Internet Bird Collection . Wild turkey photo gallery at VIREO ( Drexel University ) Game animals and shooting in the United States Game birds Bobwhite quail Chukar Hungarian partridge Prairie chicken Mourning dove Ring - necked pheasant Ptarmigan Ruffed grouse Sharp - tailed grouse Snipe ( common snipe ) Spruce grouse Turkey Woodcock Waterfowl Black duck Canada goose Canvasback Gadwall Greater scaup Lesser scaup Mallard Northern pintail Redhead Ross 's goose Snow goose Wood duck Big game Bighorn sheep Black bear Razorback Brown bear Bison ( buffalo ) Caribou Cougar ( mountain lion ) Elk Moose White - tailed deer Gray wolf Mountain goat Mule deer Pronghorn Muskox Dall sheep Polar bear Other quarry American alligator Bobcat Coyote Fox squirrel Gray fox Gray squirrel Opossum Rabbit Red fox Snowshoe hare See also Bear hunting Big game hunting Bison hunting Deer hunting Waterfowl hunting Whaling Fishing Wolf hunting Upland hunting Taxon identifiers Wd : Q26844 ADW : Meleagris_gallopavo ARKive : meleagris - gallopavo eBird : wiltur EoL : 1049266 Fauna Europaea : 402033 Fossilworks : 110952 GBIF : 2473551 IBC : wild - turkey - meleagris - gallopavo iNaturalist : 906 ITIS : 176136 IUCN : 22679525 NCBI : 9103 Xeno - canto : Meleagris - gallopavo Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wild_turkey&oldid=817321948 '' Categories : IUCN Red List least concern species Meleagrididae Birds described in 1758 Birds of Canada Birds of North America Game birds Native American cuisine Hunting in the United States Urban animals Hidden categories : CS1 maint : Uses authors parameter Articles with ' species ' microformats All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2016 Articles with unsourced statements from January 2011 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikispecies Aragonés Armãneashti Atikamekw Azərbaycanca Български Boarisch Brezhoneg Català Cebuano Čeština Dansk Deutsch Diné bizaad Eesti Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gàidhlig Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Kaszëbsczi Кыргызча Кырык мары Latina Lietuvių Magyar Bahasa Melayu Nāhuatl Nederlands 日本 語 Napulitano Nordfriisk Norsk nynorsk Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Sicilianu Simple English Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ᏣᎳᎩ Українська Tiếng Việt West - Vlams Winaray 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 27 December 2017 , at 16 : 55 . 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3381652645017372267

when does snow white find out emma is her daughter

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Mary_Margaret_Blanchard&oldid=805249584

Mary Margaret Blanchard - wikipedia Mary Margaret Blanchard Jump to : navigation , search Snow White / Mary Margaret Blanchard Once Upon a Time character Promotional photograph of Ginnifer Goodwin as Snow White / Mary Margaret . First appearance `` Pilot '' Last appearance `` The Final Battle '' Created by Adam Horowitz & Eddy Kitsis Portrayed by Ginnifer Goodwin Bailee Madison ( young ) Information Occupation Teacher Mayor ( formerly ) Queen ( formerly ) Bandit ( formerly ) Princess Title The Fairest One of All Family Queen Eva ( mother , deceased ) King Leopold ( father , deceased ) Baby Swan - Jones ( grandchild ) Henry Mills ( grandson ) Lucy ( great - granddaughter ) Spouse ( s ) Prince Charming / David Nolan Significant other ( s ) Hercules ( formerly ) Victor Frankenstein / Dr. Whale ( formerly ) Children Emma Swan ( daughter ) Neal Nolan ( son ) Relatives Regina Mills ( `` The Evil Queen '' ) ( stepmother ) Ruth ( mother - in - law , deceased ) Robert ( father - in - law , deceased ) King George / Albert Spencer ( adoptive father - in - law ) Cora ( step - grandmother , deceased ) Prince Henry ( step - grandfather , deceased ) Prince James ( brother - in - law , deceased ) Killian Jones ( son - in - law ) Abilities Expert archer Dark magic ( in alternate reality ) Communication with birds Status Alive 7 March 1955 The Enchanted Forest Type Enchanted Forest character Centric episodes Season One `` Pilot '' `` Snow Falls '' `` 7 : 15 A.M. '' `` Heart of Darkness '' `` An Apple Red as Blood '' Season Two `` Lady of the Lake '' `` The Cricket Game '' `` The Queen Is Dead '' Season Three `` Lost Girl '' `` The New Neverland '' `` Going Home '' `` A Curious Thing '' Season Four `` Unforgiven '' `` Best Laid Plans '' Season Five `` Labor of Love '' Season Six `` Heartless '' `` Awake '' `` The Song in Your Heart '' Snow White , formerly known as Mary Margaret Blanchard in Storybrooke , is a fictional character in ABC 's television series Once Upon a Time . She is portrayed by Ginnifer Goodwin and by Bailee Madison as a child . She is the true love of Prince Charming / David Nolan , mother of Emma Swan and son Neal , and grandmother of Emma 's son Henry . The character has been one of Goodwin 's best roles , one she loves playing on the show . Before accepting the role , Goodwin stated in interviews that she 'd always wanted to play Snow White and called her acceptance of the role `` a no - brainer . Kitsis and Horowitz are self - described big fans of Goodwin 's previous series , Big Love , and wrote the part of Snow with Goodwin in mind . Contents ( hide ) 1 Character background 1.1 Early life 1.2 Season 1 1.3 Season 2 1.4 Season 3 1.5 Season 4 1.6 Season 5 1.7 Season 6 2 Character Development and Reception 3 References 4 External links Character background ( edit ) Early life ( edit ) In the Enchanted Forest , Mary Margaret was actually born Snow White , the daughter of King Leopold and Queen Eva . As a young girl , Snow White 's mother dies when Cora poisons her , in an attempt to make Cora 's daughter Regina the new Queen . Snow is later rescued from a runaway horse by Regina , which leads to her having a loveless marriage with Snow 's father . After Regina assumes the throne by killing the King , she recruits the Huntsman to kill Snow , but he ends up sparing her for her selflessness . Snow then lives in the forest , meeting Prince David while robbing him who she nicknames Charming . The pair fall in love , but he returns to his fiancée Princess Abigail , though the Evil Queen holds him captive . In exchange for Charming 's life , Snow eats an apple from the Queen containing a sleeping curse . Charming breaks free of his imprisonment and awakens her with true love 's kiss . The two are later married . During the wedding the Evil Queen announces her curse to destroy their happiness . Snow gives birth to Emma and she is placed in a magical wardrobe and transported to the real world as the curse takes hold . Season 1 ( edit ) In Storybrooke , she appears as Mary Margaret Blanchard , Henry Mills ' fourth grade teacher at Storybrooke Elementary School . As a part - time volunteer at the General Hospital , she awakens David Nolan ( Prince Charming ) from his coma , and the pair gradually fall in love , despite David 's marriage to Kathryn Nolan ( Princess Abigail ) . Beginning a secret relationship , the affair becomes public and David 's marriage breaks down . Mary Margaret becomes an outcast in the town , and is arrested for Kathryn 's `` murder '' after fake evidence is discovered . Kathryn is later found alive , though Mary Margaret 's relationship with David becomes strained as he did not believe her innocence . He decides to leave Storybrooke , but the two are reunited when the curse is broken , and they regain their memories . Season 2 ( edit ) The two find Emma , only for Mary Margaret to be transported with her back to the remaining Enchanted Forest through a portal , though they manage to return to Storybrooke . After Regina and her mother Cora attempt to gain power by killing Mr. Gold , Mary Margaret curses Cora 's heart with the same candle that Cora used to kill her mother Eva and tricks Regina into killing her . She pleads for Regina to kill her when she can not deal with what she has done , but she instead tearfully taunts her . Season 3 ( edit ) When Henry is kidnapped and taken to Neverland , she travels with Emma , David , Regina , Mr. Gold , and Captain Hook to rescue him . Upon returning to the town with Henry , Peter Pan enacts Regina 's curse again , leading Mary Margaret to be returned to the Enchanted Forest with the other inhabitants , while Emma and Henry escape to New York City . Back in the Enchanted Forest , Snow learns she is pregnant again but discovers that Zelena , the Wicked Witch of the West wants her baby . After a year of battling , Snow and Charming realize they must enact a new curse to return to Emma who can stop Zelena . A reassuring David lets Snow crush his heart , though she later requests Regina split Snow 's heart to give to both of them . Once they return with their memories of the past year erased , Emma returns to Storybrooke , learning her mother is pregnant . Zelena plots to steal the baby by becoming her mid-wife , though she is ultimately defeated and Mary Margaret gives birth to a son , whom she names after Henry 's father and Rumplestiltkin 's son , Neal . Season 4 ( edit ) Mary Margaret later becomes Mayor of Storybrooke but after the Snow Queen 's defeat Regina is given back the position and Mary Margaret becomes a teacher again . Following the Queen 's of Darkness 's arrival in Storybrooke , Mary Margaret and David battle to keep their secret ( being the reason Maleficent lost her child ) from Emma . However , they eventually tell Emma the truth , who finds it hard to forgive them . After Mary Margaret is almost killed by Maleficent 's daughter Lily , Emma reunites with her parents and forgives them , and after everything is return to normal after the alternate reality is erased but this is short lived when Emma sacrifices herself to become the new Dark One . Season 5 ( edit ) With the other residents , Mary Margaret is transported to the Enchanted Forest , taking Emma to Camelot in order to find Merlin and remove her darkness . However , weeks later , they return to Storybrooke with missing memories as to how they failed . She would later have her memories restored after Emma transfers her powers of the Dark One to Hook , who then sacrifice himself . Mary Margaret later joined Emma in the quest to rescue Hook in the Underworld , where she encountered Hercules , a childhood romance of hers . In the past , it had been Hercules who helped her become an accomplished archer . When she realized that he never completed his twelve labors before he died , she returned the favor by helping him defeat the three - headed hellhound Cerberus , and in the process allowed him to join his father Zeus on Mount Olympus . Her actions would result in Hades picking her as one of three souls he wants to keep behind . Following this , she discovered that she no longer wanted to be known as Mary Margaret and returned to being Snow White . She and David later learned that her brother - in - law James was in the Underworld , bitter at the fact that David had stolen his life , following his death . Later , Snow and David found a way to contact their son Neal from the Underworld , only to have Cruella de Vil and her henchman Claude tear out the phones after they succeed . As a sacrifice to keep one soul in the Underworld , David traded places with Snow , so she could return to Storybrooke . Before arriving back home , Snow witnessed her friend Red 's awaking Dorothy Gale with true love 's kiss . Following the defeat of Hades at the hands of Zelena , Snow was transported , along with David , Zelena , and Hook , to the Land of Untold Stories , led by the sinister Mr. Hyde . Fortunately , with the assistance of Dr. Jekyll , the heroes escaped . Then with further help from their family in New York City , Snow , David , Zelena , and Hook were safely returned to the Land Without Magic , accompanied by Jekyll ( who had now separated himself from Hyde ) . Upon her return , Snow witnesses Regina 's use of Jekyll 's serum to separate herself from the Evil Queen , as well as Regina 's subsequent attempt to destroy her . Season 6 ( edit ) After the people from the Land of Untold Stories arrive in town , Snow and her family stop Hyde and decide to help these new people with finding their happy endings but find themselves in repeating battles as the Evil Queen arrives and has Regina kill the Count of Monte Cristo . Afterwards when trying to figure out why the Evil Queen survived Regina crushing her and a way to destroy her , Snow wishes to become a teacher again and for things to return to normal which they start to do but this is short lived when the Evil Queen threatens Storybrooke with water from the River of Lost Souls unless Snow and David give up their shared heart which they do . But the Evil Queens decides to give them her pain of loneliness so she places a sleeping curse on their shared heart so when one is awake , the other will be asleep meaning Snow and David can not be together . As they try to continue life without each other Snow starts to lose hope as she can not stand being without David . As Regina works feverishly to waken Snow and Charming from the Sleeping Curse , Gold comes face to face with the Black Fairy , the powerful enemy Emma must fight in the Final Battle . Hook , still in Neverland , meets up with Tiger Lily , who gives him a piece of an ancient fairy wand to give Emma , to aid her in defeating the Black Fairy . Gold learns that the Black Fairy had been manipulating Gideon with his heart , and confronts her about it , with her saying that if they should fight , Storybrooke would be destroyed.In 1993 , a pixie flower awakens Snow and Charming from their cursed selves , but an awakened Rumplestiltskin tells them they must make a difficult decision , to ensure that Emma fulfills her destiny as the Savior . In the present A Pixie flower allows Emma to open a doorway to Neverland and rescue Hook , who re-proposes . Character development and reception ( edit ) Goodwinn 's portrayal of Snow / Mary Margaret has met with positive reviews . Prior to accepting the role , Goodwin had stated in interviews that she 'd always wanted to play Snow White and called her acceptance of the role `` a no - brainer . Kitsis and Horowitz are self - described big fans of Goodwin 's previous series , Big Love , and wrote the part of Snow with Goodwin in mind . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ The Blue Fairy referred to Snow White as the queen in the first season episode `` The Stranger . '' Jump up ^ `` Once Upon a Time timeline '' . ONCE - Once Upon a Time podcast . Note that the page clearly admits that it is guessing . Says the page , `` Snow 's age at the time of the curse is n't known , so we 're assuming she was 28 , which is Emma 's age when Emma came to Storybrooke . It 's been said that Emma is the same age as her parents . March 3rd as the initial date estimate because 215 aired that day -- which is in winter -- and the air date for the pilot also correlates to the Curse . However , timeline math suggests her birthday may actually be a few days later -- current estimate is March 7th . '' All that is truly known about Snow 's birthtime is that she was born during a particularly harsh winter ( `` The Queen Is Dead '' ) . Jump up ^ In `` Labor of Love , '' Snow stated she no longer wished to use the name Mary Margaret . Jump up ^ Ratcliffe , Amy ( July 11 , 2015 ) . `` COMIC - CON : ONCE UPON A TIME TALKS DARK SWAN AND MERIDA FOR SEASON 5 '' . IGN . Retrieved July 11 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Halterman , Jim ( October 21 , 2011 ) . `` Interview : `` Once Upon a Time '' Co-Stars Ginnifer Goodwin , Josh Dallas & Lana Parrilla `` . The Futon Critic . Retrieved January 3 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Ratcliffe , Amy ( December 12 , 2011 ) . `` Once Upon a Time : `` The Heart is a Lonely Hunter '' Review `` . IGN . Retrieved April 16 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Murphy , Shaunna ( November 7 , 2011 ) . `` ' Once Upon a Time ' recap : The Woods Are Lovely , Dark , And Deep '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved November 18 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` '' Once Upon a Time '' Heart of Darkness ( 2012 ) `` . IMDB . Jump up ^ `` ' Once Upon a Time ' recap : Dark Shadows '' from Entertainment Weekly ( April 28 , 2013 ) Jump up ^ Busis , Hilary ( January 23 , 2012 ) . `` ' Once Upon a Time ' recap : When Doves Fly '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved January 23 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` '' Once Upon a Time '' What Happened to Frederick ( 2012 ) `` . IMDB . Jump up ^ Busis , Hillary ( March 5 , 2012 ) . `` Once Upon a Time ' recap : A Fairy Tale -- Literally '' . Retrieved March 2 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` '' Once Upon a Time '' Red - Handed ( 2012 ) `` . IMDB . Jump up ^ Sava , Oliver ( April 22 , 2012 ) . `` The Return '' . The A.V. Club . Retrieved April 22 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` ' Once Upon a Time ' season finale recap : Now I 'm a Believer '' by Hilary Busis , from Entertainment Weekly ( May 13 , 2012 ) Jump up ^ ' Once Upon A Time ' Recap : Mother Knows Best And Charming Steps Up In ' We Are Both ' by Laura Prudom The Huffington Post ( October 7 , 2012 ) Jump up ^ Busis , Hillary ( December 8 , 2013 ) . `` ' Once Upon a Time ' recap : Pain and Pan-ic '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved December 8 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Busis , Hilary ( December 15 , 2013 ) . `` ' Once Upon a Time ' recap : The End Is the Beginning Is the End '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved December 16 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Hillary , Busis ( March 9 , 2014 ) . `` ' Once Upon a Time ' recap : Monkey Business '' . Entertainment Weekly . External links ( edit ) Mary Margaret Blanchard on IMDb Once Upon a Time Episodes Season 1 6 7 Characters Mary Margaret Blanchard Emma Swan Regina Mills David Nolan Henry Mills Mr. Gold Hook Belle Zelena Robin Hood Universe Creatures Items Related Awards and nominations List of cast members Once Upon a Time in Wonderland Category Snow White by the Brothers Grimm Disney franchise Gold - Tree and Silver - Tree Snow - White - Fire - Red The Tale of the Dead Princess and the Seven Knights Standalone films Snow White ( 1902 ) Snow White ( 1916 ) Betty Boop in Snow - White ( 1933 ) Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( 1937 ) Coal Black and de Sebben Dwarfs ( 1943 ) The Seven Dwarfs to the Rescue ( 1951 ) Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( 1955 ) Snow White and the Three Stooges ( 1961 ) Snow White ( 1962 ) A Snow White Christmas ( 1980 ) Neberte nám princeznú ( 1981 ) Snow White ( 1987 ) Happily Ever After ( 1990 ) Snow White ( 1995 ) Snow White : A Tale of Terror ( 1997 ) Snow White : The Fairest of Them All ( 2001 ) 7 Dwarves -- Men Alone in the Wood ( 2004 ) Snow White : The Sequel ( 2007 ) Sydney White ( 2007 ) Happily N'Ever After 2 : Snow White Another Bite @ the Apple ( 2009 ) Blanche Neige ( 2009 ) Grimm 's Snow White ( 2012 ) Mirror Mirror ( 2012 ) Blancanieves ( 2012 ) Charming ( 2018 ) The Huntsman film series Snow White and the Huntsman ( 2012 ) The Huntsman : Winter 's War ( 2016 ) Television series The 10th Kingdom ( miniseries ) The Charmings ( sitcom ) The Legend of Snow White ( anime series ) Prétear ( anime series ) Once Upon a Time ( drama series ) Sofia the First ( TV series ) ( `` The Enchanted Feast '' ) ( Season 2 , Episode 27 ) The 7D ( TV series ) Stage Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( 1912 play ) Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( musical ) A Snow White Christmas ( musical ) Other media Fables ( comics ) Mira , Mirror ( novel ) Mirror Mirror ( novel ) Red as Blood ( short story ) Schneewittchen ( opera ) Seven Dwarfs Mine Train ( attraction ) Snow White ( comic strip ) Snow White 's Scary Adventures ( attraction ) Snow White Grotto ( attraction ) Snow White : Happily Ever After ( video game ) `` Snow , Glass , Apples '' ( short story ) The Serpent 's Shadow ( novel ) Fairest ( novel ) Politically Correct Bedtime Stories ( short story collection ) Amada Anime Series : Super Mario Bros. ( OVA ) The Wolf Among Us ( video game ) Ballet The Magic Mirror ( 1903 ) Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs Characters Snow White Snow White ( Disney ) Mary Margaret Blanchard The Queen Evil Queen ( Disney ) Regina Mills Queen of Fables The Seven Dwarfs The Magic Mirror The King The Huntsman Prince Charming Category Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mary_Margaret_Blanchard&oldid=805249584 '' Categories : Once Upon a Time ( TV series ) characters Fictional archers Fictional schoolteachers Fictional mayors Fictional characters introduced in 2011 Fictional characters who use magic Fictional princesses Fictional thieves Fictional queens Fictional victims of kidnapping Snow White ( Snow White ) Fictional diplomats Fictional revolutionaries Fictional royalty Hidden categories : Articles using Infobox character with multiple unlabeled fields Talk Contents About Wikipedia עברית 日本 語 Polski Edit links This page was last edited on 14 October 2017 , at 02 : 19 . About Wikipedia

7406110259116622244

when does the sun come up in the summer

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Midnight_sun&oldid=828427607

Midnight sun - wikipedia Midnight sun Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Midnight sun ( disambiguation ) . This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( August 2013 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The Altafjord in Alta , Norway , bathed in the midnight sun . Midnight sun at the North Cape on the island of Magerøya in Norway The midnight sun is a natural phenomenon that occurs in the summer months in places north of the Arctic Circle or south of the Antarctic Circle , when the sun remains visible at the local midnight . Contents ( hide ) 1 Details 2 Time zones and daylight saving time 3 White nights 4 Duration 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Details ( edit ) Around the summer solstice ( approximately 21 June in the Northern Hemisphere and 22 December in the Southern Hemisphere ) , the sun is visible for the full 24 hours , given fair weather . The number of days per year with potential midnight sun increases the closer towards either pole one goes . Although approximately defined by the polar circles , in practice the midnight sun can be seen as much as 55 miles ( 90 km ) outside the polar circle , as described below , and the exact latitudes of the farthest reaches of midnight sun depend on topography and vary slightly year - to - year . Midnight Sun seen from airplane while passing Greenland Because there are no permanent human settlements south of the Antarctic Circle , apart from research stations , the countries and territories whose populations experience the midnight sun are limited to those crossed by the Arctic Circle : the Canadian Yukon , Nunavut , and Northwest Territories , and the nations of Iceland , Finland , Norway , Sweden , Denmark ( Greenland ) , Russia , and the State of Alaska in the United States . A quarter of Finland 's territory lies north of the Arctic Circle , and at the country 's northernmost point the sun does not set at all for 60 days during summer . In Svalbard , Norway , the northernmost inhabited region of Europe , there is no sunset from approximately 19 April to 23 August . The extreme sites are the poles , where the sun can be continuously visible for half the year . The North Pole has midnight sun for 6 months from late March to late September . The opposite phenomenon , polar night , occurs in winter , when the sun stays below the horizon throughout the day . Since the axial tilt of the Earth is considerable ( approximately 23 degrees 27 minutes ) , the sun does not set at high latitudes in local summer . The sun remains continuously visible for one day during the summer solstice at the polar circle , for several weeks only 100 km ( 62 mi ) closer to the pole , and for six months at the pole . At extreme latitudes , the midnight sun is usually referred to as polar day . At the poles themselves , the sun rises and sets only once each year on the equinox . During the six months that the sun is above the horizon , it spends the days continuously moving in circles around the observer , gradually spiralling higher and reaching its highest circuit of the sky at the summer solstice . Because of atmospheric refraction , and also because the sun is a disc rather than a point , the midnight sun may be experienced at latitudes slightly below the polar circle , though not exceeding one degree ( depending on local conditions ) . For example , Iceland is known for its midnight sun , even though most of it ( Grímsey is the exception ) is slightly south of the Arctic Circle . For the same reasons , the period of sunlight at the poles is slightly longer than six months . Even the northern extremities of Scotland ( and places at similar latitudes , such as St. Petersburg ) experience twilight throughout the night in the northern sky at around the summer solstice . Observers at heights appreciably above sea level can experience extended periods of midnight sun as a result of the `` dip '' of the horizon viewed from altitude . Time zones and daylight saving time ( edit ) The term `` midnight sun '' refers to the consecutive 24 - hour periods of sunlight experienced north of the Arctic Circle and south of the Antarctic Circle . Other phenomena are sometimes referred to as `` midnight sun '' , but they are caused by time zones and the observance of daylight saving time . For instance , in Fairbanks , Alaska , which is south of the Arctic Circle , the sun sets at 12 : 47 am at the summer solstice . This is because Fairbanks is 51 minutes ahead of its idealized time zone ( as most of the state is in one time zone ) and Alaska observes daylight saving time . ( Fairbanks is at about 147.72 degrees west , corresponding to UTC − 9 hours 51 minutes , and is on UTC − 9 in winter . ) This means that solar culmination occurs at about 12 : 51 pm instead of at 12 noon . If a precise moment for the genuine `` midnight sun '' is required , the observer 's longitude , the local civil time and the equation of time must be taken into account . The moment of the sun 's closest approach to the horizon coincides with its passing due north at the observer 's position , which occurs only approximately at midnight in general . Each degree of longitude east of the Greenwich meridian makes the vital moment exactly 4 minutes earlier than midnight as shown on the clock , while each hour that the local civil time is ahead of coordinated universal time ( UTC , also known as GMT ) makes the moment an hour later . These two effects must be added . Furthermore , the equation of time ( which depends on the date ) must be added : a positive value on a given date means that the sun is running slightly ahead of its average position , so the value must be subtracted . As an example , at the North Cape of Norway at midnight on June 21 / 22 , the longitude of 25.9 degrees east makes the moment 103.2 minutes earlier by clock time ; but the local time , 2 hours ahead of GMT in the summer , makes it 120 minutes later by clock time . The equation of time at that date is - 2.0 minutes . Therefore , the sun 's lowest elevation occurs 120 - 103.2 + 2.0 minutes after midnight : at 00.19 Central European Summer time . On other nearby dates the only thing different is the equation of time , so this remains a reasonable estimate for a considerable period . The sun 's altitude remains within half a degree of the minimum of about 5 degrees for about 45 minutes either side of this time . White Nights ( edit ) Main article : White Night festivals Locations where the sun remains less than 6 ( or 7 ) degrees below the horizon -- above 60 ° 34 ' ( or 59 ° 34 ' ) latitude south of the Arctic Circle or north of the Antarctic Circle -- experience midnight twilight instead of midnight sun , so that daytime activities , such as reading , are still possible without artificial light on a clear night . White Nights have become a common symbol of Saint Petersburg , Russia , where they occur from about 11 June to 2 July , and the last 10 days of June are celebrated with cultural events known as the White Nights Festival . Duration ( edit ) Map showing the dates of midnight sun at various latitudes ( left ) and the total number of nights . The midnight sun is visible at the Arctic Circle from 12 June until 1 July . This period extends as one travels north : At Cape Nordkinn , Norway , the northernmost point of Continental Europe , the midnight sun lasts approximately from 14 May to 29 July . On the Svalbard archipelago farther north , it lasts from 20 April to 22 August . See also ( edit ) Environment portal Pytheas , ancient Greek geographer from Massalia and first person to describe the midnight sun Eagle Summit , which , because of its altitude , experiences the midnight sun despite being south of the Arctic Circle Polar night , the opposite phenomenon experienced in winter : a day without sunrise . Midnight Sun Solar Race Team : With the midnight sun phenomenon , a solar - powered vehicle can continue driving 24 hours a day . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` What is the Midnight Sun Phenomenon ? Earth Phenomena Planetary Science '' . Scribd . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 25 . Jump up ^ H. Spencer Jones , General Astronomy ( Edward Arnold , London , 1922 ) , Chapters I - III ^ Jump up to : Great Soviet Encyclopedia Jump up ^ Trygve B. Haugan , ed . Det Nordlige Norge Fra Trondheim Til Midnattssolens Land ( Trondheim : Reisetrafikkforeningen for Trondheim og Trøndelag. 1940 ) Further reading ( edit ) Lutgens F.K. , Tarbuck E.J. ( 2007 ) The Atmosphere , Tenth Edition , page 39 , PEARSON , Prentice Hall , NJ . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Midnight sun . Midnight sun seen from Fjellheisen Tromsø - 360 panorama ( hide ) Parts of a day Dawn -- Twilight -- Sunrise Morning Daytime Evening Sunset -- Twilight -- Dusk Night Related articles : Belt of Venus Blue hour Golden hour Terminator Daylight Forenoon Noon Afternoon Midnight Midnight sun Polar night Zodiacal light Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Midnight_sun&oldid=828427607 '' Categories : Earth phenomena Arctic geography terminology Sun Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from August 2013 All articles needing additional references Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikivoyage Afrikaans Azərbaycanca Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца ) ‎ Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Хальмг 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Lëtzebuergesch Magyar Македонски Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Português Русский Simple English Slovenčina Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 吴语 粵語 中文 42 more Edit links This page was last edited on 2 March 2018 , at 13 : 44 . 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three methods for marking animals for mark and recapture sampling

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Mark_and_recapture&oldid=821123388

Mark and recapture - wikipedia Mark and recapture Jump to : navigation , search This article includes a list of references , but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations . Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations . ( March 2008 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Collar tagged Rock Hyrax Jackdaw with a numbered aluminum ring on its left tarsus Biologist is marking a Chittenango ovate amber snail to monitor the population . Marked Chittenango ovate amber snail . Mark and recapture is a method commonly used in ecology to estimate an animal population 's size . A portion of the population is captured , marked , and released . Later , another portion is captured and the number of marked individuals within the sample is counted . Since the number of marked individuals within the second sample should be proportional to the number of marked individuals in the whole population , an estimate of the total population size can be obtained by dividing the number of marked individuals by the proportion of marked individuals in the second sample . The method is most useful when it is not practical to count all the individuals in the population . Other names for this method , or closely related methods , include capture - recapture , capture - mark - recapture , mark - recapture , sight - resight , mark - release - recapture , multiple systems estimation , band recovery , the Petersen method , and the Lincoln method . Another major application for these methods is in epidemiology , where they are used to estimate the completeness of ascertainment of disease registers . Typical applications include estimating the number of people needing particular services ( i.e. services for children with learning disabilities , services for medically frail elderly living in the community ) , or with particular conditions ( i.e. illegal drug addicts , people infected with HIV , etc . ) . Contents ( hide ) 1 Field work related to mark - recapture 2 Notation 3 Lincoln -- Petersen estimator 3.1 Derivation 3.2 Sample calculation 4 Chapman estimator 4.1 Sample calculation 4.2 Variance 5 Confidence interval 6 Bayesian estimate 6.1 Mean value ± standard deviation 6.2 Sample calculation 7 More than two visits 8 Integrated approaches 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Field work related to mark - recapture ( edit ) Typically a researcher visits a study area and uses traps to capture a group of individuals alive . Each of these individuals is marked with a unique identifier ( e.g. , a numbered tag or band ) , and then is released unharmed back into the environment . A mark recapture method was first used for ecological study in 1896 by C.G. Johannes Petersen to estimate plaice , Pleuronectes platessa , populations . Sufficient time is allowed to pass for the marked individuals to redistribute themselves among the unmarked population . Next , the researcher returns and captures another sample of individuals . Some individuals in this second sample will have been marked during the initial visit and are now known as recaptures . Other animals captured during the second visit , will not have been captured during the first visit to the study area . These unmarked animals are usually given a tag or band during the second visit and then are released . Population size can be estimated from as few as two visits to the study area . Commonly , more than two visits are made , particularly if estimates of survival or movement are desired . Regardless of the total number of visits , the researcher simply records the date of each capture of each individual . The `` capture histories '' generated are analyzed mathematically to estimate population size , survival , or movement . In the epidemiological setting , different sources of patients take the place of the repeated field visits in ecology . To take a concrete example , establishing a register of children with Type 1 diabetes children were identified from hospital admission records , from general practitioners ( family doctors ) , and from the records of the local Diabetes Association . None of these sources had a complete list , but by putting them together it was possible to do two things , first to see how many children were identified in total , and secondly to estimate how many more children with Type 1 diabetes were living in the vital community . Notation ( edit ) Let N = Number of animals in the population n = Number of animals marked on the first visit K = Number of animals captured on the second visit k = Number of recaptured animals that were marked A biologist wants to estimate the size of a population of turtles in a lake . She captures 10 turtles on her first visit to the lake , and marks their backs with paint . A week later she returns to the lake and captures 15 turtles . Five of these 15 turtles have paint on their backs , indicating that they are recaptured animals . This example is ( n , K , k ) = ( 10 , 15 , 5 ) . The problem is to estimate N . Lincoln -- Petersen estimator ( edit ) Main article : Lincoln index The Lincoln -- Petersen method ( also known as the Petersen -- Lincoln index or Lincoln index ) can be used to estimate population size if only two visits are made to the study area . This method assumes that the study population is `` closed '' . In other words , the two visits to the study area are close enough in time so that no individuals die , are born , move into the study area ( immigrate ) or move out of the study area ( emigrate ) between visits . The model also assumes that no marks fall off animals between visits to the field site by the researcher , and that the researcher correctly records all marks . Given those conditions , estimated population size is : N ^ = K n k , ( \ displaystyle ( \ hat ( N ) ) = ( \ frac ( Kn ) ( k ) ) , ) Derivation ( edit ) It is assumed that all individuals have the same probability of being captured in the second sample , regardless of whether they were previously captured in the first sample ( with only two samples , this assumption can not be tested directly ) . This implies that , in the second sample , the proportion of marked individuals that are caught ( k / K ( \ displaystyle k / K ) ) should equal the proportion of the total population that is marked ( n / N ( \ displaystyle n / N ) ) . For example , if half of the marked individuals were recaptured , it would be assumed that half of the total population was included in the second sample . In symbols , k K = n N . ( \ displaystyle ( \ frac ( k ) ( K ) ) = ( \ frac ( n ) ( N ) ) . ) A rearrangement of this gives N ^ = K n k , ( \ displaystyle ( \ hat ( N ) ) = ( \ frac ( Kn ) ( k ) ) , ) the formula used for the Lincoln -- Petersen method . Sample calculation ( edit ) In the example ( n , K , k ) = ( 10 , 15 , 5 ) the Lincoln -- Petersen method estimates that there are 30 turtles in the lake . N ^ = K n k = 10 × 15 5 = 30 ( \ displaystyle ( \ hat ( N ) ) = ( \ frac ( Kn ) ( k ) ) = ( \ frac ( 10 \ times 15 ) ( 5 ) ) = 30 ) Chapman estimator ( edit ) The Lincoln -- Peterson estimator is asymptotically unbiased as sample size approaches infinity , but is biased at small sample sizes . An alternative less biased estimator of population size is given by the Chapman estimator : N ^ C = ( K + 1 ) ( n + 1 ) k + 1 − 1 ( \ displaystyle ( \ hat ( N ) ) _ ( C ) = ( \ frac ( ( K + 1 ) ( n + 1 ) ) ( k + 1 ) ) - 1 ) Sample calculation ( edit ) The example ( K , n , k ) = ( 10 , 15 , 5 ) gives N ^ C = ( K + 1 ) ( n + 1 ) k + 1 − 1 = 11 × 16 6 − 1 = 28.3 ( \ displaystyle ( \ hat ( N ) ) _ ( C ) = ( \ frac ( ( K + 1 ) ( n + 1 ) ) ( k + 1 ) ) - 1 = ( \ frac ( 11 \ times 16 ) ( 6 ) ) - 1 = 28.3 ) Note that the answer provided by this equation must be truncated not rounded . Thus , the Chapman method estimates 28 turtles in the lake . Surprisingly , Chapman 's estimate was one conjecture from a range of possible estimators : `` In practice , the whole number immediately less than ( K + 1 ) ( n + 1 ) / ( k + 1 ) or even Kn / ( k + 1 ) will be the estimate . The above form is more convenient for mathematical purposes . '' ( see footnote , page 144 ) . Chapman also found the estimator could have considerable negative bias for small Kn / N ( page 146 ) , but was unconcerned because the estimated standard deviations were large for these cases . A Bayesian analysis found that Chapman 's estimator is the maximum a posteriori estimator for a situation when the first person searches for a fixed number of animals then marks and releases them , but the second person searches for as many animals as possible . Variance ( edit ) An approximately unbiased variance of N ^ C ( \ textstyle ( \ hat ( N ) ) _ ( C ) ) can be estimated as : var ⁡ ( N ^ C ) = ( K + 1 ) ( n + 1 ) ( K − k ) ( n − k ) ( k + 1 ) ( k + 1 ) ( k + 2 ) . ( \ displaystyle \ operatorname ( var ) ( ( \ hat ( N ) ) _ ( C ) ) = ( \ frac ( ( K + 1 ) ( n + 1 ) ( K-k ) ( n-k ) ) ( ( k + 1 ) ( k + 1 ) ( k + 2 ) ) ) . ) The moments of the hypergeometric equation studied by Chapman can be calculated exactly , giving the answers discussed below . Confidence interval ( edit ) An approximate 100 ( 1 − α ) % ( \ displaystyle 100 ( 1 - \ alpha ) \ % ) confidence interval for the population size N can be obtained as : K + n − k + ( K − k + 0.5 ) ( n − k + 0.5 ) ( k + 0.5 ) exp ⁡ ( ± z α / 2 σ ^ 0.5 ) ( \ displaystyle K + n - k+ ( \ frac ( ( K - k + 0.5 ) ( n - k + 0.5 ) ) ( ( k + 0.5 ) ) ) \ exp ( \ pm z_ ( \ alpha / 2 ) ( \ hat ( \ sigma ) ) _ ( 0.5 ) ) ) , where z α / 2 ( \ textstyle z_ ( \ alpha / 2 ) ) corresponds to the 1 − α / 2 ( \ displaystyle 1 - \ alpha / 2 ) quantile of a standard normal random variable , and σ ^ 0.5 = 1 k + 0.5 + 1 K − k + 0.5 + 1 n − k + 0.5 + k + 0.5 ( n − k + 0.5 ) ( K − k + 0.5 ) ( \ displaystyle ( \ hat ( \ sigma ) ) _ ( 0.5 ) = ( \ sqrt ( ( \ frac ( 1 ) ( k + 0.5 ) ) + ( \ frac ( 1 ) ( K - k + 0.5 ) ) + ( \ frac ( 1 ) ( n - k + 0.5 ) ) + ( \ frac ( k + 0.5 ) ( ( n - k + 0.5 ) ( K - k + 0.5 ) ) ) ) ) ) . It has been shown that this confidence interval has actual coverage probabilities that are close to the nominal 100 ( 1 − α ) % ( \ displaystyle 100 ( 1 - \ alpha ) \ % ) level even for small populations and extreme capture probabilities ( near to 0 or 1 ) , in which cases other confidence intervals fail to achieve the nominal coverage levels . Bayesian estimate ( edit ) A Bayesian analysis is provided by . The final answer depends on the priors and the type of search assumed but the approach gives , for Chapman 's assumptions ( and changing variables from the original notation ) , Mean value ± standard deviation ( edit ) N ≈ ( K − 1 ) ( n − 1 ) k − 2 ± ( K − 1 ) ( n − 1 ) ( K − k + 1 ) ( n − k + 1 ) ( k − 2 ) ( k − 2 ) ( k − 3 ) ( \ displaystyle N \ approx ( \ frac ( ( K - 1 ) ( n - 1 ) ) ( k - 2 ) ) \ pm ( \ sqrt ( \ frac ( ( K - 1 ) ( n - 1 ) ( K - k + 1 ) ( n - k + 1 ) ) ( ( k - 2 ) ( k - 2 ) ( k - 3 ) ) ) ) ) A derivation is found here : Talk : Mark and recapture # Statistical treatment . Sample calculation ( edit ) The example ( K , n , k ) = ( 10 , 15 , 5 ) gives the estimate N ≈ 42 ± 21.5 More than two visits ( edit ) The literature on the analysis of capture - recapture studies has blossomed since the early 1990s . There are very elaborate statistical models available for the analysis of these experiments . A simple model which easily accommodates the three source , or the three visit study , is to fit a Poisson regression model . Sophisticated mark - recapture models can be fit with several packages for the Open Source R programming language . These include `` Spatially Explicit Capture - Recapture ( secr ) '' , `` Loglinear Models for Capture - Recapture Experiments ( Rcapture ) '' , and `` Mark - Recapture Distance Sampling ( mrds ) '' . Such models can also be fit with specialized programs such as MARK or M - SURGE . Other related methods which are often used include the Jolly -- Seber model ( used in open populations and for multiple census estimates ) and Schnabel estimators ( described above as an expansion to the Lincoln -- Peterson method for closed populations ) . These are described in detail by Sutherland . Integrated approaches ( edit ) Modelling mark - recapture data is trending towards a more integrative approach , which combines mark - recapture data with population dynamics models and other types of data . The integrated approach is more computationally demanding , but extracts more information from the data improving parameter and uncertainty estimates . See also ( edit ) Ecology portal German tank problem , for estimation of population size when the elements are numbered . Tag and release Abundance estimation GPS wildlife tracking References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Krebs , Charles J. ( 2009 ) . Ecology ( 6th ed . ) . p. 119 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 321 - 50743 - 3 . Jump up ^ Chao , A. ; Tsay , P.K. ; Lin , S.H. ; Shau , W.Y. ; Chao , D.Y. ( 2001 ) . `` The applications of capture - recapture models to epidemiological data '' . Statistics in Medicine . 20 ( 20 ) : 3123 -- 3157 . doi : 10.1002 / sim. 996 . PMID 11590637 . ^ Jump up to : Southwood , T.R.E. ; Henderson , P. ( 2000 ) . Ecological Methods ( 3rd ed . ) . Oxford : Blackwell Science . Jump up ^ Seber , G.A.F. The Estimation of Animal Abundance and Related Parameters . Caldwel , New Jersey : Blackburn Press . ISBN 1 - 930665 - 55 - 5 . ^ Jump up to : Charles J. Krebs ( 1999 ) . Ecological Methodology ( 2nd ed . ) . ISBN 9780321021731 . ^ Jump up to : Chapman , D.G. ( 1951 ) . `` Some properties of the hypergeometric distribution with applications to zoological sample censuses '' . ^ Jump up to : Webster , Anthony J. ; Kemp , Richard ( 2013 ) . `` Estimating Omissions From Searches '' . The American Statistician. 67 ( 2 ) : 82 -- 89 . arXiv : 1205.1150 . doi : 10.1080 / 00031305.2013. 783881 . Jump up ^ Sadinle , Mauricio ( 2009 - 10 - 01 ) . `` Transformed Logit Confidence Intervals for Small Populations in Single Capture -- Recapture Estimation '' . Communications in Statistics - Simulation and Computation. 38 ( 9 ) : 1909 -- 1924 . doi : 10.1080 / 03610910903168595 . ISSN 0361 - 0918 . Jump up ^ McCrea , R.S. and Morgan , B.J.T. ( 2014 ) `` Analysis of capture - recapture data '' . Retrieved 19 Nov 2014 . `` Chapman and Hall / CRC Press '' . Retrieved 19 Nov 2014 . Jump up ^ Efford , Murray ( 2016 - 09 - 02 ) . `` Spatially Explicit Capture - Recapture ( secr ) '' . Comprehensive R Archive Network ( CRAN ) . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 02 . Jump up ^ Rivest , Louis - Paul ; Baillargeon , Sophie ( 2014 - 09 - 01 ) . `` Loglinear Models for Capture - Recapture Experiments ( Rcapture ) '' . Comprehensive R Archive Network ( CRAN ) . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 02 . Jump up ^ Laake , Jeff ; Borchers , David ; Thomas , Len ; Miller , David ; Bishop , Jon ( 2015 - 08 - 17 ) . `` Mark - Recapture Distance Sampling ( mrds ) '' . Comprehensive R Archive Network ( CRAN ) . Jump up ^ `` Program MARK '' . Archived from the original on 21 February 2006 . Retrieved 29 May 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Logiciels '' . Archived from the original on 2009 - 07 - 24 . Jump up ^ Schnabel , Z.E. ( 1938 ) . `` The Estimation of the Total Fish Population of a Lake '' . American Mathematical Monthly . 45 : 348 -- 352 . doi : 10.2307 / 2304025 . Jump up ^ William J. Sutherland , ed. ( 1996 ) . Ecological Census Techniques : A Handbook . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 47815 - 4 . Jump up ^ Maunder M.N. ( 2003 ) Paradigm shifts in fisheries stock assessment : from integrated analysis to Bayesian analysis and back again . Natural Resource Modeling 16 : 465 -- 475 Jump up ^ Maunder , M.N. ( 2001 ) Integrated Tagging and Catch - at - Age Analysis ( ITCAAN ) . In Spatial Processes and Management of Fish Populations , edited by G.H. Kruse , N. Bez , A. Booth , M.W. Dorn , S. Hills , R.N. Lipcius , D. Pelletier , C. Roy , S.J. Smith , and D. Witherell , Alaska Sea Grant College Program Report No . AK - SG - 01 - 02 , University of Alaska Fairbanks , pp. 123 -- 146 . Besbeas , P ; Freeman , S.N. ; Morgan , B.J.T. ; Catchpole , E.A. ( 2002 ) . `` Integrating mark - recapture - recovery and census data to estimate animal abundance and demographic parameters '' . Biometrics. 58 ( 3 ) : 540 -- 547 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 0006 - 341X. 2002.00540. x . PMID 12229988 . Martin - Löf , P. ( 1961 ) . `` ringed birds '' . Arkiv för Zoologi ( Zoology files ) , Kungliga Svenska Vetenskapsakademien ( The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences ) Serie 2 . Band 13 ( 21 ) . Maunder , M.N. ( 2004 ) . `` Population viability analysis , based on combining integrated , Bayesian , and hierarchical analyses '' . Acta Oecologica. 26 ( 2 ) : 85 -- 94 . Bibcode : 2004AcO ... 26 ... 85M . doi : 10.1016 / j. actao. 2003.11. 008 . Phillips , C.A. ; M.J. Dreslik ; J.R. Johnson ; J.E. Petzing ( 2001 ) . `` Application of population estimation to pond breeding salamanders '' . Transactions of the Illinois Academy of Science . 94 ( 2 ) : 111 -- 118 . Royle , J.A. ; R.M. Dorazio ( 2008 ) . Hierarchical Modeling and Inference in Ecology . Elsevier . ISBN 1 - 930665 - 55 - 5 . Seber , G.A.F. The Estimation of Animal Abundance and Related Parameters . Caldwel , New Jersey : Blackburn Press . ISBN 1 - 930665 - 55 - 5 . Schaub , M ; Gimenez , O. ; Sierro , A. ; Arlettaz , R ( 2007 ) . `` Use of Integrated Modeling to Enhance Estimates of Population Dynamics Obtained from Limited Data '' . Conservation Biology . 21 ( 4 ) : 945 -- 955 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1523 - 1739.2007. 00743. x . PMID 17650245 . Williams , B.K. ; J.D. Nichols ; M.J. Conroy ( 2002 ) . Analysis and Management of Animal Populations . San Diego , California : Academic Press . ISBN 0 - 12 - 754406 - 2 . Chao , A ; Tsay , P.K. ; Lin , S.H. ; Shau , W.Y. ; Chao , D.Y. ( 2001 ) . `` The applications of capture - recapture models to epidemiological data '' . Statistics in Medicine . 20 ( 20 ) : 3123 -- 3157 . doi : 10.1002 / sim. 996 . PMID 11590637 . Webster , A.J. ; Kemp , R. ( 2013 ) . `` Estimating Omissions from Searches '' . The American Statistician. 67 ( 2 ) : 82 -- 89 . doi : 10.1080 / 00031305.2013. 783881 . Further reading ( edit ) Bonett , D.G. ; Woodward , J.A. ; Bentler , P.M. ( 1986 ) . `` A Linear Model for Estimating the Size of a Closed Population '' . British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology . 39 : 28 -- 40 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 2044 - 8317.1986. tb00843. x . Evans , M.A. ; Bonett , D.G. ; McDonald , L. ( 1994 ) . `` A General Theory for Analyzing Capture - recapture Data in Closed Populations '' . Biometrics. 50 : 396 -- 405 . doi : 10.2307 / 2533383 . Lincoln , F.C. ( 1930 ) . `` Calculating Waterfowl Abundance on the Basis of Banding Returns '' . United States Department of Agriculture Circular. 118 : 1 -- 4 . Petersen , C.G.J. ( 1896 ) . `` The Yearly Immigration of Young Plaice Into the Limfjord From the German Sea '' , Report of the Danish Biological Station ( 1895 ) , 6 , 5 -- 84 . Schofield , J.R. ( 2007 ) . `` Beyond Defect Removal : Latent Defect Estimation With Capture - Recapture Method '' , Crosstalk , August 2007 ; 27 -- 29 . External links ( edit ) A historical introduction to capture - recapture methods Analysis of capture - recapture data Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mark_and_recapture&oldid=821123388 '' Categories : Ecological techniques Epidemiology Statistical data types Environmental statistics Hidden categories : Articles lacking in - text citations from March 2008 All articles lacking in - text citations All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2012 Articles with unsourced statements from May 2013 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Français 日本 語 Polski Português Suomi Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 18 January 2018 , at 15 : 04 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . 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when is this is us season 2 released on dvd

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This is Us ( season 2 ) - wikipedia This is Us ( season 2 ) Jump to : navigation , search This Is Us ( season 2 ) Promotional poster Starring Milo Ventimiglia Mandy Moore Sterling K. Brown Chrissy Metz Justin Hartley Susan Kelechi Watson Chris Sullivan Ron Cephas Jones Jon Huertas Alexandra Breckenridge Niles Fitch Logan Shroyer Parker Bates Hannah Zeile Mackenzie Hancsicsak Eris Baker Faithe Herman Lonnie Chavis Country of origin United States No. of episodes 18 Release Original network NBC Original release September 26 , 2017 ( 2017 - 09 - 26 ) -- March 13 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 13 ) Season chronology ← Previous Season 1 List of This Is Us episodes The second season of the American television series This Is Us continues to follow the lives and connections of the Pearson family across several time periods . The season was produced by Rhode Island Ave . Productions , Zaftig Films , and 20th Century Fox Television , with Dan Fogelman , Isaac Aptaker , and Elizabeth Berger serving as showrunners . A second and third season of This Is Us were ordered in January 2017 , with production for season two beginning that July . The season stars an ensemble cast featuring Milo Ventimiglia , Mandy Moore , Sterling K. Brown , Chrissy Metz , Justin Hartley , Susan Kelechi Watson , Chris Sullivan , Ron Cephas Jones , Jon Huertas , Alexandra Breckenridge , Niles Fitch , Logan Shroyer , Hannah Zeile , Mackenzie Hancsicsak , Parker Bates , Eris Baker , Faithe Herman , and Lonnie Chavis . The second season , consisting of 18 episodes , aired from September 26 , 2017 , to March 13 , 2018 , on NBC . This Is Us served as the lead - out program for Super Bowl LII in February 2018 with the second season 's fourteenth episode . Contents ( hide ) 1 Cast and characters 1.1 Main 1.2 Recurring 1.3 Guest 2 Episodes 3 Production 3.1 Development 3.2 Casting 3.3 Filming 4 Release 4.1 Broadcast 5 Reception 5.1 Critical response 5.2 Ratings 5.3 Accolades 6 References 7 External links Cast and characters ( edit ) Main article : List of This Is Us characters Main ( edit ) Milo Ventimiglia as Jack Pearson Mandy Moore as Rebecca Pearson Sterling K. Brown as Randall Pearson Niles Fitch as teenage Randall Pearson Lonnie Chavis as young Randall Pearson Chrissy Metz as Kate Pearson Hannah Zeile as teenage Kate Pearson Mackenzie Hancsicsak as young Kate Pearson Justin Hartley as Kevin Pearson Logan Shroyer as teenage Kevin Pearson Parker Bates as young Kevin Pearson Susan Kelechi Watson as Beth Pearson Chris Sullivan as Toby Damon Ron Cephas Jones as William H. `` Shakespeare '' Hill Jon Huertas as Miguel Rivas Alexandra Breckenridge as Sophie Eris Baker as Tess Pearson Faithe Herman as Annie Pearson Recurring ( edit ) Jermel Nakia as young adult William H. `` Shakespeare '' Hill Lyric Ross as Deja , Randall and Beth 's foster child . Debra Jo Rupp as Linda , a social worker who works with Randall and Beth when they foster Deja . Caitlin Thompson as Madison , Kate 's group 's resident thin member , who Kate discovers is bulimic . Joy Brunson as Shauna , Deja 's mother . Guest ( edit ) Sylvester Stallone as himself , an actor in Kevin 's movie . Sam Anderson as Walter Crowder , the judge in young adult William Hill 's case . Delroy Lindo as Ernest Bradley , the judge in Randall 's adoption case . Kate Burton as Barbara , a psychologist at Kevin 's rehab who facilitates his meeting with the family . Garrett Morris as Lloyd , a resident of William 's old apartment building . Iantha Richardson as adult Tess Pearson , a social worker . Gerald McRaney as Dr. Nathan Katowski ( aka Dr. K ) , Rebecca 's former childbirth obstetrician . Susan Blakely as Anne , Dr. K 's wife . Pam Grier as G.G. , Shauna 's grandmother and Deja 's great - grandmother . Dan Lauria as Toby 's father Wendie Malick as Toby 's mother Melanie Liburd as Zoe , Beth 's cousin Episodes ( edit ) No . overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date Prod . code U.S. viewers ( millions ) 19 `` A Father 's Advice '' Ken Olin Dan Fogelman September 26 , 2017 ( 2017 - 09 - 26 ) 2AZC01 12.94 On the Big Three 's 37th birthday , Randall wants to adopt a baby , but Beth convinces him they can honor William 's legacy by adopting an older child . Kate leaves an audition because all the other women there are thin , but she returns to go through with it . She is rejected because of her inexperience , not her weight ; Kate is confident she can work her way up . Toby tells Kevin that he , not Kevin , needs to be Kate 's `` person . '' Kevin explains that Kate informed him of their father 's death , and being Kate 's brother is the only thing he is really good at . In the past , Rebecca takes the Big Three to a movie after her argument with Jack . Rebecca urges Jack to come home ; Jack admits his drinking is out of control . Later , the family house has burned and Rebecca , in the car with Jack 's possessions in a bag , screams and cries . 20 `` A Manny - Splendored Thing '' John Fortenberry Dan Fogelman & Bekah Brunstetter October 3 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 03 ) 2AZC02 11.06 Kevin is invited back for the 100th `` The Manny '' episode . The producers try to embarrass him for how he left the show , but Sophie helps him do it anyway . Randall , Beth , their girls , Rebecca , and Miguel travel across the country to see the live episode . Randall and Beth take a walk during the taping to discuss Randall 's worries about fostering an older child who could have major issues . Also during the taping , Kate gets a call for her first gig ; however , she does not want her mother to criticize her performance , so Kate asks both Rebecca and Toby not to follow her , but they do anyway . Later , Kate confronts Rebecca about how she has always treated her . Rebecca seeks support from Toby , but he clearly sides with Kate , which wins Rebecca 's approval . After the episode taping , Beth learns from Kevin that Randall only risked failure once : in asking her out . Beth reassures Randall they can go through with their plan . In flashbacks , Jack confesses to teenage Kate that he has an alcoholism problem . Jack ( when on the wagon before ) vented his anger on a punching bag ; this time , he lets Rebecca take him to an AA meeting . 21 `` Déjà Vu '' John Requa & Glenn Ficarra Isaac Aptaker & Elizabeth Berger October 10 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 10 ) 2AZC03 11.02 On Kevin 's movie set , Kate -- excited that Sylvester Stallone is his co-star -- bonds with `` Sly '' and tells him what his films meant to her father , and about his death . After talking with Stallone , Kevin 's memories of his dad surface , affecting his performance in a scene . Randall learns that a young girl , Deja , is being brought to his home . Later , when Deja yells at Beth for `` stealing '' her mom 's cigarettes , Randall defends his wife , and Deja shrinks to defend herself from apparent aggression . Randall talks to Deja about the joy he found in having Jack and Rebecca , as well as William . Kevin takes pain medication after his old football knee injury is reinjured during battle scene filming . In flashbacks , when the kids are teenagers , Jack talks about his efforts to rehabilitate from alcoholism ; Randall tries to find his birth parents through an ad , and is comforted by Kate and Kevin after a woman claims to be his birth mother for his family 's money . 22 `` Still There '' Ken Olin Vera Herbert October 17 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 17 ) 2AZC04 10.65 Randall takes his daughters and Deja bowling , which does not go as expected . Beth offers to help Deja take care of her hair and the two bond . Randall admits to Deja that he has had problems with nervous breakdowns and has taken up running to deal with his anxiety ; he invites her to come with him . Kevin undergoes surgery on his injured knee and continues to overuse his pain medication . Kate visits a gynaecologist for an ultrasound , revealing that she is pregnant . In flashbacks , Kate and Kevin contract the chicken pox and their doctor urges Randall to do his best to catch them as well so it will not occur later for him . Rebecca 's mother pops in , intent on staying for a while , and her overbearing attitude and the fact that she treats Randall differently than Kate and Kevin leads to Rebecca confronting her and calling her a racist , which Randall overhears . Rebecca 's mother takes her words to heart and reaches out to Randall , recognizing for the first time how special he is . 23 5 `` Brothers '' John Requa & Glenn Ficarra Tyler Bensinger October 24 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 24 ) 2AZC05 10.60 Kate and Toby share news of her pregnancy . Kevin , set to be auctioned off by Sophie for a large - scale charity event she is hosting , gets drunk while trying to get a pain medication prescription ; he misses the auction , embarrassing Sophie . Randall earns Deja 's trust . In the past , when Jack takes 10 - year - old Kevin and Randall camping , Rebecca learns that Jack 's father is dying . She calls Jack , but his past issues with his father combined with his focus on making sure Kevin gets along with Randall keep Jack from returning . Rebecca reassures Jack 's father ( who sees his granddaughter , Kate ) that Jack is a great father and husband . Kevin finds a notebook where Randall wrote reminders to himself on how to keep the peace between them , motivating him to be nice to Randall . Later , Jack looks at a picture of him and his brother in the army . During Jack 's childhood , he and his never - before - seen brother await their father 's return to the car as he gets drunk at a bar . 24 6 `` The 20 's '' Regina King Don Roos October 31 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 31 ) 2AZC06 8.43 In flashbacks , with the 10 - year - old Big Three , Rebecca takes Randall trick - or - treating , while Jack takes Kate and Kevin to a haunted house . Randall learns about Kyle 's death from the neighbors ; Rebecca then tells him the facts of his adoption . In other flashbacks , with the Big Three being in their twenties , Kate finds out she is involved with a married man . Kevin , desperate for work as an actor , attempts to steal a role from his roommate and best friend . Meanwhile , Randall and Beth prepare for the arrival of their first daughter . Beth unexpectedly goes into labor after agreeing to help Rebecca get a Facebook account . With no time to get to the hospital , Randall helps Beth through a home delivery . Kate and Kevin commiserate about their deadbeat lives and decide to live together . When Rebecca posts a photo of her granddaughter on Facebook , she gets a message from Miguel , asking how she has been the last 8 years . ( Jack 's death was sometime before Miguel last saw Rebecca . ) 25 7 `` The Most Disappointed Man '' Chris Koch Kay Oyegun November 7 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 07 ) 2AZC07 9.89 Jack and Rebecca prepare to finalize Randall 's adoption when Randall is a year old . Their case worker gives a glowing recommendation , but their judge is against interracial adoption . After Rebecca 's letter about being Randall 's mother , the judge recuses himself ; the new judge grants the adoption . Concurrently , William pleads guilty to a drug charge . Although the judge is disappointed because William had a clean record , William claims to be more disappointed , due to the loss of his loved ones and son . The judge visits William in jail , offering to reduce the sentence and get him help , if he stays sober . William keeps this promise for at least 30 years , until hearing his cancer is terminal . As he is about to use , Randall introduces himself as William 's biological son . In the present , Randall takes Deja to visit her mother Shauna in prison , but Shauna declines the visit . Randall later talks to Shauna , who intends to take Deja back after her release . He lets Shauna call Deja collect . Kevin 's relationship with Sophie deteriorates as he continues abusing pain medication and alcohol . Kate and Toby announce their pregnancy to Kevin , plan to get married at city hall , but then consider a big wedding . 26 8 `` Number One '' Ken Olin K.J. Steinberg November 14 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 14 ) 2AZC08 10.05 In flashbacks , baby Kevin walks first . Teenage Kevin disrespects a Pitt football recruiter , thinking Pitt inferior , so Jack scolds Kevin . As Jack speaks with his sponsor , and recites the serenity prayer , Kevin remains flippant , but Jack apologizes to Kevin . A game injury ends Kevin 's football prospects while Jack and Randall are away at a college tour . Jack comes to the hospital and assures Kevin he has other talents , and will find his purpose . Kevin apologizes for his attitude . Jack gives him a pendant , symbolizing `` purpose '' , given to him in Vietnam at a personal low point . Jack says Kevin is his purpose . Present - day Kevin , exhausted by substance abuse , is an honored alumnus at his high school . His football coach introduces him ; Kevin imagines Jack giving the speech . Kevin declares himself unworthy of his award . He pantomimes football on the field , giving play - by - play commentary on his failures . He has sex with fellow honoree Charlotte , a doctor , and uses her prescription pad to create a forgery ; he quickly leaves a pharmacy after police enter , having left the pendant in Charlotte 's house , but she keeps him out . He collapses , begging for help . He visits Randall , who assumes Kevin 's desire to talk concerns Kate 's miscarriage . 27 9 `` Number Two '' Ken Olin K.J. Steinberg & Shukree Hassan Tilghman November 21 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 21 ) 2AZC09 9.34 In flashbacks , baby Kate walks second . Teenage Kate bonds with the dog , Louie . Kate seems unconcerned with college applications ; Rebecca is pleased to discover Kate 's application for Berklee . At Kevin 's game , Kate accepts Rebecca 's praise just as Kevin is injured . At the hospital , Kate admits she feared disappointing Rebecca ; Rebecca acknowledges their emotional distance , but is ready to support Kate when needed . Kate watches her parents embrace . Present - day Kate talks to her unborn baby ; she and Toby focus on her prenatal care , but she miscarries . Kate leaves a singing gig , overcome at seeing a family ; she loads a buffet plate but leaves it untouched . Toby works frantically to avert the delivery of a baby bath . At home , Kate blames Toby for getting her excited about the baby ; she tells Toby that the miscarriage did n't happen to him , but he asserts that he shares their loss . Rebecca arrives and Kate accepts her support . Kate admits feeling she hurt Toby by miscarrying ; Rebecca shares that concealing from Jack her grief over triplet Kyle 's death led her to a breakdown in a supermarket after six weeks . Kate tells Toby how she feels , and they agree to try again soon ; they reaffirm their love . 28 10 `` Number Three '' Ken Olin Shukree Hassan Tilghman November 28 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 28 ) 2AZC10 10.94 In flashbacks , baby Randall walks third . Jack expects teenage Randall to attend Harvard , but lets Randall tour Howard . Jack takes the official tour ; a friend shows Randall around . Randall tells Jack that others ' reactions make him feel `` off - balance '' as the only black family member . Jack shows Randall the Vietnam Veterans Memorial ; Jack felt off - balance when he returned from the war . Jack believes Randall will find balance and be `` spectacular '' . They return to Pittsburgh for hospitalized Kevin ; Jack admits monitoring all three children is difficult . In the present , the charges against Deja 's mother Shauna are dropped ; Randall and Beth consider fighting for custody . Randall recalls William 's account of following Rebecca home after her second visit ; he realized Randall had a full life without him , and left . Randall observes Shauna preparing for Deja 's homecoming , and realizes Deja 's home is with Shauna ; Beth agrees . They attend Deja 's school presentation . Shauna takes Deja home ; Randall offers help . Randall and Beth agree to foster again ; a young boy meets with his social worker . Kevin arrives , but leaves quickly after drinking vodka . Kevin is speeding -- Tess , hidden in his backseat because she `` hates '' home , admonishes him ; Kevin is arrested for DUI ; Tess is safe . 29 11 `` The Fifth Wheel '' Chris Koch Vera Herbert January 9 , 2018 ( 2018 - 01 - 09 ) 2AZC11 9.65 When the kids are 10 , Jack takes the family to a cabin vacation , getting Kevin after football camp . Randall 's new glasses are missing . Rebecca notices Kate 's food obsession ; Jack has her exercise , but takes her for ice cream . During a thunderstorm , Kevin brings Randall 's glasses to their parents ' room -- where Kate and Randall are sleeping . He sleeps on the floor . Present - day Toby finds junk - food trash . Tess tells her parents she was sad when Deja had to leave . The family visits Kevin at rehab ; Barbara , the facilitator , wants only immediate family at Kevin 's first session . Kevin apologizes to the family , but Barbara has him discuss family issues . Kevin says they are a family of addicts . Kevin felt like an outcast ( `` fifth wheel '' ) : Kate had Jack 's support ; Rebecca loved Randall more than Kevin . Randall scolds Kevin ; Rebecca , crying , says why Randall was easier to love . Toby , Beth , and Miguel , at a bar , discuss being outsiders , Miguel the only one who knew Jack . After the session , the Big Three reconcile . Kate admits to Toby about hiding junk food since miscarrying . Rebecca tells Kevin why she never worried about him , but they had their moments . ( In the flashback , Rebecca joins Kevin on the floor . ) 30 12 `` Clooney '' Zetna Fuentes Bekah Brunstetter January 16 , 2018 ( 2018 - 01 - 16 ) 2AZC12 9.82 Jack and Rebecca take the teenage Big Three shopping for suits and dresses for the winter formal and Jack 's job . Randall asks a redhead girl out . Though the teenagers are almost starting college , Jack again wants to start `` Big Three Homes '' ( which he put aside to support his family ) . Presently , William 's stray cat `` Clooney '' wanders . After rehab , Kevin stays with Rebecca -- whom Miguel is protecting , since Kevin upset her by getting arrested and criticizing her at rehab . Miguel later tells Kevin that Jack and Rebecca were a unified couple , not individuals ; he did not love Rebecca while Jack was alive , but does now and is staying . Kate befriends Madison from support group ; they go wedding dress shopping ; Kate discovers Madison 's bulimia . Madison later faints and calls Kate for help . Kate says losing weight as a teenager did not make her happy . Randall visits Beth at work ; she says working again would help him . Randall gets William 's box from storage , searches for a lady about whom William wrote and drew , and discovers from a picture it was Billie Holiday . Randall tells Beth he wants to buy and manage the run - down building with her . In the flashback , they forget smoke detector batteries . 31 13 `` That 'll Be the Day '' Uta Briesewitz Kay Oyegun & Don Roos January 23 , 2018 ( 2018 - 01 - 23 ) 2AZC13 9.37 Around 1980 , an elderly couple look through their junk , including a jukebox which would play `` That 'll Be the Day '' . When their house gets a buyer , the man gives his neighbor , Jack , a slow cooker with a tricky switch . In 1998 , Jack and Rebecca watch the Super Bowl alone as the teenagers are otherwise occupied -- Kevin is with Sophie , Randall is on a date , and Kate is making a music college audition tape ( which Jack videotapes , to Kate 's initial disapproval ) . Presently , Randall and Beth buy William 's old building . Kevin helps Randall do repairs ; they soon find themselves overwhelmed -- and bugs , so the building is vacated when an exterminator is called . When Toby looks for a dog on the internet , Kate -- with mixed feelings -- adopts a dog . Kevin tries to make amends to Sophie , receives his missing pendant in the mail -- and knows that he can not make amends to his dad . In 1998 , the old slow cooker 's faulty switch causes a house fire . 32 14 `` Super Bowl Sunday '' John Requa & Glenn Ficarra Dan Fogelman February 4 , 2018 ( 2018 - 02 - 04 ) 2AZC14 26.97 In 1998 , Jack evacuates the family ( Kevin is away ) from the burning house , then retrieves Kate 's dog and family mementos . Jack , hospitalized for smoke inhalation , dies suddenly of cardiac arrest , to Rebecca 's shock . She tells Miguel , Randall , and Kate ; Kate tells Kevin . On the 20th anniversary of Jack 's death , Kate 's VCR damages her audition tape Jack recorded -- and saved from the fire -- which she watches cathartically , blaming herself . Toby gets the tape repaired and digitized . Kate tells Toby he strengthens her , and Jack would have loved him . Kevin visits Jack 's memorial tree , admitting not living up to Jack 's legacy , but wanting to make him proud . Rebecca makes Jack 's favorite lasagna , and bonds with Kevin . Randall holds a Super Bowl party to commemorate Jack , but is emotional when the family 's new pet lizard dies . Tess admits trying to prevent social workers from calling , fearing recent changes mean Randall wants a `` new life '' . He reassures her he will always be devoted to her ; she is happy the family participates in fostering . Deja unexpectedly arrives ; Randall and Beth comfort her . The boy seen earlier is placed with a couple ; the social worker is adult Tess , whom older Randall meets for dinner . 33 15 `` The Car '' Ken Olin Isaac Aptaker & Elizabeth Berger February 6 , 2018 ( 2018 - 02 - 06 ) 2AZC15 10.13 Jack buys a costly Wagoneer because his young children love it . The Pearsons , going to see `` Weird Al '' Yankovic , slowly cross a bridge Rebecca fears . Jack drives Rebecca , awaiting MRI results , to his `` favorite tree '' ( nearest a pay phone ) ; Rebecca is fine , as Jack anticipated . Jack predicts he will die first ; he asks to be outside , not buried . The brothers fight during Randall 's driving lesson ; Jack exhorts them to be close like him and his brother , who died in Vietnam . Jack drives truant Kate to Alanis Morissette 's autograph session ; they compare Morrissette with Bruce Springsteen . Rebecca drives the teenagers to Jack 's funeral , stalking the urn because she was not in Jack 's room when he died . Dr. K -- married to Anne -- attends ; he tells Rebecca Jack often sought his advice and she has always been strong . Kate decides to give away her dog ; Rebecca affirms that Jack 's death is not Kate 's fault -- Jack made his own decisions . The brothers bicker over manly duties ; Rebecca tells them to remain teenagers ; they make peace . The Pearsons scatter Jack 's ashes at the tree ; Kate keeps some . Jack had purchased Springsteen tickets for that night ; Rebecca drives the family to the concert -- crossing the bridge . 34 16 `` Vegas , Baby '' Joanna Kerns Laura Kenar February 27 , 2018 ( 2018 - 02 - 27 ) 2AZC16 9.74 Jack and Rebecca celebrate their early wedding anniversaries -- she , with small thoughtful gifts ; he , with grand romantic gestures . The children , age 10 , plan a romantic anniversary celebration ( despite Rebecca 's desire not to celebrate ) , including an attempted dinner , and culminating in observing a meteor shower . Rebecca decides they should always celebrate their anniversary . Presently , Toby and Kate hold their bachelor and bachelorette parties in Las Vegas . Kevin , Randall , Beth , and others attend ; Toby has no close male friends , and Kate and Beth are not close . Kevin maintains his sobriety , despite struggling when learning his film scenes may have been cut . Weeks after providing Deja money for Shauna 's utility bill , Randall worries about Deja ; Beth wants to move on ; they argue . Kate tries to mediate , revealing she feels Beth replaced her in Randall 's life ; Kate explains she was closest to Randall during part of their youth ; Beth admits her love for absent Deja hurts . Toby supports Kevin and Randall , saying his own brother never desired a close relationship . Ron Howard tells Kevin his great work is still in the movie . When returning home , Beth decides she and Randall should visit Deja ; they find her and Shauna living in a car . 35 17 `` This Big , Amazing , Beautiful Life '' Rebecca Asher Kay Oyegun March 6 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 06 ) 2AZC17 8.90 Flashbacks show other characters ' experiences paralleling Deja 's . 16 - year - old Shauna gives birth to Deja ; Shauna 's grandmother `` G.G. '' urges Shauna towards accountability . Three years later , G.G. financially supports Shauna . G.G. dies ; Shauna depends on Deja . Teenaged Deja injures herself cooking Shauna 's birthday dinner ; Linda removes Deja from her home . Stress drives Shauna to drug use and Deja stays in the foster system . Deja and her foster sister Raven , after shoplifting , are removed from a physically abusive foster father 's home ; Raven was willing to endure minor abuse for stability . Deja returns to Shauna ; Shauna 's mooching boyfriend Lonzo brings a gun into the home ; Deja 's alopecia begins amid the adults ' fighting . The gun is found in Shauna 's car ; Deja lives with the Pearsons , returning to Shauna after the charges are dropped . Shauna breaks up with Lonzo but spends her and Deja 's savings to bail him out of jail ; Deja attempts to raise money , but decides not to pawn G.G. 's brooch ; Shauna and Deja are evicted for unpaid rent . Randall and Beth take in Shauna and Deja . Deja concludes that the human experience is universal . Shauna believes she deprived Deja of a childhood ; she decides to leave Deja with the Pearsons . 36 18 `` The Wedding '' Ken Olin Isaac Aptaker & Elizabeth Berger March 13 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 13 ) 2AZC18 10.94 As Kate 's wedding approaches ; she dreams of Jack and Rebecca renewing their vows on their 40th wedding anniversary ; Toby is not in the dream . After unsuccessfully seeking `` something old '' connected to Jack , Kate makes room in her heart for Toby by resolving her grief over Jack ; she scatters the remainder of Jack 's ashes near the Pearson cabin . Kate tells Rebecca she admires her . Toby 's divorced parents disapprove of the marriage , fearing a relapse of the depression Toby suffered after his first marriage ; Toby demands they celebrate the wedding or leave ; they stay to celebrate . Kate and Toby marry ; Jack once told Kate she would someday marry a man better than himself . Kevin allows himself to grieve over Jack . Deja is surly after Shauna requested termination of parental rights ; Beth 's cousin Zoe , the wedding photographer , consoles Deja by sharing how she accepted Beth 's family 's love after her own mother abandoned her . However , after Toby 's mother says Deja resembles Randall , Deja vandalizes Randall 's car . In the future , Kevin ( contemplating Jack and Nicky 's Vietnam War picture ) and Zoe fly to Vietnam together ; Kate nurses a cripplingly depressed Toby . Further in the future , Randall and adult Tess feel unprepared to see an unshown female . Production ( edit ) Development ( edit ) On January 18 , 2017 , NBC renewed the series for a second and third season of 18 episodes each , for a total of 36 additional episodes . Dan Fogelman , Isaac Aptaker , and Elizabeth Berger served as the season 's showrunners . Casting ( edit ) Main cast members Milo Ventimiglia , Mandy Moore , Sterling K. Brown , Chrissy Metz , Justin Hartley , Susan Kelechi Watson , Chris Sullivan , and Ron Cephas Jones returned from the first season as Jack Pearson , Rebecca Pearson , Randall Pearson , Kate Pearson , Kevin Pearson , Beth Pearson , Toby Damon , and William H. Hill , respectively . Jon Huertas and Alexandra Breckenridge , who recurred as Miguel and Sophie , respectively , throughout the first season , were subsequently promoted to the principal cast in the second season . Also promoted to series regulars are young actors Hannah Zeile as teenage Kate , Niles Fitch as teenage Randall , Logan Shroyer as teenage Kevin , Mackenzie Hancsicsak as young Kate , Parker Bates as young Kevin , Faithe Herman as Annie Pearson , and Eris Baker as Tess Pearson . Lonnie Chavis began the season continuing as young Randall in a recurring role , but was ultimately promoted to series regular . In August 2017 , Sylvester Stallone and Debra Jo Rupp were cast in guest starring roles . Filming ( edit ) The show was awarded over $9.9 million in tax incentives by the California Film Commission for its second season . Production on the season began on July 11 , 2017 , in Los Angeles . Release ( edit ) Broadcast ( edit ) The second season was originally set to move to a Thursday timeslot , to anchor a new Must See TV lineup , alongside Will & Grace , Great News and Law & Order True Crime : The Menendez Murders , with NBC chairman Bob Greenblatt explaining , `` While this is a bit risky , there is a bigger case to be made about redoing Thursday night . If there is one show we could move , it would be this one . '' However , on May 30 , 2017 , NBC decided to keep the series on Tuesdays at 9 pm EST , allowing it a run of 10 uninterrupted original episodes in the fall . The season aired from September 26 , 2017 , to March 13 , 2018 , on NBC in the United States , and on CTV in Canada . This Is Us served as the lead - out program for Super Bowl LII on February 4 , 2018 . Reception ( edit ) Critical response ( edit ) The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 92 % approval rating , with an average rating of 8.09 / 10 , and an average episode score of 95 % , based on 20 reviews . The website 's consensus reads , `` This is Us continues to tug at heartstrings with an emotional exploration of family that ensures viewers will want to keep the tissues close -- and their loved ones closer . '' Ratings ( edit ) No . Title Air date Rating / share ( 18 -- 49 ) Viewers ( millions ) DVR ( 18 -- 49 ) DVR viewers ( millions ) Total ( 18 -- 49 ) Total viewers ( millions ) `` A Father 's Advice '' September 26 , 2017 3.9 / 13 12.94 2.6 6.93 6.5 19.87 `` A Manny - Splendored Thing '' October 3 , 2017 3.1 / 11 11.06 2.4 6.15 5.5 17.21 `` Déjà Vu '' October 10 , 2017 2.8 / 10 11.02 2.2 6.11 5.0 17.13 `` Still There '' October 17 , 2017 2.9 / 10 10.65 2.3 6.32 5.2 16.97 5 `` Brothers '' October 24 , 2017 2.8 / 10 10.60 2.2 6.09 5.0 16.69 6 `` The 20 's '' October 31 , 2017 2.0 / 7 8.43 2.4 6.50 4.4 14.94 7 `` The Most Disappointed Man '' November 7 , 2017 2.5 / 9 9.89 2.3 6.28 4.8 16.17 8 `` Number One '' November 14 , 2017 2.6 / 9 10.05 2.2 6.10 4.8 16.15 9 `` Number Two '' November 21 , 2017 2.5 / 9 9.34 2.0 5.71 4.5 15.05 10 `` Number Three '' November 28 , 2017 2.8 / 10 10.94 2.0 5.65 4.8 16.60 11 `` The Fifth Wheel '' January 9 , 2018 2.7 / 9 9.65 2.3 6.34 5.0 15.99 12 `` Clooney '' January 16 , 2018 2.5 / 9 9.82 2.5 6.35 5.0 16.18 13 `` That 'll Be the Day '' January 23 , 2018 2.5 / 9 9.37 2.6 7.10 5.2 16.58 14 `` Super Bowl Sunday '' February 4 , 2018 9.3 / 32 26.97 2.3 6.44 11.6 33.40 15 `` The Car '' February 6 , 2018 2.7 / 10 10.13 2.2 6.03 4.9 16.16 16 `` Vegas , Baby '' February 27 , 2018 2.5 / 9 9.74 2.0 5.65 4.5 15.39 17 `` This Big , Amazing , Beautiful Life '' March 6 , 2018 2.3 / 8 8.90 2.3 6.57 4.6 15.67 18 `` The Wedding '' March 13 , 2018 2.8 / 10 10.94 6.13 4.9 17.07 Accolades ( edit ) Year Award Recipient ( s ) and nominee ( s ) Result Ref . 2018 NAACP Image Awards Outstanding Drama Series This Is Us Nominated Outstanding Actor in a Drama Series Sterling K. Brown Nominated Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series Susan Kelechi Watson Nominated Outstanding Writing in a Drama Series Vera Herbert for `` Still There '' Nominated Outstanding Performance by a Youth Lonnie Chavis Nominated References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Andreeva , Nellie ( June 28 , 2017 ) . `` ' This Is Us ' : Alexandra Breckenridge , & Jon Huertas Upped To Series Regulars For Season 2 Of NBC Drama '' . Deadline.com . Archived from the original on August 4 , 2017 . Retrieved September 4 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Petski , Denise ( June 30 , 2017 ) . `` ' This Is Us ' : 7 Young Actors Upped To Series Regulars For Season 2 Of NBC Drama '' . Deadline.com . Archived from the original on August 4 , 2017 . Retrieved September 4 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Coulston , John Connor ( November 28 , 2017 ) . `` ' This Is Us ' Reveals Why William Never Contacted Randall '' . popculture.com . Retrieved December 1 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Snierson , Dan ( November 2 , 2017 ) . `` Lost alum to guest on This Is Us '' . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on November 2 , 2017 . Retrieved November 2 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Keveney , Bill ( November 6 , 2017 ) . `` Everything 's Deja new for ' This Is Us ' star Lyric Ross '' . USA Today . Retrieved November 27 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Snierson , Dan ( August 17 , 2017 ) . `` This Is Us : That ' 70s Show star to play role in Randall 's adoption plot '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved January 16 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Canfield , David ( January 16 , 2018 ) . `` This Is Us recap : ' Clooney ' '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved March 15 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Turchiano , Danielle ( November 7 , 2017 ) . `` ' This Is Us ' EP on Transracial Adoption , Kevin 's Worsening Addiction and a Pearson Wedding '' . Variety . Retrieved November 9 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Otterson , Joe ( August 3 , 2017 ) . `` ' This Is Us ' Season 2 Adds Sylvester Stallone in Guest Starring Role '' . Variety . Archived from the original on August 8 , 2017 . Retrieved September 4 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Blickley , Leigh ( January 9 , 2018 ) . `` Kevin 's Addiction Will Surely Signal New Revelations About Jack On ' This Is Us ' '' . HuffPost . Retrieved January 10 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Snierson , Dan ( January 16 , 2018 ) . `` This Is Us producer on that ominous clue about Jack 's death : ' We are very close ' '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved January 18 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Nguyen , Stacey ( February 6 , 2018 ) . `` There 's a Very Slim Chance You Recognized Adult Tess on This Is Us '' . PopSugar . Retrieved February 13 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Roots , Kimberly ( February 6 , 2018 ) . `` This Is Us Recap : ' We 're Gonna Be OK ' '' . TVLine . Retrieved February 13 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Roots , Kimberly ( March 6 , 2018 ) . `` This Is Us Recap : Deja 's View '' . TVLine . Retrieved March 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ D'Alessandro , Anthony ( August 3 , 2017 ) . `` ' This Is Us ' Season 2 Details : EP Dan Fogelman Talks ; Sylvester Stallone To Guest Star -- TCA '' . Deadline.com . Archived from the original on August 7 , 2017 . Retrieved September 4 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Harnick , Chris ( March 13 , 2018 ) . `` Toby 's Parents on This Is Us Are TV Legends '' . E !. Retrieved March 14 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Gibson , Kelsie ( March 14 , 2018 ) . `` Get to Know Beth 's Cousin on This Is Us , Because You 'll See a Lot of Her Next Season '' . PopSugar . Retrieved March 15 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( September 27 , 2017 ) . `` ' Bull , ' ' Voice , ' ' This Is Us ' adjust up , ' L&O True Crime ' and ' Brooklyn Nine - Nine ' down : Tuesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved September 27 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( October 4 , 2017 ) . `` ' Fresh Off the Boat , ' ' Voice ' adjust up , ' Brooklyn Nine - Nine , ' ' L&O True Crime ' adjust down : Tuesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 4 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( October 11 , 2017 ) . `` ' Voice , ' ' Flash , ' ' Lethal Weapon ' & ' The Mick ' adjust up , ' NCIS : New Orleans ' down : Tuesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 11 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( October 18 , 2017 ) . `` ' NCIS , ' ' Voice ' and ' This Is Us ' adjust up , ' Black - ish ' and ' L&O True Crime ' down : Tuesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 18 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( October 25 , 2017 ) . `` ' This Is Us , ' ' Fresh Off the Boat , ' ' Kevin ' & World Series adjust up , ' L&O True Crime ' down : Tuesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 25 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( November 1 , 2017 ) . `` ' The Middle ' and World Series adjust up , ' Law & Order True Crime ' down : Tuesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 1 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( November 8 , 2017 ) . `` ' The Middle ' adjusts up , ' The Mayor ' adjusts down : Tuesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 8 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( November 15 , 2017 ) . `` ' Fresh Off the Boat , ' ' The Flash ' and ' Kevin ' adjust up , ' Bull ' and ' L&O True Crime ' adjust down : Tuesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 15 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( November 22 , 2017 ) . `` ' Dancing With the Stars , ' ' This Is Us , ' all others hold : Tuesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 22 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( November 30 , 2017 ) . `` ' The Flash , ' ' This Is Us ' and ' Rudolph ' adjust up : Tuesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 30 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Welch , Alex ( January 10 , 2018 ) . `` ' Kevin ( Probably ) Saves the World ' adjusts down : Tuesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 10 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( January 18 , 2018 ) . `` Originals all hold , ' Modern Family ' rerun adjusts down : Tuesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 18 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Welch , Alex ( January 24 , 2018 ) . `` ' LA to Vegas ' and ' Bull ' adjust down : Tuesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 24 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( February 6 , 2018 ) . `` Final numbers for Super Bowl LII and ' This Is Us ' : Sunday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 6 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( February 7 , 2018 ) . `` ' NCIS ' and ' Bull ' adjust up : Tuesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 7 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( February 28 , 2018 ) . `` ' The Voice ' and ' Kevin ( Probably ) Saves the World ' adjust up : Tuesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 28 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( March 7 , 2018 ) . `` ' This Is Us ' adjusts up , ' Lethal Weapon ' adjusts down : Tuesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 7 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( March 14 , 2018 ) . `` ' This Is Us , ' ' The Voice , ' ' NCIS , ' ' Black - ish ' adjust up , ' Rise ' adjusts down : Tuesday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 14 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Roots , Kimberly ( January 18 , 2017 ) . `` This Is Us Renewed for Seasons 2 and 3 '' . TVLine . Archived from the original on January 18 , 2017 . Retrieved January 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ( March 6 , 2017 ) . `` ' This Is Us ' : Isaac Aptaker & Elizabeth Berger Named Co-Showrunners In New 20th TV Deal , ' HIMYM ' Spinoff On Hold '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved September 7 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Patten , Dominic ( June 29 , 2017 ) . `` ' This Is Us ' & ' Timeless ' Among TV Projects Awarded California Tax Credits '' . Deadline.com . Archived from the original on July 7 , 2017 . Retrieved September 4 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Snierson , Dan ( July 11 , 2017 ) . `` This Is Us creator , stars reveal photos from first day of filming season 2 '' . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on July 12 , 2017 . Retrieved September 4 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ( May 14 , 2017 ) . `` NBC Fall 2017 Schedule : ' This Is Us ' Moves To Thursday To Anchor New Must See TV With ' Will & Grace ' , ' Blacklist ' Relocates '' . Deadline.com . Archived from the original on August 25 , 2017 . Retrieved September 4 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ( May 30 , 2017 ) . `` ' This Is Us ' Will Stay On Tuesday As NBC Reverses Big Move , Tweaks Fall Schedule '' . Deadline.com . Archived from the original on September 3 , 2017 . Retrieved September 4 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Blyth , Antonia ( June 9 , 2017 ) . `` ' This Is Us ' : NBC 's Jennifer Salke Says `` Season 2 Will Be Incredible '' -- ATX `` . Deadline.com . Archived from the original on July 27 , 2017 . Retrieved September 4 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ( June 19 , 2017 ) . `` NBC Sets Fall 2017 Premiere Dates : ' This Is Us ' , ' Will & Grace ' , ' The Voice ' & More '' . Deadline.com . Archived from the original on July 4 , 2017 . Retrieved September 4 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` CTV and CTV Two Fall 2017 Premiere Dates Announced # # # CTV is Home of Television 's Most - Anticipated Debuts of the Year '' . Bell Media . August 24 , 2017 . Archived from the original on September 2 , 2017 . Retrieved September 2 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ( May 14 , 2017 ) . `` ' This Is Us ' To Air After the Super Bowl , Mulls Christmas Episode As It Faces Pre-emptions On New Night '' . Deadline.com . Archived from the original on August 27 , 2017 . Retrieved September 4 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` This Is Us : Season 2 '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved March 22 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( October 13 , 2017 ) . `` ' This Is Us ' and ' The Good Doctor ' score big in premiere week broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV By The Numbers . Archived from the original on October 14 , 2017 . Retrieved October 14 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( October 18 , 2017 ) . `` ' The Orville , ' ' Once Upon a Time , ' 5 more shows double in week 2 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV By The Numbers . Archived from the original on October 18 , 2017 . Retrieved October 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( October 25 , 2017 ) . `` ' The Good Doctor ' is the most - watched show on TV in week 3 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on October 26 , 2017 . Retrieved October 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( November 2 , 2017 ) . `` ' Chicago PD , ' 10 more shows double in week 4 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on November 2 , 2017 . Retrieved November 2 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( November 9 , 2017 ) . `` ' Grey 's Anatomy ' keeps rolling along in week 5 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on November 9 , 2017 . Retrieved November 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( November 17 , 2017 ) . `` ' This Is Us ' and 12 more shows double in week 6 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on November 17 , 2017 . Retrieved November 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( November 27 , 2017 ) . `` ' This Is Us ' rides high in week 7 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on November 27 , 2017 . Retrieved November 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( December 5 , 2017 ) . `` ' Jane the Virgin , ' 10 other shows double in week 8 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved December 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( December 7 , 2017 ) . `` ' Chicago Med ' premiere makes solid gains in week 9 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on December 7 , 2017 . Retrieved December 7 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( December 15 , 2017 ) . `` CW crossovers get another bump in week 10 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on December 18 , 2017 . Retrieved December 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( January 26 , 2018 ) . `` ' The Brave ' goes from low to ... less low : Week 16 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 26 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( February 1 , 2018 ) . `` ' This Is Us , ' ' The Good Doctor ' both double in week 17 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 1 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( February 8 , 2018 ) . `` ' This Is Us sets NBC records in week 18 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on February 1 , 2018 . Retrieved February 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( February 15 , 2018 ) . `` Closing the book on the Super Bowl ' This Is Us ' : Week 19 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 18 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( February 22 , 2018 ) . `` ' The Good Doctor ' and ' This Is Us ' on top again : Week 20 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 22 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( March 15 , 2018 ) . `` ' Agents of SHIELD , ' 16 other shows double in week 23 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 16 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( March 22 , 2018 ) . `` ' This Is Us ' leads the week 24 broadcast Live + 7 ratings -- by quite a bit '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 22 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( March 29 , 2018 ) . `` ' This Is Us ' goes out on top : Week 25 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 29 , 2018 . Jump up ^ THR Staff ( 20 November 2017 ) . `` NAACP Image Awards : ' Marshall , ' ' Get Out , ' ' Girls Trip ' Dominate Film Nominations '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved 20 November 2017 . General references `` This Is Us Season 2 Episode Guide '' . TV Guide . Retrieved September 4 , 2017 . `` Shows A-Z -- This Is Us on NBC '' . The Futon Critic . Retrieved September 4 , 2017 . External links ( edit ) Official website List of This Is Us episodes on IMDb List of This Is Us season 2 episodes at TV.com Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series 2010 : Boardwalk Empire , season 1 Antonacci Buscemi Coleman Graham de la Huerta Laciura Macdonald Mol Palladino Piazza Pitt Shannon Sparks Stuhlbarg Weiner Whigham 2011 : Boardwalk Empire , season 2 Buscemi Chianese Clohessy Coleman Cox J. Gallina L. Gallina Graham Huston Laciura Lind Macdonald D. McTigue R. McTigue Mol B. Noon C. Noon O'Rourke Palladino Pennewill Piazza Pitt Shannon Sparks Stuhlbarg Van Wagner Whigham Williams Yusef 2012 : Downton Abbey , series 2 Bonneville Boyle Carmichael Carter Coyle Dockery Findlay Finneran Froggatt Glen Howes James - Collier Leech Logan McGovern McShera Nicol Nuttall Robb Smith Stevens Wilton 2013 : Breaking Bad , season 5 , part II Bowen Brandt Cranston Crawford Fletcher Fraser Gunn Metzler Mitte Norris Odenkirk Paul Plemons Quezada Rankin Sane 2014 : Downton Abbey , series 4 Bonneville Carmichael Carter Coyle Dockery Doyle Froggatt James James - Collier Leech Logan McGovern McShera Milne Robb Smith Speleers Theobold Wilton 2015 : Downton Abbey , series 5 Bonneville Carmichael Carter Cassidy Coyle Dockery Doyle Froggatt James James - Collier Leech Logan McGovern McShera Nicol Ovenden Smith Wilton 2016 : Stranger Things , season 1 M.B. Brown Buono Chrest Dyer Harbour Heaton Keery Matarazzo McLaughlin Modine Morgan Reynolds Ryder Schnapp Steger Wolfhard 2017 : This Is Us , season 1 / season 2 Baker Breckenridge S.K. Brown Chavis Hartley Herman Jones Metz Moore Sullivan Ventimiglia Watson Zeile Complete list ( 1994 -- 1999 ) ( 2000 -- 2009 ) ( 2010 -- present ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=This_Is_Us_(season_2)&oldid=838118325 '' Categories : 2017 American television seasons 2018 American television seasons This Is Us ( TV series ) Hidden categories : Use mdy dates from September 2017 All articles with failed verification Articles with failed verification from March 2018 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Español Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Português 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 April 2018 , at 01 : 28 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . 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the brave little toaster to the rescue wittgenstein

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=The_Brave_Little_Toaster_to_the_Rescue&oldid=817096992

The Brave Little Toaster to the Rescue - wikipedia The Brave Little Toaster to the Rescue Jump to : navigation , search The Brave Little Toaster to the Rescue DVD cover Directed by Robert C. Ramirez Produced by Donald Kushner Thomas L. Wilhite John Bush Kurt Albrecht ( co-producer ) Willard Carroll ( executive producer ) Peter Locke ( executive producer ) Written by Original Brave Little Toaster characters : Thomas M. Disch ( book ) , Jerry Rees and Joe Ranft ( 1987 film ) Screenplay : Willard Carroll Starring Deanna Oliver Tim Stack Thurl Ravenscroft Music by Alexander Janko ( score ) , William Finn and Ellen Fitzhugh ( songs ) Production company Hyperion Animation The Kushner - Locke Company Distributed by Walt Disney Home Video Release date May 20 , 1999 ( 1999 - 05 - 20 ) ( VHS ) Running time 74 minutes Country United States Language English The Brave Little Toaster to the Rescue is a direct - to - video sequel to The Brave Little Toaster . Despite being released after The Brave Little Toaster Goes to Mars , it is actually the second film in chronological order . A production of Hyperion Animation and The Kushner - Locke Company , it was released in 1999 in the United States by Walt Disney Home Video . It was also released the same year in the United Kingdom and premiered on television on BBC Two . The film ( along with Goes to Mars ) is available for purchase and rental on the iTunes Store , but the first film has yet to be released on iTunes . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 References 4 External links Plot ( edit ) Rob McGoarty , the owner of the appliances and whom they refer to as `` The Master '' , is working in a veterinary clinic where he tends to injured animals . One night , while working on a thesis , his computer accidentally crashes due to being caused by a terrible computer virus from an old TLW - 728 prototype supercomputer named Wittgenstein . The appliances , along with the rat Ratso who found Wittgenstein , then seek to help Rob by finding Wittgenstein to reverse the effects of his computer virus , hence recovering the master 's thesis . Meanwhile , in a dual plot of the film , Mack , Rob 's lab assistant , plots to sell the injured animals Rob had been tending to as part of his courses to a place called `` Tartaras Laboratories '' , the same place that Sebastian , an old monkey Rob is tending to , was sent to when he was just a baby . When the appliances find Wittgenstein , they discover him abandoned , all alone and run - down and broken in the basement due to being infected by a computer virus , the same one that affected Rob 's dorm room computer and the one in the vet clinic 's lab when Wittgenstein try to contact them earlier . The miserable supercomputer reveals that he is living on one rare vacuum tube , named the `` WFC 11 - 12 - 55 '' . The name of the tube is a reference to the producer and screenwriter , Willard F. Carroll ( WFC ) , and his birthdate , November 12 , 1955 ( 11 - 12 - 55 ) . The appliances learn that unless they find a replacement quickly , Wittgenstein 's tube will blow and lead to his apparent death . In an attempt to revive Wittgenstein to his superior state , Radio and Ratso go to the college 's storage building to find the hard - to - find WFC 11 - 12 - 55 tube . When they come back with the last apparent tube for miles , however , Radio and Ratso ( after an argument with the tube ) accidentally break it , and it seems that all hope is lost . Wittgenstein does his best with all his might , but the virus causes him to blow his remaining tube with a big explosion and apparently `` is a goner '' . Ratso then blames Radio , and guilt - ridden over condemning the animals to their doom at Tartarus Laboratories , Radio gives up his own tube which turns out to be the very rare tube they had been looking for , thus killing himself . Knowing that they were given a final chance to save the animals , the appliances replaced the tube in the nick of time . With the boosted power of the new tube , Wittgenstein wakes up , miraculously regenerates the other smashed tubes connected to himself , and destroys the computer viruses within him , allowing him to be completely revived to as good as new . By the end of the film , the appliances restore Rob 's thesis and stop Mack from selling the injured animals and have him arrested with some help from Wittgenstein , Rob and his girlfriend Chris ( later referred to as `` The Mistress '' ) , two guard dogs , and the police . After discovering the appliances in the truck , they assume that Mac had also planned to sell Rob 's stuff as well , although Rob is surprised that Radio is n't here . Later , they discover Wittgenstein in the basement along with Radio . Later , Radio 's tube is replaced with a new one Chris found in Nome , Alaska ( hence his revival ) , Wittgenstein is sold to a museum and will be modernized with current technology , Rob proposes to Chris , and all is well . Cast ( edit ) Deanna Oliver as Toaster Timothy Stack as Lampy Roger Kabler as Radio Eric Lloyd as Blanky Thurl Ravenscroft as Kirby Brian Doyle - Murray as Wittgenstein Chris Young as Rob Jessica Tuck as Chris Alfre Woodard as Maisie Cat Andy Milder as Ratso Jonathan Benair as Jim Bob Eddie Bracken as Sebastian monkey Andrew Daly as Murgatroid Snake Eddie Deezen as Charlie Patti Edwards as Lab Computer Victoria Jackson as Mouse Marc Allen Lewis as Security Guard Ross Mapletoft as Modem Kevin Meaney as Computer Jay Mohr as Mack Danny Nucci as Alberto Dog Laurel Green as Campus Student References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` The Brave Little Toaster To The Rescue on iTunes '' . iTunes Store . 1999 . Retrieved December 6 , 2016 . External links ( edit ) The Brave Little Toaster to the Rescue on IMDb The Brave Little Toaster to the Rescue at AllMovie The Brave Little Toaster to the Rescue at Rotten Tomatoes The Brave Little Toaster to the Rescue at The Big Cartoon DataBase Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Brave_Little_Toaster_to_the_Rescue&oldid=817096992 '' Categories : 1999 films English - language films 1997 films 1997 animated films 1997 direct - to - video films 1990s American animated films 1990s fantasy films American animated films American sequel films American children 's animated adventure films American children 's animated comedy films American children 's animated fantasy films American fantasy adventure films Direct - to - video animated films Direct - to - video interquel films Direct - to - video sequel films Films featuring anthropomorphic characters Films set in the 1980s Buena Vista Home Entertainment direct - to - video films Hidden categories : Film articles using image size parameter Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Español فارسی Français Polski Edit links This page was last edited on 26 December 2017 , at 03 : 48 . 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who said you shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Cross_of_Gold_speech&oldid=807196862

Cross of gold speech - wikipedia Cross of gold speech Jump to : navigation , search Cross of Gold speech William Jennings Bryan carried on the shoulders of delegates after giving the speech Date July 9 , 1896 ( 1896 - 07 - 09 ) Time 2 : 00 pm Duration 35 minutes ( scheduled ) Venue Chicago Coliseum Location Chicago , Illinois , United States Theme Bimetallism Participants William Jennings Bryan Outcome Bryan nominated for president by the Democrats At 1896 Democratic National Convention , third day , party platform debate Website later audio recording by Bryan transcript The Cross of Gold speech was delivered by William Jennings Bryan , a former United States Representative from Nebraska , at the Democratic National Convention in Chicago on July 9 , 1896 . In the address , Bryan supported bimetallism or `` free silver '' , which he believed would bring the nation prosperity . He decried the gold standard , concluding the speech , `` you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold '' . Bryan 's address helped catapult him to the Democratic Party 's presidential nomination ; it is considered one of the greatest political speeches in American history . For twenty years , Americans had been bitterly divided over the nation 's monetary standard . The gold standard , which the United States had effectively been on since 1873 , limited the money supply but eased trade with other nations , such as the United Kingdom , whose currency was also based on gold . Many Americans , however , believed that bimetallism ( making both gold and silver legal tender ) was necessary for the nation 's economic health . The financial Panic of 1893 intensified the debates , and when Democratic President Grover Cleveland continued to support the gold standard against the will of much of his party , activists became determined to take over the Democratic Party organization and nominate a silver - supporting candidate in 1896 . Bryan had been a dark horse candidate with little support in the convention . His speech , delivered at the close of the debate on the party platform , electrified the convention and is generally credited with getting him the nomination for president . However , he lost the general election to William McKinley and the United States formally adopted the gold standard in 1900 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Background 1.1 Monetary standards and the United States 1.2 Early attempts toward free silver 1.3 Bryan seeks the nomination 1.4 Selection of delegates 2 1896 convention 2.1 Candidates for the nomination 2.2 Silver advocates take control 2.3 Bryan addresses the convention 3 Reception and nomination 3.1 Convention events 3.2 Press reaction 4 Campaign and aftermath 5 Legacy 6 References 7 Bibliography 8 External links Background ( edit ) Monetary standards and the United States ( edit ) In January 1791 , at the request of Congress , Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton issued a report on the currency . At the time , there was no mint in the United States ; foreign coins were used . Hamilton proposed a monetary system based on bimetallism , in which the new currency would be equal to a given amount of gold , or a larger amount of silver ; at the time a given weight of gold was worth about 15 times as much as the same amount of silver . Although Hamilton understood that adjustment might be needed from time to time as precious metal prices fluctuated , he believed that if the nation 's unit of value were defined only by one of the two precious metals used for coins , the other would descend to the status of mere merchandise , unusable as a store of value . He also proposed the establishment of a mint , at which citizens could present gold or silver , and receive it back , struck into money . On April 2 , 1792 , Congress passed the Mint Act of 1792 . This legislation defined a unit of value for the new nation , to be known as a dollar . The new unit of currency was defined to be equal to 24.75 grains ( 1.604 g ) of gold , or alternatively , 371.25 grains ( 24.057 g ) of silver , establishing a ratio of value between gold and silver of 15 : 1 . The legislation also established the Mint of the United States . In the early 19th century , the economic disruption caused by the Napoleonic Wars caused United States gold coins to be worth more as bullion than as money , and they vanished from circulation . Governmental response to this shortage was hampered by the fact that officials did not clearly understand what had happened . In 1830 , Treasury Secretary Samuel D. Ingham proposed adjusting the ratio between gold and silver in US currency to 15.8 : 1 , which had for some time been the ratio in Europe . It was not until 1834 that Congress acted , changing the gold / silver ratio to 16.002 : 1 . This was close enough to the market value to make it uneconomic to export either US gold or silver coins . When silver prices rose relative to gold as a reaction to the California Gold Rush , silver coinage was worth more than face value , and rapidly flowed overseas for melting . Despite vocal opposition led by Tennessee Representative ( and future president ) Andrew Johnson , the precious metal content of smaller silver coins was reduced in 1853 . Silver was now undervalued at the Mint ; accordingly little was presented for striking into money . The Coinage Act of 1873 eliminated the standard silver dollar . It also repealed the statutory provisions allowing silver bullion to be presented to the Mint and returned in the form of circulating money . In passing the Coinage Act , Congress eliminated bimetallism . During the economic chaos of the Panic of 1873 , the price of silver dropped significantly , but the Mint would accept none for striking into legal tender . Silver producers complained , and many Americans came to believe that only through bimetallism could the nation achieve and maintain prosperity . They called for the return to pre-1873 laws , which would require the Mint to take all the silver offered it and return it , struck into silver dollars . This would inflate the money supply , and , adherents argued , increase the nation 's prosperity . Critics contended that the inflation which would follow the introduction of such a policy would harm workers , whose wages would not rise as fast as prices would , and the operation of Gresham 's law would drive gold from circulation , effectively placing the United States on a silver standard . Early attempts toward free silver ( edit ) Congressman Richard P. Bland To advocates of what became known as free silver , the 1873 act became known as the `` Crime of ' 73 '' . Pro-silver forces , with congressional leaders such as Missouri Representative Richard P. Bland , sought the passage of bills to allow depositors of silver bullion to receive it back in the form of coin . Such bills , sponsored by Bland , passed the House of Representatives in 1876 and 1877 , but both times failed in the Senate . A third attempt in early 1878 again passed the House , and eventually both houses after being amended in the Senate . The bill , as modified by amendments sponsored by Iowa Senator William B. Allison , did not reverse the 1873 provisions , but required the Treasury to purchase a minimum of $2 million of silver bullion per month ; the profit , or seignorage from monetizing the silver was to be used to purchase more silver bullion . The silver would be struck into dollar coins , to be circulated or else stored and used as backing for silver certificates . The Bland -- Allison Act was vetoed by President Rutherford B. Hayes , but was enacted by Congress over his veto on February 28 , 1878 . Implementation of the Bland -- Allison Act did not end calls for free silver . The 1880s saw a steep decline in the prices of grain and other agricultural commodities . Silver advocates argued that this dropoff , which caused the price of grain to fall below its cost of production , was caused by the failure of the government to adequately increase the money supply , which had remained steady on a per capita basis . Advocates of the gold standard attributed the decline to advances in production and transportation . The late 19th century saw divergent views in economics as the laissez - faire orthodoxy was questioned by younger economists , and both sides found ample support for their views from theorists . In 1890 , the Sherman Silver Purchase Act greatly increased government purchases of silver . The government pledged to stand behind the silver dollars and treasury notes issued under the act by redeeming them in gold . Pursuant to this promise , government gold reserves dwindled over the following three years . Although the economic Panic of 1893 had a number of causes , President Grover Cleveland believed the inflation caused by Sherman 's act to be a major factor , and called a special session of Congress to repeal it . Congress did so , but the debates showed bitter divides in both major parties between silver and gold factions . Cleveland tried to replenish the Treasury through issuance of bonds which could only be purchased with gold , with little effect but to increase the public debt , as the gold continued to be withdrawn in redemption for paper and silver currency . Many in the public saw the bonds as benefiting bankers , not the nation . The bankers ' feeling was that they did not want loans repaid in an inflated currency -- the gold standard was deflationary , and as creditors , they preferred to be paid in such a currency , whereas debtors preferred to repay in inflated currency . The effects of the recession which began in 1893 , and which continued through 1896 , ruined many Americans . Contemporary estimates were an unemployment rate as high as 25 % . The task of relieving the jobless fell to churches and other charities , as well as to labor unions . Farmers went bankrupt ; their farms were sold to pay their debts . Some of the impoverished died of disease or starvation ; others killed themselves . Bryan seeks the nomination ( edit ) For additional detail on the political career of William Jennings Bryan before and during the 1896 campaign , see William Jennings Bryan presidential campaign , 1896 . Among those who spoke against the repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act was Nebraska Congressman William Jennings Bryan . Known as an orator even then , Bryan had not always favored free silver out of conviction , stating in 1892 that he was for it because the people of Nebraska were for it . By 1893 , his views on silver had evolved , and on the floor of the House of Representatives , he delivered a riveting three - hour address against repeal of the Silver Purchase Act . In his conclusion , Bryan reached back in history : When a crisis like the present arose and the national bank of his day sought to control the politics of the nation , God raised up an Andrew Jackson , who had the courage to grapple with that great enemy , and by overthrowing it , he made himself the idol of the people and reinstated the Democratic party in public confidence . What will the decision be today ? The Democratic party has won the greatest success in its history . Standing upon this victory - crowned summit , will it turn its face to the rising or the setting sun ? Will it choose blessings or cursings -- life or death -- which ? Which ? Despite the repeal of the act , economic conditions failed to improve . The year 1894 saw considerable labor unrest . President Cleveland sent federal troops to Illinois to end the Pullman strike -- workers at the Pullman Palace Car Company , which made railroad cars , had struck after wages were cut . Railway employees had refused to handle Pullman cars in sympathy with the strikers ; this action threatened to paralyze the nation 's rail lines . The President 's move was opposed by the Democratic Governor of Illinois , John Altgeld . Angered by Cleveland 's actions in the labor dispute , and by his uncompromising stand against silver , Altgeld began to organize Democrats against Cleveland 's renomination in 1896 . Although Altgeld and his adherents urged voters to distinguish between Cleveland and his party , the Democrats lost 113 seats in the House in the 1894 midterm elections , the greatest loss by a majority party in congressional history . The Republicans gained control of the House , as well as the Senate , which until 1913 was elected by the state legislatures rather than by the popular vote . Among those defeated for Senate was Bryan in Nebraska . Bryan had long planned to run for president . Although he would only be 36 years old in 1896 -- one year above the constitutional minimum -- he believed the silver question could carry him not only to the nomination , but to the presidency . He traveled widely , speaking to audiences across the nation . His speeches impressed many ; even some of his opponents later conceded that Bryan was the most compelling speaker they had ever heard . Bryan 's speeches evolved over time ; in December 1894 , in a speech in Congress , he first used a phrase from which would come the conclusion to his most famous address : as originally stated , it was `` I will not help to crucify mankind upon a cross of gold . '' A myth has arisen that Bryan was an unknown prior to 1896 . This was not the case ; Bryan was well known as an orator on the tariff and silver questions . Albert Shaw , editor of The Review of Reviews , stated that after Bryan 's nomination , many easterners professed not to have heard of him but : `` If , indeed , they had not heard of Mr. Bryan before , they had failed to follow closely the course of American politics in the past eight years . As a Democratic member of the Ways and Means Committee through two Congresses , Mr. Bryan was by all odds the ablest and strongest orator on the Democratic side of the House . His subsequent canvass ( campaign ) for the United States senatorship in Nebraska was noteworthy and conspicuous on many accounts . '' In the aftermath of the 1894 election , the silver forces , led by Altgeld and others , began an attempt to take over the machinery of the Democratic Party . Historian Stanley Jones , in his study of the 1896 election , suggests that western Democrats would have opposed Cleveland even if the party had held its congressional majority in 1894 ; with the disastrous defeat , they believed the party would be wiped out in the West if it did not support silver . Bryan biographer Paulo E. Coletta wrote , `` during this year ( July 1894 -- June 1895 ) of calamities , disintegration and revolution , each crisis aided Bryan because it caused division within his party and permitted him to contest for its mastery as it slipped from Cleveland 's fingers . '' In early 1896 , with the economy still poor , there was widespread discontent with the two existing major political parties . Some people , for the most part Democrats , joined the far - left Populist Party . Many Republicans in the western states , dismayed by the strong allegiance of eastern Republicans to the gold standard , considered forming their own party . When the Republicans in June 1896 nominated former Ohio Governor William McKinley for president and passed at his request a platform strongly supporting `` sound money '' ( the gold standard unless modified by international agreement ) , a number of `` Silver Republicans '' walked out of the convention . The leader of those who left was Colorado Senator Henry M. Teller ; he was immediately spoken of as a possible candidate for the Democratic nomination . Bryan believed that he could , if nominated , unite the disaffected behind a strong silver campaign . However , part of his strategy was to remain inconspicuous until the last possible moment at the convention . He sent letters to national convention delegates , urging them to support silver , and enclosing copies of his photograph , writings , and speeches . Jones points out that though Bryan 's speaking engagements were not deemed political by the standards of 1896 , by modern measurements he was far more active in campaigning for the nomination than most of the better - known candidates . Historian James A. Barnes , in his historical journal article pointing out myths that have arisen about Bryan 's candidacy and campaign , stated that Bryan 's efforts bore fruit even before the convention : By April , 1896 , many individuals were quietly working for Bryan 's nomination . Circulars were being distributed in Illinois , and admirers in Nebraska , North Carolina , Mississippi , Louisiana , Texas , Arkansas , and other states were urging his selection among their friends . It was not in any concerted or open action , however , that Bryan had his strength ; it was in the friendly predisposition of the mass of the delegates that he had hopes . Selection of delegates ( edit ) The 1896 Democratic National Convention followed events unique in post-Civil War American history . One after another , state conventions to elect delegates to the national convention in Chicago repudiated an incumbent elected president of their party , who had not declared whether he would be a candidate for renomination . According to Barnes : The people of the South and the West had for years been convinced of the enormity of the `` crime of 1873 '' , and they had long since come to regard silver as the sword that would cut the Gordian knot of privilege . Consciousness of grievances of years and not of months was reflected in the decisive action of the state Democratic conventions in the spring and early summer of 1896 . Many state conventions elected delegates pledged to support bimetallism in the party platform . Gold Democrats were successful in a few states in the Northeast , but had little luck elsewhere . Speakers in some states cursed Cleveland ; the South Carolina convention denounced him . Cleveland issued a statement urging Democratic voters to support gold -- the next convention to be held , in Illinois , unanimously supported silver ; the keynote speaker prayed for divine forgiveness for Cleveland 's 1892 nomination . Gold and silver factions in some states , such as Bryan 's Nebraska , sent rival delegations to the convention . 1896 convention ( edit ) For a fuller explanation of the procedures of American political conventions , see United States presidential nominating convention . The Chicago Coliseum The 1896 Democratic convention opened at the Chicago Coliseum on July 7 , 1896 . Much activity took place in advance of the formal opening as the silver and ( vastly outnumbered ) gold forces prepared their strategies . Silver forces were supported by the Democratic National Bimetallic Committee , the umbrella group formed in 1895 to support silver Democrats in their insurgency against Cleveland . Gold Democrats looked to the President for leadership , but Cleveland , trusting few in his party , did not involve himself further in the gold efforts , but spent the week of the convention fishing off the New Jersey coast . The Bimetallic Committee carefully planned to take control of every aspect of the convention , eliminating any threat that the minority gold faction could take power . It made no secret of these preparations . This takeover was considered far more important than was the choice of presidential candidate , and the committee decided to take no position on who should win the race for the nomination , reasoning that the victor , no matter who he was , would be a silver man . Well aware of the overwhelming forces against them , many gold delegates were inclined to concede the platform battle . Bryan arrived quietly and took rooms at a modest hotel ; the Nebraskan later calculated that he spent less than $100 while in Chicago . He arrived convinced that he would win the nomination . He had already begun work on a speech . On the evening of July 5 , Bryan was visited by a delegation of Coloradans , seeking his support for Senator Teller . They went away apologetically , not having known Bryan sought the nomination . Candidates for the nomination ( edit ) Despite the desire of silver delegates to nominate a candidate who shared their beliefs , and although several states instructed their delegates to vote for a specific candidate , there was no overwhelming favorite for the nomination going into the convention . With a two - thirds vote of the delegates needed to nominate , almost every silver delegate would have to vote for the same candidate to assure success , though any organized support from gold delegates would greatly damage a silver candidate 's chances . Former Iowa Governor Horace Boies was a major contender for the Democratic nomination for president in 1896 . The only gold man who put together any sort of campaign for the Democratic nomination was Treasury Secretary John G. Carlisle , but he withdrew in April , stating that he was more concerned about the platform of the party than who would lead it . However , as late as June , the gold forces , which still controlled the Democratic National Committee ( DNC ) , continued to believe that the nominee could be pro-gold . Cleveland friend and former Postmaster General Donald M. Dickinson wrote to the President in June 1896 hoping that the delegates would recognize `` common sense '' and be frightened at the thought of nominating a radical . One of the leaders of the silver movement was Illinois Governor Altgeld ; a native of Germany , he was constitutionally barred from the presidency by his foreign birth . Going into the convention , the two leading candidates for the nomination were former Congressman Bland , who had originated the Bland - Allison Act , and former Iowa Governor Horace Boies , with Bland considered the frontrunner . These were the only two candidates to put together organizations to try to secure delegate votes , though both efforts were cash - starved . Both men had electoral problems : Bland at age 61 was seen by some as a man whose time had passed ; Boies was a former Republican who had once decried bimetallism . There were a large number of potential candidates seen as having less support ; these included Vice President Adlai Stevenson of Illinois , Senator Joseph C. Blackburn of Kentucky , Senator Teller , and Bryan . Silver advocates take control ( edit ) Although Bryan had decided on a strategy to gain the nomination -- to give a speech which would make him the logical candidate in the eyes of delegates -- he faced obstacles along the way . For one thing , he began the 1896 convention without any official status -- the Democratic National Committee , which made the initial determination of which delegations would be seated , had chosen the pro-gold Nebraskans to represent their state . Bryan had been waiting outside the committee room when his rivals were seated by a 27 -- 23 vote ; contemporary accounts state he was `` somewhat surprised '' at the result . The DNC 's action could be reversed , but not until the convention 's credentials committee reported . However , Barnes deemed the actions by the committee immaterial to the outcome due to the silver strength in the convention : Anyone who doubts the power the silverites were ready to unleash in a disciplined and irresistible attack needs only to read the results of the election of temporary chairman . The gold men , though they possessed the machinery of the party , had neither the power nor the strength to challenge their opponents . They could only beg them to spare the party the humiliation of broken traditions and the overthrowing of established control . Nevertheless , Senator John W. Daniel of Virginia was by an overwhelming vote elected temporary chairman , and a Committee on Credentials was appointed that seated Bryan and his contesting Nebraska delegation . We demand the free and unlimited coinage of both silver and gold at the present legal ratio of 16 to 1 without waiting for the aid or consent of any other nation . We demand that the standard silver dollar shall be a full legal tender , equally with gold , for all debts , public and private , and we favor such legislation as will prevent for the future the demonitization of any kind of legal tender by private contract . `` '' From the money plank of the Democratic platform Good luck favored Bryan -- he was considered for various convention roles by the silverites , but each time was not selected . The temporary chairmanship , for example , would have permitted him to deliver the keynote address . However , Bryan , lacking a seat at the start of the convention , could not be elected temporary chairman . Bryan considered this no loss at all ; the focus of the convention was on the party platform and the debate which would precede its adoption . The platform would symbolize the repudiation of Cleveland and his policies after the insurgents ' long struggle , and Bryan was determined to close the debate on the platform . Bryan , once seated , was Nebraska 's representative to the Committee on Resolutions ( generally called the `` platform committee '' ) , which allocated 80 minutes to each side in the debate and selected Bryan as one of the speakers . South Carolina Senator Benjamin Tillman was to be the other pro-silver speaker , and originally wished to close the debate . However , the senator wanted 50 minutes to speak , too long for a closing address , and at Bryan 's request agreed to open the debate instead . Accordingly , Bryan became the final speaker on the platform . Delegates , as they waited for the committees to complete their work , spent much of the first two days listening to various orators . Of these , only Senator Blackburn , a silver supporter , sparked much reaction , and that only momentary . Delegates called for better - known speakers , such as Altgeld or Bryan , but were granted neither then ; the Illinois governor declined , and the Nebraskan , once seated , spent much of his time away from the convention floor at the platform committee meeting at the Palmer House . The debate on the platform opened at the start of the third day of the convention , July 9 , 1896 . The session was supposed to begin at 10 : 00 a.m. , but as delegates , slowed by the long commute from the hotels to the Coliseum and fatigue from the first two days , did not arrive on time , proceedings did not begin until 10 : 45 . Nevertheless , large crowds gathered outside the public entrances ; the galleries were quickly packed . Once the convention came to order , Arkansas Senator James K. Jones , chair of the Committee on Resolutions , read the proposed platform to cheers by many delegates ; the reading of the pro-gold minority report attracted less applause . In a 1900 engraving , former Massachusetts Governor William E. Russell is shown preceding Bryan in addressing the convention . `` Pitchfork Ben '' Tillman lived up to his nickname with an incendiary address which began with a reference to his home state 's role in beginning the Civil War . Although Tillman endorsed silver , his address was so laced with sectionalism that most silver delegates remained silent for fear of being seen as supporting him . Tillman 's speech , scheduled to be the only one in support of silver except Bryan 's , was so badly received that Senator Jones , who had not planned to speak , gave a brief address asserting that silver was a national issue . Senator David B. Hill of New York , a gold supporter , was next . As Hill moved to the podium , a reporter friend passed Bryan a note urging him to make a patriotic speech without hint of sectionalism ; Bryan responded , `` You will not be disappointed . '' Hill gave a calm speech defending the gold position , and swayed few delegates . He was followed by two other gold men , Senator William Vilas of Wisconsin and former Massachusetts Governor William E. Russell . Vilas gave a lengthy defense of the Cleveland administration 's policies , so long that Russell , fearing that Vilas ' speech would cut into his time , asked that the time given to the gold proponents be extended by ten minutes . Bryan consented , on condition that his own time was extended by the same amount ; this was agreed to . `` And I needed it for the speech I was to make . '' Bryan later wrote , `` This was another unexpected bit of good fortune . I had never had such an opportunity before in my life and never expect to have again . '' Vilas quickly lost his audience , which did not want to hear Cleveland defended . Russell 's address was inaudible to most of the Coliseum ; he was ill and died just over a week later . As the gold men spoke , Bryan ate a sandwich to settle his stomach ; he was often nervous before major speeches . Another reporter approached him and asked him who he thought would win the nomination . `` Strictly confidential , not to be quoted for publication : I will be . '' Bryan addresses the convention ( edit ) As Russell concluded , to strong applause from gold delegates , there was a buzz of anticipation as Bryan ascended to the podium . There was loud cheering as Bryan stood there , waiting for his audience to calm . Bryan 's lecture tours had left him a well - known spokesman for silver . As yet , no one at the convention had effectively spoken for that cause , which was paramount to the delegates . According to political scientist Richard F. Bensel in his study of the 1896 Democratic convention , `` Although the silver men knew they would win this fight , they nonetheless needed someone to tell them -- and the gold men -- why they must enshrine silver at the heart of the platform . '' Bensel noted , `` The pump was more than primed , it was ready to explode . '' Bryan would say little that he had not said before -- the text is similar to that of a speech he had given the previous week at Crete , Nebraska -- but he would give the convention its voice . The 1896 Democratic National Convention Bryan began softly , I would be presumptuous , indeed , to present myself against the distinguished gentlemen to whom you have listened if this were a mere measuring of abilities ; but this is not a contest between persons . The humblest citizen in all the land , when clad in the armor of a righteous cause , is stronger than all the hosts of error . I come to speak to you in defense of a cause as holy as the cause of liberty -- the cause of humanity . Bryan 's opening claimed no personal prestige for himself -- but nevertheless placed him as the spokesman for silver . According to Bensel , the self - deprecation helped disarm the delegates . As Bryan was not deemed a major contender for the nomination , even delegates committed to a candidate could cheer him without seeming to betray their allegiance . Bryan then recounted the history of the silver movement ; the audience , which had loudly demonstrated its approval of his opening statements , quieted . Throughout the speech , Bryan had the delegates in the palm of his hand ; they cheered on cue . The Nebraskan later described the audience as like a trained choir . As he concluded his historical recitation , he reminded the silver delegates that they had come to crown their victory , `` not to discuss , not to debate , but to enter up the judgment already rendered by the plain people of this country '' . Bryan continued with language evoking the Civil War , telling his audience that `` in this contest brother has been arrayed against brother , father against son . '' By then , as he spoke in a sincere tone , his voice sounded clearly and loudly through the hall . He denied , however that the contest was personal ; he bore no ill - will towards those who supported the gold standard . However , he stated , facing towards the gold delegates , `` when you come before us and tell us that we are about to disturb your business interests , we reply that you have disturbed our business interests by your course . '' The gold men , during the address , paid close attention and showed their appreciation for Bryan 's oratory . Bryan then defended the right of silver supporters to make their argument against opposition from gold men , who were associated with financial interests , especially in the East . Although his statements nominally responded to a point made by Russell , Bryan had thought of the argument the previous evening , and had not used it in earlier speeches . He always regarded it as the best point he made during the speech , and only the ending caused more reaction from his listeners : We say to you that you have made the definition of a business man too limited in its application . The man who is employed for wages is as much a business man as his employer ; the attorney in a country town is as much a business man as the corporation counsel in a great metropolis ; the merchant at the cross-roads store is as much a business man as the merchant of New York ; the farmer who goes forth in the morning and toils all day , who begins in spring and toils all summer , and who by the application of brain and muscle to the natural resources of the country creates wealth , is as much a business man as the man who goes upon the Board of Trade and bets upon the price of grain ; the miners who go down a thousand feet into the earth , or climb two thousand feet upon the cliffs , and bring forth from their hiding places the precious metals to be poured into the channels of trade are as much business men as the few financial magnates who , in a back room , corner the money of the world . We come to speak of this broader class of business men . Through this passage , Bryan maintained the contrast between the common man and the city - dwelling elite . It was clear to listeners as he worked his way through the comparisons that he would refer to the farmer , and when he did , the hall exploded with sound . His sympathetic comparison contrasted the hardworking farmer with the city businessman , whom Bryan cast as a gambler . The galleries were filled with white as spectators waved handkerchiefs , and it was several minutes before he could continue . The police in the convention hall , not sharing the enthusiasm for silver , were described by the press ( some of whose members were caught up in the frenzy ) as standing as if they thought the audience was about to turn on them . When Bryan resumed , his comparison of miner with miser again electrified the audience ; the uproar prevented him from continuing for several minutes . One farmer in the gallery had been about to leave rather than listen to Bryan , whom he deemed a Populist ; he had been persuaded to stay . At Bryan 's words , he threw his hat into the air , slapped the empty seat in front of him with his coat , and shouted , `` My God ! My God ! My God ! '' Bryan , having established the right of silver supporters to petition , explained why that petition was not to be denied : It is for these that we speak . We do not come as aggressors . Our war is not a war of conquest ; we are fighting in the defense of our homes , our families , and posterity . We have petitioned , and our petitions have been scorned ; we have entreated , and our entreaties have been disregarded ; we have begged , and they have mocked when our calamity came . We beg no longer ; we entreat no more ; we petition no more . We defy them ! With this call to action , Bryan abandoned any hint at compromise , and adopted the techniques of the radical , polarizing orator , finding no common ground between silver and gold forces . He then defended the remainder of the platform , though only speaking in general terms . He mocked McKinley , said by some to resemble Napoleon , noting that he was nominated on the anniversary of the Battle of Waterloo . The lengthy passage as he discussed the platform and the Republicans helped calm the audience , ensuring he would be heard as he reached his peroration . But Bryan first wished to tie the silver question to a greater cause : Upon which side will the Democratic Party fight ; upon the side of `` the idle holders of idle capital '' or upon the side of `` the struggling masses '' ? That is the question which the party must answer first , and then it must be answered by each individual hereafter . The sympathies of the Democratic Party , as shown by the platform , are on the side of the struggling masses , who have ever been the foundation of the Democratic Party . He faced in the direction of the gold - dominated state delegations : There are two ideas of government . There are those who believe that , if you will only legislate to make the well - to - do prosperous , their prosperity will leak through on those below . The Democratic idea , however , has been that if you legislate to make the masses prosperous , their prosperity will find its way up through every class which rests upon them . You come to us and tell us that the great cities are in favor of the gold standard ; we reply that the great cities rest upon our broad and fertile prairies . Burn down your cities and leave our farms , and your cities will spring up again as if by magic ; but destroy our farms and the grass will grow in the streets of every city in the country . This statement attracted great cheering , and Bryan turned to rhetorically demolish the compromise position on bimetallism -- that it should only be accomplished through international agreement : It is the issue of 1776 over again . Our ancestors , when but three millions in number , had the courage to declare their political independence of every other nation ; shall we , their descendants , when we have grown to seventy millions , declare that we are less independent than our forefathers ? No , my friends , that will never be the verdict of our people . Therefore , we care not upon what lines the battle is fought . If they say bimetallism is good , but that we can not have it until other nations help us , we reply that , instead of having a gold standard because England has , we will restore bimetallism , and then let England have bimetallism because the United States has it . If they dare to come out in the open field and defend the gold standard as a good thing , we will fight them to the uttermost . Now , Bryan was ready to conclude the speech , and according to his biographer , Michael Kazin , step `` into the headlines of American history '' . Having behind us the producing masses of this nation and the world , supported by the commercial interests , the laboring interests , and the toilers everywhere , we will answer their demand for a gold standard by saying to them : `` You shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns ; you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold . '' As Bryan spoke his final sentence , recalling the Crucifixion of Jesus , he placed his hands to his temples , fingers extended ; with the final words , he extended his arms to his sides straight out to his body and held that pose for about five seconds as if offering himself as sacrifice for the cause , as the audience watched in dead silence . He then lowered them , descended from the podium , and began to head back to his seat as the stillness held . Reception and nomination ( edit ) Convention events ( edit ) Bryan later described the silence as `` really painful '' and momentarily thought he had failed . As he moved towards his seat , the Coliseum burst into pandemonium . Delegates threw hats , coats , and handkerchiefs into the air . Others took up the standards with the state names on them with each delegation , and planted them by Nebraska 's . Two alert police officers had joined Bryan as he left the podium , anticipating the crush . The policemen were swept away by the flood of delegates , who raised Bryan to their shoulders and carried him around the floor . The Washington Post newspaper recorded , `` bedlam broke loose , delirium reigned supreme . '' It took about 25 minutes to restore order , and according to Bensel , `` somewhere in the mass demonstration that was convulsing the convention hall , the transfer of sentiment from silver as a policy to Bryan as a presidential candidate took place '' . Newspaper accounts of the convention leave little doubt but that , had a vote been taken at that moment ( as many were shouting to do ) , Bryan would have been nominated . Bryan was urged by Senator Jones to allow it , but refused , stating that if his boom would not last overnight , it would never last until November . He soon retired from the convention , returning to his hotel to await the outcome . The convention passed the platform in Bryan 's absence and recessed . The balloting began the following morning , July 10 , with a two - thirds vote necessary to nominate . Bryan , who remained at his hotel , sent word to the Nebraska delegation to make no deals on his behalf . He stood second out of fourteen candidates in the first ballot , behind Bland . On the second ballot , Bryan still stood second , but had gained as other candidates had fallen away . The third ballot saw Bland still in the lead , but Bryan took the lead on the fourth ballot . According to Jones , it was clear that Bland could not win , and that Bryan could not be stopped . On the fifth ballot , the Illinois delegation , led by Governor Altgeld , switched its votes from Bland to Bryan . Other delegations , seeing that Bryan would be nominated , also switched , securing the victory . Nevertheless , he won the nomination without the votes of the gold delegates , most of whom either left the convention or refused to vote . Press reaction ( edit ) Judge magazine criticized Bryan for sacrilege in his speech . He is shown with crown and cross , but trampling the Bible . Most contemporary press accounts attributed Bryan 's nomination to his eloquence , though in the case of Republican and other gold - favoring newspapers , they considered it his demagoguery . The pro-silver Cleveland Plain Dealer called Bryan 's speech `` an eloquent , stirring , and manly appeal '' . The Chicago Tribune reported that Bryan had lit the spark `` which touched off the trail of gun - powder '' . The St. Louis Post-Dispatch opined that with the speech , Bryan `` just about immortalized himself '' . According to the New York World , `` Lunacy having dictated the platform , it was perhaps natural that hysteria should evolve the candidate . '' The New York Times disparaged Bryan as `` the gifted blatherskite from Nebraska '' . The only paper to predict , after Bryan gave his speech , that he would not be nominated was The Wall Street Journal , which stated , `` Bryan has had his day '' . The Akron Journal and Republican , no friend to Bryan , opined that `` never probably has a national convention been swayed or influenced by a single speech as was the national Democratic convention '' . Campaign and aftermath ( edit ) Main article : William Jennings Bryan presidential campaign , 1896 § General election campaign The Pullman Company offered Bryan a private car for his trip home ; he declined , not wishing to accept corporate favors . As he traveled by rail to Lincoln , he saw farmers and others standing by the tracks , hoping for a glimpse of the new Democratic nominee . He received many letters from supporters , expressing their faith in him in stark terms . One Indiana voter wrote , `` God has sent you amongst our people to save the poor from starvation , and we no ( sic ) you will save us . '' A farmer in Iowa , in a letter to Bryan , stated , `` You are the first big man that i ( sic ) ever wrote to . '' Bryan campaigning on stage a few months after the speech When McKinley heard that Bryan was likely to be the nominee , he called the report `` rot '' and hung up the phone . The Republican nominee was slow to realize the surge of support for Bryan after the nomination , stating his view that the silver sentiment would be gone in a month . When McKinley and his advisers , such as industrialist and future senator Mark Hanna , realized that the views were more than transitory , they began intensive fundraising from corporations and the wealthy . The money went for speakers , pamphlets , and other means of conveying their `` sound money '' campaign to the voter . With far less money than McKinley , Bryan embarked on a nationwide campaign tour by train on a then - unprecedented scale . McKinley on the other hand , opted for a front porch campaign . Both men spoke to hundreds of thousands of people from their chosen venues . Bryan 's nomination divided the party . The dissidents nominated their own ticket ; the split in the vote would contribute to Bryan 's defeat . However , Bryan did gain the support of the Populists , as well as a convention of Silver Republicans . Bryan spoke on silver throughout the campaign ; he rarely addressed other issues . Bryan won the South and most of the West , but McKinley 's victories in the more populous Northeast and Midwest carried him to the presidency . The Democratic candidate failed to gain a majority of the labor vote ; McKinley won in working - class areas as well as wealthy precincts . Although McKinley outpolled him by 600,000 votes , Bryan received more votes than any previous presidential candidate . After McKinley 's inauguration , increases in gold availability from new discoveries and improved refining methods led to a considerable increase in the money supply . Even so , in 1900 , Congress passed the Gold Standard Act , formally placing the United States on that standard . Although Bryan ran again on a silver platform in the 1900 presidential election , the issue failed to produce the same resonance with the voters . McKinley won more easily than in 1896 , making inroads in the silver West . Legacy ( edit ) A `` Bryan dollar '' issued by his opponents to illustrate the difference between the size of a silver dollar and the amount of bullion that could be purchased with a dollar . Bryan 's speech is considered one of the most powerful political addresses in American history . Stanley Jones , however , suggested that even if Bryan had never made it , he would still have been nominated . Jones deemed the Democrats likely to nominate a candidate who would appeal to the Populist Party , and Bryan had been elected to Congress with Populist support . According to rhetorical historian William Harpine in his study of the rhetoric of the 1896 campaign , `` Bryan 's speech cast a net for the true believers , but only for the true believers . '' Harpine suggested that , `` by appealing in such an uncompromising way to the agrarian elements and to the West , Bryan neglected the national audience who would vote in the November election '' . Bryan 's emphasis on agrarian issues , both in his speech and in his candidacy , may have helped cement voting patterns which kept the Democrats largely out of power until the 1930s . Writer Edgar Lee Masters called the speech , `` the beginning of a changed America . '' Bryan 's words gave rise to later economic and political philosophies , including Huey Long 's 1930s Share Our Wealth program , with its trigger phrase , `` Every Man a King '' inspired by Bryan 's speech . Author and political commentator William Safire , in his political dictionary , traced the term `` trickle - down economics '' ( common in the Reagan era ) to Bryan 's statement that some believe that government should legislate for the wealthy , and allow prosperity to `` leak through '' on those below . Historian R. Hal Williams suggested that the opposite philosophy , of legislation for the masses leading to prosperity for all , advocated by Bryan in his speech , informed the domestic policies of later Democratic presidents , including Franklin Roosevelt with his New Deal . Bensel ties the delegates ' response to Bryan 's address to their uncertainty in their own beliefs : In a very real sense , adoption of the silver plank in the platform was akin to a millennial expectation that the `` laws of economics '' would henceforth be suspended and that the silver men could simply `` will '' that silver and gold would , in fact , trade on financial markets at a ratio of sixteen to one . The silver men were thus in the hunt for a charismatic leader who would underpin what they already desperately wanted to believe . They manufactured that leader in the convention , a fabrication in which Bryan was only too happy to assist . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Kazin , p. 61 . Jump up ^ Taxay , pp. 48 -- 49 . Jump up ^ Coin World Almanac , p. 455 . ^ Jump up to : Lange , pp. 42 -- 43 . Jump up ^ Taxay , p. 193 . Jump up ^ Taxay , pp. 217 -- 221 . ^ Jump up to : Jones , p. 7 . Jump up ^ Coin World Almanac , p. 456 . Jump up ^ Jones , pp. 7 -- 13 . Jump up ^ Taxay , pp. 261 -- 267 . Jump up ^ Jones , pp. 7 -- 9 . Jump up ^ Bensel , p. 25 . Jump up ^ Jones , pp. 43 -- 45 . Jump up ^ Williams , pp. 28 -- 29 . Jump up ^ Williams , pp. 67 -- 68 . Jump up ^ Cherny , pp. 52 -- 53 . Jump up ^ Kazin , pp. 38 -- 40 . Jump up ^ Jones , p. 68 . Jump up ^ Williams , pp. 41 -- 45 . Jump up ^ Kazin , pp. 41 -- 43 . Jump up ^ Kazin , pp. 42 -- 44 . Jump up ^ Williams , pp. 67 -- 71 . Jump up ^ Kazin , pp. 46 -- 48 . Jump up ^ Barnes , p. 380 . Jump up ^ Jones , p. 49 . Jump up ^ Coletta , p. 100 . ^ Jump up to : Kazin , p. 52 . Jump up ^ Williams , p. 74 . Jump up ^ Jones , pp. 184 -- 185 . Jump up ^ Barnes , p. 381 . Jump up ^ Barnes , p. 374 . Jump up ^ Williams , pp. 72 -- 74 . Jump up ^ Bensel , p. 22 . Jump up ^ Jones , pp. 192 -- 193 . Jump up ^ Jones , pp. 216 -- 217 . Jump up ^ Bensel , p. 32 . Jump up ^ Jones , p. 225 . Jump up ^ Harpine , pp. 48 -- 49 . Jump up ^ Coletta , p. 124 . Jump up ^ Bensel , pp. 301 -- 302 . Jump up ^ Williams , p. 72 . Jump up ^ Williams , p. 69 . Jump up ^ Williams , pp. 70 -- 73 . Jump up ^ Cherny , p. 56 . Jump up ^ Bensel , p. 57 . ^ Jump up to : Cherny , p. 59 . Jump up ^ Barnes , p. 376 . Jump up ^ Official Proceedings of the 1896 Democratic National Convention , p. 254 . Jump up ^ Williams , pp. 80 -- 81 . ^ Jump up to : Bensel , pp. 206 -- 209 . Jump up ^ Bensel , pp. 128 -- 129 . Jump up ^ Williams , p. 81 . Jump up ^ Bensel , pp. 210 -- 213 . ^ Jump up to : Jones , p. 226 . Jump up ^ Williams , pp. 81 -- 82 . ^ Jump up to : Williams , p. 82 . ^ Jump up to : Bensel , p. 223 . Jump up ^ Williams , pp. 82 -- 83 . ^ Jump up to : Jones , p. 227 . Jump up ^ Bensel , pp. 223 -- 224 . Jump up ^ Bensel , p. 245 . Jump up ^ Williams , p. 83 . ^ Jump up to : Jones , p. 229 . ^ Jump up to : Bensel , pp. 224 -- 225 . Jump up ^ Bensel , pp. 237 -- 238 . ^ Jump up to : Williams , p. 84 . ^ Jump up to : Harpine , p. 49 . Jump up ^ Kazin , p. 60 . Jump up ^ Coletta , p. 138 . ^ Jump up to : Jones , p. 228 . ^ Jump up to : Williams , pp. 84 -- 85 . Jump up ^ Bensel , p. 233 . Jump up ^ Coletta , p. 139 . Jump up ^ Bensel , p. 227 . Jump up ^ Harpine , pp. 51 -- 52 . ^ Jump up to : Bensel , pp. 230 -- 232 . Jump up ^ Official Proceedings of the 1896 Democratic National Convention , p. 233 . Jump up ^ Bensel , p. 232 . ^ Jump up to : Williams , p. 86 . Jump up ^ Bensel , pp. 232 -- 234 . ^ Jump up to : Bensel , p. 236 . Jump up ^ Bensel , p. 237 . Jump up ^ Bensel , pp. 241 -- 242 . Jump up ^ Kazin , p. 62 . Jump up ^ Williams , p. 87 . Jump up ^ Jones , pp. 234 -- 236 . ^ Jump up to : Harpine , p. 52 . Jump up ^ Bensel , p. 242 . Jump up ^ Williams , p. 88 . ^ Jump up to : Harpine , p. 53 . ^ Jump up to : Williams , p. 91 . ^ Jump up to : Williams , p. 93 . Jump up ^ Bensel , p. 301 . Jump up ^ Cherny , pp. 64 -- 66 . Jump up ^ Jones , p. 241 . Jump up ^ Jones , pp. 244 -- 255 . ^ Jump up to : Williams , p. 152 . ^ Jump up to : Cherny , p. 70 . Jump up ^ Phillips , pp. 114 -- 115 . Jump up ^ Harpine , p. 1 . Jump up ^ Jones , p. 239 . Jump up ^ Harpine , p. 55 . Jump up ^ Woods , pp. 9 -- 10 . Jump up ^ Jones , p. 346 . Jump up ^ Safire , p. 225 . Jump up ^ Safire , pp. 752 -- 753 . Jump up ^ Williams , p. 161 . Jump up ^ Bensel , pp. 310 -- 311 . Bibliography ( edit ) Barnes , James A. ( December 1947 ) . `` Myths of the Bryan campaign '' . The Mississippi Valley Historical Review . Lincoln , Neb. : Mississippi Valley Historical Society . 34 ( 3 ) : 367 -- 404 . doi : 10.2307 / 1898096 . JSTOR 1898096 . Bensel , Richard Franklin ( 2008 ) . Passion and Preferences : William Jennings Bryan and the 1896 Democratic National Convention . Cambridge , UK : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 71762 - 5 . Cherny , Robert W. ( 1985 ) . A Righteous Cause : The Life of William Jennings Bryan . Boston : Little , Brown , and Company . ISBN 978 - 0 - 316 - 13854 - 3 . Coin World Almanac ( 8th ed . ) . Sidney , Ohio : Amos Press . 2011 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 944945 - 60 - 5 . Coletta , Paulo E. ( 1964 ) . William Jennings Bryan : Political Evangelist , 1860 -- 1908 . Lincoln , Neb. : University of Nebraska Press . Dickinson , Edward B. ( official stenographer ) ( 1896 ) . Official Proceedings of the Democratic National Convention . Logansport , Ind. : Wilson , Humphreys , and Co . Retrieved December 14 , 2011 . Harpine , William D. ( 2005 ) . From the Front Porch to the Front Page : McKinley and Bryan in the 1896 Presidential Campaign . Presidential Rhetoric. 13 . College Station , Tex. : Texas A&M University Press . ISBN 978 - 1 - 58544 - 559 - 2 . Retrieved March 5 , 2012 . Jones , Stanley L. ( 1964 ) . The Presidential Election of 1896 . Madison , Wis. : University of Wisconsin Press . OCLC 445683 . Kazin , Michael ( 2006 ) . A Godly Hero : The Life of William Jennings Bryan . New York : Alfred A. Knopf . ISBN 978 - 0 - 375 - 41135 - 9 . Lange , David W. ( 2006 ) . History of the United States Mint and its Coinage . Atlanta , Ga. : Whitman Publishing . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7948 - 1972 - 9 . Phillips , Kevin ( 2003 ) . William McKinley . New York : Henry Holt and Company . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8050 - 6953 - 2 . Safire , William ( 2008 ) . Safire 's Political Dictionary ( Revised ed . ) . New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 534334 - 2 . Retrieved December 27 , 2011 . Taxay , Don ( 1983 ) . The U.S. Mint and Coinage ( reprint of 1966 ed . ) . New York : Sanford J. Durst Numismatic Publications . ISBN 978 - 0 - 915262 - 68 - 7 . Williams , R. Hal ( 2010 ) . Realigning America : McKinley , Bryan and the Remarkable Election of 1896 . Lawrence , Kan. : University Press of Kansas . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7006 - 1721 - 0 . Woods , William K. ( January 1967 ) . `` Letter to William Jennings Bryan '' . The North American Review . Cedar Falls , Iowa : University of Northern Iowa . 252 ( 1 ) : 9 -- 10 . JSTOR 25116528 . External links ( edit ) Wikisource has original text related to this article : Cross of Gold Speech Full text and audio version of `` Cross of Gold '' at History Matters . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cross_of_Gold_speech&oldid=807196862 '' Categories : 1896 speeches 1896 in Illinois Economic history of the United States Gold standard History of Chicago History of the United States ( 1865 -- 1918 ) Metallism Monetary policy People 's Party ( United States ) Political history of the United States Progressive Era in the United States Speeches United States National Recording Registry recordings William Jennings Bryan 1896 in economics July 1896 events Democratic Party ( United States ) events in Illinois Democratic National Conventions Hidden categories : Pages using infobox event with blank parameters Featured articles Talk Contents About Wikipedia Esperanto Français Simple English Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 26 October 2017 , at 14 : 38 . About Wikipedia

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who is the woman in the mask got

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Chewbacca Mask Lady - wikipedia Chewbacca Mask Lady Jump to : navigation , search Chewbacca Mask Lady A still from the video Starring Candace Payne Release date May 19 , 2016 ( 2016 - 05 - 19 ) Running time 4 minutes Chewbacca Mask Lady ( also known as Chewbacca Mom ) is an internet viral video featuring 37 - year - old Texas mother Candace Payne filming herself heartily laughing while wearing a Star Wars Chewbacca mask . The video was posted to Facebook with the description `` It 's the simple joys in life ... '' on May 19 , 2016 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Reaction 2 Other videos 3 References 4 External links Reaction ( edit ) The video became so popular that Forbes reported that the mask sold out from every online retailer . In response to the video , Kohl 's , where the mask was purchased , rewarded Payne with about $2,500 in gift cards , Star Wars toys and 10,000 reward points . On May 23 , 2016 , Holly Willoughby and Phillip Schofield wore the masks on This Morning . On the same day , Payne was featured on Good Morning America . On the show , Hasbro rewarded her with more Star Wars toys . Later that day , The Gregory Brothers uploaded an autotuned remix of the video . Payne was later featured on The Late Late Show with James Corden with J.J. Abrams . She was also featured on `` The Star Wars Show '' on the Star Wars official YouTube channel on May 25 , 2016 . Additionally , Payne received $7,500 for a Memorial Day weekend visit at Disney 's Hollywood Studios , $2,000 to attend the Fan Dallas Expo with Chewbacca actor Peter Mayhew , and $400,000 in scholarship money from Southeastern University , bringing the total value of her gift to more than $420,000 as of June 7 , 2016 . On May 24 , 2016 , she was invited by Mark Zuckerberg to visit the Facebook headquarters in California . As of that date , the video had gathered over 140 million views on Facebook and was the most viewed Facebook Live video of all time . The video also has over three million Facebook `` reshares '' . Payne visited Hasbro headquarters with her family on June 19 and was presented with a `` Chewbacca Mom '' action figure . The body looks like Chewbacca but the head is a representation of Payne , including a removable Chewbacca mask ; it also has 13 prerecorded phrases such as `` That 's not me making that noise , it 's the mask , '' and `` I am such a happy Chewbacca . '' Other videos ( edit ) On July 9 , 2016 , Payne posted a video on Facebook of her cover of Michael Jackson 's song `` Heal the World '' and dedicated it to the victims of the 2016 shooting of Dallas police officers , which happened days earlier in Dallas near her home . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Mack , David ( May 21 , 2016 ) . `` The Chewbacca Mask Lady Is Laughing All The Way To Internet Super Stardom '' . BuzzFeed . Retrieved May 22 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Trending , BBC ( May 20 , 2016 ) . `` Mum in Chewbacca mask shatters Facebook Live record '' . BBC News . Retrieved May 22 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Rogers , Christopher ( May 21 , 2016 ) . `` Chewbacca : Lady Wears Hilarious ' Star Wars ' Mask & The World Laughs With Her -- Watch '' . Hollywood Life . Retrieved May 22 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Watch A Chewbacca Mask Turn This Woman Into The Happiest Star Wars Fan On The Planet '' . CINEMABLEND . May 20 , 2016 . Retrieved May 22 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Candace Payne '' . Facebook . May 20 , 2016 . Retrieved May 22 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Video Of Woman Laughing In Chewbacca Mask Sells Out Mask , Kohl 's Says '' . Forbes . May 20 , 2016 . Retrieved May 22 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Hall , Gerrad ( May 21 , 2016 ) . `` Chewbacca Mask Lady ' overwhelmed ' by support as video hits 114 million views '' . Entertainment Weekly 's EW.com . Retrieved May 22 , 2016 . Jump up ^ McCrum , Kirstie ( May 23 , 2016 ) . `` Chewbacca lady gets Star Wars haul for kids - including their own wookie masks '' . Mirror . Retrieved May 23 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Miller , Adam ( May 23 , 2016 ) . `` WATCH : Holly and Phillip in hysterics as they host This Morning in Chewbacca masks '' . Express.co.uk . Retrieved May 23 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` ' Chewbacca Mom ' Candace Payne , Live on ' GMA ' '' . Retrieved May 23 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Martinelli , Marissa ( May 24 , 2016 ) . `` How Could That Chewbacca Mask Video Get Any More Joyful ? Add Autotune . '' . Slate . Retrieved May 24 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Shepherd , Jack ( May 24 , 2016 ) . `` The ' Chewbacca ' mum who conquered Facebook had the time of her life on James Corden 's show '' . The Independent . Retrieved May 25 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Hicks , Tony ( May 26 , 2016 ) . `` Watch : Chewbacca mom visits Lucasfilm HQ in San Francisco on ' The Star Wars Show ' '' . www.mercurynews.com . Retrieved June 9 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Mauney , Matt ( June 2 , 2016 ) . `` ' Chewbacca mom ' visits Disney 's Hollywood Studios '' . OrlandoSentinel.com . Retrieved June 9 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` ' Chewbacca mask lady ' gets more than $420,000 in gifts '' . WJXT . June 7 , 2016 . Retrieved June 9 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Lawler , Richard ( May 25 , 2016 ) . `` Mom behind most - watched Facebook Live video visits its HQ '' . Engadget . Retrieved May 25 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Nick Romano ( June 19 , 2016 ) . `` Chewbacca Mom gets her own action figure from Hasbro '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved June 19 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Mahjouri , Shakiel ( July 9 , 2016 ) . `` ' Chewbacca Mom ' Roars Beautiful Rendition Of ' Heal The World ' '' . ET Canada . Retrieved July 9 , 2016 . External links ( edit ) Original video Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chewbacca_Mask_Lady&oldid=807117187 '' Categories : 2016 in Texas 2016 works Facebook Star Wars fandom Viral videos Hidden categories : Use mdy dates from April 2017 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 26 October 2017 , at 00 : 47 . About Wikipedia

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what were key resources exploited by colonial settlers in new england

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Exploitation_colonialism&oldid=805804224

Exploitation colonialism - wikipedia Exploitation colonialism Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( February 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Exploitation colonialism : The world in 1898 ; European empires colonised the Americas , Africa , Asia , and Oceania . Exploitation colonialism is the national economic policy of conquering a country to exploit its population as labour and its natural resources as raw material . The practice of exploitation colonialism contrasts with settler colonialism , the policy of conquering a country to establish a branch of the metropole ( motherland ) . A reason for which a country might practice exploitation colonialism is the immediate financial gain produced by the low - cost extraction of raw materials by means of a native people , usually administered by a colonial government . The geopolitics of an Imperialist power determine which of these colonial practices it will follow . In the example of the British Empire , colonists settled mainly in northern North America and in Australia , where the native populations declined due to disease and violence in the course of establishing a facsimile society of the metropole . Whereas the densely populated countries of the British Raj ( 1858 -- 1947 ) , in the Indian subcontinent , and the British occupation of Egypt and South Africa , as well as the island of Barbados , were ruled by a small populace of colonial administrators ( colonial government ) that redirected the local economies to exploitation management to supply the metropole with food , raw materials , and some finished goods . Exploitation was often reinforced by colonial European geographers who implemented theories such as environmental determinism , which suggested warmer climates produced less civilized people . These theories were among the scholarly canon that helped legitimize colonial activity and expansion into overseas territories . Geographers such as Friedrich Ratzel suggested that the survival of empire relied on its ability to expand its control and influence around the world . By implying a correlation between colonial expansion and national success , geographers were able to produce a sense of nationalism within many European nations . Their influence created a sense of pride that was able to reassure subjects that their nation 's activity abroad was beneficial to not only them , but that their presence was necessary within the territories being occupied . Barbados was claimed for the English in 1625 by Captain John Powell , and by the 1660s the English had come to regard Barbados as being by far and away their most highly prized possession anywhere in the New World . The island 's value to England , and the enormous wealth of a minority of its English inhabitants , hinged on the relationship that had been forged during the previous twenty years between sugar and slavery . See also ( edit ) Banana republic Dependency theory Globalization Impact of Western European colonialism and colonisation Imperialism , the Highest Stage of Capitalism ( 1917 ) Political economy Settler colonialism Singer -- Prebisch thesis The Accumulation of Capital : A Contribution to an Economic Explanation of Imperialism ( 1913 ) Ultra-imperialism Canada / China FIPA References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Gilmartin , Mary ( April 2009 ) . Key Concepts in Political Geography . UK : SAGE Publications Ltd. p. 116 . Jump up ^ Wood , Betty ( 1997 ) . The Origins of American Slavery : Freedom and Bondage in the English Colonies . New York : Hill and Wang . p. 45 . ISBN 0 - 8090 - 7456 - 7 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exploitation_colonialism&oldid=805804224 '' Categories : Colonialism Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from February 2015 All articles needing additional references Talk About Wikipedia Català Português Edit links This page was last edited on 17 October 2017 , at 19 : 01 . About Wikipedia

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daniel craig the girl with the dragon tattoo sequel

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=The_Girl_with_the_Dragon_Tattoo_(2011_film)&oldid=838540602

The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo ( 2011 film ) - wikipedia The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo ( 2011 film ) Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the English - language film . For the Swedish - language film based on the same novel , see The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo ( 2009 film ) . The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo Theatrical release poster Directed by David Fincher Produced by Scott Rudin Ole Søndberg Søren Stærmose Ceán Chaffin Screenplay by Steven Zaillian Based on The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo by Stieg Larsson Starring Daniel Craig Rooney Mara Christopher Plummer Stellan Skarsgård Steven Berkoff Robin Wright Yorick van Wageningen Joely Richardson Music by Trent Reznor Atticus Ross Cinematography Jeff Cronenweth Edited by Kirk Baxter Angus Wall Production company Scott Rudin Productions Yellow Bird Distributed by Columbia Pictures Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer Pictures Release date December 12 , 2011 ( 2011 - 12 - 12 ) ( Odeon Leicester Square ) December 20 , 2011 ( 2011 - 12 - 20 ) ( United States ) December 21 , 2011 ( 2011 - 12 - 21 ) ( Sweden ) Running time 158 minutes Country United States Sweden Language English Budget $90 million Box office $232.6 million The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo is a 2011 Swedish - American psychological thriller film based on the novel of the same name by Stieg Larsson . This film adaptation was directed by David Fincher and written by Steven Zaillian . Starring Daniel Craig as journalist Mikael Blomkvist and Rooney Mara as Lisbeth Salander , it tells the story of Blomkvist 's investigation to find out what happened to a woman from a wealthy family who disappeared 40 years prior . He recruits the help of Salander , a computer hacker . Sony Pictures Entertainment began development on the film in 2009 . It took the company a few months to obtain the rights to the novel , while recruiting Zaillian and David Fincher . The casting process for the lead roles was exhaustive and intense ; Craig faced scheduling conflicts , and a number of actresses were sought for the role of Lisbeth Salander . The script took over six months to write , which included three months of analyzing the novel . Pre-release screenings occurred in London , New York City , and Stockholm . Critics gave the film favorable reviews , praising its bleak tone and lauding Mara and Craig 's performances . With a production budget of $90 million , the film grossed $232.6 million over its theatrical run . In addition to being included in several publications ' best - of lists , the film was a candidate for numerous awards , and ultimately won nine accolades , including an Academy Award for Best Film Editing . Mara 's performance earned her an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production 3.1 Conception and writing 3.2 Filming 3.2. 1 Title sequence 3.3 Soundtrack 4 Release 4.1 Pre-release 4.2 Home media 5 Reception 5.1 Box office 5.2 Critical response 5.3 Accolades 6 Sequel 7 References 8 External links Plot ( edit ) In Stockholm , Sweden , journalist Mikael Blomkvist ( Daniel Craig ) , co-owner of Millennium magazine , has lost a libel case brought against him by businessman Hans - Erik Wennerström ( Ulf Friberg ) . Lisbeth Salander ( Rooney Mara ) , a brilliant but troubled investigator and hacker , compiles an extensive background check on Blomkvist for business magnate Henrik Vanger ( Christopher Plummer ) , who has a special task for him . In exchange for the promise of damning information about Wennerström , Blomkvist agrees to investigate the disappearance and assumed murder of Henrik 's grandniece , Harriet , 40 years ago . After moving to the Vanger family 's estate , Blomkvist uncovers a notebook containing a list of names and numbers that no one has been able to decipher . Salander , who is under state legal guardianship due to diagnosed mental incompetency , is appointed a new guardian , lawyer Nils Bjurman ( Yorick van Wageningen ) , after her previous guardian Holger Palmgren suffers a stroke . Bjurman , a sexual sadist , abuses his authority to extort sexual favors from Salander and violently rapes her , not realizing she has a hidden video camera on her bag . At their next meeting she stuns him with a taser , rapes him with a dildo , and marks him as a rapist with a tattoo on his chest and stomach . Threatening to disclose the video recording , she blackmails him into writing a glowing progress report and granting her full control of her money . Blomkvist 's daughter Pernilla ( Josefin Asplund ) visits him and notes that the numbers from the notebook are Bible references . Blomkvist tells Vanger 's lawyer , Dirch Frode ( Steven Berkoff ) , that he needs help with his research , and Frode recommends Salander based on the work she did researching Blomkvist himself . Blomkvist hires Salander to investigate the notebook 's content . She uncovers a connection to a series of murders of young women from 1947 through to 1967 , with the women either being Jewish or having Biblical names ; many of the Vangers are known antisemites . During the investigation , Salander and Blomkvist become lovers . Henrik 's openly national socialist brother Harald identifies Martin ( Stellan Skarsgård ) , Harriet 's brother and operational head of the Vanger empire , and Blomkvist marks Martin as a possible suspect . Salander 's research uncovers evidence that Martin and his deceased father , Gottfried , committed the murders . Blomkvist breaks into Martin 's house to look for more clues , but Martin catches him and prepares to kill him . While torturing Blomkvist , Martin brags of having killed women for decades but denies killing Harriet . Salander arrives , subdues Martin and saves Blomkvist . While Salander tends to Blomkvist , Martin flees . Salander , on her motorcycle , pursues Martin in his SUV . He loses control of his vehicle on an icy road and dies when it catches fire . Salander nurses Blomkvist back to health and tells him that she tried to kill her father when she was 12 . Blomkvist deduces that Harriet is still alive and her cousin Anita ( Joely Richardson ) probably knows where she is . He and Salander monitor Anita , waiting for her to contact Harriet . When nothing happens , Blomkvist confronts her , deducing that the woman posing as Anita is Harriet herself . She explains that her father and brother had sexually abused her for years , and that Martin saw her kill their father in self - defense . Her cousin , Anita , smuggled her out of the island and let her live under her identity . Finally free of her brother , she returns to Sweden and tearfully reunites with Henrik . As promised , Henrik gives Blomkvist the information on Wennerström , but it proves worthless . Salander hacks into Wennerström 's computer and presents Blomkvist with evidence of Wennerström 's crimes . Blomkvist publishes an article that ruins Wennerström , who flees the country . Salander hacks into Wennerström 's bank accounts and , travelling to Switzerland in disguise , transfers two billion euros to various accounts . Wennerström is found murdered . Salander reveals to her former guardian Holger Palmgren that she has made a friend ( Blomkvist ) and is happy . On her way to give Blomkvist a Christmas present , Salander sees him with his longtime lover and business partner Erika Berger ( Robin Wright ) , though he had said he was going to see his daughter that evening . Salander discards the gift and rides away . Cast ( edit ) Daniel Craig as Mikael Blomkvist : A co-owner for Swedish lifestyle magazine Millennium , Blomkvist is devoted to exposing the corruptions and malfeasance of government , attracting infamy for his tendency to `` go too far '' . Craig competed with Brad Pitt , George Clooney , Viggo Mortensen , and Johnny Depp as candidates for the role . Initial concerns over schedule conflicts with the production of Cowboys & Aliens ( 2011 ) and Skyfall ( 2012 ) prompted Craig to postpone the casting process . Given the uncertainty surrounding Skyfall following Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer 's bankruptcy , Sony Pictures Entertainment and DreamWorks worked out a schedule and Craig agreed to take the part . The British actor was required to gain weight and adopted a neutral accent to befit Stockholm 's worldly cultural fabric . Having read the book amid its `` initial craze '' , Craig commented , `` It 's one of those books you just do n't put down '' ( ... ) There 's just this immediate feeling that bad things are going to happen and I think that 's part of why they 've been so readable for people . '' Rooney Mara as Lisbeth Salander : Salander is a computer hacker who has survived severe emotional and sexual abuse . The character was a `` vulnerable victim - turned - vigilante with the `` take - no - prisoners '' attitude of Lara Croft and the `` cool , unsentimental intellect '' of Spock . Fincher felt that Salander 's eccentric persona was enthralling , and stated , `` there 's a kind of wish fulfillment to her in the way that she takes care of things , the way she will only put up with so much , but there are other sides to her as well . '' Casting was complicated by the raft of prominent candidates such as Natalie Portman , Ellen Page , Kristen Stewart , Emily Browning , Jennifer Lawrence , Keira Knightley , Anne Hathaway , Olivia Thirlby , Scarlett Johansson , Yolandi Visser , and Emma Watson . Despite the hype , some eventually withdrew from consideration due to the time commitment and low pay . Mara had worked with Fincher in his 2010 film The Social Network . Fincher , while fond of the actress ' youthful appearance , found it difficult at first to mold her to match Salander 's antisocial demeanor , which was a vast contrast from her earlier role as the submissive Erica . Mara went through multiple changes in her appearance to become Salander . Her hair was dyed black and cut into various jagged points , giving the appearance that she cut it herself . In addition to her transgressive appearance , which was described as a `` mash - up of brazen Seventies punk and spooky Eighties goth with a dash of S&M temptress '' by Lynn Hirschberg of W , Mara participated in a formal screening and was filmed by Fincher on a subway in Los Angeles in an effort to persuade the executives of Sony Pictures that she was a credible choice . Christopher Plummer as Henrik Vanger : Vanger is a wealthy businessman who launches an extensive investigation into his family 's affairs . Despite calling the Vanger family `` dysfunctional '' , Plummer said of the character : `` I love the character of the old man , and I sympathize with him . He 's really the nicest old guy in the whole book . Everybody is a bit suspect , and still are at the end . Old Vanger has a nice straight line , and he gets his wish . '' Plummer wanted to imbue the character with irony , an element he found to be absent from the novel 's Henrik . `` I think that the old man would have it , '' he opined , `` because he 's a very sophisticated old guy ( ... ) used to a great deal of power . So in dealing with people , he would be very good ( ... ) he would be quite jokey , and know how to seduce them . '' Stellan Skarsgård as Martin Vanger : Martin is the current CEO of Vanger Industries . Skarsgård was allured by the character 's dual nature , and was fascinated that he got to portray him in `` two totally different ways '' . In regards to Martin 's `` very complex '' and `` complicated '' personality , the Swedish actor said , `` He can be extremely charming , but he also can seem to be a completely different person at different points in the film . '' While consulting with Fincher , the director wanted Skarsgård to play Martin without reference to the book . Steven Berkoff as Dirch Frode , Head Legal Counsel for Vanger Industries Robin Wright as Erika Berger : Blomkvist 's business partner and editor - in - chief of Millennium magazine . She 's also Blomkvist 's occasional lover . Yorick van Wageningen as Nils Bjurman : As Salander 's legal guardian , he uses his position to sexually abuse and eventually rape her . Salander turns the tables on him , torturing him and branding him as a rapist . Fincher wanted the character to be worse than a typical antagonist , although he did not want to emulate the stereotypical `` mustache - twirling pervert '' . The director considered Van Wageningen to be the embodiment of a versatile actor -- one who was a `` full - fledged human being '' and a `` brilliant '' actor . `` He was able to bring his performance from a logical place in Bjurman 's mind and find the seething morass of darkness inside , '' Fincher stated . Bjurman 's multifaceted psyche was the main reason Van Wageningen wanted to play the role . The Dutch actor said , `` This character goes through a lot and I was n't quite sure I wanted to go through all that . I started out half way between the elation of getting to work with David Fincher and the dread of this character , but I was able to use both of those things . We both thought the most interesting route would be for Bjurman to seem half affable . The challenge was not in finding the freak violence in the guy but finding the humanity of him . '' Joely Richardson as Harriet Vanger : Henrik 's long - lost grandniece who went into hiding posing as her cousin Anita . In performing her `` tricky '' character , Richardson recalled that Fincher wanted her to embrace a `` darker , edgier '' persona , without sugarcoating , and not `` resolved or healed '' . `` Even if you were starting to move towards the direction of resolved or healed , he still wanted it edgy and dark . There are no straightforward emotions in the world of this film . '' Goran Višnjić as Dragan Armansky , head of Milton Security , Salander 's employer Donald Sumpter as Detective Morell Ulf Friberg as Hans - Erik Wennerström , CEO of the Wennerström Group Geraldine James as Cecilia Vanger Embeth Davidtz as Annika Giannini , Mikael 's sister and a lawyer Josefin Asplund as Pernilla Blomkvist , Mikael 's daughter Per Myrberg as Harald Vanger Tony Way as Plague , Salander 's hacker friend Fredrik Dolk as Bertil Camnermarker , Counsel for the Wennerström Group Alan Dale as Detective Isaksson Julian Sands as Young Henrik Vanger David Dencik as Young Morell Gustaf Hammarsten as Young Harald Leo Bill as Trinity , another of Salander 's hacker friends Élodie Yung as Miriam Wu , Salander 's occasional lover Joel Kinnaman as Christer Malm Production ( edit ) Conception and writing ( edit ) The success of Stieg Larsson 's novel created Hollywood interest in adapting the book , as became apparent in 2009 , when Lynton and Pascal pursued the idea of developing an `` American '' version unrelated to the Swedish film adaptation released that year . By December , two major developments occurred for the project : Steven Zaillian , who had recently completed the script for Moneyball ( 2011 ) , became the screenwriter , while producer Scott Rudin finalized a partnership allocating full copyrights to Sony . Zaillian , who was unfamiliar with the novel , got a copy from Rudin . The screenwriter recalled , `` They sent it to me and said , ' We want to do this . We will think of it as one thing for now . It 's possible that it can be two and three , but let 's concentrate on this one . ' '' After reading the book , the screenwriter did no research on the subject . Fincher , who was requested with partner Cean Chaffin by Sony executives to read the novel , was astounded by the series ' size and success . As they began to read , the duo noticed that it had a tendency to take `` readers on a lot of side trips '' -- `` from detailed explanations of surveillance techniques to angry attacks on corrupt Swedish industrialists , '' professed The Hollywood Reporter 's Gregg Kilday . Fincher recalled of the encounter : `` The ballistic , ripping - yarn thriller aspect of it is kind of a red herring in a weird way . It is the thing that throws Salander and Blomkvist together , but it is their relationship you keep coming back to . I was just wondering what 350 pages Zaillian would get rid of . '' Because Zaillian was already cultivating the screenplay , the director avoided interfering . After a conversation , Fincher was comfortable `` they were headed in the same direction '' . `` I imagined someone who could move through the streets of Stockholm almost invisibly even though she looks the way she looks ... it 's almost like a forcefield '' -- Steven Zaillian The writing process consumed approximately six months , including three months creating notes and analyzing the novel . Zaillian noted that as time progressed , the writing accelerated . `` As soon as you start making decisions , '' he explained , `` you start cutting off all of the other possibilities of things that could happen . So with every decision that you make you are removing a whole bunch of other possibilities of where that story can go or what that character can do . '' Given the book 's sizable length , Zaillian deleted elements to match Fincher 's desired running time . Even so , Zaillan took significant departures from the book . To Zaillian , there was always a `` low - grade '' anxiety , `` but I was never doing anything specifically to please or displease , '' he continued . `` I was simply trying to tell the story the best way I could , and push that out of my mind . I did n't change anything just for the sake of changing it . There 's a lot right about the book , but that part , I thought we could do it a different way , and it could be a nice surprise for the people that have read it . '' Zaillian discussed many of the themes in Larsson 's Millennium series with Fincher , taking the pair deeper into the novel 's darker subjects , such as the psychological dissimilarities between rapists and murderers . Fincher was familiar with the concept , from projects such as Seven ( 1995 ) and Zodiac ( 2007 ) . Zaillian commented , `` A rapist , or at least our rapist , is about exercising his power over somebody . A serial killer is about destruction ; they get off on destroying something . It 's not about having power over something , it 's about eliminating it . What thrills them is slightly different . '' The duo wanted to expose the novels ' pivotal themes , particularly misogyny . `` We were committed to the tack that this is a movie about violence against women about specific kinds of degradation , and you ca n't shy away from that . But at the same time you have to walk a razor thin line so that the audience can viscerally feel the need for revenge but also see the power of the ideas being expressed . '' Instead of the typical three - act structure , they reluctantly chose a five - act structure , which Fincher pointed out is `` very similar to a lot of TV cop dramas . '' Filming ( edit ) Stockholm , Sweden provided for much of the setting of The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo . Fincher and Zaillian 's central objective was to maintain the novel 's setting . To portray Larsson 's vision of Sweden , and the interaction of light on its landscape , Fincher cooperated with an artistic team that included cinematographer Jeff Cronenweth and production designer Donald Graham Burt . The film was wholly shot using Red Digital Cinema Camera Company 's RED MX digital camera , chosen to help evoke Larsson 's tone . The idea , according to Cronenweth , was to employ unorthodox light sources and maintain a realistic perspective . `` So there may be shadows , there may be flaws , but it 's reality . You allow silhouettes and darkness , but at the same time we also wanted shots to counter that , so it would not all be one continuous dramatic image . '' Sweden 's climate was a crucial element in enhancing the mood . Cronenweth commented , `` It 's always an element in the background and it was very important that you feel it as an audience member . The winter becomes like a silent character in the film giving everything a low , cool - colored light that is super soft and non-direct . '' To get acquainted with Swedish culture , Burt set out on a month - long expedition across the country . He said of the process , `` It takes time to start really taking in the nuances of a culture , to start seeing the themes that recur in the architecture , the landscape , the layouts of the cities and the habits of the people . I felt I had to really integrate myself into this world to develop a true sense of place for the film . It was not just about understanding the physicality of the locations , but the metaphysics of them , and how the way people live comes out through design . '' Principal photography began in Stockholm , Sweden in September 2010 . Production mostly took place at multiple locations in the city 's central business district , including at the Stockholm Court House . One challenge was realizing the Vanger estate . They picked an eighteenth - century French architecture mansion Hofsta located approximately 60 miles ( 97 km ) southwest of Stockholm . Filmmakers wanted to use a typical `` manor from Småland '' that was solemn , formal , and `` very Old Money '' . `` The Swedish are very good at the modern and the minimal but they also have these wonderful country homes that can be juxtaposed against the modern city -- yet both speak to money . '' Principal photography relocated in October to Uppsala . On Queen Street , the facade of the area was renovated to mimic the Hotel Alder , after an old photograph of a building obtained by Fincher . From December onward , production moved to Zurich , Switzerland , where locations were established at Dolder Grand Hotel and the Zurich Airport . Because of the `` beautiful '' environment of the city , Fincher found it difficult to film in the area . Principal photography concluded in Oslo , Norway , where production took place at Oslo Airport , Gardermoen . Recorded for over fifteen hours , twelve extras were sought for background roles . Filming also took place in the United Kingdom and the United States . In one sequence the character Martin Vanger plays the song `` Orinoco Flow '' by Enya before beginning his torture of Mikael Blomkvist . David Fincher , the director , said that he believed that Martin `` does n't like to kill , he does n't like to hear the screams , without hearing his favorite music '' so therefore the character should play a song during the scene . Daniel Craig , the actor who played Blomkvist , selected `` Orinoco Flow '' on his iPod as a candidate song . Fincher said `` And we all almost pissed ourselves , we were laughing so hard . No , actually , it 's worse than that . He said , ' Orinoco Flow ! ' Everybody looked at each other , like , what is he talking about ? And he said , ' You know , `` Sail away , sail away ... '' ' And I thought , this guy is going to make Blomkvist as metro as we need . '' Title sequence ( edit ) In the `` Hot Hands '' vignette , the rough , gnarled hands caressing Salander 's face represents all that is bad in men . Tim Miller , creative director for the title sequence , wanted to develop an abstract narrative that reflected the pivotal moments in the novel , as well as the character development of Lisbeth Salander . It was arduous for Miller to conceptualize the sequence abstractly , given that Salander 's occupation was a distinctive part of her personality . His initial ideas were modeled after a keyboard . `` We were going to treat the keyboard like this giant city with massive fingers pressing down on the keys , '' Miller explained , `` Then we transitioned to the liquid going through the giant obelisks of the keys . '' Among Miller 's many vignettes was `` The Hacker Inside '' , which revealed the character 's inner disposition and melted them away . The futuristic qualities in the original designs provided for a much more cyberpunk appearance than the final product . In creating the `` cyber '' look for Salander , Miller said , `` Every time I would show David a design he would say , ' More Tandy ! ' It 's the shitty little computers from Radio Shack , the Tandy computers . They probably had vacuum tubes in them , really old technology . And David would go ' More Tandy ' , until we ended up with something that looked like we glued a bunch of computer parts found at a junkyard together . '' Fincher wanted the vignette to be a `` personal nightmare '' for Salander , replaying her darkest moments . `` Early on , we knew it was supposed to feel like a nightmare , '' Miller professed , who commented that early on in the process , Fincher wanted to use an artwork as a template for the sequence . After browsing through various paintings to no avail , Fincher chose a painting that depicted the artist , covered in black paint , standing in the middle of a gallery . Many of Miller 's sketches contained a liquid - like component , and were rewritten to produce the `` gooey '' element that was so desired . `` David said let 's just put liquid in all of them and it will be this primordial dream ooze that 's a part of every vignette , '' Miller recalled . `` It ties everything together other than the black on black . '' The title sequence includes abundant references to the novel , and exposes several political themes . Salander 's tattoos , such as her phoenix and dragon tattoos , were incorporated . The multiple flower representations signified the biological life cycle , as well as Henrik , who received a pressed flower each year on his birthday . `` One had flowers coming out of this black ooze , '' said Fincher , `` it blossoms , and then it dies . And then a different flower , as that one is dying is rising from the middle of it . It was supposed to represent this cycle of the killer sending flowers . '' Ultimately , the vignette becomes very conceptual because Miller and his team took `` a whole thought , and cut it up into multiple different shots that are mixed in with other shots '' . In one instance , Blomkvist is strangled by strips of newspaper , a metaphor for the establishment squelching his exposes . In the `` Hot Hands '' vignette , a pair of rough , distorted hands that embrace Salander 's face and melt it represent all that 's bad in men . The hands that embrace Blomkvist 's face and shatter it , represent wealth and power . Themes of domestic violence become apparent as a woman 's face shatters after a merciless beating ; this also ties in the brutal beating of Salander 's mother by her father , an event revealed in the sequel , The Girl Who Played with Fire ( 2006 ) . A cover of Led Zeppelin 's `` Immigrant Song '' ( 1970 ) plays throughout the title sequence . The rendition was produced by soundtrack composers Atticus Ross and Nine Inch Nails member Trent Reznor , and features vocals from Yeah Yeah Yeahs lead singer Karen O. Fincher suggested the song , but Reznor agreed only at his request . Led Zeppelin licensed the song only for use in the film 's trailer and title sequence . Fincher stated that he sees title sequences as an opportunity to set the stage for the film , or to get an audience to let go of its preconceptions . Software packages that were primarily used are 3ds Max ( for modeling , lighting , rendering ) , Softimage ( for rigging and animation ) , Digital Fusion ( for compositing ) , Real Flow ( for fluid dynamics ) , Sony Vegas ( for editorial ) , Zbrush and Mudbox ( for organic modeling ) , and VRAY ( for rendering ) . Soundtrack ( edit ) Main article : The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo ( soundtrack ) `` ( The instrumental sounds are ) processed and stretched and manipulated into a setting where it may sound harmonically familiar , but if you tune into it , it 's not behaving in a way that you 're accustomed to that type of sound behaving . I find experimenting around in that is an interesting place to work . '' -- Trent Reznor Fincher recruited Reznor and Ross to produce the score ; aside from their successful collaboration on The Social Network , the duo had worked together on albums from Nine Inch Nails ' later discography . They dedicated much of the year to work on the film , as they felt it would appeal to a broad audience . Akin to his efforts in The Social Network , Reznor experiments with acoustics and blends them with elements of electronic music , resulting in a forbidding atmosphere . `` We wanted to create the sound of coldness -- emotionally and also physically , '' he asserted , `` We wanted to take lots of acoustic instruments ( ... ) and transplant them into a very inorganic setting , and dress the set around them with electronics . '' Even before viewing the script , Reznor and Ross opted to use a redolent approach to creating the film 's score . After discussing with Fincher the varying soundscapes and emotions , the duo spent six weeks composing . `` We composed music we felt might belong , '' stated the Nine Inch Nails lead vocalist , `` and then we 'd run it by Fincher , to see where his head 's at and he responded positively . He was filming at this time last year and assembling rough edits of scenes to see what it feels like , and he was inserting our music at that point , rather than using temp music , which is how it usually takes place , apparently . '' Finding a structure for the soundtrack was arguably the most strenuous task . `` We were n't working on a finished thing , so everything keeps moving around , scenes are changing in length , and even the order of things are shuffled around , and that can get pretty frustrating when you get precious about your work . It was a lesson we learned pretty quickly of , ' Everything is in flux , and approach it as such . Hopefully it 'll work out in the end . ' '' Release ( edit ) Pre-release ( edit ) Mara , Craig , and Fincher at the French premiere of The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo in Paris . A screening for The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo took place on November 28 , 2011 , as part of a critics - only event hosted by the New York Film Critics Circle . Commentators at the event predicted that while the film would become a contender for several accolades , it would likely not become a forerunner in the pursuit for Academy Award nominations . A promotional campaign commenced thereafter , including a Lisbeth Salander - inspired collection , designed by Trish Summerville for H&M . The worldwide premiere was at the Odeon Leicester Square in London on December 12 , 2011 , followed by the American opening at the Ziegfeld Theatre in New York City on December 14 and Stockholm the next day . Sony 's target demographics were men and women over the age of 25 and 17 -- 34 . The film went into general release in North America on December 21 , at 2,700 theaters , expanding to 2,974 theaters on its second day . The United Kingdom release was on December 26 , Russia on January 1 , 2012 , and Japan on February 13 . India and Vietnam releases were abandoned due to censorship concerns . A press statement from the Central Board of Film Certification stated : `` Sony Pictures will not be releasing The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo in India . The censor board has judged the film unsuitable for public viewing in its unaltered form and , while we are committed to maintaining and protecting the vision of the director , we will , as always , respect the guidelines set by the board . '' In contrast , the National Film Board of Vietnam insisted that the film 's withdrawal had no relation to rigid censorship guidelines , as it had not been reviewed by the committee . Home Media ( edit ) Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released the film in a DVD and Blu - ray disc combo pack in the United States on March 20 , 2012 . Bonus features include a commentary from Fincher , featurettes on Blomkvist , Salander , the sets and locations , etc . The disc artwork for the DVD version of the film resembles a Sony brand DVD - R , a reference to the hacker Lisbeth Salander . This caused a bit of confusion in the marketplace with consumers thinking they had obtained a bootleg copy . The release sold 644,000 copies in its first week , in third place behind The Muppets and Hop . The following week , the film sold an additional 144,000 copies generating $2.59 million in gross revenue . As of January 2014 , 1,478,230 units had been sold , grossing $22,195,069 . Reception ( edit ) Box Office ( edit ) Fincher 's film grossed $232.6 million during its theatrical run . The film 's American release grossed $1.6 million from its Tuesday night screenings , a figure that increased to $3.5 million by the end of its first day of general release . It maintained momentum into its opening weekend , accumulating $13 million for a total of $21 million in domestic revenue . The film 's debut figures fell below media expectations . Aided by positive word of mouth , its commercial performance remained steady into the second week , posting $19 million from 2,914 theaters . The third week saw box office drop 24 % to $11.3 million , totaling $76.8 million . The number of theaters slightly increased to 2,950 . By the fifth week , the number of theaters shrank to 1,907 , and grosses to $3.7 million , though it remained within the national top ten . The film completed its North American theatrical run on March 22 , 2012 , earning over $102.5 million . The international debut was in six Scandinavian markets on December 19 -- 25 , 2011 , securing $1.6 million from 480 venues . In Sweden the film opened in 194 theaters to strong results , accounting for more than half of international revenue at the time ( $950,000 ) . The first full week in the United Kingdom collected $6.7 million from 920 theaters . By the weekend of January 6 -- 8 , 2012 , the film grossed $12.2 million for a total of $29 million ; this included its expansion into Hong Kong , where it topped the box office , earning $470,000 from thirty - six establishments . The film similarly led the field in South Africa . It accumulated $6.6 million from an estimated 600 theaters over a seven - day period in Russia , placing fifth . The expansion continued into the following week , opening in nine markets . The week of January 13 -- 15 saw the film yield $16.1 million from 3,910 locations in over forty - three territories , thus propelling the international gross to $49.3 million . It debuted at second place in Austria and Germany , where in the latter , it pulled $2.9 million from 525 locations . Similar results were achieved in Australia , where it reached 252 theaters . The film 's momentum continued throughout the month , and by January 22 , it had hit ten additional markets , including France and Mexico , from which it drew $3.25 million from 540 venues and $1.25 million from 540 theaters , respectively . In its second week in France it descended to number three , with a total gross of $5.8 million . The next major international release came in Japan on February 13 , where it opened in first place with $3.68 million ( ¥ 288 million ) in 431 theaters . By the weekend of February 17 -- 19 , the film had scooped up $119.5 million from international markets . The total international gross for The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo was $130.1 million . MGM , one of the studios involved in the production , posted a `` modest loss '' and declared that they had expected the film to gross at least 10 % more . Critical response ( edit ) Mara 's portrayal of Lisbeth Salander attracted critical acclaim from commentators . The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo received positive reviews from critics , with particular note to the cast , tone , score and cinematography . Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a rating of 86 % , based on 224 reviews , with an average rating of 7.6 / 10 . The site 's consensus states , `` Brutal yet captivating , The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo is the result of David Fincher working at his lurid best with total role commitment from star Rooney Mara . '' At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized score , the film received an average score of 71 out of 100 , based on 41 critics , indicating `` generally favorable reviews '' . David Denby of The New Yorker asserted that the austere , but captivating installment presented a `` glancing , chilled view '' of a world where succinct moments of loyalty coexisted with constant trials of betrayal . To USA Today columnist Claudia Puig , Fincher captures the `` menace and grim despair in the frosty Scandinavian landscape '' by carefully approaching its most gruesome features . Puig noted a surfeit of `` stylistic flourishes '' and `` intriguing '' changes in the narrative , compared to the original film . In his three - and - a-half star review , Chris Knight of the National Post argued that it epitomized a so - called `` paradoxical position '' that was both `` immensely enjoyable and completely unnecessary '' . Rene Rodriguez of The Miami Herald said that the `` fabulously sinister entertainment '' surpassed the original film `` in every way '' . The film took two - and - a-half stars from Rolling Stone commentator Peter Travers , who concluded : `` Fincher 's Girl is gloriously rendered but too impersonal to leave a mark . '' A.O. Scott , writing for The New York Times , admired the moments of `` brilliantly orchestrated '' anxiety and confusion , but felt that The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo was vulnerable to the `` lumbering proceduralism '' that he saw in its literary counterpart , as evident with the `` long stretches of drab , hackneyed exposition that flatten the atmosphere '' . The Wall Street Journal 's Joe Morgenstern praised Cronenweth 's cinematography , which he thought provided for glossy alterations in the film 's darkness ; `` Stockholm glitters in nighttime exteriors , and its subway shines in a spectacular spasm of action involving a backpack . '' Rex Reed of The New York Observer professed that despite its occasional incomprehensibility , the movie was `` technically superb '' and `` superbly acted '' . In contrast , Kyle Smith of New York Post censured the film , calling it `` rubbish '' and further commenting that it `` demonstrates merely that masses will thrill to an unaffecting , badly written , psychologically shallow and deeply unlikely pulp story so long as you allow them to feel sanctified by the occasional meaningless reference to feminism or Nazis . '' The performances were a frequent topic in the critiques . Mara 's performance , in particular , was admired by commentators . A revelation in the eyes of Entertainment Weekly 's Owen Gleiberman , he proclaimed that her character was more important than `` her ability to solve a crime '' . Her `` hypnotic '' portrayal was noted by Justin Chang of Variety , as well as Salon critic Andrew O'Hehir , who wrote , `` Rooney Mara is a revelation as Lisbeth Salander , the damaged , aggressive computer geek and feminist revenge angel , playing the character as far more feral and vulnerable than Noomi Rapace 's borderline - stereotype sexpot Goth girl . '' Scott Tobias of The A.V. Club enjoyed the chemistry between Mara and Craig , as did David Germain of the Associated Press ; `` Mara and Craig make an indomitable screen pair , he nominally leading their intense search into decades - old serial killings , she surging ahead , plowing through obstacles with flashes of phenomenal intellect and eruptions of physical fury . '' Although Puig found Mara inferior to Rapace in playing Salander , with regard to Craig 's performance , he said that the actor shone . This was supported by Morgenstern , who avouched that Craig `` nonetheless finds welcome humor in Mikael 's impassive affect '' . Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times said the film was given a more assured quality than the original because of Fincher 's direction and the lead performances , although he believed this did not always work to the film 's advantage , preferring the original version 's `` less confident surface '' where `` emotions were closer to the surface . '' Accolades ( edit ) In addition to numerous awards , The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo was included on several year - end lists by film commentators and publications . It was named the best film of 2011 by MTV and James Berardinelli of ReelViews . The former wrote , `` The director follows up the excellent Social Network with another tour de force , injecting the murder mystery that introduces us to outcast hacker Lisbeth Salander ( ... ) and embattled journalist ( ... ) with style , intensity and relentless suspense . Mara is a revelation , and the film 's daunting 160 - minute runtime breezes by thanks to one heart - racing scene after the next . Dark and tough to watch at times , but a triumph all around . '' The film came second in indieWire 's list of `` Drew Taylor 's Favorite Films Of 2011 '' , while reaching the top ten of seven other publications , including the St. Louis Post-Dispatch , San Francisco Chronicle , and the New Orleans Times - Picayune . The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo was declared one of the best films of the year by the American Film Institute , as well as the National Board of Review of Motion Pictures . Date of ceremony Award Recipients Result January 10 , 2012 Alliance of Women Film Journalists Awards 2011 Best Film Music or Score Trent Reznor , Atticus Ross Won February 12 , 2012 American Society of Cinematographers Awards Best Cinematography Jeff Cronenweth Nominated February 12 , 2012 British Academy Film and Television Awards BAFTA Award for Best Cinematography Jeff Cronenweth Nominated BAFTA Award for Best Original Music Trent Reznor , Atticus Ross Nominated January 12 , 2012 Broadcast Film Critics Association Awards Best Editing Kirk Baxter , Angus Wall Won Best Composer Trent Reznor , Atticus Ross Nominated January 5 , 2012 Central Ohio Film Critics Association Awards Best Picture Nominated Best Director David Fincher Nominated Best Adapted Screenplay Steven Zaillian Won December 19 , 2011 Chicago Film Critics Association Awards Best Original Score Trent Reznor , Atticus Ross Nominated January 10 , 2012 Denver Film Critics Association Awards Best Actress Rooney Mara Nominated January 28 , 2012 Directors Guild of America Awards Best Director David Fincher Nominated January 15 , 2012 Golden Globe Awards Best Actress -- Motion Picture Drama Rooney Mara Nominated Best Original Score Trent Reznor , Atticus Ross Nominated June 3 , 2012 MTV Movie Awards Best Female Performance Rooney Mara Nominated Breakthrough Performance Rooney Mara Nominated Best On - Screen Transformation Rooney Mara Nominated December 1 , 2011 National Board of Review Awards Breakthrough Performance Rooney Mara ( Tied with Felicity Jones ) Won December 23 , 2011 Oklahoma Film Critics Circle Awards Best Picture Nominated January 21 , 2012 Producers Guild of America Award Best Picture Nominated December 19 , 2011 St. Louis Gateway Film Critics Association Awards Best Director David Fincher Nominated Best Actress Rooney Mara Won Best Cinematography Jeff Cronenweth Nominated Best Music Trent Reznor , Atticus Ross Nominated Best Scene Blur Studio ( for the opening credits ) Won December 5 , 2011 Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association Awards Best Score Trent Reznor , Atticus Ross Nominated February 19 , 2012 Writers Guild Awards Best Screenplay Adapted Steven Zaillian Nominated February 26 , 2012 84th Academy Awards Best Actress Rooney Mara Nominated Best Cinematography Jeff Cronenweth Nominated Best Film Editing Angus Wall , Kirk Baxter Won Best Sound Editing Ren Klyce Nominated Best Sound Mixing David Parker , Michael Semanick , Ren Klyce and Bo Persson Nominated June 7 , 2012 Kerrang ! Awards Best Film Nominated July 26 , 2012 38th Saturn Awards Best Horror or Thriller Film Won February 10 , 2013 Grammy Awards Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media Trent Reznor , Atticus Ross Won Sequel ( edit ) Main article : The Girl in the Spider 's Web ( film ) In December 2011 , Fincher stated that he wanted to film the sequels , The Girl Who Played with Fire and The Girl Who Kicked the Hornets ' Nest , `` back to back . '' There was an announced release date of 2013 for a film version of The Girl Who Played with Fire , although by August 2012 it was delayed due to difficulties with the script , being written by Zaillian . In July 2013 , Andrew Kevin Walker was hired to re-write the script . In September 2014 , Fincher stated that a script for Played with Fire had been written that was `` extremely different from the book , '' and that , despite the long delay , he was confident that the film would be made because Sony `` already has spent millions of dollars on the rights and the script '' . Mara , when asked about potential sequels , expressed much less optimism about them , though she stated that she was still very interested in continuing on in the role . In November 2015 , it was announced that Sony was planning on rebooting the franchise with an adaptation of The Girl in the Spider 's Web , a 2015 novel by David Lagercrantz that was a continuation of the original Millennium trilogy after series creator Stieg Larsson died in 2004 . At the time , Alicia Vikander was considered a favorite to take over the role of Salander . In November 2016 , Fede Álvarez was announced as the new director . The Girl in the Spider 's Web will be the first in the book series to be produced into an English - language film in its initial adaptation . Knight will serve as screenwriter , together with Alvarez and Jay Basu . In March 2017 , it was confirmed that the film would have an entirely new cast and was scheduled to be released on October 5 , 2018 . In September 2017 , Claire Foy was officially cast for the role of Lisbeth Salander in the new film . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo ( 18 ) '' . 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Jump up ^ Kaufman , Amy ( December 21 , 2012 ) . `` Box Office : ' Girl With the Dragon Tattoo ' has aggressive launch '' . Los Angeles Times . Tribune Company . Retrieved July 4 , 2012 . Jump up ^ McClintock , Pamela ( January 2 , 2012 ) . `` Box Office Report : Tom Cruise 's ' M : I 4 ' Big Holiday Victor , Earns $366.5 Mil '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved July 4 , 2012 . Jump up ^ McClintock , Pamela ( January 8 , 2012 ) . `` Box Office Report : ' The Devil Inside ' Opens to Record Breaking $34.5 Mil '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved July 4 , 2012 . Jump up ^ McClintock , Pamela ( January 22 , 2012 ) . `` Box Office Report : ' Underworld 4 ' Nabs $25.4 Mil , ' Red Tails ' Overperforms With $19.1 Mil '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved July 4 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Segers , Frank ( December 26 , 2012 ) . `` Foreign Box Office : ' Mission : Impossible - Ghost Protocol ' Finishes in Top Spot for Second Straight Weekend '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved July 4 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Segers , Frank ( January 15 , 2012 ) . `` Foreign Box Office : ' Sherlock Holmes : A Game Of Shadows ' Still No. 1 Overseas '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved July 4 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Segers , Frank ( January 22 , 2012 ) . `` Foreign Box Office : ' Sherlock Holmes : A Game Of Shadows ' Hangs on as No. 1 for Third Straight Weekend '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved July 4 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Segers , Frank ( January 29 , 2012 ) . `` Foreign Box Office : ' Mission : Impossible -- Ghost Protocol ' Retakes Top Spot ; ' Descendants ' Jumps to No. 4 '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved July 4 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Segers , Frank ( February 12 , 2012 ) . `` Foreign Box Office : ' Journey 2 ' Outpoints ' Star Wars ' Reissue , Seizes No. 1 Spot Overseas '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved July 4 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Segers , Frank ( February 19 , 2012 ) . `` Foreign Box Office : ' Journey 2 ' Repeats as No. 1 Overseas '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved July 4 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Lieberman , David ( March 22 , 2012 ) . `` The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo director lashes out at US remake '' . Deadline . Retrieved June 6 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo ( 2011 ) '' . Flixster Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved December 21 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Critic Reviews for The Girl with The Dragon Tattoo ( 2011 ) '' . Metacritic . January 3 , 2012 . Retrieved January 3 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Denby , David ( December 5 , 2011 ) . `` Double Dare '' . The New Yorker . Condé Nast Publications . Retrieved December 13 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Puig , Claudia ( December 19 , 2011 ) . `` David Fincher 's ' Dragon Tattoo ' has style to burn '' . USA Today . Gannett Company . Retrieved July 5 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Knight , Chris ( December 20 , 2011 ) . `` Review : David Fincher makes his mark with The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo '' . National Post . Postmedia Network . Retrieved July 5 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Rodriguez , Rene ( December 20 , 2011 ) . `` ' The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo ' ( R ) '' . The Miami Herald . David Landsberg . Retrieved July 5 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Travers , Peter ( December 22 , 2011 ) . `` The Girl With The Dragon Tattoo '' . Rolling Stone . Retrieved July 5 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Scott , A.O. ( December 19 , 2011 ) . `` The Girl With the Dragon Tattoo ( 2011 ) '' . The New York Times . The New York Times Company . Retrieved July 5 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Morgenstern , Joe ( December 23 , 2011 ) . `` ' Tattoo ' : Raw , Rousing and Rather Redundant '' . The Wall Street Journal . Dow Jones & Company . Retrieved July 5 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Reed , Rex ( December 14 , 2011 ) . `` Girl With the Dragon Tattoo is Quite the Swedish Dish '' . The New York Observer . Jared Kushner . Retrieved July 5 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Smith , Kyle ( December 19 , 2011 ) . `` Glaring problems '' . New York Post . Paul Carlucci . Retrieved January 15 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Gleiberman , Owen ( December 13 , 2011 ) . `` The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo '' . Entertainment Weekly . Time Inc . Retrieved December 13 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Chang , Justin ( December 13 , 2011 ) . `` The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo review '' . Variety . Reed Business Information . Retrieved January 17 , 2012 . Jump up ^ O'Hehir , Andrew ( December 20 , 2011 ) . `` '' The Girl With the Dragon Tattoo `` : A bigger , darker Swedish nightmare '' . Salon . Salon Media Group . Retrieved July 5 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Tobias , Scott ( December 20 , 2011 ) . `` The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo review '' . The A.V. Club . The Onion . Retrieved January 17 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Germain , David ( December 13 , 2011 ) . `` Review : ' Dragon Tattoo ' kicks proverbial butt '' . Associated Press . Retrieved December 13 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Ebert , Roger ( December 19 , 2011 ) . `` The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo '' . Chicago Sun - Times . Sun - Times Media Group . Retrieved December 19 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : `` Best Movies Of 2011 '' . MTV ( Viacom ) . December 16 , 2011 . Retrieved July 5 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Beradinelli , James ( December 31 , 2011 ) . `` Rewinding 2011 : The Top 10 '' . ReelViews . Retrieved July 5 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Taylor , Drew ( December 24 , 2011 ) . `` Drew Taylor 's Favorite Films Of 2011 '' . indieWire . Snagfilms . Retrieved July 5 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Critics pick the best movies of 2011 '' . Metacritic . December 8 , 2011 . Retrieved July 5 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Wilson , Calvin ( December 31 , 2011 ) . `` A second take on the year 's best films '' . St. Louis Post-Dispatch . Kevin Mowbray . Retrieved July 5 , 2011 . Jump up ^ LaSalle , Mick ( December 25 , 2011 ) . `` Movies : ' The Artist ' tops Mick LaSalle 's 2011 list '' . San Francisco Chronicle . Hearst Corporation . Retrieved July 5 , 2012 . 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The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved July 6 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Kelly Nelson , Liz ( December 13 , 2011 ) . `` Critics Choice Movie Awards : ' The Artist , ' ' Hugo ' snag multiple nominations '' . Zap2it . Archived from the original on December 14 , 2011 . Retrieved December 13 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Tapley , Kristopher ( January 2 , 2012 ) . `` ' Tree of Life ' leads the way with Central Ohio critics nominations '' . HitFix . Retrieved July 6 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Tapley , Kristopher ( December 16 , 2011 ) . `` ' Tree of Life ' leads Chicago film critics nods '' . HitFix . Retrieved July 6 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Tapley , Kristopher ( January 5 , 2012 ) . `` ' Descendants ' leads with Denver critics nods '' . HitFix . Retrieved July 6 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Kemp , Stuart ( January 16 , 2012 ) . `` Directors Guild of America Awards 2012 : Complete Winners List '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved July 6 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` The 69th Annual Golden Globe Awards Nominations '' . Hollywood Foreign Press Association . December 15 , 2011 . Archived from the original on October 29 , 2012 . Retrieved July 6 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Warner , Kara ( April 30 , 2012 ) . `` 2012 MTV Movie Awards Nominees : The Full List '' . MTV ( Viacom ) . Retrieved July 6 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` National Board of Review winners '' . USA Today . Gannett Company . January 10 , 2012 . Retrieved July 6 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Oklahoma Film Critics Circle names `` The Artist '' best film of 2011 `` . Oklahoma Film Critics Circle . December 23 , 2011 . Archived from the original on January 8 , 2012 . Retrieved July 6 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Karger , Dave ( January 3 , 2012 ) . `` Producers Guild Top 10 : ' Dragon Tattoo , ' ' Ides of March ' in ; ' Tree of Life ' out '' . Entertainment Weekly . Time Inc . Retrieved July 6 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Tapley , Kristopher ( December 19 , 2011 ) . `` The Artist ' wins five from St. Louis critics '' . HitFix . Retrieved July 6 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Tapley , Kristopher ( December 12 , 2011 ) . `` ' The Artist ' and ' Drive ' lead with St. Louis critics '' . HitFix . Retrieved July 6 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Knegt , Peter ( December 5 , 2011 ) . `` '' The Artist '' Leads Washington Critics ' Awards `` . indieWire . Snagfilms . Retrieved July 6 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` 2012 Writers Guild Awards Screen Nominees Announced '' . Writers Guild of America . January 5 , 2012 . Archived from the original on May 8 , 2012 . Retrieved July 6 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Winners at the 84th annual Academy Awards '' . USA Today . Gannett Company . February 27 , 2012 . Retrieved July 6 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Michaels , Sean ( May 2 , 2012 ) . `` Kerrang ! awards 2012 : You Me at Six lead nominations '' . The Guardian . Guardian News & Media . Retrieved July 6 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` RISE OF THE PLANET OF THE APES and SUPER 8 lead Saturn Awards with 3 awards each '' . saturnawards.org . July 26 , 2012 . Retrieved July 27 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Title unknown '' . NARAS / grammy.com . Retrieved January 30 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Weintraub , Steve ( December 18 , 2011 ) . `` The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo Sequels Likely Shooting Back to Back '' . Collider . Retrieved September 9 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Nicholson , Max ( August 22 , 2012 ) . `` Dragon Tattoo Sequel Delayed '' . IGN . Retrieved September 2 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Chadwick , Will ( August 27 , 2012 ) . `` David Fincher Gives Updates On The Girl Who Played With Fire And House Of Cards '' . WeGotThisCovered.com . Retrieved August 31 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Davis , Edward ( July 17 , 2013 ) . `` Exclusive : Andrew Kevin Walker Rewriting ' Dragon Tattoo ' Sequel ; David Fincher 's ' 20,000 Leagues ' Is Dead '' . IndieWire : The Playlist . Jump up ^ Eisenberg , Eric ( September 14 , 2014 ) . `` David Fincher 's The Girl Who Played With Fire Will Be Extremely Different From The Book '' . CinemaBlend . Retrieved April 25 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Cannes 2014 : Rooney Mara Wants to Do Another Girl With the Dragon Tattoo Movie ! '' . E ! Online . 15 May 2014 . Retrieved 15 April 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Rooney Mara : Girl With the Dragon Tattoo Sequel Is Pretty Much Dead '' . E ! Online . 21 February 2015 . Retrieved 26 February 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Rooney Mara : I 'm Still Signed to Star in The Girl With the Dragon Tattoo Sequel '' . E ! Online . November 13 , 2015 . Retrieved November 18 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` ' Girl with the Dragon Tattoo ' Sequel Eyeing ' The Crown ' Star Claire Foy for Lisbeth Salander '' . Collider. 2017 - 05 - 15 . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 11 . Jump up ^ `` Alicia Vikander Early Favorite to Replace Rooney Mara in ' Girl With the Dragon Tattoo ' Sequel ( Exclusive ) '' . TheWrap . November 4 , 2015 . Retrieved November 16 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Kroll , Justin ( November 2 , 2016 ) . `` Sony 's ' Girl With the Dragon Tattoo ' Sequel May Have Found Its Director ( EXCLUSIVE ) '' . Variety . Jump up ^ Kroll , Justin ( 2017 - 05 - 15 ) . `` ' Girl With the Dragon Tattoo ' Sequel : ' The Crown 's ' Claire Foy Frontrunner for Lisbeth Salander '' . Variety . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 11 . Jump up ^ D'Alessandro , Anthony ( February 22 , 2016 ) . `` Rooney Mara On ' Carol ' , Lisbeth Salander 's Return , Hollywood Whitewashing & More : AwardsLine '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved February 22 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Hipes , Patrick ( March 13 , 2017 ) . `` ' The Girl In The Spider 's Web ' With New Cast Gets 2018 Release Date '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved March 13 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` ' The Girl In The Spider 's Web ' With New Cast Gets 2018 Release Date '' . Deadline. 13 March 2017 . Retrieved 14 March 2017 . Jump up ^ McNary , Dave ( September 15 , 2017 ) . `` ' Crown 's ' Claire Foy to Officially Star in ' Girl With the Dragon Tattoo ' Sequel '' . Variety . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo ( 2011 film ) . 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1104547869806572477

where was the cotton gin invented and where is it used today

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Cotton_gin&oldid=821595483

Cotton gin - wikipedia Cotton gin Jump to : navigation , search A model of a 19th - century cotton gin on display at the Eli Whitney Museum in Hamden , Connecticut . A cotton gin is a machine that quickly and easily separates cotton fibers from their seeds , allowing for much greater productivity than manual cotton separation . The fibers are then processed into various cotton goods such as linens , while any undamaged cotton is used largely for textiles like clothing . Seeds may be used to grow more cotton or to produce cottonseed oil . Handheld roller gins had been used in the Indian subcontinent since at earliest AD 500 and then in other regions . The Indian worm - gear roller gin , invented some time around the sixteenth century , has , according to Lakwete , remained virtually unchanged up to the present time . A modern mechanical cotton gin was created by American inventor Eli Whitney in 1793 and patented in 1794 . Whitney 's gin used a combination of a wire screen and small wire hooks to pull the cotton through , while brushes continuously removed the loose cotton lint to prevent jams . It revolutionized the cotton industry in the United States , but also led to the growth of slavery in the American South as the demand for cotton workers rapidly increased . The invention has thus been identified as an inadvertent contributing factor to the outbreak of the American Civil War . Modern automated cotton gins use multiple powered cleaning cylinders and saws , and offer far higher productivity than their hand - powered precursors . Eli Whitney invented his cotton gin in 1793 . He began to work on this project after moving to Georgia in search of work . Given that farmers were desperately searching for a way to make cotton farming profitable , a woman named Catharine Greene provided Whitney with funding to create the first cotton gin . Whitney created two cotton gins : a small one that could be hand cranked and a large one that could be driven by a horse or water power . Thanks to the cotton gin , the amount of raw cotton yielded doubled each decade after 1800 . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Purpose 1.2 Early cotton gins 1.3 Mughal India 1.4 United States 1.5 Eli Whitney 's patent 1.6 McCarthy 's gin 1.7 Effects in the United States 2 Modern cotton gins 3 References 4 Bibliography 5 External links History ( edit ) `` The First Cotton Gin '' , an engraving from Harper 's Magazine , 1869 . This carving depicts a roller gin , which preceded Eli Whitney 's invention . The Ajanta caves of India yield evidence of a single - roller cotton gin in use by the 5th century . This cotton gin was used in India until innovations were made in the form of foot powered gins . The cotton gin was invented in India as a mechanical device known as a charkhi , more technically the `` wooden - worm - worked roller '' . This mechanical device was , in some parts of India , driven by water power . Purpose ( edit ) Cotton fibers are produced in the seed pods ( `` bolls '' ) of the cotton plant where the fibers ( `` lint '' ) in the bolls are tightly interwoven with seeds . To make the fibers usable , the seeds and fibers must first be separated , a task which had been previously performed manually , with production of cotton requiring hours of labor for the separation . Many simple seed - removing devices had been invented , but until the innovation of the cotton gin , most required significant operator attention and worked only on a small scale . Early cotton gins ( edit ) The earliest versions of the cotton gin , which were the size of a small printer , consisted of a single roller made of iron or wood and a flat piece of stone or wood . Evidence for this type of gin has been found in Africa , Asia , and North America . The first documentation of the cotton gin by contemporary scholars is found in the fifth century AD , in the form of Buddhist paintings depicting a single - roller gin in the Ajanta Caves in western India . These early gins were difficult to use and required a great deal of skill . A narrow single roller was necessary to expel the seeds from the cotton without crushing the seeds . The design was similar to that of a mealing stone , which was used to grind grain . The early history of the cotton gin is ambiguous , because archeologists likely mistook the cotton gin 's parts for other tools . Between the 12th and 14th centuries , dual - roller gins appeared in India and China . The Indian version of the dual - roller gin was prevalent throughout the Mediterranean cotton trade by the 16th century . This mechanical device was , in some areas , driven by water power . Mughal India ( edit ) Main article : Mughal Empire The worm gear roller gin , which was invented in the Indian subcontinent during the early Delhi Sultanate era of the 13th -- 14th centuries , came into use in the Mughal Empire some time around the 16th century , and is still used in the Indian subcontinent through to the present day . Another innovation , the incorporation of the crank handle in the cotton gin , first appeared some time during the late Delhi Sultanate or the early Mughal Empire . The incorporation of the worm gear and crank handle into the roller cotton gin led to greatly expanded Indian cotton textile production during the Mughal era . It was reported that , with an Indian cotton gin , which is half machine and half tool , one man and one woman could clean 28 pounds of cotton per day . With a modified Forbes version , one man and a boy could produce 250 pounds per day . If oxen were used to power 16 of these machines , and a few people 's labour was used to feed them , they could produce as much work as 750 people did formerly . United States ( edit ) The Indian roller cotton gin , known as the churka or charkha , was introduced to the United States in the mid-18th century , when it was adopted in the southern United States . The device was adopted for cleaning long - staple cotton , but was not suitable for the short - staple cotton that was more common in certain states such as Georgia . Several modifications were made to the Indian roller gin by Mr. Krebs in 1772 and Joseph Eve in 1788 , but their uses remained limited to the long - staple variety , up until Eli Whitney 's development of a short - staple cotton gin in 1793 . Eli Whitney 's patent ( edit ) Eli Whitney 's original cotton gin patent , dated March 14 , 1794 . Eli Whitney ( 1765 -- 1825 ) applied for a patent of his cotton gin on October 28 , 1793 ; the patent was granted on March 14 , 1794 , but was not validated until 1807 . Whitney 's patent was assigned patent number 72X . There is slight controversy over whether the idea of the modern cotton gin and its constituent elements are correctly attributed to Eli Whitney . The popular image of Whitney inventing the cotton gin is attributed to an article on the subject written in the early 1870s and later reprinted in 1910 in The Library of Southern Literature . In this article , the author claimed Catharine Littlefield Greene suggested to Whitney the use of a brush - like component instrumental in separating out the seeds and cotton . To date , Greene 's role in the invention of the gin has not been verified independently . Whitney 's cotton gin model was capable of cleaning 50 pounds ( 23 kg ) of lint per day . The model consisted of a wooden cylinder surrounded by rows of slender spikes , which pulled the lint through the bars of a comb - like grid . The grids were closely spaced , preventing the seeds from passing through . Loose cotton was brushed off , preventing the mechanism from jamming . Many contemporary inventors attempted to develop a design that would process short staple cotton , and Hodgen Holmes , Robert Watkins , William Longstreet , and John Murray had all been issued patents for improvements to the cotton gin by 1796 . However , the evidence indicates Whitney did invent the saw gin , for which he is famous . Although he spent many years in court attempting to enforce his patent against planters who made unauthorized copies , a change in patent law ultimately made his claim legally enforceable -- too late for him to make much money from the device in the single year remaining before the patent expired . McCarthy 's gin ( edit ) While Whitney 's gin facilitated the cleaning of seeds from short - staple cotton , it damaged the fibers of ( extra-long staple ) cotton ( Gossypium barbadense ) . In 1840 Fones McCarthy received a patent for a `` Smooth Cylinder Cotton - gin '' , a roller gin . McCarthy 's gin was marketed for use with both short - staple and extra-long staple cotton , but was particularly useful for processing long - staple cotton . After McCarthy 's patent expired in 1861 , McCarthy type gins were manufactured in Britain and sold around the world . McCarthy 's gin was adopted for cleaning the Sea Island variety of extra-long staple cotton grown in Florida , Georgia and South Carolina . It cleaned cotton several times faster than the older gins , and , when powered by one horse , produced 150 to 200 pounds of lint a day . The McCarthy gin used a reciprocating knife to detach seed from the lint . Vibration caused by the reciprocating motion limited the speed at which the gin could operate . In the middle of the 20th Century gins using a rotating blade replaced ones using a reciprocating blade . These descendants of the McCarthy gin are the only gins now used for extra-long staple cotton in the United States . Effects in the United States ( edit ) cotton gin at Jarrell Plantation Prior to the introduction of the mechanical cotton gin , cotton had required considerable labor to clean and separate the fibers from the seeds . With Eli Whitney 's gin , cotton became a tremendously profitable business , creating many fortunes in the Antebellum South . Cities such as New Orleans , Louisiana ; Mobile , Alabama ; Charleston , South Carolina ; and Galveston , Texas became major shipping ports , deriving substantial economic benefit from cotton raised throughout the South . Additionally , the greatly expanded supply of cotton created strong demand for textile machinery and improved machine designs that replaced wooden parts with metal . This led to the invention of many machine tools in the early 19th century . The invention of the cotton gin caused massive growth in the production of cotton in the United States , concentrated mostly in the South . Cotton production expanded from 750,000 bales in 1830 to 2.85 million bales in 1850 . As a result , the region became even more dependent on plantations and slavery , with plantation agriculture becoming the largest sector of its economy . While it took a single slave about ten hours to separate a single pound of fiber from the seeds , a team of two or three slaves using a cotton gin could produce around fifty pounds of cotton in just one day . The number of slaves rose in concert with the increase in cotton production , increasing from around 700,000 in 1790 to around 3.2 million in 1850 . By 1860 , black slave labor from the American South was providing two - thirds of the world 's supply of cotton , and up to 80 % of the crucial British market . The cotton gin thus `` transformed cotton as a crop and the American South into the globe 's first agricultural powerhouse '' . An 1896 advertisement for the Lummus cotton gin . Because of its inadvertent effect on American slavery , and on its ensuring that the South 's economy developed in the direction of plantation - based agriculture ( while encouraging the growth of the textile industry elsewhere , such as in the North ) , the invention of the cotton gin is frequently cited as one of the indirect causes of the American Civil War . Modern cotton gins ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( March 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Diagram of a modern cotton gin plant , displaying numerous stages of production Modern cotton gins In modern cotton production , cotton arrives at industrial cotton gins either in trailers , in compressed rectangular `` modules '' weighing up to 10 metric tons each or in polyethylene wrapped round modules similar to a bale of hay produced during the picking process by the most recent generation of cotton pickers . Cotton arriving at the gin is sucked in via a pipe , approximately 16 inches ( 41 cm ) in diameter , that is swung over the cotton . This pipe is usually manually operated , but is increasingly automated in modern cotton plants . The need for trailers to haul the product to the gin has been drastically reduced since the introduction of modules . If the cotton is shipped in modules , the module feeder breaks the modules apart using spiked rollers and extracts the largest pieces of foreign material from the cotton . The module feeder 's loose cotton is then sucked into the same starting point as the trailer cotton . The cotton then enters a dryer , which removes excess moisture. The cylinder cleaner uses six or seven rotating , spiked cylinders to break up large clumps of cotton . Finer foreign material , such as soil and leaves , passes through rods or screens for removal . The stick machine uses centrifugal force to remove larger foreign matter , such as sticks and burrs , while the cotton is held by rapidly rotating saw cylinders . The gin stand uses the teeth of rotating saws to pull the cotton through a series of `` ginning ribs '' , which pull the fibers from the seeds which are too large to pass through the ribs . The cleaned seed is then removed from the gin via an auger conveyor system . The seed is reused for planting or is sent to an oil mill to be further processed into cottonseed oil and cottonseed meal . The lint cleaners again use saws and grid bars , this time to separate immature seeds and any remaining foreign matter from the fibers . The bale press then compresses the cotton into bales for storage and shipping . Modern gins can process up to 15 tonnes ( 33,000 lb ) of cotton per hour . Modern cotton gins create a substantial amount of cotton gin residue ( CGR ) consisting of sticks , leaves , dirt , immature bolls , and cottonseed . Research is currently under way to investigate the use of this waste in producing ethanol . Due to fluctuations in the chemical composition in processing , there is difficulty in creating a consistent ethanol process , but there is potential to further maximize the utilization of waste in the cotton production . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Roe , Joseph Wickham ( 1916 ) , English and American Tool Builders , New Haven , Connecticut : Yale University Press , LCCN 16011753 . Reprinted by McGraw - Hill , New York and London , 1926 ( LCCN 27 - 24075 ) ; and by Lindsay Publications , Inc. , Bradley , Illinois , ( ISBN 978 - 0 - 917914 - 73 - 7 ) . ^ Jump up to : Lakwete , 1 -- 6 . Jump up ^ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA53&lpg=PA53&dq=Worm-Gear+Gin+India&source=bl&ots=5BkhW9ZBsQ&sig=J4OAypTaUv3Tu7nZMsk0Y9Yhqvo&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiq4p_85ubLAhUJuBoKHQnsDyUQ6AEIcDAR#v=onepage&q=Worm-Gear%20Gin%20India&f=false ^ Jump up to : Kelly , Martin . `` Top Five Causes of the Civil War : Leading up to Secession and the Civil War '' . About.com . Retrieved March 14 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : inventors.about.com ; `` Background on the Cotton Gin '' , retrieved October 22 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Lakwete , 182 . Jump up ^ Bellis , Mary . inventors.about.com ; `` The Cotton Gin and Eli Whitney '' , retrieved March 12 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Baber , Zaheer ( 1996 ) . The Science of Empire : Scientific Knowledge , Civilization , and Colonial Rule in India . Albany : State University of New York Press . p. 57 . ISBN 0 - 7914 - 2919 - 9 . Jump up ^ Irfan Habib ( 2011 ) , Economic History of Medieval India , 1200 - 1500 , page 53 , Pearson Education Jump up ^ Irfan Habib ( 2011 ) , Economic History of Medieval India , 1200 - 1500 , pages 53 - 54 , Pearson Education Jump up ^ Irfan Habib ( 2011 ) , Economic History of Medieval India , 1200 - 1500 , page 54 , Pearson Education Jump up ^ Karl Marx ( 1867 ) . Chapter 16 : `` Machinery and Large - Scale Industry . '' Das Kapital . Jump up ^ Hargrett , Elizabeth ; Dobbs , Chris ( 6 June 2017 ) . `` Cotton Gins '' . New Georgia Encyclopedia . Jump up ^ http://inventors.about.com/od/cstartinventions/ss/patent_X72.htm Jump up ^ `` Catharine Littlefield Greene , Brain Behind the Cotton Gin '' . Finding Dulcinea . March 4 , 2010 . Retrieved November 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Harr , M.E. ( 1977 ) . Mechanics of particulate media : A probabilistic approach . McGraw - Hill . Jump up ^ Lakwete , 64 -- 76 . Jump up ^ The American Historical Review by Henry Eldridge Bourne , Robert Livingston Schuyler Editors : 1895 -- July 1928 ; J.F. Jameson and others. ; Oct. 1928 -- Apr. 1936 , H.E. Bourne and others ; July 1936 -- Apr. 1941 , R.L. Schuyler and others ; July 1941 -- G.S. Ford and others . Published 1991 , American Historical Association ( etc . ) , pp 90 -- 101 . Jump up ^ Lakwete , Angela . `` Fones McCarthy '' . Encyclopedia of Alabama . Auburn University . Retrieved 13 October 2017 . Jump up ^ Shofner , Jerrel H. ; Rogers , William Warren ( April 1962 ) . `` Sea Island Cotton in Ante - Bellum Florida '' . The Florida Historical Quarterly . 40 ( 4 ) : 378 -- 79 . Jump up ^ Gillum , Marvis M. ; Van Doorn , D.W. ; Norman , B.M. ; Owen , Charles ( 1994 ) . `` Roller Ginning '' . In Anthony , Stanley W. ; Mayfield , William D. Cotton Ginner 's Handbook . United States Department of Agriculture . p. 244 . Retrieved 13 October 2017 . Jump up ^ Hamner , Christopher . teachinghistory.org , `` The Disaster of Innovation '' , retrieved July 11 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Pierson , Parke ( September 2009 ) . `` Seeds of conflict '' . America 's Civil War . 22 ( 4 ) : 25 . Jump up ^ Woods , Robert ( September 1 , 2009 ) . `` A Turn of the Crank Started the Civil War . '' Mechanical Engineering . Jump up ^ Smith , N. Jeremy ( July 2009 ) . `` Making Cotton King '' . World Trade . 22 ( 7 ) : 82 . Jump up ^ `` Cotton -- a history '' . New Internationalist. 399 : 18 -- 19 . April 2007 . Jump up ^ Underhill , Paco ( 2008 ) . `` The cotton gin , oil , robots and the store of 2020 '' . Display & Design Ideas. 20 ( 10 ) : 48 . Jump up ^ Joe Ryan . `` What Caused the American Civil War ? '' AmericanCivilWar.com . Retrieved March 14 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Randy Golden , `` Causes of the Civil War '' . About North Georgia . Retrieved March 14 , 2011 . Jump up ^ https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4612-0057-4_17 Bibliography ( edit ) Lakwete , Angela ( 2003 ) . Inventing the Cotton Gin : Machine and Myth in Antebellum America . Baltimore : The Johns Hopkins University Press . ISBN 9780801873942 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cotton gins . Library resources about Cotton gin Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Overview of a Cotton Gin -- USDA site The Story of Cotton -- National Cotton Council of America site National Cotton Ginners Association US Cotton Gin Industry -- EH.Net Encyclopedia of Economic History Invention of Cotton Gin -- eHistory.com Cotton : the fiber of life -- includes a schematic diagram illustrating the seed removal process Video of manual cotton gin in operation via YouTube Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cotton_gin&oldid=821595483 '' Categories : Cotton gin 1793 introductions Agricultural machinery American inventions Cotton production Indian inventions Slavery in the United States Textile machinery Hidden categories : Use mdy dates from November 2013 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2017 Articles needing additional references from March 2017 All articles needing additional references Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Čeština Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français Gaeilge 한국어 Italiano עברית मराठी Nederlands 日本 語 Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Polski Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Українська Winaray Edit links This page was last edited on 21 January 2018 , at 12 : 52 . 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where do the arizona cardinals play this week

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=2017_Arizona_Cardinals_season&oldid=822086267

2017 Arizona Cardinals season - wikipedia 2017 Arizona Cardinals season Jump to : navigation , search 2017 Arizona Cardinals season Head coach Bruce Arians General manager Steve Keim Owner Bill Bidwill Home field University of Phoenix Stadium Results Record 8 -- 8 Division place 3rd NFC West Playoff finish Did not qualify Pro Bowlers LB Chandler Jones WR Larry Fitzgerald ST Budda Baker CB Patrick Peterson Uniform ← 2016 Cardinals seasons 2018 → The 2017 Arizona Cardinals season was the franchise 's 98th season in the National Football League , the 30th in Arizona and 12th at University of Phoenix Stadium . It was also the fifth and final season under head coach Bruce Arians . The Cardinals played one road game in London at Twickenham Stadium against the Los Angeles Rams as one of the NFL London Games . They improved on a 7 -- 8 -- 1 season they had in 2016 , finishing 8 -- 8 . However , they missed the playoffs for the second straight season . Contents ( hide ) 1 Offseason 1.1 Signings 2 Draft 3 Staff 4 Final roster 5 Preseason 6 Regular season 6.1 Schedule 6.2 Game summaries 6.2. 1 Week 1 : at Detroit Lions 6.2. 2 Week 2 : at Indianapolis Colts 6.2. 3 Week 3 : vs. Dallas Cowboys 6.2. 4 Week 4 : vs. San Francisco 49ers 6.2. 5 Week 5 : at Philadelphia Eagles 6.2. 6 Week 6 : vs. Tampa Bay Buccaneers 6.2. 7 Week 7 : at Los Angeles Rams 6.2. 8 Week 9 : at San Francisco 49ers 6.2. 9 Week 10 : vs. Seattle Seahawks 6.2. 10 Week 11 : at Houston Texans 6.2. 11 Week 12 : vs. Jacksonville Jaguars 6.2. 12 Week 13 : vs. Los Angeles Rams 6.2. 13 Week 14 : vs. Tennessee Titans 6.2. 14 Week 15 : at Washington Redskins 6.2. 15 Week 16 : vs. New York Giants 6.2. 16 Week 17 : at Seattle Seahawks 7 Standings 7.1 Division 7.2 Conference 8 References 9 External links Offseason ( edit ) Signings ( edit ) Pos . Player Age 2016 Team Contract Antoine Bethea 32 San Francisco 49ers 3 years , $12.75 million Phil Dawson 42 San Francisco 49ers 2 years , $6 million LB Jarvis Jones 27 Pittsburgh Steelers 1 year , $2.2 million DE Frostee Rucker 33 Arizona Cardinals 1 year , $1 million RB Andre Ellington 28 Arizona Cardinals 1 year , $905,000 Draft ( edit ) Main article : 2017 NFL Draft 2017 Arizona Cardinals Draft Round Selection Player Position College 13 Haason Reddick LB Temple 36 Budda Baker Washington 98 Chad Williams WR Grambling State 120 Dorian Johnson OG Pittsburgh 5 157 Will Holden OT Vanderbilt 5 179 T.J. Logan RB North Carolina 6 208 Johnathan Ford Auburn Notes The Cardinals received one compensatory selection -- No. 179 overall . Staff ( edit ) 2017 Arizona Cardinals staff Front office Owner / Chairman -- Bill Bidwill President -- Michael Bidwill General Manager -- Steve Keim Vice President of Player Personnel -- Terry McDonough Director of College Scouting -- Dru Grigson Director of Pro Scouting -- Quentin Harris Director of Football Administration -- Mike Disner Director of Football Operations -- Matt Caracciolo Head coaches Head Coach -- Bruce Arians Assistant Head Coach / Offense -- Tom Moore Offensive coaches Offensive Coordinator / Offensive Line -- Harold Goodwin Quarterbacks -- Byron Leftwich Running Backs -- Freddie Kitchens Wide Receivers -- Darryl Drake Tight Ends -- Rick Christophel Assistant Tight Ends / Assistant Special Teams -- Steve Heiden Assistant Offensive Line -- Larry Zierlein Offensive Assistant -- Kevin Garver Defensive coaches Defensive Coordinator -- James Bettcher Defensive Line -- Brentson Buckner Outside Linebackers -- Bob Sanders Inside Linebackers -- Larry Foote Defensive Backs -- Nick Rapone Cornerbacks -- Kevin Ross Defensive Assistant / Defensive Backs -- Mike Chiurco Pass Rush Specialist -- Tom Pratt Special teams coaches Special Teams Coordinator -- Amos Jones Assistant Special Teams -- Anthony Blevins Strength and conditioning Strength and Conditioning -- Buddy Morris Assistant Strength and Conditioning -- Roger Kingdom Final roster ( edit ) 2017 Arizona Cardinals final roster Quarterbacks 9 Matt Barkley 7 Blaine Gabbert 5 Drew Stanton Running backs 37 D.J. Foster 48 Bronson Hill 35 Elijhaa Penny 33 Kerwynn Williams Wide receivers 13 Jaron Brown 12 John Brown 11 Larry Fitzgerald 14 J.J. Nelson 16 Chad Williams Tight ends 84 Jermaine Gresham 87 Troy Niklas 86 Ricky Seals - Jones 85 Gabe Holmes Offensive linemen 64 Khalif Barnes T 70 Evan Boehm G 75 Alex Boone G 69 Will Holden T 78 Vinston Painter T 53 A.Q. Shipley C 79 Max Tuerk C 71 Earl Watford G 73 John Wetzel G Defensive linemen 95 Rodney Gunter NT 97 Josh Mauro DE 90 Robert Nkemdiche DE 98 Corey Peters NT 72 Olsen Pierre DE 92 Frostee Rucker DE 94 Xavier Williams DE Linebackers 54 Bryson Albright ILB 20 Deone Bucannon ILB 57 Josh Bynes ILB 56 Karlos Dansby ILB 55 Chandler Jones OLB 50 Gabe Martin ILB 96 Kareem Martin OLB 43 Haason Reddick ILB 49 Edmond Robinson ILB 58 Scooby Wright ILB Defensive backs 36 Budda Baker FS 28 Justin Bethel CB 42 C.J. Goodwin CB 32 Tyrann Mathieu FS 34 Harlan Miller FS 21 Patrick Peterson CB 26 Brandon Williams CB 25 Tramon Williams CB Special teams 46 Aaron Brewer LS 4 Phil Dawson K 2 Andy Lee P Reserve lists 41 Antoine Bethea SS ( IR ) 27 Tyvon Branch SS ( IR ) 30 Rudy Ford FS ( IR ) 10 Brittan Golden WR ( IR ) 44 Markus Golden OLB ( IR ) 74 D.J. Humphries OT ( IR ) 76 Mike Iupati G ( IR ) 31 David Johnson RB ( IR ) 22 T.J. Logan RB ( IR ) 80 Ifeanyi Momah TE ( IR ) 62 Daniel Munyer C ( IR ) 3 Carson Palmer QB ( IR ) 23 Adrian Peterson RB ( IR ) 68 Jared Veldheer T ( IR ) 29 Ronald Zamort CB ( IR ) Practice squad 19 Carlton Agudosi WR ( Injured ) 63 Peli Anau DE 39 Jarell Carter CB 81 Anthony Denham TE ( Injured ) 47 K.J. Dillon S 59 Vontarrius Dora OLB -- Jonathan Moxey CB 91 Earl Okine OLB 17 Rashad Ross WR 15 Alonzo Russell WR 65 Pasoni Tasini NT 38 Darius Victor RB Rookies in italics 53 Active , 15 Inactive , 10 Practice squad Preseason ( edit ) On February 23 , 2017 , the NFL announced that the Cardinals would play the Dallas Cowboys in the Pro Football Hall of Fame Game on Thursday , August 3 , 2017 , at the Tom Benson Hall of Fame Stadium in Canton , Ohio . The two teams also met during the regular season at the University of Phoenix Stadium . Week Date Opponent Result Record Game site NFL.com recap HOF August 3 vs. Dallas Cowboys L 18 -- 20 0 -- 1 Tom Benson Hall of Fame Stadium ( Canton , Ohio ) Recap August 12 Oakland Raiders W 20 -- 10 1 -- 1 University of Phoenix Stadium Recap August 19 Chicago Bears L 23 -- 24 1 -- 2 University of Phoenix Stadium Recap August 26 at Atlanta Falcons W 24 -- 14 2 -- 2 Mercedes - Benz Stadium Recap August 31 at Denver Broncos L 2 -- 30 2 -- 3 Sports Authority Field at Mile High Recap Regular season ( edit ) Schedule ( edit ) On December 13 , 2016 , the NFL announced that the Cardinals will play the Los Angeles Rams as one of the NFL International Series at Twickenham Stadium in London , England , with the Rams serving as the home team . It will be the Cardinals ' first appearance in the International Series , though the Cardinals played in Mexico in 2005 against the San Francisco 49ers . The game will occur during Week 7 on Sunday , October 22 , and will be televised in the United States . The network and date were announced in conjunction with the release of the 2017 regular season schedule . The remainder of the Cardinals ' 2017 schedule , with exact dates and times , was announced on April 20 . Week Date Opponent Result Record Game site NFL.com recap September 10 at Detroit Lions L 23 -- 35 0 -- 1 Ford Field Recap September 17 at Indianapolis Colts W 16 -- 13 ( OT ) 1 -- 1 Lucas Oil Stadium Recap September 25 Dallas Cowboys L 17 -- 28 1 -- 2 University of Phoenix Stadium Recap October 1 San Francisco 49ers W 18 -- 15 ( OT ) 2 -- 2 University of Phoenix Stadium Recap 5 October 8 at Philadelphia Eagles L 7 -- 34 2 -- 3 Lincoln Financial Field Recap 6 October 15 Tampa Bay Buccaneers W 38 -- 33 3 -- 3 University of Phoenix Stadium Recap 7 October 22 at Los Angeles Rams L 0 -- 33 3 -- 4 Twickenham Stadium ( London , England ) Recap 8 Bye 9 November 5 at San Francisco 49ers W 20 -- 10 4 -- 4 Levi 's Stadium Recap 10 November 9 Seattle Seahawks L 16 -- 22 4 -- 5 University of Phoenix Stadium Recap 11 November 19 at Houston Texans L 21 -- 31 4 -- 6 NRG Stadium Recap 12 November 26 Jacksonville Jaguars W 27 -- 24 5 -- 6 University of Phoenix Stadium Recap 13 December 3 Los Angeles Rams L 16 -- 32 5 -- 7 University of Phoenix Stadium Recap 14 December 10 Tennessee Titans W 12 -- 7 6 -- 7 University of Phoenix Stadium Recap 15 December 17 at Washington Redskins L 15 -- 20 6 -- 8 FedExField Recap 16 December 24 New York Giants W 23 -- 0 7 -- 8 University of Phoenix Stadium Recap 17 December 31 at Seattle Seahawks W 26 -- 24 8 -- 8 CenturyLink Field Recap Note : Intra-division opponents are in bold text . Game summaries ( edit ) Week 1 : at Detroit lions ( edit ) Week One : Arizona Cardinals at Detroit Lions -- Game summary Total Cardinals 10 0 7 6 23 Lions 0 9 6 20 35 at Ford Field , Detroit , Michigan Date : September 10 Game time : 10 : 00 a.m. Game weather : Played indoors ( dome stadium ) Referee : Walt Anderson TV announcers ( Fox ) : Chris Myers , Daryl Johnston and Laura Okmin Recap , Gamebook ( show ) Game information First quarter AZ - Justin Bethel 82 - yard interception return ( Phil Dawson kick ) . Cardinals 7 -- 0 . Drive : 2 plays , 5 yards , 0 : 46 . AZ - Phil Dawson 24 - yard field goal . Cardinals 10 -- 0 . Drive : 7 plays , 7 yards , 3 : 32 . Second quarter DET - Marvin Jones Jr. 6 - yard pass from Matthew Stafford . Cardinals 10 -- 6 . Drive : 11 plays , 42 yards , 6 : 16 . DET - Matt Prater 58 - yard field goal . Cardinals 10 -- 9 . Drive : 8 plays , 38 yards , 0 : 39 . Third quarter AZ - Kerwynn Williams 3 - yard rush . ( Phil Dawson kick ) . Cardinals 17 -- 9 . Drive : 12 plays , 94 yards , 5 : 49 . DET - Theo Riddick 7 - yard pass from Matthew Stafford . Cardinals 17 -- 15 . Drive : 2 plays , 10 yards , 0 : 45 . Fourth quarter DET - Kenny Golladay 10 - yard pass from Matthew Stafford . Lions 21 -- 17 . Drive : 10 plays , 67 yards , 4 : 49 . DET - Kenny Golladay 45 - yard pass from Matthew Stafford . ( Matt Prater kick ) . Lions 28 -- 17 . Drive : 5 plays , 72 yards , 2 : 55 . DET - Miles Killebrew 35 - yard interception return ( Matt Prater kick ) . Lions 35 -- 17 . Drive : 1 play , 0 yards , 0 : 10 . AZ - J.J. Nelson 1 - yard pass from Carson Palmer . Lions 35 -- 23 . Drive : 10 plays , 75 yards , 2 : 30 . Top passers ARI -- Carson Palmer - 27 / 48 , 269 yards , TD , 3 INT DET -- Matthew Stafford - 29 / 41 , 292 yards , 4 TD , INT Top rushers ARI -- David Johnson - 11 carries , 23 yards DET -- Ameer Abdullah - 15 carries , 30 yards Top receivers ARI -- Larry Fitzgerald - 6 receptions , 74 yards DET -- Golden Tate - 10 receptions , 107 yards Top tacklers ARI -- Tyvon Branch - 10 tackles , 1 assist DET -- Jarrad Davis - 9 tackles The Cardinals would lose star running back David Johnson to a wrist injury during the game . Afterwards , it was revealed that his dislocated his wrist , an injury that sent him to injured reserve on September 12 and would eventually keep him out for the rest of the season . Week 2 : at indianapolis Colts ( edit ) Week Two : Arizona Cardinals at Indianapolis Colts -- Game summary OT Total Cardinals 0 0 10 16 Colts 10 0 0 0 13 at Lucas Oil Stadium , Indianapolis , Indiana Date : September 17 Game time : 10 : 00 a.m. Game weather : Played indoors ( retractable roof closed ) Game attendance : 63,137 Referee : Carl Cheffers TV announcers ( Fox ) : Chris Myers , Daryl Johnston and Laura Okmin Recap , Gamebook ( show ) Game information First quarter IND -- Frank Gore 5 - yard run ( Adam Vinatieri kick ) , 7 : 38 . Colts 7 -- 0 . Drive : 14 plays , 53 yards , 5 : 45 . IND -- Adam Vinatieri 46 - yard field goal , 1 : 27 . Colts 10 -- 0 . Drive : 8 plays , 32 yards , 4 : 21 . Second quarter ARI -- Phil Dawson 27 - yard field goal , 5 : 56 . Colts 10 -- 3 . Drive : 15 plays , 54 yards , 5 : 49 . Third quarter No scoring plays Fourth quarter IND -- Adam Vinatieri 29 - yard field goal , 11 : 42 , Colts 13 -- 3 . Drive : 16 plays , 76 yards , 9 : 18 . ARI -- J.J. Nelson 45 - yard pass from Carson Palmer ( Phil Dawson kick ) , 7 : 38 . Colts 13 -- 10 . Drive : 7 plays , 85 yards , 4 : 04 . ARI -- Phil Dawson 40 - yard field goal , 3 : 25 . Tied 13 -- 13 . Drive : 6 plays , 40 yards , 2 : 09 . Overtime ARI -- Phil Dawson 30 - yard field goal , 8 : 02 . Cardinals 16 -- 13 . Drive : 4 plays , 9 yards , 1 : 45 . Top passers ARI -- Carson Palmer -- 19 / 36 , 332 yards , TD , INT IND -- Jacoby Brissett -- 20 / 37 , 216 yards , INT Top rushers ARI -- Chris Johnson -- 11 carries , 44 yards IND -- Frank Gore -- 14 carries , 46 yards , TD Top receivers ARI -- J.J. Nelson -- 5 receptions , 120 yards , TD IND -- Jack Doyle -- 8 receptions , 79 yards Week 3 : vs. Dallas Cowboys ( edit ) Week Three : Dallas Cowboys at Arizona Cardinals -- Game summary Total Cowboys 0 7 7 14 28 Cardinals 7 0 7 17 at University of Phoenix Stadium , Glendale , Arizona Date : September 25 Game time : 5 : 30 p.m. Game weather : Played indoors ( retractable roof closed ) Referee : Craig Wrolstad TV announcers ( ESPN ) : Sean McDonough , Jon Gruden and Lisa Salters Recap , Gamebook ( show ) Game information First quarter ARI -- Jaron Brown 25 - yard pass from Carson Palmer ( Phil Dawson kick ) , 10 : 06 . Cardinals 7 -- 0 . Drive : 8 plays , 82 yards , 5 : 01 . Second quarter DAL -- Dak Prescott 10 - yard run ( Dan Bailey kick ) , 1 : 16 . Tied 7 -- 7 . Drive : 5 plays , 84 yards , 2 : 41 . Third quarter DAL -- Dez Bryant 15 - yard pass from Dak Prescott ( Dan Bailey kick ) , 8 : 42 . Cowboys 14 -- 7 . Drive : 4 plays , 46 yards , 1 : 58 . ARI -- Larry Fitzgerald 15 - yard pass from Carson Palmer ( Phil Dawson kick ) , 3 : 21 . Tied 14 -- 14 . Drive : 3 plays , 54 yards , 1 : 32 . Fourth quarter DAL -- Brice Butler 37 - yard pass from Dak Prescott ( Dan Bailey kick ) , 12 : 03 . Cowboys 21 -- 14 . Drive : 5 plays , 50 yards , 2 : 53 . ARI -- Phil Dawson 37 - yard field goal , 6 : 40 . Cowboys 21 -- 17 . Drive : 16 plays , 56 yards , 5 : 17 . DAL -- Ezekiel Elliott 8 - yard run ( Dan Bailey kick ) , 5 : 03 . Cowboys 28 -- 17 . Drive : 4 plays , 75 yards , 1 : 38 . Top passers DAL -- Dak Prescott -- 13 / 18 , 183 yards , 2 TD ARI -- Carson Palmer -- 29 / 48 , 325 yards , 2 TD Top rushers DAL -- Ezekiel Elliott -- 22 rushes , 80 yards , TD ARI -- Andre Ellington -- 5 rushes , 22 yards Top receivers DAL -- Brice Butler -- 2 receptions , 90 yards , TD ARI -- Larry Fitzgerald -- 13 receptions , 149 yards , TD Top tacklers DAL -- Sean Lee -- 8 tackles ARI -- Tyvon Branch -- 12 tackles Week 4 : vs. San Francisco 49ers ( edit ) Week Four : San Francisco 49ers at Arizona Cardinals -- Game summary OT Total 49ers 6 0 15 Cardinals 0 6 6 18 at University of Phoenix Stadium , Glendale , Arizona Date : October 1 Game time : 1 : 05 p.m. Game weather : Played indoors ( retractable roof closed ) Game attendance : 64,121 Referee : Tony Corrente TV announcers ( Fox ) : Sam Rosen , David Diehl and Jennifer Hale Recap , Gamebook ( show ) Game information First quarter SF -- Robbie Gould 49 - yard field goal , 2 : 05 . 49ers 3 -- 0 . Drive : 10 plays , 45 yards , 3 : 45 . Second quarter ARI -- Phil Dawson 29 - yard field goal , 13 : 07 . Tied 3 -- 3 . Drive : 9 plays , 63 yards , 3 : 58 . SF -- Robbie Gould 39 - yard field goal , 7 : 16 . 49ers 6 -- 3 . Drive : 12 plays , 64 yards , 5 : 51 . ARI -- Phil Dawson 43 - yard field goal , 1 : 24 . Tied 6 -- 6 . Drive : 4 plays , 5 yards , 0 : 30 . Third quarter SF -- Robbie Gould 47 - yard field goal , 10 : 34 . 49ers 9 -- 6 . Drive : 9 plays , 46 yards , 4 : 26 . ARI -- Phil Dawson 50 - yard field goal , 6 : 50 . Tied 9 -- 9 . Drive : 7 plays , 43 yards , 3 : 44 . SF -- Robbie Gould 48 - yard field goal , 2 : 22 . 49ers 12 -- 9 . Drive : 11 plays , 45 yards , 4 : 28 . Fourth quarter ARI -- Phil Dawson 32 - yard field goal , 7 : 41 . Tied 12 -- 12 . Drive : 11 plays , 50 yards , 6 : 08 . Overtime SF -- Robbie Gould 23 - yard field goal , 2 : 24 . 49ers 15 -- 12 . Drive : 17 plays , 73 yards , 7 : 36 . ARI -- Larry Fitzgerald 19 - yard pass from Carson Palmer , 0 : 32 . Cardinals 18 -- 15 . Drive : 7 plays , 75 yards , 1 : 52 . Top passers SF -- Brian Hoyer -- 24 / 49 , 234 yards , INT ARI -- Carson Palmer -- 33 / 51 , 357 yards , TD , INT Top rushers SF -- Carlos Hyde -- 16 carries , 68 yards ARI -- Chris Johnson -- 13 carries , 32 yards Top receivers SF -- Trent Taylor -- 5 receptions , 47 yards ARI -- Andre Ellington -- 9 receptions , 86 yards Top tacklers SF -- ARI -- Week 5 : at Philadelphia eagles ( edit ) Week Five : Arizona Cardinals at Philadelphia Eagles -- Game summary Total Cardinals 0 7 0 0 7 Eagles 21 0 10 34 at Lincoln Financial Field , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania Date : October 8 Game time : 10 : 00 a.m. Game weather : 77 ° F ( 25 ° C ) , showers Game attendance : 69,596 Referee : John Hussey TV announcers ( Fox ) : Chris Myers , Daryl Johnston and Laura Okmin Recap , Gamebook ( show ) Game information First quarter PHI -- Trey Burton 15 - yard pass from Carson Wentz ( Jake Elliott kick ) , 8 : 19 . Eagles 7 -- 0 . Drive : 10 plays , 49 yards , 5 : 26 . PHI -- Zach Ertz 11 - yard pass from Carson Wentz ( Jake Elliott kick ) , 3 : 52 . Eagles 14 -- 0 . Drive : 3 plays , 15 yards , 1 : 30 . PHI -- Torrey Smith 59 - yard pass from Carson Wentz ( Jake Elliott kick ) , 0 : 43 . Eagles 21 -- 0 . Drive : 3 plays , 64 yards , 1 : 33 . Second quarter ARI -- John Brown 13 - yard pass from Carson Palmer ( Phil Dawson kick ) , 11 : 42 . Eagles 21 -- 7 . Drive : 10 plays , 60 yards , 4 : 01 . Third quarter PHI -- Jake Elliott 36 - yard field goal , 9 : 18 . Eagles 24 -- 7 . Drive : 11 plays , 57 yards , 5 : 42 . PHI -- Nelson Agholor 72 - yard pass from Carson Wentz ( Jake Elliott kick ) , 6 : 16 . Eagles 31 -- 7 . Drive : 3 plays , 73 yards , 1 : 01 . Fourth quarter PHI -- Jake Elliott 28 - yard field goal , 2 : 00 . Eagles 34 -- 7 . Drive : 13 plays , 47 yards , 9 : 14 . Top passers ARI -- Carson Palmer -- 28 / 44 , 291 yards , TD PHI -- Carson Wentz -- 21 / 30 , 304 yards , 4 TD , INT Top rushers ARI -- Chris Johnson -- 9 rushes , 21 yards PHI -- LeGarrette Blount -- 14 rushes , 74 yards Top receivers ARI -- J.J. Nelson -- 4 receptions , 80 yards PHI -- Nelson Agholor -- 4 receptions , 93 yards , TD Week 6 : vs. Tampa Bay buccaneers ( edit ) Week Six : Tampa Bay Buccaneers at Arizona Cardinals -- Game summary Total Buccaneers 0 0 6 27 33 Cardinals 14 10 7 7 38 at University of Phoenix Stadium , Glendale , Arizona Date : October 15 Game time : 1 : 05 p.m. Game weather : Played indoors ( retractable roof closed ) Game attendance : 63,999 Referee : Gene Steratore TV announcers ( Fox ) : Kenny Albert , Charles Davis and Pam Oliver Recap , Gamebook ( show ) Game information First quarter ARI -- Adrian Peterson 27 - yard run ( Phil Dawson kick ) , 11 : 52 . Cardinals 7 -- 0 . Drive : 6 plays , 75 yards , 3 : 08 . ARI -- Troy Niklas 14 - yard pass from Carson Palmer ( Phil Dawson kick ) , 5 : 24 . Cardinals 14 -- 0 . Drive : 7 plays , 86 yards , 3 : 38 . Second quarter ARI -- Larry Fitzgerald 11 - yard pass from Carson Palmer ( Phil Dawson kick ) , 12 : 04 . Cardinals 21 -- 0 . Drive : 7 plays , 95 yards , 4 : 04 . ARI -- Phil Dawson 28 - yard field goal , 5 : 31 . Cardinals 24 -- 0 . Drive : 10 plays , 60 yards , 6 : 02 . Third quarter ARI -- John Brown 17 - yard pass from Carson Palmer ( Phil Dawson kick ) , 11 : 58 . Cardinals 31 -- 0 . Drive : 4 plays , 33 yards , 2 : 11 . TB -- DeSean Jackson 4 - yard pass from Ryan Fitzpatrick ( run failed ) , 8 : 27 . Cardinals 31 -- 6 . Drive : 8 plays , 75 yards , 3 : 31 . Fourth quarter TB -- Cameron Brate 10 - yard pass from Ryan Fitzpatrick ( pass failed ) , 13 : 32 . Cardinals 31 -- 12 . Drive : 6 plays , 63 yards , 2 : 50 . TB -- Lavonte David 21 - yard fumble return ( Doug Martin run ) , 12 : 56 . Cardinals 31 -- 19 . ARI -- Adrian Peterson 1 - yard run ( Phil Dawson kick ) , 7 : 17 . Cardinals 38 -- 19 . Drive : 1 plays , 1 yards , 0 : 05 . TB -- Doug Martin 1 - yard run ( pass failed ) , 3 : 02 . Cardinals 38 -- 25 . Drive : 11 plays , 70 yards , 4 : 15 . TB -- Mike Evans 37 - yard pass from Ryan Fitzpatrick ( Patrick Murray kick ) , 2 : 02 . Cardinals 38 -- 33 . Drive : 3 plays , 65 yards , 0 : 32 . Top passers TB -- Ryan Fitzpatrick -- 22 / 32 , 290 yards , 3 TD , 2 INT ARI -- Carson Palmer -- 18 / 22 , 283 yards , 3 TD , INT Top rushers TB -- Doug Martin -- 14 carries , 53 yards , TD ARI -- Adrian Peterson -- 26 carries , 134 yards , 2 TD Top receivers TB -- Cameron Brate -- 6 receptions , 76 yards , TD ARI -- Larry Fitzgerald -- 10 receptions , 138 yards , TD Top tacklers TB -- ARI -- This was the debut of recently acquired veteran running back Adrian Peterson . He 'd have a hot day that contributed to a Cardinal victory , rushing 26 times for 134 yards and 2 touchdowns . The performance would earn him NFC Offensive Player of the Week . Week 7 : at Los Angeles Rams ( edit ) NFL London Games Week 7 : Arizona Cardinals at Los Angeles Rams -- Game summary Total Cardinals 0 0 0 0 0 Rams 20 7 33 at Twickenham Stadium , London , England Date : October 22 Game time : 10 : 00 a.m. Game weather : 54 ° F ( 12 ° C ) , rain Game attendance : 73,736 Referee : Brad Allen TV announcers ( Fox ) : Sam Rosen , Ronde Barber and Kristina Pink Recap , Gamebook ( show ) Game information First quarter LAR -- Greg Zuerlein 23 - yard field goal , 4 : 14 . Rams 3 -- 0 . Drive : 14 plays , 73 yards , 5 : 50 . Second quarter LAR -- Greg Zuerlein 33 - yard field goal , 11 : 13 . Rams 6 -- 0 . Drive : 8 plays , 51 yards , 3 : 38 . LAR -- Todd Gurley 18 - yard run ( Greg Zuerlein kick ) , 5 : 25 . Rams 13 -- 0 . Drive : 1 plays , 18 yards , 0 : 10 . LAR -- Jared Goff 9 - yard run ( Greg Zuerlein kick ) , 0 : 41 . Rams 20 -- 0 . Drive : 8 plays , 88 yards , 1 : 23 . LAR -- Greg Zuerlein 53 - yard field goal , 0 : 00 . Rams 23 -- 0 . Drive : 4 plays , 17 yards , 0 : 33 . Third quarter LAR -- Greg Zuerlein 34 - yard field goal , 10 : 53 . Rams 26 -- 0 . Drive : 10 plays , 63 yards , 4 : 07 . Fourth quarter LAR -- Cooper Kupp 18 - yard pass from Jared Goff ( Greg Zuerlein kick ) , 3 : 46 . Rams 33 -- 0 . Drive : 16 plays , 80 yards , 10 : 19 . Top passers ARI -- Carson Palmer -- 20 / 18 , 122 yards , INT LAR -- Jared Goff -- 22 / 37 , 235 yards , TD , INT Top rushers ARI -- Adrian Peterson -- 11 carries , 21 yards LAR -- Todd Gurley -- 22 carries , 106 yards , TD Top receivers ARI -- Larry Fitzgerald -- 3 receptions , 29 yards LAR -- Robert Woods -- 5 receptions , 59 yards Top tacklers ARI -- LAR -- The Cardinals lost Carson Palmer to an arm injury during the game . Shortly after , it was revealed that he broke his arm and would be out for the remainder of the season . It was also his last game he 'd ever play in the NFL . Week 9 : at San Francisco 49ers ( edit ) Week Nine : Arizona Cardinals at San Francisco 49ers -- Game summary Total Cardinals 7 7 0 6 20 49ers 0 7 0 10 at Levi 's Stadium , Santa Clara , California Date : November 5 Game time : 2 : 05 p.m. MST / 1 : 05 p.m. PST Game weather : 61 ° F ( 16 ° C ) , sunny Game attendance : 70,133 Referee : Craig Wrolstad TV announcers ( Fox ) : Chris Myers , Daryl Johnston and Laura Okmin Recap , Gamebook ( show ) Game information First quarter ARI -- Jaron Brown 3 - yard pass from Drew Stanton ( Phil Dawson kick ) , 10 : 15 . Cardinals 7 -- 0 . Drive : 3 plays , 6 yards , 1 : 23 . Second quarter SF -- Robbie Gould 42 - yard field goal , 14 : 55 . Cardinals 7 -- 3 . Drive : 6 plays , 58 yards , 1 : 43 . ARI -- Jermaine Gresham 11 - yard pass from Drew Stanton ( Phil Dawson kick ) , 11 : 04 . Cardinals 14 -- 3 . Drive : 7 plays , 75 yards , 3 : 51 . Third quarter SF -- C.J. Beathard 1 - yard run ( Robbie Gould kick ) , 9 : 43 . Cardinals 14 -- 10 . Drive : 13 plays , 75 yards , 5 : 17 . Fourth quarter ARI -- Phil Dawson 25 - yard field goal , 13 : 31 . Cardinals 17 -- 10 . Drive : 12 plays , 65 yards , 6 : 24 . ARI -- Phil Dawson 32 - yard field goal , 5 : 33 . Cardinals 20 -- 10 . Drive : 11 plays , 39 yards , 7 : 02 . Top passers ARI -- Drew Stanton -- 15 / 30 , 201 yards , 2 TD , INT SF -- C.J. Beathard -- 24 / 51 , 294 yards , INT Top rushers ARI -- Adrian Peterson -- 37 carries , 159 yards SF -- Carlos Hyde -- 12 carries , 41 yards Top receivers ARI -- Larry Fitzgerald -- 5 receptions , 70 yards SF -- Carlos Hyde -- 9 receptions , 84 yards Top tacklers ARI -- SF -- Week 10 : vs. Seattle seahawks ( edit ) Week Ten : Seattle Seahawks at Arizona Cardinals -- Game summary Total Seahawks 7 8 0 7 22 Cardinals 0 7 6 16 at University of Phoenix Stadium , Glendale , Arizona Date : November 9 Game time : 6 : 25 p.m. MST Game weather : 79 ° F ( 26 ° C ) , clear -- retractable roof open Game attendance : 64,639 Referee : Walt Anderson TV announcers ( NBC / NFLN / Amazon Video ) : Mike Tirico , Cris Collinsworth and Heather Cox Recap , Gamebook ( show ) Game information First quarter SEA -- Jimmy Graham 6 - yard pass from Russell Wilson ( Blair Walsh kick ) , 5 : 07 . Seahawks 7 -- 0 . Drive : 9 plays , 51 yards , 4 : 00 . Second quarter ARI -- Jermaine Gresham 14 - yard pass from Drew Stanton ( Phil Dawson kick ) , 14 : 53 . Tied 7 -- 7 . Drive : 9 plays , 75 yards , 5 : 14 . SEA -- Adrian Peterson tackled by Kam Chancellor in the end zone for a safety , 10 : 53 . Seahawks 9 -- 7 . SEA -- Blair Walsh 33 - yard field goal , 10 : 19 . Seahawks 12 -- 7 . Drive : 11 plays , 76 yards , 5 : 45 . SEA -- Blair Walsh 43 - yard field goal , 10 : 19 . Seahawks 15 -- 7 . Drive : 5 plays , 37 yards , 0 : 44 . Third quarter ARI -- Phil Dawson 43 - yard field goal , 10 : 19 . Seahawks 15 -- 10 . Drive : 11 plays , 51 yards , 6 : 28 . Fourth quarter SEA -- Jimmy Graham 2 - yard pass from Russell Wilson ( Blair Walsh kick ) , 12 : 49 . Seahawks 22 -- 10 . Drive : 7 plays , 80 yards , 3 : 54 . ARI -- Andre Ellington 1 - yard run ( kick blocked ) , 0 : 20 . Seahawks 22 -- 16 . Drive : 11 plays , 61 yards , 2 : 08 . Top passers SEA -- Russell Wilson -- 22 / 32 , 238 yards , 2 TD ARI -- Drew Stanton -- 24 / 47 , 273 yards , TD Top rushers SEA -- Thomas Rawls -- 10 rushes , 27 yards ARI -- Adrian Peterson -- 21 rushes , 29 yards Top receivers SEA -- Doug Baldwin -- 5 receptions , 95 yards ARI -- Larry Fitzgerald -- 10 receptions , 113 yards Top tacklers SEA -- Bobby Wagner -- 9 solo tackles , 3 assisted ARI -- Budda Baker -- 6 solo tackles , 1 assisted Week 11 : at houston texans ( edit ) Week Eleven : Arizona Cardinals at Houston Texans -- Game summary Total Cardinals 0 14 7 0 21 Texans 0 10 7 14 31 at NRG Stadium , Houston , Texas Date : November 19 Game time : 12 : 00 p.m. CST / 11 : 00 a.m. MST Game weather : Played indoors ( retractable roof closed ) Game attendance : 71,680 Referee : Ed Hochuli TV announcers ( Fox ) : Kenny Albert , Ronde Barber and Kristina Pink Recap , Gamebook ( show ) Game information First quarter No scoring plays Second quarter HOU -- Lamar Miller 7 - yard pass from Tom Savage ( Ka'imi Fairbairn kick ) , 14 : 12 . Texans 7 -- 0 . Drive : 12 plays , 89 yards , 6 : 58 . ARI -- Larry Fitzgerald 20 - yard pass from Blaine Gabbert ( Phil Dawson kick ) , 7 : 20 . Tied 7 -- 7 . Drive : 2 plays , 17 yards , 0 : 47 . ARI -- Ricky Seals - Jones 11 - yard pass from Blaine Gabbert ( Phil Dawson kick ) , 1 : 53 . Cardinals 14 -- 7 . Drive : 2 plays , 15 yards , 0 : 29 . HOU -- Ka'imi Fairbairn 34 - yard field goal , 0 : 09 . Cardinals 14 -- 10 . Drive : 8 plays , 59 yards , 1 : 48 . Third quarter HOU -- DeAndre Hopkins 28 - yard pass from Tom Savage ( Ka'imi Fairbairn kick ) , 11 : 02 . Texans 17 -- 14 . Drive : 7 plays , 74 yards , 3 : 58 . ARI -- Ricky Seals - Jones 28 - yard pass from Blaine Gabbert ( Phil Dawson kick ) , 4 : 41 . Cardinals 21 -- 17 . Drive : 7 plays , 51 yards , 3 : 45 . Fourth quarter HOU -- D'Onta Foreman 3 - yard run ( Ka'imi Fairbairn kick ) , 13 : 13 . Texans 24 -- 21 . Drive : 11 plays , 75 yards , 6 : 28 . HOU -- D'Onta Foreman 34 - yard run ( Ka'imi Fairbairn kick ) , 6 : 26 . Texans 31 -- 21 . Drive : 1 play , 34 yards , 0 : 07 . Top passers ARI -- Blaine Gabbert -- 21 / 33 , 237 yards , 2 TD , 2 INT HOU -- Tom Savage -- 22 / 32 , 230 yards , 2 TD , INT Top rushers ARI -- Adrian Peterson -- 14 carries , 26 yards HOU -- D'Onta Foreman -- 10 carries , 65 yards , 2 TD Top receivers ARI -- Larry Fitzgerald -- 9 receptions , 91 yards , TD HOU -- DeAndre Hopkins -- 4 receptions , 76 yards , TD Week 12 : vs. jacksonville Jaguars ( edit ) Week Twelve : Jacksonville Jaguars at Arizona Cardinals -- Game summary Total Jaguars 0 7 14 24 Cardinals 10 11 27 at University of Phoenix Stadium , Glendale , Arizona Date : November 26 Game time : 2 : 25 p.m. MST Game weather : Played indoors ( retractable roof closed ) Game attendance : 63,891 Referee : Clete Blakeman TV announcers ( CBS ) : Spero Dedes and Adam Archuleta Recap , Gamebook ( show ) Game information First quarter ARI -- Phil Dawson 34 - yard field goal , 8 : 26 . Cardinals 3 -- 0 . Drive : 9 plays , 51 yards , 4 : 51 . Second quarter ARI -- Phil Dawson 42 - yard field goal , 9 : 05 . Cardinals 6 -- 0 . Drive : 5 plays , 36 yards , 2 : 08 . ARI -- Ricky Seals - Jones 29 - yard pass from Blaine Gabbert ( Phil Dawson kick ) , 4 : 51 . Cardinals 13 -- 0 . Drive : 4 plays , 41 yards , 2 : 07 . JAX -- Josh Lambo 43 - yard field goal , 0 : 20 . Cardinals 13 -- 3 . Drive : 8 plays , 31 yards , 1 : 45 . Third quarter ARI -- Phil Dawson 48 - yard field goal , 11 : 34 . Cardinals 16 -- 3 . Drive : 8 plays , 45 yards , 3 : 31 . JAX -- Blake Bortles 1 - yard run ( Josh Lambo kick ) , 7 : 39 . Cardinals 16 -- 10 . Drive : 7 plays , 75 yards , 3 : 56 . Fourth quarter JAX -- Calais Campbell 10 - yard fumble return ( Josh Lambo kick ) , 12 : 19 Jaguars 17 -- 16 . ARI -- Jaron Brown 52 - yard pass from Blaine Gabbert ( Blaine Gabbert to Larry Fitzgerald , pass succeeded ) , 9 : 17 . Cardinals 24 -- 17 . Drive : 6 plays , 75 yards , 3 : 03 . JAX -- Blake Bortles 17 - yard run ( Josh Lambo kick ) , 7 : 33 . Tied 24 -- 24 . Drive : 4 plays , 38 yards , 1 : 41 . ARI -- Phil Dawson 57 - yard field goal , 0 : 06 . Cardinals 27 -- 24 . Drive : 3 plays , 22 yards , 0 : 15 . Top passers JAX -- Blake Bortles -- 19 / 33 , 160 yards , INT ARI -- Blaine Gabbert -- 22 / 38 , 241 yards , 2 TD , INT Top rushers JAX -- Blake Bortles -- 6 carries , 62 yards , 2 TD ARI -- Adrian Peterson -- 20 carries , 79 yards Top receivers JAX -- Dede Westbrook -- 6 receptions , 41 yards ARI -- Ricky Seals - Jones -- 4 receptions , 72 yards Week 13 : vs. Los Angeles Rams ( edit ) Week Thirteen : Los Angeles Rams at Arizona Cardinals -- Game summary Total Rams 16 7 6 32 Cardinals 0 13 0 16 at University of Phoenix Stadium , Glendale , Arizona Date : December 3 Game time : 2 : 25 p.m. MST Game weather : Played indoor ( retractable roof closed ) Game attendance : 63,986 Referee : Ronald Torbert TV announcers ( Fox ) : Chris Myers , Daryl Johnston and Laura Okmin Recap , Gamebook ( show ) Game information First quarter LAR -- Greg Zuerlein 56 - yard field goal , 11 : 41 . Rams 3 -- 0 . Drive : 6 plays , 31 yards , 3 : 19 . LAR -- Gerald Everett 1 - yard pass from Jared Goff ( kick failed ) , 7 : 51 . Rams 9 -- 0 . Drive : 7 plays , 23 yards , 3 : 30 . LAR -- Alec Ogletree 41 - yard interception return ( Greg Zuerlein kick ) , 2 : 45 . Rams 16 -- 0 . Second quarter ARI -- Elijhaa Penny 1 - yard run ( Phil Dawson kick ) , 7 : 38 . Rams 16 -- 7 . Drive : 9 plays , 67 yards , 6 : 07 . ARI -- Larry Fitzgerald 15 - yard pass from Blaine Gabbert ( kick blocked ) , 3 : 25 . Rams 16 -- 13 . Drive : 6 plays , 70 yards , 2 : 28 . LAR -- Greg Zuerlein 20 - yard field goal , 0 : 00 . Rams 19 -- 13 . Drive : 9 plays , 78 yards , 3 : 25 . Third quarter LAR -- Sammy Watkins 11 - yard pass from Jared Goff ( Greg Zuerlein kick ) , 5 : 07 . Rams 26 -- 13 . Drive : 6 plays , 30 yards , 3 : 00 . Fourth quarter ARI -- Phil Dawson 54 - yard field goal , 14 : 55 . Rams 26 -- 16 . Drive : 10 plays , 46 yards , 5 : 12 . LAR -- Greg Zuerlein 24 - yard field goal , 6 : 18 . Rams 29 -- 16 . Drive : 8 plays , 52 yards , 4 : 34 . LAR -- Greg Zuerlein 41 - yard field goal , 1 : 55 . Rams 32 -- 16 . Drive : 7 plays , 31 yards , 2 : 34 . Top passers LAR -- Jared Goff -- 21 / 31 , 220 yards , 2 TD , INT ARI -- Blaine Gabbert -- 18 / 32 , 221 yards , TD , 2 INT Top rushers LAR -- Todd Gurley -- 19 carries , 74 yards ARI -- Kerwynn Williams -- 16 carries , 97 yards Top receivers LAR -- Todd Gurley -- 6 receptions , 84 yards ARI -- Larry Fitzgerald -- 10 receptions , 98 yards , 1 TD Top tacklers LAR -- ARI -- Week 14 : vs. tennessee titans ( edit ) Week Fourteen : Tennessee Titans at Arizona Cardinals -- Game summary Total Titans 0 7 0 0 7 Cardinals 0 0 6 6 12 at University of Phoenix Stadium , Glendale , Arizona Date : December 10 Game time : 2 : 05 p.m. MST Game weather : Played indoors ( retractable roof closed ) Game attendance : 64,153 Referee : Jerome Boger TV announcers ( CBS ) : Andrew Catalon , James Lofton and Jay Feely Recap , Gamebook ( show ) Game information First quarter No scoring plays . Second quarter TEN -- Derrick Henry 6 - yard run ( Ryan Succop kick ) , 7 : 16 . Titans 7 -- 0 . Drive : 9 plays , 50 yards , 5 : 02 . Third quarter ARI -- Phil Dawson 47 - yard field goal , 9 : 36 . Titans 7 -- 3 . Drive : 9 plays , 48 yards , 5 : 24 . ARI -- Phil Dawson 23 - yard field goal , 4 : 44 . Titans 7 -- 6 . Drive : 5 plays , 30 yards , 2 : 41 . Fourth quarter ARI -- Phil Dawson 32 - yard field goal , 5 : 59 . Cardinals 9 -- 7 . Drive : 8 plays , 71 yards , 4 : 00 . ARI -- Phil Dawson 35 - yard field goal , 3 : 45 . Cardinals 12 -- 7 . Drive : 4 plays , 10 yards , 2 : 03 . Top passers TEN -- Marcus Mariota -- 16 / 31 , 159 yards , 2 INT ARI -- Blaine Gabbert -- 17 / 29 , 178 yards Top rushers TEN -- DeMarco Murray -- 11 carries , 34 yards ARI -- Kerwynn Williams -- 20 carries , 73 yards Top receivers TEN -- Delanie Walker -- 5 receptions , 42 yards ARI -- Larry Fitzgerald -- 5 receptions , 44 yards Top tacklers TEN -- ARI -- Week 15 : at Washington redskins ( edit ) Week Fifteen : Arizona Cardinals at Washington Redskins -- Game summary Total Cardinals 6 15 Redskins 7 7 20 at FedExField , Landover , Maryland Date : December 17 Game time : 1 : 00 p.m. EST / 11 : 00 a.m. MST Game weather : 50 ° F ( 10 ° C ) , cloudy Game attendance : 71,026 Referee : Pete Morelli TV announcers ( Fox ) : Kenny Albert , Ronde Barber and Kristina Pink Recap , Gamebook ( show ) Game information First quarter WAS -- Jamison Crowder 5 - yard pass from Kirk Cousins ( Dustin Hopkins kick ) , 13 : 30 . Redskins 7 -- 0 . Drive : 2 plays , 6 yards , 0 : 43 . ARI -- Phil Dawson 40 - yard field goal , 3 : 47 . Redskins 7 -- 3 . Drive : 16 plays , 60 yards , 9 : 43 . Second quarter WAS -- Kapri Bibbs 36 - yard pass from Kirk Cousins ( Dustin Hopkins kick ) , 13 : 27 . Redskins 14 -- 3 . Drive : 5 plays , 63 yards , 1 : 41 . ARI -- Phil Dawson 35 - yard field goal , 7 : 35 . Redskins 14 -- 6 . Drive : 11 plays , 57 yards , 5 : 52 . ARI -- Phil Dawson 19 - yard field goal , 0 : 00 . Redskins 14 -- 9 . Drive : 10 plays , 32 yards , 1 : 39 . Third quarter ARI -- Phil Dawson 34 - yard field goal , 13 : 37 . Redskins 14 -- 12 . Drive : 4 plays , 6 yards , 1 : 23 . WAS -- Dustin Hopkins 24 - yard field goal , 4 : 23 . Redskins 17 -- 12 . Drive : 11 plays , 88 yards , 6 : 04 . Fourth quarter ARI -- Phil Dawson 32 - yard field goal , 11 : 13 . Redskins 17 -- 15 . Drive : 9 plays , 47 yards , 3 : 37 . WAS -- Dustin Hopkins 32 - yard field goal , 4 : 30 . Redskins 20 -- 15 . Drive : 8 plays , 30 yards , 3 : 21 . Top passers ARI -- Blaine Gabbert -- 16 / 41 , 189 yards , INT WAS -- Kirk Cousins -- 18 / 26 , 196 yards , 2 TD Top rushers ARI -- Kerwynn Williams -- 17 carries , 61 yards WAS -- Samaje Perine -- 14 carries , 37 yards Top receivers ARI -- Larry Fitzgerald -- 5 receptions , 60 yards WAS -- Jamison Crowder -- 5 receptions , 55 yards , TD Top tacklers ARI -- WAS -- Week 16 : vs. New york giants ( edit ) Week Sixteen : New York Giants at Arizona Cardinals -- Game summary Total Giants 0 0 0 0 0 Cardinals 7 6 7 23 at University of Phoenix Stadium , Glendale , Arizona Date : December 24 Game time : 2 : 25 p.m. MST Game weather : Played indoors ( retractable roof closed ) Game attendance : 63,850 Referee : John Parry TV announcers ( Fox ) : Dick Stockton , Mark Schlereth and Shannon Spake Recap , Gamebook ( show ) Game information First quarter ARI -- Phil Dawson 21 - yard field goal , 5 : 29 . Cardinals 3 -- 0 . Drive : 9 plays , 46 yards , 5 : 16 . Second quarter ARI -- Larry Fitzgerald 13 - yard pass from Drew Stanton ( Phil Dawson kick ) , 1 : 01 . Cardinals 10 -- 0 . Drive : 9 plays , 79 yards , 2 : 04 . Third quarter ARI -- John Brown 15 - yard pass from Drew Stanton ( Phil Dawson kick ) , 9 : 25 . Cardinals 17 -- 0 . Drive : 11 plays , 75 yards , 5 : 32 . Fourth quarter ARI -- Robert Nkemdiche 21 - yard fumble return ( Phil Dawson kick ) , 14 : 50 . Cardinals 23 -- 0 . Top passers NYG -- Eli Manning -- 27 / 45 , 263 yards , 2 INT ARI -- Drew Stanton -- 20 / 34 , 209 yards , 2 TD , 2 INT Top rushers NYG -- Wayne Gallman -- 10 carries , 18 yards ARI -- Kerwynn Williams -- 16 carries , 51 yards Top receivers NYG -- Rhett Ellison -- 4 receptions , 60 yards ARI -- Larry Fitzgerald -- 9 receptions , 119 yards , 1 TD Top tacklers NYG -- ARI -- Week 17 : at Seattle seahawks ( edit ) Week Seventeen : Arizona Cardinals at Seattle Seahawks -- Game summary Total Cardinals 10 10 26 Seahawks 7 0 7 10 24 at CenturyLink Field , Seattle , Washington Date : December 31 Game time : 2 : 25 p.m. MST / 1 : 25 p.m. PST Game weather : 40 ° F ( 4 ° C ) , sunny Game attendance : 69,078 Referee : Walt Coleman TV announcers ( Fox ) : Thom Brennaman , Chris Spielman and Peter Schrager Recap , Gamebook ( show ) Game information First quarter ARI -- Jaron Brown 25 - yard pass from Drew Stanton ( Phil Dawson kick ) , 8 : 55 . Cardinals 7 -- 0 . Drive : 10 plays , 73 yards , 6 : 05 . SEA -- Tyler Lockett 99 - yard kickoff return ( Blair Walsh kick ) , 8 : 43 . Tied 7 -- 7 . ARI -- Phil Dawson 49 - yard field goal , 7 : 10 . Cardinals 10 -- 7 . Drive : 5 plays , 12 yards , 1 : 33 . Second quarter ARI -- Elijhaa Penny 4 - yard run ( Phil Dawson kick ) , 12 : 19 . Cardinals 17 -- 7 . Drive : 7 plays , 43 yards , 3 : 49 . ARI -- Phil Dawson 46 - yard field goal , 0 : 58 . Cardinals 20 -- 7 . Drive : 8 plays , 46 yards , 1 : 25 . Third quarter SEA -- Doug Baldwin 18 - yard pass from Russell Wilson ( Blair Walsh kick ) , 8 : 59 . Cardinals 20 -- 14 . Drive : 10 plays , 80 yards , 6 : 01 . ARI -- Phil Dawson 53 - yard field goal , 4 : 22 . Cardinals 23 -- 14 . Drive : 6 plays , 19 yards , 2 : 54 . Fourth quarter SEA -- Blair Walsh 49 - yard field goal , 13 : 04 . Cardinals 23 -- 17 . Drive : 7 plays , 29 yards , 2 : 41 . SEA -- Doug Baldwin 29 - yard pass from Russell Wilson ( Blair Walsh kick ) , 10 : 24 . Seahawks 24 -- 23 . Drive : 2 plays , 60 yards , 0 : 47 . ARI -- Phil Dawson 42 - yard field goal , 2 : 21 . Cardinals 26 -- 24 . Drive : 10 plays , 62 yards , 4 : 50 . Top passers ARI -- Drew Stanton -- 15 / 34 , 145 yards , TD , INT SEA -- Russell Wilson -- 18 / 29 , 221 yards , 2 TD Top rushers ARI -- Kerwynn Williams -- 23 carries , 75 yards SEA -- Mike Davis -- 10 carries , 48 yards Top receivers ARI -- Larry Fitzgerald -- 8 receptions , 55 yards SEA -- Doug Baldwin -- 4 receptions , 90 yards , 2 TD Top tacklers ARI -- SEA -- With a much needed win at Seattle , who 's also out of the playoffs since 2011 , this was the last game for head coach Bruce Arians as he would retire the day after this game . Standings ( edit ) Division ( edit ) NFC West view talk PCT DIV CONF PF PA STK Los Angeles Rams 11 5 0 . 688 4 -- 2 7 -- 5 478 329 L1 Seattle Seahawks 9 7 0 . 563 4 -- 2 7 -- 5 366 332 L1 Arizona Cardinals 8 8 0 . 500 3 -- 3 5 -- 7 295 361 W2 San Francisco 49ers 6 10 0 . 375 1 -- 5 3 -- 9 331 383 W5 Conference ( edit ) NFC # Team Division PCT DIV CONF SOS SOV STK Division leaders Philadelphia Eagles East 13 0 . 813 5 -- 1 10 -- 2 . 461 . 433 L1 Minnesota Vikings North 13 0 . 813 5 -- 1 10 -- 2 . 492 . 447 W3 Los Angeles Rams West 11 5 0 . 688 4 -- 2 7 -- 5 . 504 . 460 L1 New Orleans Saints South 11 5 0 . 688 4 -- 2 8 -- 4 . 535 . 483 L1 Wild Cards 5 Carolina Panthers South 11 5 0 . 688 3 -- 3 7 -- 5 . 539 . 500 L1 6 Atlanta Falcons South 10 6 0 . 625 4 -- 2 9 -- 3 . 543 . 475 W1 Did not qualify for the playoffs 7 Detroit Lions North 9 7 0 . 563 5 -- 1 8 -- 4 . 496 . 368 W1 8 Seattle Seahawks West 9 7 0 . 563 4 -- 2 7 -- 5 . 492 . 444 L1 9 Dallas Cowboys East 9 7 0 . 563 5 -- 1 7 -- 5 . 496 . 438 W1 10 Arizona Cardinals West 8 8 0 . 500 3 -- 3 5 -- 7 . 488 . 406 W2 11 Green Bay Packers North 7 9 0 . 438 2 -- 4 5 -- 7 . 539 . 357 L3 12 Washington Redskins East 7 9 0 . 438 1 -- 5 5 -- 7 . 539 . 429 L1 13 San Francisco 49ers West 6 10 0 . 375 1 -- 5 3 -- 9 . 512 . 438 W5 14 Tampa Bay Buccaneers South 5 11 0 . 313 1 -- 5 3 -- 9 . 555 . 375 W1 15 Chicago Bears North 5 11 0 . 313 0 -- 6 1 -- 11 . 559 . 500 L1 16 New York Giants East 13 0 . 188 1 -- 5 1 -- 11 . 531 . 458 W1 Tiebreakers ^ Jump up to : Philadelphia claimed the No. 1 seed over Minnesota based on winning percentage vs. common opponents . Philadelphia 's cumulative record against Carolina , Chicago , the Los Angeles Rams and Washington was 5 -- 0 , compared to Minnesota 's 4 -- 1 cumulative record against the same four teams . ^ Jump up to : The Los Angeles Rams claimed the No. 3 seed over New Orleans based on head - to - head victory . ^ Jump up to : New Orleans clinched the NFC South division over Carolina based on head - to - head sweep . ^ Jump up to : Detroit finished ahead of Dallas and Seattle based on conference record , while Seattle finished ahead of Dallas based on head - to - head victory . ^ Jump up to : Green Bay finished ahead of Washington based on record vs. common opponents . Green Bay 's cumulative record against Dallas , Minnesota , New Orleans and Seattle was 2 -- 3 , compared to Washington 's 1 -- 4 cumulative record against the same four teams . ^ Jump up to : Tampa Bay finished ahead of Chicago based on head - to - head victory . Jump up ^ When breaking ties for three or more teams under the NFL 's rules , they are first broken within divisions , then comparing only the highest ranked remaining team from each division . Legend w -- Clinched wild card x -- Clinched playoff berth y -- Clinched division z -- Clinched first - round bye * -- Clinched home - field advantage References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` 2017 London games : NFL announces which teams will be playing '' . NFL . December 13 , 2016 . Retrieved December 13 , 2016 . External links ( edit ) Official website Arizona Cardinals Founded in 1898 Played in Chicago ( 1920 -- 59 ) , St. Louis ( 1960 -- 87 ) , and formerly the Phoenix Cardinals ( 1988 -- 93 ) Based in Glendale , Arizona Headquartered in Tempe , Arizona Franchise History in Chicago in St. Louis Seasons Head coaches Players Quarterbacks First - round draft picks Stadiums Normal Park Comiskey Park Forbes Field Soldier Field Busch Stadium Busch Memorial Stadium Sun Devil Stadium University of Phoenix Stadium Culture Charles Bidwill Bill Bidwill Cheerleaders Big Red ( mascot ) Jerry Maguire `` A Tale of Two Springfields '' ( The Simpsons episode ) Lore 1925 Chicago Cardinals -- Milwaukee Badgers scandal 1925 NFL Championship controversy Card - Pitt Million Dollar Backfield 2006 game vs. Chicago Bears Rivalries Kansas City Chiefs Division championships ( 7 ) 1947 1948 2008 2009 2015 Conference championships ( 1 ) 2008 League championships ( 2 ) 1925 1947 Retired numbers 8 40 77 88 99 Current league affiliations League : National Football League Conference : National Football Conference Division : West Division Seasons ( 98 ) 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1984 1985 1986 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Championship seasons in bold Chicago / St. Louis / Phoenix / Arizona Cardinals seasons Chicago 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 St. Louis 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1984 1985 1986 Phoenix 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 Arizona 1994 1995 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Bold indicates NFL Championship or Super Bowl victory Italics indicates NFL Championship or Super Bowl appearance 2017 NFL season AFC East North South West East North South West NFC Buffalo Baltimore Houston Denver Dallas Chicago Atlanta Arizona Miami Cincinnati Indianapolis Kansas City NY Giants Detroit Carolina LA Rams New England Cleveland Jacksonville LA Chargers Philadelphia Green Bay New Orleans San Francisco NY Jets Pittsburgh Tennessee Oakland Washington Minnesota Tampa Bay Seattle Draft NFL playoffs NFL Honors Pro Bowl Super Bowl LII Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2017_Arizona_Cardinals_season&oldid=822086267 '' Categories : 2017 National Football League season by team Arizona Cardinals seasons 2017 in sports in Arizona NFL International Series participants Hidden categories : Official website not in Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Italiano Edit links This page was last edited on 24 January 2018 , at 09 : 05 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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a rock with equal modal contents of quartz plagioclase and orthoclase is known as

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Leucitite&oldid=799957902

Leucitite - wikipedia Leucitite Jump to : navigation , search Leucitite or leucite rock is an igneous rock containing leucite . It is scarce , many countries such as England being entirely without them . However , they are of wide distribution , occurring in every quarter of the globe . Taken collectively , they exhibit a considerable variety of types and are of great interest petrographically . For the presence of this mineral it is necessary that the silica percentage of the rock should be low , since leucite is incompatible with free quartz and reacts with it to form potassium feldspar . Because it weathers rapidly , leucite is most common in lavas of recent and Tertiary age , which have a fair amount of potassium , or at any rate have potassium equal to or greater than sodium ; if sodium is abundant nepheline occurs rather than leucite . In pre-Tertiary rocks leucite readily decomposes and changes to zeolites , analcite and other secondary minerals . Leucite also is rare in plutonic rocks and dike rocks , but leucite syenite and leucite tinguaite bear witness to the possibility that it may occur in this manner . The rounded shape of its crystals , their white or grey color , and absence of planar cleavage make the presence of leucite easily determinable in many of these rocks by inspection , especially when the crystals are large . Pseudoleucite from São João Alkaline Massif , RJ , Brazil `` Pseudoleucites '' are rounded areas consisting of feldspar , nepheline , analcite , &c. , which have the shape , composition and sometimes even the outward crystalline shape of leucite ; they are probably pseudomorphs or paramorphs , which have developed from leucite because this mineral is not stable at ordinary temperatures and can be expected under favorable conditions to undergo spontaneous change into an aggregate of other minerals . Leucite is very often accompanied by nepheline , sodalite or nosean ; other minerals which make their appearance with some frequency are melanite , garnet and melilite . The plutonic leucite - bearing rocks are leucite syenite and missourite . Of these the former consists of orthoclase , nepheline , sodalite , diopside and aegirine , biotite and sphene . Two occurrences are known , one in Arkansas , the other in Sutherland , Scotland . The Scottish rock has been called borolanite . Both examples show large rounded spots in the hand specimens ; they are pseudoleucites , and under the microscope prove to consist of orthoclase , nepheline , sodalite and decomposition products . These have a radiate arrangement externally , but are of irregular structure at their centres ; it is interesting to note that in both rocks melanite is an important accessory . The missourites are more mafic and consist of leucite , olivine , augite and biotite ; the leucite is partly fresh partly altered to analcite , and the rock has a spotted character recalling that of the leucite - syenites . It has been found only in the Highwood Mountains of Montana . The leucite - hearing dike - rocks are members of the tinguaite and monchiquite groups . The leucite tinguaites are usually pale grey or greenish in color and consist principally of nepheline , alkali feldspar and aegirine . The latter forms bright green moss - like patches and growths of indefinite shape , or in other cases scattered acicular prisms , among the feldspars and nephelines of the ground mass . Where leucite occurs , it is always euhedral in small , equant , many - sided crystals in the ground mass , or in larger masses which have the same characters as the pseudoleucites . Biotite occurs in some of these rocks , and melanite also is present . Nepheline decreases in amount as leucite increases since the abundances of the two reflect the Na : K ratio of the rock . Rocks of this group are known from Rio de Janeiro , Arkansas , Kola Peninsula ( in Russia ) , Montana and a few other places. , In Greenland there are leucite tinguaites with much arfvedsonite , ( hornblende ) and eudialyte . Wherever they occur they accompany leucite - and nepheline syenites . Leucite monchiquites are fine - grained dark rocks consisting of olivine , titaniferous augite and iron oxides , with a glassy ground mass in which small rounded crystals of leucite are scattered . They have been described from Czechoslovakia . By far the greater number of the rocks which contain leucite are lavas of Tertiary or recent geological age . Although these never contain quartz , but feldspar is usually present , though there are certain groups of leucite lavas which are non-feldspathic . Many of them also contain nepheline , sodalite , hauyne and nosean ; the much rarer mineral melilite appears also in some examples . The commonest ferromagnesian mineral is augite ( sometimes rich in sodium ) , with olivine in the more basic varieties . Hornblende and biotite occur also , but are less common . Melanite is found in some of the lavas , as in the leucite syenites . The rocks in which orthoclase ( or sanidine ) is present in considerable amount are leucite - trachytes , leucite - phonolites and leucitophvres . Of these groups the two former , which are not sharply distinguished from one another by most authors , are common in the neighborhood of Rome . They are of trachytic appearance , containing phenocysts of sanidine , leucite , augite and biotite . Sodalite or hauyne may also be present , but nepheline is typically absent . Rocks of this class occur also in the tuffs of the Phlegraean Fields , near Naples . The leucitophyres are rare rocks which have been described from various parts of the volcanic district of the Rhine ( Olbrck . Laacher See , etc . ) and from Monte Vulture in Italy . They are rich in leucite , but contain also some sanidine and often much nepheline with hauyne or nosean . Their pyroxene is principally aegirine or aegirine - augite ; some of them are rich in melanite . Microscopic sections of some of these rocks are of great interest on account of their beauty and the variety of feldspathoid minerals which they contain . In Brazil leucitophyres have been found which belong to the Carboniferous period . Those leucite rocks which contain abundant essential plagioclase feldspar are known as leucite tephrites and leucite basanites . The former consist mainly of plagioclase , leucite and augite , while the latter contain olivine in addition . The leucite is often present in two sets of crystals , both porphyritic and as an ingredient of the ground mass . It is always idiomorphic with rounded outlines . The feldspar ranges from bytownite to oligoclase , being usually a variety of labradorite ; orthoclase is scarce . The augite varies a good deal in chemnistry and optical character , being green , brown or violet ( suggesting high Na and Ti content ) , but it is rarely high enough in Na and Fe to qualify as aegirine - augite or aegirine . Among the accessory minerals biotite , brown hornblende , hauyne , iron oxides and apatite are the commonest ; melanite and nepheline may also occur . The ground mass of these rocks is only occasionally rich in glass . The leucite - tephrites and leucite - basanites of Vesuvius and Somma are familiar examples of this class of rocks . They are black or ashy - grey in color , often vesicular , and may contain many large grey phenocysts of leucite . Their black augite and yellow green olivine are also easily observed in hand specimens . From Volcan Ello , Sardinia and Roccamonfina similar rocks are obtained ; they occur also in Bohemia , in Java , Celebes , Kilimanjaro ( Africa ) and near Trebizond in Asia Minor . Leucite lavas from which feldspar is absent are divided into the leucitites and leucite basalts . The latter contain olivine , the former do not . Pyroxene is the usual ferromagnesian mineral , and resembles that of the tephrites and basanites . Sanidine , melanite , hauyne and perovskite are frequent accessory minerals in these rocks , and many of them contain melilite in some quantity , The well - known leucitite of the Capo di Bove , near , Rome , is rich in this mineral , which forms irregular plates , yellow in the hand specimen , enclosing many small rounded crystals of leucite . Bracciano and Roccamonfina are other Italian localities for leucitite , and in Java , Montana , Celebes and New South Wales similar rocks occur , The leucite basalts belong to more basic types and are rich in olivine and augite . They occur in great numbers in the Rhenish volcanic district ( Eifel , Laacher See ) and in Bohemia , and accompany tephrites or leucitites in Java , Montana , Celebes and Sardinia . The peperino of the neighborhood of Rome is a leucitite tuff . See also ( edit ) Ultrapotassic igneous rocks Phonolite References ( edit ) This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain : Spencer , Leonard James ( 1911 ) . `` Leucite '' . In Chisholm , Hugh . Encyclopædia Britannica. 16 ( 11th ed . ) . Cambridge University Press . pp. 503 -- 504 . Volcanoes Volcano types Caldera Cinder cone Complex volcano Cryovolcano Fissure vent Lava cone Lava dome Maar Mud volcano Parasitic cone Pyroclastic cone Pyroclastic shield Rootless cone Shield volcano Somma volcano Stratovolcano Subglacial volcano Submarine volcano Supervolcano Volcanic cone Volcanic field polygenetic monogenetic Volcanic rocks Volcanic rock Agglomerate Andesite Basalt Basaltic andesite Benmoreite Blairmorite Dacite Felsite Komatiite Latite Leucitite Nephelinite Obsidian Phonolite Phonotephrite Rhyodacite Rhyolite Tephriphonolite Trachyte Trachyandesite Trachybasalt Tuff List and volcanoes groups Hotspot Lists of volcanoes Decade Volcanoes Volcanic arc Volcanic belt Volcanic field Portal Commons WikiProject Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leucitite&oldid=799957902 '' Categories : Igneous petrology Volcanic rocks Hidden categories : Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Talk About Wikipedia Deutsch Italiano Edit links This page was last edited on 10 September 2017 , at 20 : 47 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

1820893304205843705

when was the sir robert bond bridge built

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Robert_Bond&oldid=816230749

Robert Bond - wikipedia Robert Bond Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the last premier of Newfoundland . For the USAF general , see Robert M. Bond . The Right Honourable Robert Bond KCMG 1st Prime Minister of the Dominion of Newfoundland In office 26 September 1907 -- 2 March 1909 Monarch Edward VII Governor William MacGregor Preceded by Position created Succeeded by Edward Morris 11th Premier of Newfoundland In office 15 March 1900 -- 26 September 1907 Monarch Victoria , Edward VII Governor Henry Edward McCallum , Charles Cavendish Boyle , William MacGregor Preceded by James Spearman Winter Succeeded by Position abolished Personal details 25 February 1857 St. John 's , Newfoundland 16 March 1927 Whitbourne , Newfoundland Nationality Newfoundlander Political party Liberal Sir Robert Bond , KCMG , PC ( February 25 , 1857 -- March 16 , 1927 ) was the last Premier of Newfoundland Colony from 1900 to 1907 and the first prime minister of the Dominion of Newfoundland from 1907 to 1909 after the 1907 Imperial Conference conferred dominion status on the island . He was born in St. John 's , Newfoundland , as the son of merchant John Bond . Bond grew up in St. John 's until 1872 when his father died and left the family a good deal of money . He went to England where he was educated and came back to Newfoundland and articled under Sir William Whiteway . Contents ( hide ) 1 Political career 2 Honours 3 References 4 External links Political career ( edit ) He got involved in politics in 1882 when he ran for the House of Assembly in Trinity Bay . He was speaker of the House of Assembly before the Whiteway government was defeated in 1885 . When Whiteway came back into power in 1889 ; Bond was made Colonial Secretary . He tried to negotiate free trade with the United States but it failed because of Canada 's objection . The government was defeated by judicial means in 1894 but came back to power shortly after because of the bank crash of 1894 . Bond became leader of the Liberal Party after Whiteway lost the 1897 election . He became Premier in 1900 after the Conservatives under Sir James Winter lost a vote of confidence . In 1902 he attended the Coronation of King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra and the conference of Colonial Premiers in London . As Premier he once again tried to negotiate free trade with the United States . It failed because of the objections of US senator Henry Cabot Lodge . Teddy Roosevelt tried to intervene but was not successful and it ended the friendship between the two nations . Relations between the United States and Newfoundland deteriorated to the point where in November 1905 in Bonne Bay local fisherman clashed with Americans trying to buy bait on shore . In 1904 Bond was re-elected with a clear majority . He went on to settle the French Shore issue which gave Newfoundland full control over the island . Following the 1907 Imperial Conference , Newfoundland and the other self - governing British colonies were given dominion status and Bond formally became the first prime minister of the Dominion of Newfoundland . In 1907 , his Attorney General Sir Edward Patrick Morris walked across the floor and started his own party called the Peoples Party . In the 1908 election the two parties came to a tie getting 18 seats each out of the 36 seats . Bond was asked by the Governor if he could form a government and said that he could not because he would have to elect a government member as Speaker . Morris was asked and said he could and was sworn in as Prime Minister . His government failed as soon as Parliament was convened . In the 1909 election Morris won because he controlled government funds . Bond again led the Liberals into election in 1913 in an alliance with the Unionist Party of William Coaker . They failed to defeat Morris and Bond resigned as Liberal Leader in January 1914 . In 1919 and again in 1923 , the Liberals tried to persuade him to return . Bond responded with the prophetic response `` If only I had the strength , how the fitters would fly ; My poor country Newfoundland , the last stage '' . Bond died on his country estate in Whitbourne at the age of 70 . Honours ( edit ) Bond received several honours during his premiership . On 24 October 1901 Bond was invested as a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George ( KCMG ) during the visit to St John 's of the Duke and Duchess of Cornwall and York ( later King George V and Queen Mary ) . During his 1902 visit to London he was sworn a member of the Imperial Privy Council on 11 August 1902 , following an announcement of the King ′ s intention to make this appointment in the 1902 Coronation Honours list published in June that year . He was given the freedom of the city of Edinburgh during a visit to the city on 26 July 1902 , and of the City of London , Manchester , and Bristol in 1907 . When he visited Edinburgh in July 1902 ha was also awarded an honorary LL. D. by the University of Edinburgh . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` No. 27369 '' . The London Gazette. 29 October 1901 . p. 6976 . Jump up ^ `` No. 27464 '' . The London Gazette. 12 August 1902 . p. 5174 . Jump up ^ `` The Coronation Honours '' . The Times ( 36804 ) . London . 26 June 1902 . p. 5 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Colonial Premiers in Edinburgh '' . The Times ( 36831 ) . London . 28 July 1902 . p. 4 . External links ( edit ) Baker , Melvin ; Neary , Peter ( 2005 ) . `` Bond , Sir Robert '' . In Cook , Ramsay ; Bélanger , Réal . Dictionary of Canadian Biography . XV ( 1921 -- 1930 ) ( online ed . ) . University of Toronto Press . Political offices Preceded by Sir James Spearman Winter Premier / Prime Minister of Newfoundland 1900 -- 1909 Succeeded by Sir Edward Patrick Morris ( hide ) First Ministers of Newfoundland and Labrador Colonial Prime Ministers & Premiers ( 1855 -- 1907 ) Little Kent Hoyles Carter Bennett Carter Whiteway Thorburn Whiteway Goodridge Greene Whiteway Winter Bond Dominion Prime Ministers ( 1907 -- 34 ) Bond Morris Crosbie Lloyd Cashin Squires Warren Hickman Monroe Alderdice Squires Alderdice Chairmen of the Commission of Government ( 1934 -- 49 ) Anderson Walwyn Macdonald Provincial Premiers ( 1949 -- present ) Smallwood Moores Peckford Rideout Wells Tobin Tulk Grimes Williams Dunderdale Marshall Davis Ball Book Portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Bond&oldid=816230749 '' Categories : 1857 births 1927 deaths Premiers of Newfoundland Colony People educated at Queen 's College , Taunton People from St. John 's , Newfoundland and Labrador Knights Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom Persons of National Historic Significance ( Canada ) People from Whitbourne , Newfoundland and Labrador Prime Ministers of the Dominion of Newfoundland Colonial Secretaries of Newfoundland Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Edit links This page was last edited on 20 December 2017 , at 02 : 41 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

-1607786043104437254

unable to build nests or care for their young

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Bird_nest&oldid=806515699

Bird nest - wikipedia Bird nest Jump to : navigation , search For animal nests in general , see Nest . For other uses , see Bird 's nest . Deep cup nest of the Great Reed - warbler A bird nest is the spot in which a bird lays and incubates its eggs and raises its young . Although the term popularly refers to a specific structure made by the bird itself -- such as the grassy cup nest of the American robin or Eurasian blackbird , or the elaborately woven hanging nest of the Montezuma oropendola or the village weaver -- that is too restrictive a definition . For some species , a nest is simply a shallow depression made in sand ; for others , it is the knot - hole left by a broken branch , a burrow dug into the ground , a chamber drilled into a tree , an enormous rotting pile of vegetation and earth , a shelf made of dried saliva or a mud dome with an entrance tunnel . The smallest bird nests are those of some hummingbirds , tiny cups which can be a mere 2 cm ( 0.79 in ) across and 2 -- 3 cm ( 0.79 -- 1.18 in ) high . At the other extreme , some nest mounds built by the dusky scrubfowl measure more than 11 m ( 36 ft ) in diameter and stand nearly 5 m ( 16 ft ) tall . Not all bird species build nests . Some species lay their eggs directly on the ground or rocky ledges , while brood parasites lay theirs in the nests of other birds , letting unwitting `` foster parents '' do all the work of rearing the young . Although nests are primarily used for breeding , they may also be reused in the non-breeding season for roosting and some species build special dormitory nests or roost nests ( or winter - nest ) that are used only for roosting . Most birds build a new nest each year , though some refurbish their old nests . The large eyries ( or aeries ) of some eagles are platform nests that have been used and refurbished for several years . In most species , the female does most or all of the nest construction , though the male often helps . In some polygynous species , however , the male does most or all of the nest building . The nest may also form a part of the courtship display such as in weaver birds . The ability to choose and maintain good nest sites and build high quality nests may be selected for by females in these species . In some species the young from previous broods may also act as helpers for the adults . Contents ( hide ) 1 Types 1.1 Scrape 1.2 Mound 1.3 Burrow 1.4 Cavity 1.5 Cup 1.6 Saucer or plate 1.7 Platform 1.8 Pendant 1.9 Sphere 2 Nest protection and sanitation 3 Colonial nesting 4 In human culture 5 Artificial bird nests 6 See also 7 References 7.1 Notes 7.2 Cited texts 8 External links Types ( edit ) An overview of the diversity in nest placement and construction . Not every bird species builds or uses a nest . Some auks , for instance -- including common murre , thick - billed murre and razorbill -- lay their eggs directly onto the narrow rocky ledges they use as breeding sites . The eggs of these species are dramatically pointed at one end , so that they roll in a circle when disturbed . This is critical for the survival of the developing eggs , as there are no nests to keep them from rolling off the side of the cliff . Presumably because of the vulnerability of their unprotected eggs , parent birds of these auk species rarely leave them unattended . Nest location and architecture is strongly influenced by local topography and other abiotic factors . King penguins and emperor penguins also do not build nests ; instead , they tuck their eggs and chicks between their feet and folds of skin on their lower bellies . They are thus able to move about while incubating , though in practice only the emperor penguin regularly does so . Emperor penguins breed during the harshest months of the Antarctic winter , and their mobility allows them to form huge huddled masses which help them to withstand the extremely high winds and low temperatures of the season . Without the ability to share body heat ( temperatures in the centre of tight groups can be as much as 10C above the ambient air temperature ) , the penguins would expend far more energy trying to stay warm , and breeding attempts would probably fail . Some crevice - nesting species , including ashy storm - petrel , pigeon guillemot , Eurasian eagle - owl and Hume 's tawny owl , lay their eggs in the relative shelter of a crevice in the rocks or a gap between boulders , but provide no additional nest material . Potoos lay their single egg directly atop a broken stump , or into a shallow depression on a branch -- typically where an upward - pointing branch died and fell off , leaving a small scar or knot - hole . Brood parasites , such as the New World cowbirds , the honeyguides , and many of the Old World and Australasian cuckoos , lay their eggs in the active nests of other species . Scrape ( edit ) Some nest linings , such as the shell fragments in this Charadrius plover scrape , may help to prevent the eggs from sinking into muddy or sandy soil . The simplest nest construction is the scrape , which is merely a shallow depression in soil or vegetation . This nest type , which typically has a rim deep enough to keep the eggs from rolling away , is sometimes lined with bits of vegetation , small stones , shell fragments or feathers . These materials may help to camouflage the eggs or may provide some level of insulation ; they may also help to keep the eggs in place , and prevent them from sinking into muddy or sandy soil if the nest is accidentally flooded . Ostriches , most tinamous , many ducks , most shorebirds , most terns , some falcons , pheasants , quail , partridges , bustards and sandgrouse are among the species that build scrape nests . Eggs and young in scrape nests , and the adults that brood them , are more exposed to predators and the elements than those in more sheltered nests ; they are on the ground and typically in the open , with little to hide them . The eggs of most ground - nesting birds ( including those that use scrape nests ) are cryptically coloured to help camouflage them when the adult is not covering them ; the actual colour generally corresponds to the substrate on which they are laid . Brooding adults also tend to be well camouflaged , and may be difficult to flush from the nest . Most ground - nesting species have well - developed distraction displays , which are used to draw ( or drive ) potential predators from the area around the nest . Most species with this type of nest have precocial young , which quickly leave the nest upon hatching . Play media Female peregrine falcon nest - scraping on artificial ledge on Derby Cathedral . Both sexes contribute to the creation of a bare , shallow depression in soil or gravel . In cool climates ( such as in the high Arctic or at high elevations ) , the depth of a scrape nest can be critical to both the survival of developing eggs and the fitness of the parent bird incubating them . The scrape must be deep enough that eggs are protected from the convective cooling caused by cold winds , but shallow enough that they and the parent bird are not too exposed to the cooling influences of ground temperatures , particularly where the permafrost layer rises to mere centimeters below the nest . Studies have shown that an egg within a scrape nest loses heat 9 % more slowly than an egg placed on the ground beside the nest ; in such a nest lined with natural vegetation , heat loss is reduced by an additional 25 % . The insulating factor of nest lining is apparently so critical to egg survival that some species , including Kentish plovers , will restore experimentally altered levels of insulation to their pre-adjustment levels ( adding or subtracting material as necessary ) within 24 hours . Other nest linings , like the lichen in this American golden - plover scrape , may provide some level of insulation for the eggs , or may help to camouflage them . In warm climates , such as deserts and salt flats , heat rather than cold can kill the developing embryos . In such places , scrapes are shallower and tend to be lined with non-vegetative material ( including shells , feathers , sticks and soil ) , which allows convective cooling to occur as air moves over the eggs . Some species , such as the lesser nighthawk and the red - tailed tropicbird , help reduce the nest 's temperature by placing it in partial or full shade . Others , including some shorebirds , cast shade with their bodies as they stand over their eggs . Some shorebirds also soak their breast feathers with water and then sit on the eggs , providing moisture to enable evaporative cooling . Parent birds keep from overheating themselves by gular panting while they are incubating , frequently exchanging incubation duties , and standing in water when they are not incubating . The technique used to construct a scrape nest varies slightly depending on the species . Beach - nesting terns , for instance , fashion their nests by rocking their bodies on the sand in the place they have chosen to site their nest , while skimmers build their scrapes with their feet , kicking sand backwards while resting on their bellies and turning slowly in circles . The ostrich also scratches out its scrape with its feet , though it stands while doing so . Many tinamous lay their eggs on a shallow mat of dead leaves they have collected and placed under bushes or between the root buttresses of trees , and kagus lay theirs on a pile of dead leaves against a log , tree trunk or vegetation . Marbled godwits stomp a grassy area flat with their feet , then lay their eggs , while other grass - nesting waders bend vegetation over their nests so as to avoid detection from above . Many female ducks , particularly in the northern latitudes , line their shallow scrape nests with down feathers plucked from their own breasts , as well as with small amounts of vegetation . Among scrape - nesting birds , the three - banded courser and Egyptian plover are unique in their habit of partially burying their eggs in the sand of their scrapes . Mound ( edit ) The huge mound nest of the malleefowl acts like a compost heap , warming and incubating the eggs as it rots around them . Burying eggs as a form of incubation reaches its zenith with the Australasian megapodes . Several megapode species construct enormous mound nests made of soil , branches , sticks , twigs and leaves , and lay their eggs within the rotting mass . The heat generated by these mounds , which are in effect giant compost heaps , warms and incubates the eggs . The nest heat results from the respiration of thermophilic fungi and other microorganisms . The size of some of these mounds can be truly staggering ; several of the largest -- which contain more than 100 cubic metres ( 130 cu yd ) of material , and probably weigh more than 50 tons ( 45,000 kg ) -- were initially thought to be Aboriginal middens . In most mound - building species , males do most or all of the nest construction and maintenance . Using his strong legs and feet , the male scrapes together material from the area around his chosen nest site , gradually building a conical or bell - shaped pile . This process can take five to seven hours a day for more than a month . While mounds are typically reused for multiple breeding seasons , new material must be added each year in order to generate the appropriate amount of heat . A female will begin to lay eggs in the nest only when the mound 's temperature has reached an optimal level . The mound nests of flamingos , like these Chilean flamingos , help to protect their eggs from fluctuating water levels . Both the temperature and the moisture content of the mound are critical to the survival and development of the eggs , so both are carefully regulated for the entire length of the breeding season ( which may last for as long as eight months ) , principally by the male . Ornithologists believe that megapodes may use sensitive areas in their mouths to assess mound temperatures ; each day during the breeding season , the male digs a pit into his mound and sticks his head in . If the mound 's core temperature is a bit low , he adds fresh moist material to the mound , and stirs it in ; if it is too high , he opens the top of the mound to allow some of the excess heat to escape . This regular monitoring also keeps the mound 's material from becoming compacted , which would inhibit oxygen diffusion to the eggs and make it more difficult for the chicks to emerge after hatching . The malleefowl , which lives in more open forest than do other megapodes , uses the sun to help warm its nest as well -- opening the mound at midday during the cool spring and autumn months to expose the plentiful sand incorporated into the nest to the sun 's warming rays , then using that warm sand to insulate the eggs during the cold nights . During hot summer months , the malleefowl opens its nest mound only in the cool early morning hours , allowing excess heat to escape before recovering the mound completely . One recent study showed that the sex ratio of Australian brushturkey hatchlings correlated strongly with mound temperatures ; females hatched from eggs incubated at higher mean temperatures . Flamingos make a different type of mound nest . Using their beaks to pull material towards them , they fashion a cone - shaped pile of mud between 15 -- 46 cm ( 6 -- 18 in ) tall , with a small depression in the top to house their single egg . The height of the nest varies with the substrate upon which it is built ; those on clay sites are taller on average than those on dry or sandy sites . The height of the nest and the circular , often water - filled trench which surrounds it ( the result of the removal of material for the nest ) help to protect the egg from fluctuating water levels and excessive heat at ground level . In East Africa , for example , temperatures at the top of the nest mound average some 20 ° C ( 40 ° F ) cooler than those of the surrounding ground . The base of the horned coot 's enormous nest is a mound built of stones , gathered one at a time by the pair , using their beaks . These stones , which may weigh as much as 450 g ( about a pound ) each , are dropped into the shallow water of a lake , making a cone - shaped pile which can measure as much as 4 m ( 43 sq ft ) at the bottom and 1 m ( 11 sq ft ) at the top , and 0.6 m ( 2.0 ft ) in height . The total combined weight of the mound 's stones may approach 1.5 tons ( 1,400 kg ) . Once the mound has been completed , a sizable platform of aquatic vegetation is constructed on top . The entire structure is typically reused for many years . Burrow ( edit ) Like most burrow - nesting species , sand martins dig a horizontal tunnel into a vertical dirt cliff . Soil plays a different role in the burrow nest ; here , the eggs and young -- and in most cases the incubating parent bird -- are sheltered under the earth . Most burrow - nesting birds excavate their own burrows , but some use those excavated by other species and are known as secondary nesters ; burrowing owls , for example , sometimes use the burrows of prairie dogs , ground squirrels , badgers or tortoises , China 's endemic white - browed tits use the holes of ground - nesting rodents and common kingfishers occasionally nest in rabbit burrows . Burrow nests are particularly common among seabirds at high latitudes , as they provide protection against both cold temperatures and predators . Puffins , shearwaters , some megapodes , motmots , todies , most kingfishers , the crab plover , miners and leaftossers are among the species which use burrow nests . Most burrow nesting species dig a horizontal tunnel into a vertical ( or nearly vertical ) dirt cliff , with a chamber at the tunnel 's end to house the eggs . The length of the tunnel varies depending on the substrate and the species ; sand martins make relatively short tunnels ranging from 50 -- 90 cm ( 20 -- 35 in ) , for example , while those of the burrowing parakeet can extend for more than three meters ( nearly 10 ft ) . Some species , including the ground - nesting puffbirds , prefer flat or gently sloping land , digging their entrance tunnels into the ground at an angle . In a more extreme example , the D'Arnaud's barbet digs a vertical tunnel shaft more than a meter ( 39 in ) deep , with its nest chamber excavated off to the side at some height above the shaft 's bottom ; this arrangement helps to keep the nest from being flooded during heavy rain . Buff - breasted paradise - kingfishers dig their nests into the compacted mud of active termite mounds , either on the ground or in trees . Specific soil types may favour certain species and it is speculated that several species of bee - eater favor loess soils which are easy to penetrate . Increased vulnerability to predators may have led some burrow - nesting species , like the European bee - eater , to become colonial breeders . Birds use a combination of their beaks and feet to excavate burrow nests . The tunnel is started with the beak ; the bird either probes at the ground to create a depression , or flies toward its chosen nest site on a cliff wall and hits it with its bill . The latter method is not without its dangers ; there are reports of kingfishers being fatally injured in such attempts . Some birds remove tunnel material with their bills , while others use their bodies or shovel the dirt out with one or both feet . Female paradise - kingfishers are known to use their long tails to clear the loose soil . Some crepuscular petrels and prions are able to identify their own burrows within dense colonies by smell . Sand martins learn the location of their nest within a colony , and will accept any chick put into that nest until right before the young fledge . Not all burrow - nesting species incubate their young directly . Some megapode species bury their eggs in sandy pits dug where sunlight , subterranean volcanic activity , or decaying tree roots will warm the eggs . The crab plover also uses a burrow nest , the warmth of which allows it to leave the eggs unattended for as long as 58 hours . Predation levels on some burrow - nesting species can be quite high ; on Alaska 's Wooded Islands , for example , river otters munched their way through some 23 percent of the island 's fork - tailed storm - petrel population during a single breeding season in 1977 . There is some evidence that increased vulnerability may lead some burrow - nesting species to form colonies , or to nest closer to rival pairs in areas of high predation than they might otherwise do . Cavity ( edit ) `` Secondary cavity nesters '' , like this blue - winged parrotlet , use natural cavities or holes excavated by other species . The cavity nest is a chamber , typically in living or dead wood , but sometimes in the trunks of tree ferns or large cacti , including saguaro . In tropical areas , cavities are sometimes excavated in arboreal insect nests . A relatively small number of species , including woodpeckers , trogons , some nuthatches and many barbets , can excavate their own cavities . Far more species -- including parrots , tits , bluebirds , most hornbills , some kingfishers , some owls , some ducks and some flycatchers -- use natural cavities , or those abandoned by species able to excavate them ; they also sometimes usurp cavity nests from their excavating owners . Those species that excavate their own cavities are known as `` primary cavity nesters '' , while those that use natural cavities or those excavated by other species are called `` secondary cavity nesters '' . Both primary and secondary cavity nesters can be enticed to use nest boxes ( also known as bird houses ) ; these mimic natural cavities , and can be critical to the survival of species in areas where natural cavities are lacking . Woodpeckers use their chisel - like bills to excavate their cavity nests , a process which takes , on average , about two weeks . Cavities are normally excavated on the downward - facing side of a branch , presumably to make it more difficult for predators to access the nest , and to reduce the chance that rain floods the nest . There is also some evidence that fungal rot may make the wood on the underside of leaning trunks and branches easier to excavate . Most woodpeckers use a cavity for only a single year . The endangered red - cockaded woodpecker is an exception ; it takes far longer -- up to two years -- to excavate its nest cavity , and may reuse it for more than two decades . The typical woodpecker nest has a short horizontal tunnel which leads to a vertical chamber within the trunk . The size and shape of the chamber depends on species , and the entrance hole is typically only as large as is needed to allow access for the adult birds . While wood chips are removed during the excavation process , most species line the floor of the cavity with a fresh bed of them before laying their eggs . Only a relatively small number of species , including the woodpeckers , are capable of excavating their own cavity nests . Trogons excavate their nests by chewing cavities into very soft dead wood ; some species make completely enclosed chambers ( accessed by upward - slanting entrance tunnels ) , while others -- like the extravagantly plumed resplendent quetzal -- construct more open niches . In most trogon species , both sexes help with nest construction . The process may take several months , and a single pair may start several excavations before finding a tree or stump with wood of the right consistency . Species which use natural cavities or old woodpecker nests sometimes line the cavity with soft material such as grass , moss , lichen , feathers or fur . Though a number of studies have attempted to determine whether secondary cavity nesters preferentially choose cavities with entrance holes facing certain directions , the results remain inconclusive . While some species appear to preferentially choose holes with certain orientations , studies ( to date ) have not shown consistent differences in fledging rates between nests oriented in different directions . Cavity - dwelling species have to contend with the danger of predators accessing their nest , catching them and their young inside and unable to get out . They have a variety of methods for decreasing the likelihood of this happening . Red - cockaded woodpeckers peel bark around the entrance , and drill wells above and below the hole ; since they nest in live trees , the resulting flow of resin forms a barrier that prevents snakes from reaching the nests . Red - breasted nuthatches smear sap around the entrance holes to their nests , while white - breasted nuthatches rub foul - smelling insects around theirs . Eurasian nuthatches wall up part of their entrance holes with mud , decreasing the size and sometimes extending the tunnel part of the chamber . Most female hornbills seal themselves into their cavity nests , using a combination of mud ( in some species brought by their mates ) , food remains and their own droppings to reduce the entrance hole to a narrow slit . Cup ( edit ) Like many small birds , the purple - crowned fairy uses considerable amounts of spider silk in its cup nest . The cup nest is smoothly hemispherical inside , with a deep depression to house the eggs . Most are made of pliable materials -- including grasses -- though a small number are made of mud or saliva . Many passerines and a few non-passerines , including some hummingbirds and some swifts , build this type of nest . Cup nest of a common blackbird Small bird species in more than 20 passerine families , and a few non-passerines -- including most hummingbirds , kinglets and crests in the genus Regulus , some tyrant flycatchers and several New World warblers -- use considerable amounts of spider silk in the construction of their nests . The lightweight material is strong and extremely flexible , allowing the nest to mold to the adult during incubation ( reducing heat loss ) , then to stretch to accommodate the growing nestlings ; as it is sticky , it also helps to bind the nest to the branch or leaf to which it is attached . Museum specimen of a blue - gray gnatcatcher cup nest , made with lichens , hair , and spiderwebs . Many swifts and some hummingbirds use thick , quick - drying saliva to anchor their nests . The chimney swift starts by dabbing two globs of saliva onto the wall of a chimney or tree trunk . In flight , it breaks a small twig from a tree and presses it into the saliva , angling the twig downwards so that the central part of the nest is the lowest . It continues adding globs of saliva and twigs until it has made a crescent - shaped cup . Cup - shaped nest insulation has been found to be related to nest mass , nest wall thickness , nest depth , nest weave density / porosity , surface area , height above ground and elevation above sea level . More recently , nest insulation has been found to be related to the mass of the incubating parent . This is known as an allometric relationship . Nest walls are constructed with an adequate quantity of nesting material so that the nest will be capable of supporting the contents of the nest . Nest thickness , nest mass and nest dimensions therefore correlate with the mass of the adult bird . The flow - on consequence of this is that nest insulation is also related to parent mass . Saucer or plate ( edit ) The saucer or plate nest , though superficially similar to a cup nest , has at most only a shallow depression to house the eggs . Platform ( edit ) Many raptors , like the osprey , use the same huge platform nest for years , adding new material each season . Some waterbirds , including the grebes , build floating platform nests . The platform nest is a large structure , often many times the size of the ( typically large ) bird which has built it . Depending on the species , these nests can be on the ground or elevated . In the case of raptor nests , or eyries ( also spelt aerie ) , these are often used for many years , with new material added each breeding season . In some cases , the nests grow large enough to cause structural damage to the tree itself , particularly during bad storms where the weight of the nest can cause additional stress on wind - tossed branches . Pendant ( edit ) Taveta golden weaver building pendant nest . The pendant nest is an elongated sac woven of pliable materials such as grasses and plant fibers and suspended from a branch . Oropendolas , caciques , orioles , weavers and sunbirds are among the species that weave pendant nests . Sphere ( edit ) The sphere nest is a roundish structure ; it is completely enclosed , except for a small opening which allows access . Nest protection and sanitation ( edit ) Many species of bird conceal their nests to protect them from predators . Some species may choose nest sites that are inaccessible or build the nest so as to deter predators . Bird nests can also act as habitats for other inquiline species which may not affect the bird directly . Birds have also evolved nest sanitation measures to reduce the effects of parasites and pathogens on nestlings . Some aquatic species such as grebes are very careful when approaching and leaving the nest so as not to reveal the location . Some species will use leaves to cover up the nest prior to leaving . Ground birds such as plovers may use broken wing or rodent run displays to distract predators from nests . Many species attack predators or apparent predators near their nests . Kingbirds attack other birds that come too close . In North America , northern mockingbirds , blue jays , and Arctic terns can peck hard enough to draw blood . In Australia , a bird attacking a person near its nest is said to swoop the person . The Australian magpie is particularly well known for this behavior . Nests can become home to many other organisms including parasites and pathogens . The excreta of the fledglings also pose a problem . In most passerines , the adults actively dispose the fecal sacs of young at a distance or consume them . This is believed to help prevent ground predators from detecting nests . Young birds of prey however usually void their excreta beyond the rims of their nests . Blowflies of the genus Protocalliphora have specialized to become obligate nest parasites with the maggots feeding on the blood of nestlings . Some birds have been shown to choose aromatic green plant material for constructing nests that may have insecticidal properties , while others may use materials such as carnivore scat to repel smaller predators . Nesting colony of Montezuma oropendolas Some birds use pieces of snake slough in their nests . It has been suggested that these may deter some nest predators such as squirrels . Colonial nesting ( edit ) Main article : Bird colony Though most birds nest individually , some species -- including seabirds , penguins , flamingos , many herons , gulls , terns , weaver , some corvids and some sparrows -- gather together in sizeable colonies . Birds that nest colonially may benefit from increased protection against predation . They may also be able to better utilize food supplies , by following more successful foragers to their foraging sites . In human culture ( edit ) A human - made nest platform in Poland built as a conservation measure and to prevent storks disrupting electricity supplies through nesting on pylons . Three young white storks are on the top of the nest and two Eurasian tree sparrows are perching on the side of the nest . Many birds nest close to human habitations and some have been specially encouraged . Nesting white storks have been protected and held in reverence in many cultures . Nest boxes are often used to encourage cavity nesting birds . The nesting of peregrine falcons on tall buildings has captured popular interest . Colonial breeders produce guano which is a valuable fertilizer . The saliva nest of the edible - nest swiftlet is used to make bird 's nest soup , long considered a delicacy in China . Collection of the swiftlet nests is big business : in one year , more than 3.5 million nests were exported from Borneo to China , and the industry was estimated at $1 billion US per year ( and increasing ) in 2008 . While the collection is regulated in some areas ( at the Gomantong Caves , for example , where nests can be collected only from February to April or July to September ) , it is not in others , and the swiftlets are declining in areas where the harvest reaches unsustainable levels . Brooklyn Museum - Bird 's Nest - H. Lynde Some species of birds are also considered nuisances when they nest in the proximity of human habitations . Feral pigeons are often unwelcome and sometimes also considered as a health risk . The Beijing National Stadium , principal venue of the 2008 Summer Olympics , has been nicknamed `` The Bird Nest '' because of its architectural design , which its designers likened to a bird 's woven nest . In the Victorian era , naturalists often collected bird 's eggs and their nests . The study of bird nests is called caliology . Artificial bird nests ( edit ) Bird nests are also built by humans to help in the conservation of certain birds ( such as swallows ) . Swallow nests are generally built with plaster , wood , terracotta or stucco . See also ( edit ) Nest box References ( edit ) Notes ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Campbell & Lack 1985 , p. 386 Jump up ^ Campbell & Lack 1985 , p. 345 Jump up ^ Skutch , Alexander F ( 1960 ) , `` The nest as a dormitory '' , Ibis , 103 ( 1 ) : 50 -- 70 , doi : 10.1111 / j. 1474 - 919X. 1961. tb02420. x . Jump up ^ smithsonianscience.org 2015 - 04 - 20 Bird nests : Variety is Key for the world 's avian Architects Jump up ^ Campbell & Lack 1985 , p. 387 Jump up ^ Ehrlich et al. 1994 , pp. 228 -- 232 Jump up ^ del Hoyo 1992 , p. 692 Jump up ^ C. Michael Hogan . 2010 Jump up ^ del Hoyo 1992 , p. 148 Jump up ^ Ehrlich et al. 1994 , p. 252 Jump up ^ Ehrlich et al. 1994 , p. 260 Jump up ^ Cohn - Haft 1999 , p. 295 Jump up ^ Jaramillo 2001 , p. 548 Jump up ^ Short & Horne 2002b , p. 282 Jump up ^ JE , Simon ; Pacheco ( 2005 ) , `` On the standardization of nest descriptions of neotropical birds '' ( PDF ) , Revista Brasileira de Ornitologia , 13 ( 2 ) : 143 -- 154 Jump up ^ Campbell & Lack 1985 , p. 390 Jump up ^ Ehrlich et al. 1994 , p. xxii Jump up ^ Ehrlich et al. 1994 , p. 441 Jump up ^ Campbell & Lack 1985 , p. 174 Jump up ^ Campbell & Lack 1985 , p. 145 Jump up ^ Williams , Ernest Herbert ( 2005 ) , The Nature Handbook : A Guide to Observing the Great Outdoors , Oxford University Press , US , p. 115 , ISBN 0 - 19 - 517194 - 2 Jump up ^ Reid , J.M. ; Cresswell , W. ; Holt , S. ; Mellanby , R.J. ; Whitby , D.P. ; Ruxton , G. D ( 2002 ) , `` Nest scrape design and clutch heat loss in the Pectoral Sandpiper ( Calidris melanotos ) '' , Functional Ecology , 16 ( 3 ) : 305 -- 316 , doi : 10.1046 / j. 1365 - 2435.2002. 00632. x . Jump up ^ Szentirmai , István ; Székely , Tamás ( 2002 ) , `` Do Kentish plovers regulate the amount of their nest material ? An Experimental Test '' , Behaviour , 139 ( 6 ) : 847 -- 859 , JSTOR 4535956 , doi : 10.1163 / 156853902320262844 . Jump up ^ Grant 1982 , p. 11 Jump up ^ Grant 1982 , p. 60 Jump up ^ Howell , Thomas R. ; Bartholomew , George A ( 1962 ) , `` Temperature Regulation in the Red - tailed Tropicbird and the Red - footed Booby '' , The Condor , 64 ( 1 ) : 6 -- 18 , doi : 10.2307 / 1365438 . Jump up ^ Grant 1982 , p. 61 Jump up ^ Grant 1982 , p. 62 Jump up ^ del Hoyo , Elliott & Sargatal 1996 , p. 637 Jump up ^ del Hoyo , Elliott & Sargatal 1996 , p. 673 Jump up ^ del Hoyo 1992 , p. 80 Jump up ^ del Hoyo 1992 , p. 119 Jump up ^ del Hoyo , Elliott & Sargatal 1996 , p. 222 Jump up ^ del Hoyo , Elliott & Sargatal 1996 , p. 473 Jump up ^ del Hoyo 1992 , p. 558 Jump up ^ del Hoyo , Elliott & Sargatal 1996 , p. 371 ^ Jump up to : Elliott 1994 , p. 287 Jump up ^ Hansell 2000 , p. 9 ^ Jump up to : Elliott 1994 , p. 288 Jump up ^ Elliott 1994 , p. 280 Jump up ^ Elliott 1994 , p. 289 Jump up ^ Göth , Anne ( 2007 ) , `` Incubation temperatures and sex ratios in Australian brush - turkey ( Alectura lathami ) mounds '' , Austral Ecology , 32 ( 4 ) : 278 -- 285 , doi : 10.1111 / j. 1442 - 9993.2007. 01709. x ^ Jump up to : del Hoyo 1992 , p. 516 Jump up ^ Seng 2001 , p. 188 Jump up ^ Taylor , Barry ; van Perlo , Ber ( 1998 ) , Rails , Sussex : Pica Press , p. 557 , ISBN 1 - 873403 - 59 - 3 Jump up ^ Behrstock 2001 , p. 344 Jump up ^ Harrap & Quinn 1996 , p. 21 ^ Jump up to : Woodall 2001 , p. 169 Jump up ^ Davenport , John ( 1992 ) , Animal Life at Low Temperature , Springer , pp. 81 -- 82 , ISBN 0 - 412 - 40350 - 1 Jump up ^ Ehrlich et al. 1994 , p. xxiii Jump up ^ Ehrlich et al. 1994 , p. 345 Jump up ^ Juniper & Parr 2003 , p. 24 Jump up ^ Rasmussen & Collar 2002 , p. 119 Jump up ^ Short & Horne 2002a , p. 162 Jump up ^ Smalley , Ian ; O'Hara - Dhand , Ken ; McLaren , Sue ; Svircev , Zorica ; Nugent , Hugh ( 2013 ) . `` Loess and bee - eaters I : Ground properties affecting the nesting of European bee - eaters ( Merops apiaster L. 1758 ) in loess deposits '' . Quaternary International . 296 : 220 -- 226 . doi : 10.1016 / j. quaint. 2012.09. 005 . Jump up ^ Heneberg , P. ( 2009 ) . `` Soil penetrability as a key factor affecting nesting of burrowing birds '' . Ecological Research . 24 : 453 -- 459 . doi : 10.1007 / s11284 - 008 - 0520 - 2 . Jump up ^ Bonadonna , Francesco ; Cunningham , Gregory B. ; Jouventin , Pierre ; Hesters , Florence ; Nevitt , Gabrielle A. ( 2003 ) , `` Evidence for nest - odour recognition in two species of diving petrel '' , J. Exp. Biol. , 206 ( Pt 20 ) : 3719 -- 3722 , PMID 12966063 , doi : 10.1242 / jeb. 00610 . Jump up ^ Goodenough , Judith ; McGuire , Betty ; Wallace , Robert A. ; Jacob , Elizabeth , Perspectives on Animal Behavior , Hoboken , NJ : John Wiley and Sons , p. 430 , ISBN 0 - 470 - 04517 - 5 Jump up ^ De Marchi , G. ; Chiozzi , G. ; Fasola , M. ( 2008 ) , `` Solar incubation cuts down parental care in a burrow nesting tropical shorebird , the crab plover Dromas ardeola '' , Journal of Avian Biology , 39 ( 5 ) : 484 -- 486 , doi : 10.1111 / j. 0908 - 8857.2008. 04523. x Jump up ^ Boersma , P. Dee ; Wheelwright , Nathaniel T. ; Nerini , Mary K. ; Wheelwright , Eugenia Stevens ( April 1980 ) , `` The Breeding Biology of the Fork - tailed Storm - Petrel ( Oceandroma Furcata ) '' ( PDF ) , Auk , 97 ( 2 ) : 268 -- 282 Jump up ^ Ehrlich et al. 1994 , p. 17 ^ Jump up to : Collar 2001 , p. 94 ^ Jump up to : Reed 2001 , pp. 380 -- 1 Jump up ^ Brightsmith , Donald J. 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( 1959 ) , Checklist and bibliography on the occurrence of insects in birds ' nests , Iowa State College Press , Ames Jump up ^ Petit , Petit & Petit 1989 Jump up ^ Rosenfeld , Rosenfeld & Gratson 1982 Jump up ^ Sabrosky , Bennett & Whitworth 1989 Jump up ^ Wimberger 1984 Jump up ^ Clark & Mason 1985 Jump up ^ Schuetz 2005 Jump up ^ Strecker , John K ( 1926 ) , `` On the use , by birds , of snakes ' sloughs as nesting material '' ( PDF ) , Auk , 53 ( 4 ) : 501 -- 507 , doi : 10.2307 / 4075138 Jump up ^ Medlin , Elizabeth C. ; Risch , Thomas S. ( 2006 ) , `` An experimental test of snake skin use to deter nest predation '' , The Condor , 108 ( 4 ) : 963 -- 965 , doi : 10.1650 / 0010 - 5422 ( 2006 ) 108 ( 963 : AETOSS ) 2.0.CO ; 2 Jump up ^ Ward & Zahavi 1973 Jump up ^ Kushlan , James A. ( 1997 ) , `` The Conservation of Wading Birds '' , Colonial Waterbirds , Waterbird Society , 20 ( 1 ) : 129 -- 137 , JSTOR 1521775 , doi : 10.2307 / 1521775 . 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Jump up ^ Dixon , Charles ( 1902 ) , Birds ' nests , New York : Frederick A Stokes , p. v Jump up ^ Artificial swallow nests Jump up ^ Terracotta nests Cited texts ( edit ) Behrstock , Robert A. ( 2001 ) , `` Typical Owls '' , in Elphick , Chris ; Dunning , Jr. , John B. ; Sibley , David , The Sibley Guide to Bird Life & Behaviour , London : Christopher Helm , ISBN 0 - 7136 - 6250 - 6 Byrktedal , Ingvar ( 1989 ) , `` Nest defense behavior of Lesser Golden - Plovers '' ( PDF ) , Wilson Bull. , 101 ( 4 ) : 579 -- 590 Cade , T.J. ; Bird , D.M. ( 1990 ) , `` Peregrine Falcons ( Falco peregrinus ) nesting in an urban environment : a review '' , Can . Field - Naturalist , 104 : 209 -- 218 Campbell , Bruce ; Lack , Elizabeth , eds. ( 1985 ) , A Dictionary of Birds , Carlton , England : T and AD Poyser , ISBN 0 - 85661 - 039 - 9 Clark , L. ; Mason , J. Russell ( 1985 ) , `` Use of nest material as insecticidal and anti-pathogenic agents by the European Starling '' , Oecologia , 67 ( 2 ) : 169 -- 176 , doi : 10.1007 / BF00384280 Cohn - Haft , Mario ( 1999 ) , `` Family Nyctibiidae ( Potoos ) '' , in del Hoyo , Josep ; Elliott , Andrew ; Sargatal , Jordi , Handbook of Birds of the World , Volume 5 : Barn - owls to Hummingbirds , Barcelona : Lynx Edicions , ISBN 84 - 87334 - 25 - 3 Collar , N.J. ( 2001 ) , `` Family Trogonidae ( Trogons ) '' , in del Hoyo , Josep ; Elliott , Andrew ; Sargatal , Jordi , Handbook of Birds of the World , Volume 6 : Mousebirds to Hornbills , Barcelona : Lynx Edicions , ISBN 84 - 87334 - 30 - X Collias , Nicholas E. ( 1997 ) , `` On the origin and evolution of nest building by passerine birds '' ( PDF ) , Condor , 99 ( 2 ) : 253 -- 270 , JSTOR 1369932 , doi : 10.2307 / 1369932 Conner , Richard N. ( 1975 ) , `` Orientation of entrances to woodpecker nest cavities '' , Auk , 92 ( 2 ) : 371 -- 374 , doi : 10.2307 / 4084566 del Hoyo , Josep ( 1992 ) , `` Family Phoenicopteridae ( Flamingos ) '' , in del Hoyo , Josep ; Elliott , Andrew ; Sargatal , Jordi , Handbook of Birds of the World , Volume 1 : Ostrich to Ducks , Barcelona : Lynx Edicions , ISBN 84 - 87334 - 10 - 5 del Hoyo , Josep ; Elliott , Andrew ; Sargatal , Jordi , eds. ( 1996 ) , Handbook of Birds of the World , vol. 3 , Barcelona : Lynx Edicions , ISBN 84 - 87334 - 20 - 2 Ehrlich , Paul R. ; Dobkin , David S. ; Wheye , Darryl ; Pimm , Stuart L. ( 1994 ) , The Birdwatcher 's Handbook , Oxford : Oxford University Press , ISBN 0 - 19 - 858407 - 5 Elliott , Andrew ( 1994 ) , `` Family Megapodiidae ( Megapodes ) '' , in del Hoyo , Josep ; Elliott , Andrew ; Sargatal , Jordi , Handbook of Birds of the World , Volume 2 : New World Vultures to Guineafowl , Barcelona : Lynx Edicions , ISBN 84 - 87334 - 15 - 6 Gould , James L ; Gould , Carol Grant ( 2007 ) , Animal Architects : Building and the Evolution of Intelligence , New York , NY : Basic Books , ISBN 0 - 465 - 02782 - 2 Grant , Gilbert ( 1982 ) , Avian Incubation in a Hot Environment : Ornithological Monographs # 30 , Washington , DC : American Ornithologists ' Union , ISBN 0 - 943610 - 30 - 3 Haag - Wackernagel , D ; Moch , H. ( 2004 ) , `` Health hazards posed by feral pigeons '' , J. Infect. , 48 ( 4 ) : 307 -- 313 , PMID 15066331 , doi : 10.1016 / j. jinf. 2003.11. 001 Gill , Frank B. ( 1995 ) , Ornithology , Macmillan , p. 383 , ISBN 0 - 7167 - 2415 - 4 , retrieved 2009 - 12 - 16 Hansell , Mike ( 2000 ) , Bird Nests and Construction Behaviour , Cambridge University Press , ISBN 0 - 521 - 01764 - 5 Harrap , Simon ; Quinn , David ( 1996 ) , Tits , Nuthatches & Treecreepers , London : Christopher Helm , ISBN 0 - 7136 - 3964 - 4 C. Michael Hogan . 2010 . Abiotic factor . Encyclopedia of Earth . eds Emily Monosson and C. Cleveland . National Council for Science and the Environment . Washington DC Jaramillo , Alvaro ( 2001 ) , `` Blackbirds , Orioles and Allies '' , in Elphick , Chris ; Dunning , Jr. , John B. ; Sibley , David , The Sibley Guide to Bird Life & Behaviour , London : Christopher Helm , ISBN 0 - 7136 - 6250 - 6 Juniper , Tony ; Parr , Mike ( 2003 ) , Parrots : A Guide to the Parrots of the World , London : Christopher Helm , ISBN 0 - 7136 - 6933 - 0 Kaplan , Gisela ( 2004 ) , Australian Magpie : Biology and Behaviour of an Unusual Songbird , Melbourne , Victoria : CSIRO Publishing , p. 121 , ISBN 0 - 643 - 09068 - 1 , retrieved 2009 - 12 - 16 Kemp , A.C. ( 2001 ) , `` Family Bucerotidae ( Hornbills ) '' , in del Hoyo , Josep ; Elliott , Andrew ; Sargatal , Jordi , Handbook of Birds of the World , Volume 6 : Mousebirds to Hornbills , Barcelona : Lynx Edicions , ISBN 84 - 87334 - 30 - X Petit , Kenneth E. ; Petit , Lisa J. ; Petit , Daniel R. ( 1989 ) , `` Fecal Sac Removal : Do the Pattern and Distance of Dispersal Affect the Chance of Nest Predation ? '' ( PDF ) , The Condor , Cooper Ornithological Society , 91 ( 2 ) : 479 -- 482 , JSTOR 1368331 , doi : 10.2307 / 1368331 Reed , J. Michael ( 2001 ) , `` Woodpeckers and Allies '' , in Elphick , Chris ; Dunning , Jr. , John B. ; Sibley , David , The Sibley Guide to Bird Life & Behaviour , London : Christopher Helm , ISBN 0 - 7136 - 6250 - 6 Rasmussen , Pamela C. ; Collar , Nigel J. ( 2002 ) , `` Family Bucconidae ( Puffbirds ) '' , in del Hoyo , Josep ; Elliott , Andrew ; Sargatal , Jordi , Handbook of Birds of the World , Volume 7 : Jacamars to Woodpeckers , Barcelona : Lynx Edicions , ISBN 84 - 87334 - 37 - 7 Rosenfeld , R.N. ; Rosenfeld , A.J. ; Gratson , M.W. ( 1982 ) , `` Unusual Nest Sanitation by a Broad - Winged Hawk '' ( PDF ) , The Wilson Bulletin , 94 ( 3 ) : 2365 -- 366 Rudolph , D.C. ; Kyle , H. ; Conner , R.N. ( 1990 ) , `` Red - cockaded woodpeckers vs. Rat Snakes : The effectiveness of the resin barrier '' ( PDF ) , Wilson Bull. , 102 ( l ) : 14 -- 22 Sabrosky , Curtis W. ; Bennett , G.F. ; Whitworth , T.L. ( 1989 ) , Bird blow - flies ( Protocalliphora ) ( Diptera : Calliphoridae ) in North America with notes on the Palearctic species , Smithsonian Institution Press , Washington . Schuetz , Justin G. ( 2005 ) , `` Common waxbills use carnivore scat to reduce the risk of nest predation '' , Behavioral Ecology , 16 ( 1 ) : 133 -- 137 , doi : 10.1093 / beheco / arh139 Seng , William J. ( 2001 ) , `` Flamingos '' , in Elphick , Chris ; Dunning , Jr. , John B. ; Sibley , David , The Sibley Guide to Bird Life & Behaviour , London : Christopher Helm , ISBN 0 - 7136 - 6250 - 6 Short , Lester L. ; Horne , Jennifer F.M. ( 2002a ) , `` Family Capitonidae ( Barbets ) '' , in del Hoyo , Josep ; Elliott , Andrew ; Sargatal , Jordi , Handbook of Birds of the World , Volume 7 : Jacamars to Woodpeckers , Barcelona : Lynx Edicions , ISBN 84 - 87334 - 37 - 7 Short , Lester L. ; Horne , Jennifer F.M. ( 2002b ) , `` Family Indicatoridae ( Honeyguides ) '' , in del Hoyo , Josep ; Elliott , Andrew ; Sargatal , Jordi , Handbook of Birds of the World , Volume 7 : Jacamars to Woodpeckers , Barcelona : Lynx Edicions , ISBN 84 - 87334 - 37 - 7 Skowron , C ; Kern , M. ( 1980 ) , `` The insulation in nests of selected North - American songbirds '' , Auk , 97 : 816 -- 824 Ward , P. ; Zahavi , A. ( 1973 ) , `` The importance of certain assemblages of birds as `` information centers '' for food finding `` , Ibis , 115 ( 4 ) : 517 -- 534 , doi : 10.1111 / j. 1474 - 919X. 1973. tb01990. x Whittow , F.N. ; Berger , A.J. ( 1977 ) , `` Heat loss from the nest of the Hawaiian honeycreeper , ' Amakihi ' '' , Wilson Bulletin , 89 : 480 -- 483 Wimberger , P.H. ( 1984 ) , `` The use of green plant material in bird nests to avoid ectoparasites '' ( PDF ) , Auk , 101 : 615 -- 616 Woodall , Peter F. ( 2001 ) , `` Family Alcedinidae ( Kingfishers ) '' , in del Hoyo , Josep ; Elliott , Andrew ; Sargatal , Jordi , Handbook of Birds of the World , Volume 6 : Mousebirds to Hornbills , Barcelona : Lynx Edicions , ISBN 84 - 87334 - 30 - X External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bird nests . Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Nidification . Lecture notes on bird nesting Department of natural resources Illinois state Earthlife site on bird nests Point Reyes Bird Observatory Teacher Resource Packet -- Activity 4 : Building Bird Nests Ingersoll , Ernest ( 1920 ) . `` Birds , Nests of '' . Encyclopedia Americana . `` Nidification '' . New International Encyclopedia . 1905 . ( hide ) Birds ( class : Aves ) Anatomy Bird anatomy Flight Eggs Feathers Plumage Beak Vision Dactyly Preen gland Behaviour Singing Intelligence Migration Sexual selection Lek mating Seabird breeding Incubation Brood parasites Nesting Hybrids Evolution Origin of birds Origin of flight Evolution of birds Darwin 's finches Seabirds Fossil birds Archaeopteryx Omnivoropterygiformes Confuciusornithiformes Enantiornithes Chaoyangiiformes Patagopterygiformes Ambiortiformes Songlingornithiformes Apsaraviformes Gansuiformes Ichthyornithiformes Hesperornithes Lithornithiformes Dinornithiformes Aepyornithiformes Gastornithiformes Human interaction Ringing Ornithology Bird collections Birdwatching Bird feeding Conservation Aviculture Waterfowl hunting Cockfighting Pigeon racing Falconry Pheasantry Egg collecting Ornithomancy Lists Families and orders Genera Glossary of bird terms List by population Lists by region Recently extinct birds Late Quaternary prehistoric birds Sibley -- Ahlquist taxonomy Historical & Fictional Neornithes Palaeognathae Struthioniformes ( ostriches ) Rheiformes ( rheas ) Tinamiformes ( tinamous ) Apterygiformes ( kiwis ) Casuariiformes ( emus and cassowaries ) Neognathae Galloanserae ( fowls ) Anseriformes ( waterfowls ) Anatidae Anatinae Anserinae swans true geese Aythyinae Dendrocygninae Merginae Oxyurinae Plectropterinae Stictonettinae Tadorninae Thalassorninae Anhimidae Anhima Chauna Anseranatidae Anatalavis Anseranas Galliformes ( landfowls - gamebirds ) Cracidae Cracinae Oreophasinae Penelopinae Megapodidae Aepypodius Alectura Eulipoa Leipoa Macrocephalon Megapodius Talegalla Numididae Acryllium Agelastes Guttera Numida Odontophoridae Callipepla Colinus Cyrtonyx Dactylortyx Dendrortyx Odontophorus Oreortyx Philortyx Rhynchortyx Phasianidae Meleagridinae Perdicinae Phasianinae ( pheasants and relatives ) Tetraoninae Neoaves Columbea Columbimorphae Columbiformes ( doves and pigeons ) Mesitornithiformes ( mesites ) Pteroclidiformes ( sandgrouses ) Mirandornithes Phoenicopteriformes ( flamingos ) Podicipediformes ( grebes ) Passerea Otidimorphae Cuculiformes ( cuckoos ) Musophagiformes ( turacos ) Otidiformes ( bustards ) Strisores Caprimulgiformes ( nightjars and relatives ) Steatornithiformes Podargiformes Apodiformes ( swifts and hummingbirds ) Opisthocomiformes Opisthocomiformes ( hoatzin ) Cursorimorphae Charadriiformes ( gulls and relatives ) Gruiformes ( cranes and relatives ) Phaethontimorphae Phaethontiformes ( tropicbirds ) Eurypygiformes ( kagu and sunbittern ) Aequornithes Gaviiformes ( loons or divers ) Sphenisciformes ( penguins ) Procellariiformes ( albatrosses and petrels ) Ciconiiformes ( storks ) Suliformes ( cormorants and relatives ) Pelecaniformes ( pelicans and relatives ) Australaves Cariamiformes ( seriemas and relatives ) Falconiformes ( falcons and relatives ) Psittaciformes ( parrots ) Passeriformes ( perching birds ) Afroaves Cathartiformes ( New World vultures and condors ) Accipitriformes ( eagles and hawks ) Strigiformes ( owls ) Coliiformes ( mousebirds ) Trogoniformes ( trogons and quetzals ) Leptosomatiformes ( cuckoo roller ) Bucerotiformes ( hornbills and hoopoes ) Coraciiformes ( kingfishers and rollers ) Piciformes ( woodpeckers and relatives ) Portal Outline Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bird_nest&oldid=806515699 '' Categories : Shelters built or used by animals Bird breeding Hidden categories : Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the Encyclopedia Americana with a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the New International Encyclopedia Articles containing video clips Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Čeština Dansk Eesti Español Esperanto فارسی Frysk 한국어 Қазақша Македонски Nederlands Norsk Norsk nynorsk Português Română Русский Simple English Suomi తెలుగు Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 22 October 2017 , at 14 : 55 . 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discuss the measures undertaken for poverty alleviation in india

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Poverty_alleviation_programmes_in_India&oldid=821248015

Poverty alleviation programmes in India - Wikipedia Poverty alleviation programmes in India Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( June 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The poverty alleviation programmes in India can be categorized based on whether it is targeted for rural areas or urban areas . Most of the programmes are designed to target rural poverty as prevalence of poverty is high in rural areas . Also targeting poverty is challenging in rural areas due to various geographic and infrastructure limitations . The programmes can be mainly grouped into 1 ) Wage employment programmes 2 ) Self - employment programmes 3 ) Food security programmes 4 ) Social security programmes 5 ) Urban poverty alleviation programmes . The five year plans immediately after independence tried to focus on poverty alleviation through sectoral programmes . The first five - year plan focused on agricultural production as a way of addressing poverty while second and third plans focused on massive state led investments for employment generation in public sector . While these policies did some policy generation , they did not have enough strength to effect a sweeping effect . Contents ( hide ) 1 Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana ( JGSY ) 2 National Old Age Pension Scheme ( NOAPS ) 3 National Family Benefit Scheme ( NFBS ) 4 National Maternity Benefit Scheme 5 Annapurna 6 Integrated Rural Development Program ( IRDP ) 7 Pradhan Mantri Gramin Awaas Yojana 8 National Rural Employment Guarantee Act ( NREGA ) 9 References 10 External links Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana ( JGSY ) ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( January 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana ( JGSY ) is the restructured , streamlined and comprehensive version of the Jawahar Rozgar Yojana ( JRY ) . It was started on 1 April 1999 . The main aim of this programme was development of rural areas . Infrastructure like roads to connect the village to different area , which made the village more accessible and also other social , educational ( schools ) and infrastructure like hospitals . Its secondary objective was to give out sustained wage employment . This was only given to BPL ( below the poverty line ) families and fund was to be spent for individual beneficiary schemes for SCs and STs and 3 % for the establishment of barrier free infrastructure for the disabled people . The village panchayats were one of the main governing body of this programme . Rs. 1841.80 crore was used and they had a target of 8.57 lakh works . 5.07 lakh works were completed during 1999 - 2000 . National old age pension scheme ( NOAPS ) ( edit ) This scheme came into effect on 15 August 1995 . The scheme provides pension to old people who were above the age of 65 ( now 60 ) who could not find for themselves and did not have any means of subsistence . The pension that was given was Rs 200 a month . This pension is given by the central government . The job of implementation of this scheme in states and union territories is given to panchayats and municipalities . The states contribution may vary depending on the state . The amount of old age pension is Rs. 200 per month for applicants aged 60 -- 79 . For applicants aged above 80 years , the amount has been revised in Rs. 500 a month according to the 2011 -- 2012 Budget . National family benefit scheme ( nfbs ) ( edit ) This scheme was started in August 1995 by the Government of India . This scheme is sponsored by the state government . It was transferred to the state sector scheme after 2002 - 03 . It is under the community and rural department . This scheme provides a sum of Rs 20000 to a person of a family who becomes the head of the family after the death of its primary breadwinner . The breadwinner is defined as a person who is above 18 who earns the most for the family and on whose earnings the family survives . National maternity benefit scheme ( edit ) This scheme provides a sum of 6000 Rs to a pregnant mother in three installments . The women have to be older than 19 years of age . It is given normally 12 -- 8 weeks before the birth and in case of the death of the child the women can still avail it . The NMBS is implemented by states and union territories with the help of panchayats and municipalities . During 1999 -- 2000 the total allocation of funds for this scheme was 767.05 crores and the amount used was Rs 4444.13 crore . It is for families below the poverty line . The scheme was updated in 2005 - 06 into Janani Suraksha Yojana with Rs 1400 for every institutional birth . First instalment ( in first trimester of pregnancy ) - 3,000 / - Early Registration of Pregnancy , preferably within first three months . Received one antenatal check - up . Second instalment At the time of institutional delivery - 1500 / - Third instalment ( 3 months after delivery ) - 1500 / - Child birth is registered . Child has received BCG vaccination . Child has received OPV and DPT - 1 & 2 . Annapurna ( edit ) This scheme was started by the government in 1999 -- 2000 to provide food to senior citizens who can not take care of themselves and are not under the National Old Age Pension Scheme ( NOAPS ) , and who have no one to take care of them in their village . This scheme would provide 10 kg of free food grains a month for the eligible senior citizens . The allocation for this scheme in 2000 - 2001 was Rs 100 crore. They mostly target groups of ' poorest of the poor ' and ' indigent senior citizens ' . Integrated rural development program ( IRDP ) ( edit ) Main article : Integrated Rural Development Program This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( January 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) IRDP in India is among the world 's most ambitious programs to alleviate rural poverty by providing income - generated assets to the poorest of the poor . This program was first introduced in 1978 - 79 in some selected areas , but covered all the areas by November 1980 . During the sixth five - year plan ( 1980 -- 85 ) assets worth 47.6 billion rupees were distributed to about 16.6 million poor families . During 1987 - 88 , another 4.2 million families were assisted with an average investment of 4,471 per family or 19 billion rupees overall . The main objective of IRDP is to raise families of identified target group below poverty line by creation of sustainable opportunities for self - employment in the rural sector . Assistance is given in the form of subsidy by the government and term credit advanced by financial institutions ( commercial banks , cooperatives and regional rural banks . ) The program is implemented in all blocks of the country as centrally sponsored scheme funded on 50 : 50 basis by the center and the states . The target group under IRDP consists of small and marginal farmers , agricultural laborers and rural artisans having annual income below Rs. 11,000 defined as poverty line in the Eighth Plan . In order to ensure that benefits under the program reach the more vulnerable sectors of the society , it is stipulated that at least 50 per cent of assisted families should be from scheduled castes and scheduled tribes with corresponding flow of resources to them . Furthermore , 40 per cent of the coverage should be of women beneficiaries and 3 per cent of physically challenged persons . At the grassroots level , the block staff is responsible for implementation of the program . The State Level Coordination Committee ( SLCC ) monitors the program at state level whereas the Ministry of Rural Areas and Employment is responsible for the release of central share of funds , policy formation , overall guidance , monitoring and evaluation of the program . Pradhan mantri gramin awaas Yojana ( edit ) Main article : Pradhan Mantri Gramin Awaas Yojana This scheme aimed at creating housing for everyone.It was initiated in 1985 . It aimed at creating 20 lakh housing units out of which 13 lakhs were in rural area . This scheme also would give out loans to people at subsidized rates to make houses . It was started in 1999 -- 2000 . In 1999 -- 2000 , Rs 1438.39 crore was used for this scheme and about 7.98 lakh units were built . In 2000 - 01 a central outlay of Rs 1710.00 crores was provided for this scheme.it improving the standard of living of rural areas : health , primary education , drinking water , housing , roads . National rural employment Guarantee Act ( NREGA ) ( edit ) Main article : National Rural Employment Guarantee Act , 2005 The NREGA bill notified in 2005 and came into force in 2006 and further modified it as the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act ( MNREGA ) in Oct 2 , 2009 . This scheme guarantees 100 days now 150 days of paid work to people in the rural areas . The scheme has proved to be a major boost in Indian rural population 's income . To augment wage employment opportunities by providing employment on demand and by specific guaranteed wage employment every year to households whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work to thereby extend a security net to the people and simultaneously create durable assets to alleviate some aspects of poverty and address the issue of development in the rural areas . The Ministry of Rural Development ( MRD ) is the nodal Ministry for the implementation of NREGA . It is responsible for ensuring timely and adequate resource support to the States and to the Central Council . It has to undertake regular review , monitoring and evaluation of processes and outcomes . It is responsible for maintaining and operating the MIS to capture and track data on critical aspects of implementation , and assess the utilization of resources through a set of performance indicators . MRD will support innovations that help in improving processes towards the achievement of the objectives of the Act . It will support the use of Information Technology ( IT ) to increase the efficiency and transparency of the processes as well as improve interface with the public . It will also ensure that the implementation of NREGA at all levels is sought to be made transparent and accountable to the public. Now 100 to 150 days work for all is provided . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=156094 Jump up ^ http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=156094 Jump up ^ http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=156094 Jump up ^ Vasudeva , Vikrant N. ( 1 October 2010 ) . `` LEGAL INTERVENTION IN POVERTY ALLEVIATION : ENRICHING THE POOR THROUGH LAW '' . NUJS Law Review . Retrieved 3 January 2015 . External links ( edit ) ( 1 ) india.gov.in ( hide ) Government schemes in India Active Schemes Antyodaya Anna Yojana Atal Pension Yojana Beti Bachao , Beti Padhao Yojana CGHS DAY DBT DDUGJY DDU - GKY DELP HRIDAY Housing for All ICDS Income declaration scheme , 2016 JAM Yojana KVPY Midday Meal Scheme NSAP NSS POPSK PMAGY PMAY PMGSY PMJDY Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Yojana PMKSY Pradhan Mantri Bhartiya Jan Aushadhi Yojana Kendra PMMVY PMMY Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana SAGY SGSY Swasth Jeevan Sewa Guarantee Yojana Soil Health Card Scheme UDAY UDAN Missions AMRUT Mission Indradhanush NICRA National Mission for Manuscripts NRHM ASHA National Translation Mission Providing Urban Amenities to Rural Areas Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan National Solar Mission Smart Cities Mission TB - Mission 2020 Projects Bharatmala Indian Rivers Inter-link Sagar Mala project Setu Bharatam Urja Ganga Gas Pipeline Project Campaigns Accessible India Campaign Digital India Make in India Skill India Standup India Startup India Swachh Bharat Abhiyan Unnat Bharat Abhiyan IDs Aadhaar Business identification number Indian passport Permanent account number Ration card ( India ) Unorganised Workers ' Identification Number Voter ID ( India ) State Bhamashah Yojana Biju Krushak Kalyan Yojana Invest Madhya Pradesh Jyotigram Yojana Make in Maharashtra Rajiv Gandhi Jeevandayee Arogya Yojana Vibrant Gujarat Closed Schemes Bharat Nirman JSY JnNURM Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya MPLADS NLM NPS NRLM Pooled Finance Development Fund Scheme RNTCP RSBY Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme Saakshar Bharat Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana Swabhimaan ( campaign ) Swavalamban Voluntary Disclosure of Income Scheme Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Poverty_alleviation_programmes_in_India&oldid=821248015 '' Categories : Poverty in India Government schemes in India Hidden categories : Use dmy dates from June 2016 Use Indian English from June 2016 All Wikipedia articles written in Indian English Articles needing additional references from June 2016 All articles needing additional references Articles needing additional references from January 2017 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2017 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 19 January 2018 , at 08 : 07 . 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who is the man in the high tower

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=The_Man_in_the_High_Castle_(TV_series)&oldid=805946337

The Man in the High Castle ( TV series ) - Wikipedia The Man in the High Castle ( TV series ) Jump to : navigation , search The Man in the High Castle Genre Alternate history Drama Dystopia Thriller Science fiction Created by Frank Spotnitz Based on The Man in the High Castle by Philip K. Dick Starring Alexa Davalos Rupert Evans Luke Kleintank DJ Qualls Joel de la Fuente Cary - Hiroyuki Tagawa Rufus Sewell Brennan Brown Callum Keith Rennie Bella Heathcote Opening theme `` Edelweiss '' , performed by Jeanette Olsson Composer ( s ) Henry Jackman Dominic Lewis Country of origin United States Original language ( s ) English No. of seasons No. of episodes 20 ( list of episodes ) Production Executive producer ( s ) Ridley Scott Frank Spotnitz Christian Baute Isa Dick Hackett Stewart Mackinnon Christopher Tricarico Producer ( s ) Michael Cedar Jean Higgins Jordan Sheehan David W. Zucker Location ( s ) Seattle , Washington Monroe , Washington Vancouver , British Columbia Cinematography James Hawkinson Gonzalo Amat Editor ( s ) Kathrynn Himoff Running time 48 -- 60 minutes Production company ( s ) Amazon Studios Scott Free Productions Electric Shepherd Productions Headline Pictures Big Light Productions Picrow Reunion Pictures Distributor Amazon.com Release Original network Amazon Video Original release January 15 , 2015 ( 2015 - 01 - 15 ) -- present External links Website www.amazon.com/The-Man-High-Castle/dp/B00RSGFRY8 The Man in the High Castle is an American dystopian alternative history television series produced by Amazon Studios , Scott Free Productions , Headline Pictures , Electric Shepherd Productions and Big Light Productions . The series is loosely based on the 1962 novel of the same name by science fiction author Philip K. Dick . In the series ' alternate version of 1962 America , the Axis powers have won World War II and divided the United States into two puppet states : the Greater Nazi Reich and the Japanese Pacific States . The series follows characters whose destinies intertwine after coming into contact with a series of propaganda films that show a vastly different history from that of their own . Premiering in January 2015 , the pilot was Amazon 's `` most - watched since the original series development program began . '' The next month Amazon ordered episodes to fill out a ten - episode season , which was released in November , to positive reviews . A second season of ten episodes premiered in December 2016 , with a third season announced a few weeks later . Contents ( hide ) 1 Synopsis 1.1 Season one 1.2 Season two 2 Cast 2.1 Main 2.2 Recurring 2.2. 1 John Smith 's family 2.2. 2 Juliana Crain 's family 2.2. 3 Nobusuke Tagomi 's family 2.2. 4 Historical figures 3 Episodes 3.1 Season 1 ( 2015 ) 3.2 Season 2 ( 2016 ) 4 Production 5 Reception 5.1 Accolades 5.2 Advertising controversy 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Synopsis ( edit ) Season one ( edit ) The central characters are Juliana Crain , Frank Frink , Joe Blake , John Smith , Nobusuke Tagomi , and Takeshi Kido . The series takes place in an alternate 1962 . Flag of the Greater Nazi Reich in America Flag of the Japanese Pacific States Juliana Crain is a San Francisco woman who becomes entangled with the resistance when her half - sister Trudy is killed by the Kempeitai , just after giving Juliana a film reel that contains newsreel - style footage depicting an alternate history in which the Allies won World War II and Germany and Japan were defeated . The film is entitled The Grasshopper Lies Heavy , and is part of a series of similar newsreels being collected by someone referred to as `` The Man in the High Castle '' . Juliana believes the newsreel reflects some sort of alternate reality and that it is part of some kind of larger truth about how the world should be . Her boyfriend , Frank Frink ( who keeps his Jewish roots hidden in order to avoid extradition and death at the hands of the Nazis ) , believes that the newsreel has no relation to real - life events . Juliana learns Trudy was carrying the film to Canon City , Colorado , in the Neutral Zone , where she was going to meet someone . Juliana decides to travel there in Trudy 's place to find out what her half - sister 's mission was . When she arrives in Canon City , she encounters Joe Blake . Blake is a 27 - year - old New Yorker who is a double agent working for the Nazis under Obergruppenführer John Smith , a former US Army officer who joined the Nazis and rose through the ranks to become a senior officer in the SS . Blake is pretending to be a member of the resistance while he searches for the resistance contact in Canon City , which is Juliana , substituting for Trudy . Nobusuke Tagomi is a high - ranking Japanese official ( the Trade Minister ) in San Francisco . He meets in secret with Nazi official Rudolph Wegener , who is traveling incognito as Swedish businessman Victore Baynes . Tagomi and Wegener are concerned about the power vacuum that will exist when the Reich 's Führer Adolf Hitler dies , or is forced to step down due to his worsening Parkinson 's disease . Wegener explains that Hitler 's successor will want to use the Reich 's nuclear bombs against Japan to gain control of the rest of the former United States . Currently , however , Japan and the Third Reich are engaged in a cold war full of tension but no open warfare , with the Japanese lagging behind the Germans technologically . Frank Frink ends up being arrested when the Japanese and the Nazis become suspicious of Juliana 's activities . Not having the information they seek , he is unable to give the Japanese what they are looking for , and they kill Frink 's sister and her two children in retaliation , using their Jewish heritage as an excuse for their executions . This leads Frink to plan to kill the visiting Japanese Crown Prince and Princess , but he ultimately decides against going through with his plan . Season two ( edit ) Season Two of the show broadly encompasses Frank Frink deciding to forgo his hesitancy and relative pacifism and choosing to become a committed member of the American Resistance to the Japanese Empire inside the Pacific States , eventually participating in a successful terrorist bombing of a central - command building of the Pacific States government in downtown San Francisco . The attack kills many members of the Japanese military and other top - level leadership . Juliana Crain claims asylum in the Nazi Reich using their San Francisco Embassy so she can escape Japanese soldiers who hold her responsible for at least one murder . John Smith , seeing that her asylum claim is unlikely to succeed , steps in to the interrogation room and assumes command of her claim himself , ensuring it goes through , and he takes her to New York without Joe Blake 's knowledge . Joe Blake himself discovers he was a product of the Lebensborn programme , and also that he is the sole biological son of a top - ranking Nazi official in Berlin , Martin Heusmann . Eventually Blake reconciles with Heusmann on the personal level and , in so doing , becomes second - in - command of the Chancellorship after Adolf Hitler dies and the Nazi leadership in Berlin grants Heusmann the Reich 's Acting Chancellor title , which they do quickly and almost by default . Hitler 's death is abruptly pinned upon Japanese spies , and Heusmann suddenly announces on television that the Japanese agents whom he claims assassinated the Führer will be brought to justice by any means necessary , including war . John Smith is the only high - ranking Nazi official to be suspicious of the nature of Heusmann 's sudden announcement . To gain insight in to why it has happened , he interrogates another high - ranking Nazi , Reinhard Heydrich , who reveals a far - reaching conspiracy led by Heusmann designed to result in a Nazi nuclear onslaught against the Japanese Empire that will kill tens of millions of Japanese , decimate their Empire , level Tokyo , kill their Emperor , and force the surviving Japanese to permanently absorb themselves in to a global Nazi Reich . John Smith undertakes carefully - calculated stealth actions to disrupt and dismantle the Heusmann conspiracy and , as a final act , travels to Berlin and informs Heinrich Himmler -- the Nazi Reichsführer and not involved in the conspiracy -- of the existence of the conspiracy . Audiotapes , together with physical and written evidence reaching too deep within the existing Reich 's power structure to be dismissed as hearsay , are handed personally by John Smith over to the Reichsführer , who then angrily leads Smith and several of his closest Berlin subordinates in to the late Führer 's office occupied by the Acting Chancellor . He arrests Heusmann for high treason and the murder of Adolf Hitler , detains Joe Blake along with Heusmann , and then addresses the Volkshalle packed with hundreds of thousands of Reich civilians and uniformed stormtroopers , nixing the war - declaration speech meant to have been delivered by Heusmann and instead informing the Reich of Heusmann 's conspiracy and John Smith 's exposing of it . Upon learning this , the entire Volkshalle erupts in to a celebratory mood marked by repeated mass Nazi salutes of Himmler 's men in general and then John Smith in particular . The second season ends with Himmler and John Smith implicitly assuming command of the Reich , and an implied new era of peace and tranquility between the Japanese Empire and the Greater Nazi Reich . Juliana Crain continues to live out her asylum claim inside New York Nazi territory , and the final few minutes of the final episode of the second season show Trudy ( or an alternate - universe version of her ) alive and well . In a basement somewhere , John Smith is given access to a room filled to bursting with reels of films watched by the late Führer . Cast ( edit ) Main ( edit ) Alexa Davalos as Juliana Crain , a young woman from San Francisco who is outwardly happy living under Japanese control ; she has become an expert in aikido and is friendly with Japanese people living in San Francisco . Her mother harbors hatred of the Japanese , as they killed Juliana 's father during the war . Rupert Evans as Frank Frink , Juliana 's boyfriend . He works in a factory , creating replicas of pre-war American pistols that are prized by the Japanese , while on his own time he creates original jewelry and sketches . When Juliana vanishes just after the police kill her sister , Frank is taken into custody , which is particularly dangerous since he had a Jewish grandfather and would face execution if this fact were exposed . His experience with the Japanese causes him to turn against the state . Luke Kleintank as Joe Blake , a new recruit to the underground American resistance who is actually an agent working for the SS under Obergruppenführer John Smith . He transports a copy of a reel of the forbidden film The Grasshopper Lies Heavy to the neutral Rocky Mountain States as part of his mission to infiltrate the American resistance . DJ Qualls as Ed McCarthy , Frank 's co-worker and friend . He closely follows politics and cares very much about Juliana and Frank 's well being . Cary - Hiroyuki Tagawa as Nobusuke Tagomi , the Trade Minister of the Pacific States of America . His true loyalties are ambiguous throughout the first season . Rufus Sewell as John Smith , an SS Obergruppenführer investigating the Resistance in New York . He is a natural - born American who previously served in the U.S. Army Signal Corps and lives a comfortable suburban life with a wife and three children . It is implied that he embraced Nazism because he grew up in poverty as a result of the Great Depression . Joel de la Fuente as Chief Inspector Takeshi Kido , the ruthless head of the Kempeitai stationed in San Francisco . Brennan Brown as Robert Childan , an antique store owner who makes secret deals with Frank . ( recurring , season 1 ; main , season 2 ) Callum Keith Rennie as Gary Connell , leader of the West Coast Resistance movement and enforcer for Abendsen . ( season 2 ) Bella Heathcote as Nicole Dörmer , a young Berlin - born filmmaker who will cross paths with Joe . ( season 2 ) Recurring ( edit ) Carsten Norgaard as Rudolph Wegener , a disillusioned high - ranking Nazi official who trades secrets with Tagomi . Rick Worthy as Lemuel `` Lem '' Washington , owner of the Sunrise Diner in Canon City and member of the Resistance . Camille Sullivan as Karen Vecchione , a leader of the Pacific States branch of the Resistance . Lee Shorten as Sergeant Hiroyuki Yoshida , Inspector Kido 's right - hand man . Arnold Chun as Kotomichi , Tagomi 's assistant . Hank Harris as Randall Becker , a member of the Pacific States branch of the Resistance Christine Chatelain as Laura Crothers , Frank 's sister . Allan Havey as the Origami Man , a Nazi spy sent to Canon City to eliminate members of the Resistance . Burn Gorman as the Marshal , a bounty hunter searching for concentration camp escapees . Shaun Ross as the Shoe Shine Boy , a young albino man living in Canon City . Rob LaBelle as Carl , a bookstore clerk in Canon City who is revealed to be a concentration camp escapee named David P. Frees . Geoffrey Blake as Jason Meyer , a Jewish member of the Resistance . Michael Gaston as Mark Sampson , a Jew living in the Pacific States ; he is Frank 's friend Louis Ozawa Changchien as Paul Kasoura , a wealthy lawyer who collects pre-war American memorabilia . Tao Okamoto as Betty , Paul 's wife . Daisuke Tsui as the Crown Prince of Japan Mayumi Yoshida as the Crown Princess of Japan Amy Okuda as Christine Tanaka , an office worker in the Nippon building . Hiro Kanagawa as Taishi Okamura , the leader of a Yakuza based in the Pacific States . Stephen Root as Hawthorne Abendsen / The Man in the High Castle . ( season 2 ) Sebastian Roché as Reichsminister Martin Heusmann , Joe Blake 's estranged father and high - ranking member of the Reich . ( season 2 ) Cara Mitsuko as Sarah , a Japanese American Resistance member , confidante of Frank and survivor of the Manzanar concentration camp . ( season 2 ) Tate Donovan as George Dixon , a mysterious friend of the Crains ( season 2 ) . Michael Hogan as Hagan , an ex-preacher and leader in the San Francisco resistance . ( season 2 ) Tzi Ma as General Hidehisa Onoda , a leading member of the Japanese military . ( season 2 ) John Smith 's family ( edit ) Chelah Horsdal as Helen Smith , John 's wife . Quinn Lord as Thomas Smith , John and Helen 's son and the eldest child . A member of the Hitler Youth , it is later revealed that he has inherited a form of muscular dystrophy from his father 's side of the family . Gracyn Shinyei as Amy Smith , John and Helen 's daughter . Genea Charpentier as Jennifer Smith , John and Helen 's daughter . Juliana Crain 's family ( edit ) Daniel Roebuck as Arnold Walker , Juliana 's stepfather and Trudy 's father . Macall Gordon as Anne Crain Walker , Juliana 's mother who is still bitter about losing her husband in World War II . Conor Leslie as Trudy Walker , Juliana 's half sister who is shot dead by the Kempeitai . Nobusuke Tagomi 's family ( edit ) Yukari Komatsu as Michiko Tagomi , Nobusuke 's wife . ( season 2 ) Eddie Shin as Noriaki Tagomi , Nobusuke and Michiko 's son . ( season 2 ) Historical Figures ( edit ) Wolf Muser as Adolf Hitler . Ray Proscia as SS - Oberst - Gruppenführer Reinhard Heydrich . Kenneth Tigar as SS - Reichsführer Heinrich Himmler ( season 2 ) Peter Anderson as Joseph Goebbels , Nazi Minister of Propaganda ( season 2 ) Lisa Paxton as Eva Braun , Hitler 's wife ( season 2 ) Episodes ( edit ) Season 1 ( 2015 ) ( edit ) The pilot and the second episode were screened at a special Comic - Con event . The season premiered on November 20 , 2015 . No . overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original release date `` The New World '' David Semel Frank Spotnitz January 15 , 2015 ( 2015 - 01 - 15 ) A young man , Joe Blake , volunteers to serve the resistance by driving a truck from Nazi New York to the neutral zone in the Rockies . In Japan - occupied San Francisco , Juliana Crain receives a package from her sister Trudy , only to see her get shot by the Japanese police . She returns home where her boyfriend Frank urges her to go to the police and tell them she had nothing to do with Trudy 's treason . The package contains film of the Allies winning World War II , which Juliana watches . She boards a bus to the Neutral Zone to deliver the film in Trudy 's place . A female agent on the bus attempts to steal the film but only escapes with decoys . Joe befriends Juliana in Canon City while in San Francisco , Frank is arrested by the Kempeitai , who want to know Juliana 's destination . Joe calls a Nazi commandant , Smith , revealing that he is working for them . `` Sunrise '' Daniel Percival Frank Spotnitz October 23 , 2015 ( 2015 - 10 - 23 ) In the Canon City diner , Juliana meets a man she assumes is her contact . Smith tells Joe that the contact is a Sicherheitsdienst ( SD ) agent trying to stop the resistance , and orders him not to intervene . However , when the SD agent tries to kill Juliana , Joe drives up , and she is able to throw the agent over the railing to his death . In New York , Smith is attacked by resistance fighters . In prison , Frank meets a resistance fighter who convinces him not to inform on Juliana . The Kempeitai kill Frank 's sister and her children , but do not kill him when the woman who stole Juliana 's bag is found with fake film reels . `` The Illustrated Woman '' Ken Olin Thomas Schnauz and Evan Wright November 20 , 2015 ( 2015 - 11 - 20 ) Joe spots a Nazi bounty hunter in town , looking for the man Juliana killed . They go to dispose of his body and car , but find a map which leads them to a cave where they find a dead woman and list of names . They realize that Juliana 's boss from the diner was her actual contact . Frank breaks the news of his sister and her children 's deaths to his brother - in - law . Frank returns to work where he makes a real gun . The bounty hunter realizes Juliana 's identity and tries to kill her . `` Revelations '' Michael Rymer Thomas Schnauz and Jace Richdale November 20 , 2015 ( 2015 - 11 - 20 ) Joe quickly saves Juliana from the Marshal . Joe and Juliana confront Lemuel who leads them into the woods , where they are surrounded by resistance fighters , who force them to give them the films and leave . Joe and Juliana are attacked again by the Marshal , causing Joe to reveal to the Marshal that he is a Nazi agent . The Marshal pursues Juliana on the highway . When Juliana gets far enough , she burns her car and hides . When the Marshal reaches the car , he assumes that she has died . Back in the Reich , SS Captain Connolly is suspected by Smith for telling the resistance members who attacked him , which route he was taking to work . In the Pacific States , Frank heads to the Crown Prince 's speech with a gun to assassinate him , but hesitates to do so . The Crown Prince is then shot by an unseen gunman . 5 5 `` The New Normal '' Bryan Spicer Rob Williams November 20 , 2015 ( 2015 - 11 - 20 ) The Crown Prince is rushed to the hospital after the attack , and the captain of the Imperial Guard is ordered to commit seppuku , for not protecting the Crown Prince . Kido then states that if he can not find the gunman , he will do the same . Meanwhile , Juliana returns home to find an angry Frank , who tells her about his time in prison . Joe returns to New York from the Neutral Zone and is kidnapped by Gestapo agents and brought to Smith 's office . He is then forced to tell Smith what happened in Canon City . Smith believes him , and invites Joe over for VA day ( Victory in America day ) . 6 6 `` Three Monkeys '' Nelson McCormick Rob Williams November 20 , 2015 ( 2015 - 11 - 20 ) Joe celebrates VA day at Smith 's house . Juliana accepts a job working for Tagomi as she continues her search for answers . Smith , who has received intelligence about Wegener 's activities but also happens to be an old friend , intercepts him at the airport and invites him for dinner hoping to probe Wegener for answers . Smith has Wegener arrested . Smith catches Joe sneaking through his files . 7 7 `` Truth '' Brad Anderson Emma Frost November 20 , 2015 ( 2015 - 11 - 20 ) Juliana makes a startling discovery about her sister 's death . Frank reflects on recent events and makes an important decision about his future , and Tagomi gains greater insight into Juliana 's past . Smith catches Joe in his home office and interrogates him about Juliana and Canon City . 8 8 `` End of the World '' Karyn Kusama Walon Green November 20 , 2015 ( 2015 - 11 - 20 ) Juliana and Frank make plans to escape the Pacific States , only to be dragged back into danger by Joe as he tries to retrieve a new film , and walks directly into the Kempeitai 's ambush . Meanwhile , Smith 's loyalty is put to the ultimate test when confronted with a startling family discovery . The episode is named after the song of the same name , which is performed by Lini Evans during the episode with Japanese lyrics she co-wrote . 9 9 `` Kindness '' Michael Slovis Jace Richdale November 20 , 2015 ( 2015 - 11 - 20 ) With time running out , a desperate Frank is forced to put his life on the line to help Joe . The pieces finally fall into place for Smith as he uncovers who was behind the assassination attempt . Tagomi is devastated when he is confronted with the consequences of his scheming , and Kido 's investigation takes a dramatic turn when he makes an important discovery . Meanwhile , Frank and Juliana , after taking possession of the new film , decide to watch it , but they are shocked to find out that the film describes , apparently in the near future , a nuclear - bombed San Francisco where the SS are rounding up and executing survivors ; Frank is shown being executed by Joe , who is wearing an SS uniform . 10 10 `` A Way Out '' Daniel Percival Rob Williams November 20 , 2015 ( 2015 - 11 - 20 ) Frank and Juliana angrily confront Joe as a Nazi agent . He goes to the Nazi embassy with the film . Joe learns that Heydrich is preparing a trap . Kido acts on the information from the Yakuza and kills the Nazi sniper that shot the Crown Prince . Ed is caught with Frank 's gun and is used as a scapegoat for the attempted assassination of the Crown Prince , averting the need for Kido to commit seppuku . Heydrich demands Smith 's loyalty ahead of Wegener assassinating Hitler . Wegener says goodbye to his family and travels to Hitler 's alpine castle ( filmed at Hohenwerfen Castle ) , but after confronting Hitler ( who is watching the alternate newsreels in his huge film vault saying that he learns something every time he watches ) , kills himself instead . Smith captures the traitor Heydrich and reports such to Hitler . Joe evades Lem 's ambush and boards a boat to Mexico in Juliana 's place . Frank finds out that Ed has been arrested and returns to the Kempeitai headquarters to find him being detained . Tagomi goes to Union Square to meditate with Juliana 's charm and opens his eyes to find himself in an alternate 1962 where the Allies won World War II and America is in the midst of the Cuban Missile Crisis . Season 2 ( 2016 ) ( edit ) The second season was released on December 16 , 2016 . No . overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original release date 11 `` The Tiger 's Cave '' Daniel Percival Frank Spotnitz December 16 , 2016 ( 2016 - 12 - 16 ) Joe returns to New York to hand over the film to Smith and request for his resignation , but Smith denies his request before delivering the film to Hitler . Karen and Lem confront Juliana for not shooting Joe before she is tranquilized . She wakes up in the home of Hawthorne Abendsen , The Man in the High Castle , and his vast film collection . Meanwhile , General Onoda reveals to Tagomi and his staff that the capsule Science Minister Shimada found in his pocket contains the plans for a nuclear weapon that the Empire intends to use to crush the Nazis , much to Tagomi 's dismay . Frank confronts Arnold about spying over his own family . Desperate to clear Ed 's name , Frank goes to Childan and asks for his help . Juliana attempts to get answers from an evasive Abendsen and receives a clue which may help to avert nuclear war . Gary Connell , leader of the West Coast Resistance , goes against orders and tries to kill Juliana , but she escapes at a Kempeitai checkpoint . A gunfight ensues between the Resistance members and the Japanese soldiers . Karen is killed in the crossfire . 12 `` The Road Less Traveled '' Colin Bucksey Rob Williams December 16 , 2016 ( 2016 - 12 - 16 ) Kido investigates the shootout at the checkpoint and suspects Juliana is involved . Frank decides to get Paul Kasoura , who is a defense lawyer , to help Ed . In desperation , he reveals to Kasoura that the antique goods he and Childan sold him are fake , leading the pair to be imprisoned by the Yakuza , to whom Kasoura has a connection . Frank is almost killed by Okamura , the Yakuza leader , in the previous incident with Joe . However , he manages to convince Okamura to allow him to repay his debt for the forgery , with a condition that Ed is to work with him as his assistant . Kido is forced by Okamura to release Ed . He later pins the assassination of the Crown Prince on the deceased Karen . Joe is ordered by Smith to visit his father , a Reichminister named Heusmann , in Berlin . Smith tells Joe that Juliana is possibly dead . Meanwhile , Juliana evades Gary and Lem and tries to convince her parents to leave San Francisco , to no avail . Using the clue on a mysterious man that Abendsen is fixated on , Juliana discovers the man is a family friend named George Dixon , who is Trudy 's real father . Learning he may be in Brooklyn , Juliana risks her life to reach the Nazi embassy and request asylum , while leaving a letter to Frank . 13 `` Travelers '' Daniel Sackheim Erik Oleson December 16 , 2016 ( 2016 - 12 - 16 ) Smith is warned by Dr. Adler , the family physician , to end his son Thomas 's life , as the boy 's incurable illness prevents him from being accepted in the Reich . Juliana makes it to New York and is questioned by Smith , who is notified of her arrival and arranges her stay . He keeps this a secret from Joe . Frank learns of Juliana 's defection to the Nazi states , though he does not believe Gary on her betrayal . While he works with Ed and Childan to create forgeries for the Yakuza to repay his debt , Frank is convinced by the Resistance to help them liberate innocent citizens from the Kempeitai in retaliation for the checkpoint murders . While saving a Resistance member named Sarah , Frank commits his first kill against the Japanese . Juliana looks for Joe but is told by his ex-lover that he has rejoined the Nazis , leading her to think he may have betrayed her . Joe travels to Berlin and meets with his father but is distant due to the latter 's treatment of his mother . He crosses paths with Nicole Becker , a filmmaker. Smith is unable to kill his son when given the chance to do so . He meets with Dr. Adler and kills him to ensure his silence . 14 `` Escalation '' David Petrarca Wesley Strick December 16 , 2016 ( 2016 - 12 - 16 ) Juliana adjusts to life in the Reich under the tutelage of Smith 's wife Helen and Thomas . While looking for George Dixon at his old apartment , she is pursued by two unknown agents and almost killed . General Onoda has the Kempeitai execute numerous citizens for the murder of the Japanese soldiers during the Resistance rescue . Enraged , Frank starts to neglect his debt with the Yakuza and accepts a risky assignment to siphon materials from an unexploded Japanese bomb for a Resistance mission , much to Ed 's dismay . Frank begins to get close with Sarah during the assignment . Smith reveals to a suspecting Helen that he killed Dr. Adler to keep their son 's illness a secret . Kido gets Onoda drunk and tricks him into approving an unknown order . After escaping from her pursuers , Juliana is approached by Dixon . Tagomi travels to the alternate timeline once again and sees his still - living wife Michiko , who is deceased in his own timeline . 15 5 `` Duck and Cover '' John Fawcett Erik Oleson & Rick Cleveland December 16 , 2016 ( 2016 - 12 - 16 ) Dixon is revealed to be a Resistance leader and meets up with Juliana after she tells him that the Man in the High Castle sent her . Juliana tells him he may be somehow involved in the possible San Francisco bombing as he has appeared several times in the films . Dixon forces Juliana to spy on Smith and his family to redeem her betrayal when she allowed Joe to escape with the film . Joe is upset when his father brings him to his place of birth and reveals he is one of the Lebensborn , an experiment to perfect racial purity . Despite this , he takes up his father 's offer to remain in Berlin for a few more days . Kido attempts to use Onoda 's approval to extradite Juliana from the Nazi states , though he fails and reveals his motive for visiting Smith for an unknown reason . Frank becomes further involved with the Resistance while Ed is revealed to be under the control of the Kempeitai to report on the Yakuza 's counterfeiting activities in exchange for his and Frank 's lives . Lem assists Abendsen in moving to a new location under the possibility the location of the High Castle is compromised and Abendsen destroys most of the films before leaving . Tagomi reveals himself to the alternate Michiko and his son Noriyuke , but discovers the alternate Tagomi 's relationship with them is estranged . He is shocked to see Noriyuke married to an alternate Juliana with their son . 16 6 `` Kintsugi '' Paul Holahan Francesca Gardiner December 16 , 2016 ( 2016 - 12 - 16 ) Juliana starts to socialize with the Ladies Committee as planned and gains the support of one of the members , Lucy . Helen discovers Thomas has been selected by the Hitler Youth group to go for an expedition in South America . She forbids her son to go until she finds out that Smith arranged to have their son disappear from society by staging a fake abduction and live a life of anonymity . Joe starts to get closer to Nicole , who reveals herself as one of the Lebensborn and brings him to meet with some of the others . After spending the night with Nicole , Joe begins to embrace his real heritage . Sarah brings Frank to a secret prayer gathering with Hagan , a leader of the Resistance . Tagomi attempts to mend his alternate self 's relationship with his family , and is dismayed by the alternate Noriyuke 's foregoing of the Japanese culture . Kido is informed by his right hand man , Yoshida , that they have found Abendsen 's burnt hideout and learns the Yakuza is also looking for the films . 17 7 `` Land O ' Smiles '' Karyn Kusama Rob Williams December 16 , 2016 ( 2016 - 12 - 16 ) Ed and Childan go to Okamura to repay their debt with the sale from Frank 's forgery but are locked up in a storage room when Kido and his men pay a visit . Kido kills Okamura and the Yakuza members present for treason as he has deduced the Yakuza are working with the Nazis . Yoshida discovers Ed and Childan but lets them go . Frank is tasked to plant a bomb at the harbor where General Onoda is visiting . However , Frank aborts the mission when he discovers that the Japanese are secretly building an atomic bomb there and alerts the Resistance of this information . While at Adler 's funeral , Smith is dismayed when Adler 's wife Alice raises her suspicion on her husband 's sudden death and plans to have an autopsy performed . Juliana also attends the funeral and while talking to Thomas , she notices he has a seizure and covers for him . Later , she promises Helen that she will not reveal Thomas 's condition . Smith has further troubles when Heinrich Himmler informs him that Hitler has suffered a collapse . 18 8 `` Loose Lips '' Alex Zakrzewski Rick Cleveland December 16 , 2016 ( 2016 - 12 - 16 ) Smith questions Juliana about Joe 's film and learns of San Francisco 's impending destruction . Lucy tells Juliana she knows that supposedly live footage of Hitler is actually archival because her husband manages the TV broadcast . Juliana shares with Dixon her belief that Hitler may be dead . The Resistance decide it is time to stage an uprising , leaving Juliana concerned that she may have caused the nuclear catastrophe she is trying to prevent . Heusmann is made Acting Chancellor while Joe decides to support his father . Frank learns from Arnold that Juliana has warned them to leave San Francisco and has not betrayed him . Enraged , he confronts Gary but the Resistance is determined to go ahead with the uprising . Armed with the knowledge from Juliana and Kido , Smith misleads a secretly imprisoned Heydrich into thinking Germany and Japan are already at war , leading Heydrich to confirm what Smith has suspected : a conspiracy to create a pretext for war with the Japanese exists among the Nazi ranks . Smith executes Heydrich , but not before learning he is not the mastermind behind the rush to war . Hitler passes away , leaving Heusmann in charge , and the new Chancellor is revealed to have orchestrated the looming conflict . 19 9 `` Detonation '' Chris Long Wesley Strick December 16 , 2016 ( 2016 - 12 - 16 ) Tagomi watches a film with his alternate family showing the recent test detonation of a hydrogen bomb at Bikini Atoll . Finally resolved to stop war between Japan and the Nazis , Tagomi takes the film and returns to his reality . Thomas confides to Juliana about his condition , unaware that their conversation is being recorded . Smith later learns of the tape and takes it to protect Thomas ' secret . In a televised address , Heusmann frames the Japanese for Hitler 's death by poison and promises retaliation much to Joe 's horror . Frank decides to assist the Resistance in assassinating Onoda using their homemade bombs . Before the operation , he convinces Ed and Childan to leave San Francisco . Frank and Sarah smuggle a car bomb into the Kempeitai HQ underground parking garage . They set the bomb timer and attempt to leave the building , but are spotted by Kido , which starts a gunfight in the lobby . Just as Tagomi arrives , the bomb detonates , killing General Onoda and his staff and collapsing most of the building . Frank and Sarah 's fate is not shown . 20 10 `` Fallout '' Daniel Percival Erik Oleson December 16 , 2016 ( 2016 - 12 - 16 ) Tagomi and Kido , who survived the bombing , deal with the aftermath of the destruction of the Kempeitai HQ . Afterwards , Kido travels to New York and plays the film for Smith appearing to provide evidence that the Japanese possess a hydrogen bomb . The resistance attempts to avenge Karen 's death by killing Juliana , but she escapes and kills Susan in the process . She then confronts and kills Dixon , who was threatening to expose Smith by broadcasting the tape of her conversation with Thomas . Smith travels to Berlin with the film to convince the Nazi higher - ups not to attack Japan out of fear of nuclear retaliation and meets privately with Himmler , exposing Heusmann as the traitor . After arresting Heusmann and Joe , Himmler addresses the worldwide public from the Volkshalle , possibly assuming control of the Reich , and rewards Smith for his service . The recognition Smith receives inspires Thomas to turn himself over to the Public Health Department to be euthanized . After traveling to the Neutral Zone , a bereft Juliana learns from Abendsen that hope remains and that her sister is alive . Finally , Lem hands over Abendsen 's remaining films to Tagomi . Production ( edit ) In 2010 , it was announced that the BBC would co-produce a four - part TV adaptation of The Man in the High Castle for BBC One together with Headline Pictures , FremantleMedia Enterprises and Scott Free Films . Director Ridley Scott was to act as executive producer of the adaptation by Howard Brenton . On February 11 , 2013 , Variety reported that Syfy was adapting the book as a four - part miniseries , with Ridley Scott and Frank Spotnitz as executive producers , co-produced with Scott Free Prods. , Headline Pictures and Electric Shepherd Prods . On October 1 , 2014 , Amazon.com began filming the pilot episode in Roslyn , Washington , for a new television drama to be aired on their Prime web video streaming service . This has been adapted by Frank Spotnitz and is being produced for Amazon by Ridley Scott , David Zucker and Jordan Sheehan for Scott Free , Stewart Mackinnon and Christian Baute for Headline Pictures , Isa Hackett and Kalen Egan for Electric Shepherd and Spotnitz 's Big Light Productions . The pilot episode was released by Amazon Studios on January 15 , 2015 . Amazon Studios ' production process is somewhat different from those of other conventional television channels . They produce pilot episodes of a number of different prospective programs , then release them and gather data on their success . The most promising shows are then picked up as regular series . On February 18 , 2015 , Amazon.com announced that The Man in the High Castle was given the green - light along with four other series , and a full season would be produced . Production for the pilot episode began in October 2014 . Principal filming took place in Seattle , with the city standing in for San Francisco and locations in New York City , as well as Roslyn , Washington , which was the long - time shooting location for Northern Exposure . Sites used in Seattle include the Seattle Center Monorail , the Paramount Theatre , a newspaper office in the Pike Place Market area , as well as various buildings in the city 's Capitol Hill , International District , and Georgetown neighborhoods . In Roslyn , the production used external shots of the Roslyn Cafe which featured prominently in Northern Exposure along with several local businesses and scenery . In April 2015 , filming took place in Vancouver , British Columbia , in the downtown area of West Georgia Street , along the promenade of the Coast Capital Savings building . In May and June 2015 filming also took place at the University of British Columbia . Exterior shots of Hohenwerfen Castle in Werfen , Austria , were filmed in September 2015 for the tenth episode of the first season . Amazon announced that they were bringing on new executive producer and showrunner Eric Overmyer for season three to replace Frank Spotnitz after his sudden departure from the show during the middle of season two . Reception ( edit ) The first season of The Man in the High Castle received acclaim from critics . Rotten Tomatoes gives season 1 an approval rating of 95 % based on reviews from 58 critics , with an average rating of 7.54 out of 10 . The site 's critical consensus states , `` By executive producer Ridley Scott , The Man in the High Castle is unlike anything else on TV , with an immediately engrossing plot driven by quickly developed characters in a fully realized post-WWII dystopia . '' Metacritic gives the first season a score of 77 out of 100 , based on reviews from 30 critics , indicating `` generally favorable reviews '' . Meredith Woerner from io9 wrote , `` I can honestly say I loved this pilot . It 's an impressive , streamlined undertaking of a fairly complicated and very beloved novel . '' Matt Fowler from IGN gave 9.2 out of 10 and described the series as a `` a superb , frightening experience filled with unexpected twists and ( some sci - fi ) turns . '' Brian Moylan of The Guardian was positive and praised the convincing depiction as well as the complex , and gripping , plot . The Los Angeles Times described the pilot as `` provocative '' and `` smartly adapted by The X-Files ' Frank Spotnitz . '' The Daily Telegraph said it was `` absorbing '' and Wired called it `` must - see viewing . '' Entertainment Weekly said it was `` engrossing '' and `` a triumph in world - building , '' cheering , `` The Man in the High Castle is king . '' After its first season , Rolling Stone included it on a list of the forty best science fiction television shows of all time . Amazon subsequently announced it was the service 's most - streamed original series and had been renewed for a second season . Season 2 was met with mixed reviews . Rotten Tomatoes gives the second season an approval rating of 63 % based on reviews from 19 critics , with an average rating of 6.86 out of 10 . The site 's critical consensus states , `` Although its plot is admittedly unwieldy , The Man in the High Castle 's second season expands its fascinating premise in powerful new directions , bolstered by stunning visuals , strong performances , and intriguing new possibilities . '' Metacritic gives season 2 a score of 62 out of 100 , based on reviews from ten critics . Accolades ( edit ) Year Award Nominee ( s ) Result 2015 IGN Awards Best New TV Series The Man in the High Castle Nominated South by Southwest Awards Excellence in Title Design Patrick Clair Nominated 2016 American Society of Cinematographers Awards Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography in Television Movie , Mini-Series or Pilot James Hawkinson ( Episode : `` The New World '' ) Nominated Creative Arts Emmy Awards Outstanding Cinematography for a Single - Camera Series James Hawkinson Won Outstanding Main Title Design Patrick Clair , Paul Kim , Jose Limon , Raoul Marks Won Outstanding Production Design for a Narrative Contemporary or Fantasy Program ( One Hour or More ) Drew Boughton , Linda King , Brenda Meyers - Ballard Nominated Outstanding Special Visual Effects The Man in the High Castle Nominated Critics ' Choice Television Awards Best Supporting Actor in a Drama Series Rufus Sewell Nominated Monte - Carlo Television Festival Best TV Series Drama The Man in the High Castle Nominated Saturn Awards Best New Media Television Series The Man in the High Castle Nominated USC Scripter Awards Best Television Script Frank Spotnitz and Philip K. Dick Nominated Visual Effects Society Awards Outstanding Created Environment in an Episode , Commercial , or Real - Time Project Casi Blume , David Andrade , Nick Chamberlain , Lawson Deming Nominated Outstanding Supporting Visual Effects in a Photoreal Episode Lawson Deming , Cory Jamieson , Casi Blume , Nick Chamberlain Nominated Young Artist Awards Best Performance in a TV Series -- Recurring Young Actor ( 14 -- 21 ) Quinn Lord Nominated 2017 Artios Awards Television Pilot And First Season - Drama Denise Chamian , Liz Ludwitzke , Candice Elzinga , Patti Kalles Nominated Creative Arts Emmy Awards Outstanding Cinematography for a Single - Camera Series ( One Hour ) James Hawkinson Nominated Outstanding Original Creative Achievement in Interactive Media within a Scripted Program `` Resistance Radio '' Nominated Outstanding Production Design for a Narrative Period Program ( One Hour or More ) Drew Boughton , Dawn Swiderski , Jon Lancaster Nominated Outstanding Special Visual Effects Lawson Deming , Cory Jamieson , Casi Blume , Nick Chamberlain , David Andrade , Bill Parker , Justin Fox , Danielle Malambri Nominated Costume Designers Guild Awards Outstanding Fantasy Television Series J.R. Hawbaker Nominated Leo Awards Best Guest Performance by a Male in a Dramatic Series Kurt Evans Nominated Best Supporting Performance by a Female in a Dramatic Series Chelah Horsdal Won Location Managers Guild Awards Outstanding Locations in a Period TV Series Nicole Noelle Chartrand , Robert Murdoch Nominated Saturn Awards Best New Media Television Series The Man in the High Castle Nominated Advertising controversy ( edit ) As part of an advertising campaign for the release of the first season , one entire New York City Subway car was covered with Nazi and Imperial Japanese imagery as seen in the show , including multiple American flags with the Nazi eagle emblem in place of the 50 stars and multiple flags of the fictional Pacific States . In response to criticism from `` state lawmakers and city leaders '' , the Metropolitan Transportation Authority ( MTA ) released a statement saying that there were no grounds to reject the ads due to the fact that neutral content subway ad standards only prohibit advertising that is a political advertisement or disparages an individual or group . MTA spokesperson Kevin Ortiz stated that , `` The MTA is a government agency and ca n't accept or reject ads based on how we feel about them ; we have to follow the standards approved by our board . Please note they 're commercial ads . '' Spokesperson Adam Lisberg said , `` This advertising , whether you find it distasteful or not , obviously they 're not advertising Nazism ; they 're advertising a TV show . '' After complaints from New York State Governor Andrew Cuomo and New York City Mayor Bill de Blasio , initial reports indicated that Amazon pulled the advertisement from the subway . It was later announced that it was the MTA , not Amazon , that pulled the ad , due to pressure from Governor Cuomo . See also ( edit ) SS - GB , 2017 TV series Fatherland , 1994 TV movie References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` TV Review : The Man in the High Castle '' . Variety . November 18 , 2015 . Retrieved November 18 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` The Man in the High Castle '' . Amazon Prime . Jump up ^ `` The Man in the High Castle '' . Internet Movie Database . Retrieved January 18 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Tartaglione , Nancy . `` Amazon orders 5 original series including Man in the High Castle , Mad Dogs '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved January 18 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Spotnitz , Frank ( @ FrankSpotnitz ) ( August 17 , 2015 ) . `` @ dlairman @ HighCastleTV Ten . '' ( Tweet ) -- via Twitter . Jump up ^ Fienberg , Daniel ( @ TheFienPrint ) ( August 3 , 2015 ) . `` Time for ' Man in the High Castle , ' which premieres on November 20 on # Amazon . # TCA15 '' ( Tweet ) -- via Twitter . Jump up ^ `` ' The Man in the High Castle ' season 2 premiere date : Season releases Dec. 16 '' . Den of Geek . August 12 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Trendacosta , Katharine ( January 3 , 2017 ) . `` ' The Man in the High Castle ' Gets Another Season and Another Showrunner '' . Gizmodo . Retrieved May 30 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Petski , Denise ( April 15 , 2016 ) . `` Callum Keith Rennie joins Amazon 's Man in the High Castle ; Rafael de la Fuente in When We Rise ABC Miniseries '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved April 17 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Petski , Denise ( April 6 , 2016 ) . `` Bella Heathcote joins Man in the High Castle ; Warren Christie in Eyewitness '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved April 8 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` FX 's Tyrant casts Annet Mahendru ; Sebastian Roché in Amazon 's Man in the High Castle '' . Deadline.com . Jump up ^ `` A New Trailer for The Man in the High Castle and Episode Two Preview '' . Newsweek . July 13 , 2015 . Retrieved August 19 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Jarvey , Natalie ( August 3 , 2015 ) . `` The Man in the High Castle Creator Frank Spotnitz on Creating Alternate Histories '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved August 19 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` The Man in the High Castle Season 2 Release Date , Trailer , and Review '' . Den of Geek . December 12 , 2016 . Retrieved December 19 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Sweney , Mark ( October 7 , 2010 ) . `` Ridley Scott to return to work of sci - fi icon for BBC mini-series '' . The Guardian . Retrieved October 7 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Marechal , A.J. ( February 10 , 2013 ) . `` Syfy , Ridley Scott , Frank Spotnitz set miniseries '' . Variety . Retrieved August 17 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Muir , Pat ( October 6 , 2014 ) . `` Roslyn hopes new TV show brings 15 more minutes of fame : The Man in the High Castle '' . Yakima Herald - Republic . Archived from the original on December 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ( July 24 , 2014 ) . `` Amazon Studios adds drama The Man in the High Castle , comedy Just Add Magic to pilot slate '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved August 17 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` The Man in the High Castle : Season 1 , Episode 1 '' . Amazon.com . January 15 , 2015 . Retrieved January 17 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon greenlights full seasons of Mad Dogs , The Man in the High Castle , The New Yorker Presents , and children 's shows Just Add Magic and The Stinky & Dirty Show '' ( Press release ) . Amazon.com . February 18 , 2015 . Retrieved February 18 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon builds film sets around DJC Building '' . Daily Journal of Commerce . October 9 , 2014 . Retrieved August 17 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Shoot : The Man in the High Castle 's American Nazi John Smith ( Rufus Sewell ) films at Vancouver 's Arthur Erickson - designed concrete tower '' . YVRShoots.com. April 21 , 2015 . Retrieved August 17 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Hauen , Jack ( June 1 , 2015 ) . `` The Man in the High Castle is filming at UBC '' . The Ubyssey . Retrieved August 17 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Hakenkreuzflagge flatterte auf der Burg Hohenwerfen '' ( Swastika flag flutters on Hohenwerfen Castle ) . Salzburger Nachrichten ( in German ) . September 16 , 2015 . Archived from the original on November 19 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ( January 3 , 2017 ) . `` ' The Man In the High Castle ' Renewed For Season 3 By Amazon , Gets A Showrunner '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved May 22 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` The Man in the High Castle Season 1 '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved January 8 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` The Man in the High Castle : Season 1 reviews '' . Metacritic . Retrieved January 8 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Woerner , Meredith ( January 16 , 2015 ) . `` Man in the High Castle is wildly different from the book but still great '' . io9 . Retrieved January 18 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` The Man in the High Castle : Series 1 review '' . IGN . November 20 , 2015 . Retrieved November 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` The Man in the High Castle : the Nazis win , but so do viewers '' . The Guardian . November 20 , 2015 . Retrieved November 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Adams , Sam ; Collins , Sean T. ; Fear , David ; Murray , Noel ; Scherer , Jenna ; Tobias , Scott ( May 26 , 2016 ) . `` 40 Best Science Fiction TV Shows of All Time '' . Rolling Stone . Retrieved May 26 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` The Man in the High Castle is Amazon 's most - watched Original '' . The Hollywood Reporter . December 21 , 2015 . Retrieved December 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon Original Series The Man in the High Castle , Recently Renewed for Season Two , Marks Biggest Launch Month in Prime Video History '' ( Press release ) . Amazon Studios . December 21 , 2015 . Retrieved June 1 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` The Man in the High Castle Season 2 '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved January 8 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` The Man in the High Castle : Season 2 reviews '' . Metacritic . Retrieved January 8 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Best New Series - IGN 's Best of 2015 - IGN '' . IGN . Retrieved 4 July 2017 . Jump up ^ `` The ASC -- Past ASC Awards '' . www.theasc.com . Retrieved March 10 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` The Man in the High Castle '' . Emmys . Retrieved September 11 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Best Picture - Critics ' Choice Awards : The Complete Winners List '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved March 10 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Bryant , Jacob ( February 24 , 2016 ) . `` ' Star Wars , ' ' Mad Max , ' ' Walking Dead ' Lead Saturn Awards Nominations '' . Variety . Retrieved March 10 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` USC Scripter Awards Nominations '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved March 10 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Giardina , Carolyn ( January 10 , 2017 ) . `` ' Rogue One ' Leads Visual Effects Society Feature Competition With 7 Nominations As ' Doctor Strange , ' ' Jungle Book ' Grab 6 Each '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved January 10 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` 2016 Young Artist Awards '' Young Artist Awards `` . web.archive.org. 30 October 2016 . Retrieved 4 July 2017 . Jump up ^ `` The Casting Society of America '' . www.castingsociety.com . Retrieved March 10 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` The Man in the High Castle '' . Emmys . Retrieved September 11 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Outstanding Fantasy Television Series '' . costumedesignersguild.com . Retrieved February 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Leo Awards , Nominees by Name 2017 '' . www.leoawards.com . Retrieved May 2 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Outstanding Locations in a Period TV Series - ' Hidden Figures , ' ' La La Land ' Among Location Managers Guild Award Nominees '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved February 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ McNary , Dave ( March 2 , 2017 ) . `` Saturn Awards Nominations 2017 : ' Rogue One , ' ' Walking Dead ' Lead '' . Variety . Retrieved March 2 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` New York Subway pulls Nazi - themed ads for new show , Man in the High Castle '' . NPR . November 25 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Man in the High Castle subway ads , featuring Nazi symbols , removed from trains '' . CBS New York . November 24 , 2015 . Retrieved December 5 , 2015 . External links ( edit ) Wikiquote has quotations related to : The Man in the High Castle ( TV series ) Official website The Man in the High Castle on IMDb Wikimedia Commons has media related to The Man in the High Castle . Amazon Video original programming Original series Alpha House ( 2013 -- 14 ) Betas ( 2013 -- 14 ) Bosch ( 2014 -- present ) Mozart in the Jungle ( 2014 -- present ) Transparent ( 2014 -- present ) Hand of God ( 2014 -- 17 ) The Man in the High Castle ( 2015 -- present ) One Mississippi ( 2015 -- present ) Patriot ( 2015 -- present ) Red Oaks ( 2015 -- present ) Sneaky Pete ( 2015 -- present ) Z : The Beginning of Everything ( 2015 -- 17 ) Mad Dogs ( 2015 -- 16 ) Crisis in Six Scenes ( 2016 ) Good Girls Revolt ( 2016 ) The New Yorker Presents ( 2016 ) Kamen Rider Amazons The Collection ( 2016 -- present ) Crayon Shin - chan Gaiden ( 2016 -- present ) Fleabag ( 2016 -- present ) Goliath ( 2016 -- present ) The Grand Tour ( 2016 -- present ) I Love Dick ( 2016 -- present ) Jean - Claude Van Johnson ( 2016 -- present ) The Last Tycoon ( 2016 -- 17 ) The Tick ( 2016 -- present ) American Playboy : The Hugh Hefner Story ( 2017 ) The Idolmaster KR ( 2017 ) Inside Edge ( 2017 -- present ) The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel ( 2017 -- present ) Comrade Detective ( 2017 -- present ) Continuations Ripper Street ( series 3 -- 5 ; 2014 -- 16 ) Children 's programming Creative Galaxy ( 2013 -- present ) Tumble Leaf ( 2014 -- present ) Gortimer Gibbon 's Life on Normal Street ( 2014 -- 16 ) Just Add Magic ( 2015 -- present ) Annedroids ( 2015 -- present ) Wishenpoof ! ( 2015 -- present ) Danger & Eggs ( 2015 -- present ) Niko and the Sword of Light ( 2015 -- present ) The Stinky & Dirty Show ( 2015 -- present ) The Kicks ( 2015 -- present ) Little Big Awesome ( 2016 -- present ) Lost In Oz ( 2017 -- present ) Upcoming Britannia ( 2018 ) Works by Philip K. Dick Novels Gather Yourselves Together ( 1950 ) Voices from the Street ( 1952 ) Solar Lottery ( 1954 ) Mary and the Giant ( 1954 ) The World Jones Made ( 1954 ) Eye in the Sky ( 1955 ) The Man Who Japed ( 1955 ) A Time for George Stavros ( 1956 ) Pilgrim on the Hill ( 1956 ) The Broken Bubble ( 1956 ) The Cosmic Puppets ( 1957 ) Puttering About in a Small Land ( 1957 ) Nicholas and the Higs ( 1958 ) Time Out of Joint ( 1958 ) In Milton Lumky Territory ( 1958 ) Confessions of a Crap Artist ( 1959 ) The Man Whose Teeth Were All Exactly Alike ( 1960 ) Humpty Dumpty in Oakland ( 1960 ) Vulcan 's Hammer ( 1960 ) Dr. Futurity ( 1960 ) The Man in the High Castle ( 1961 ) We Can Build You ( 1962 ) Martian Time - Slip ( 1962 ) Dr. Bloodmoney , or How We Got Along After the Bomb ( 1963 ) The Game - Players of Titan ( 1963 ) The Simulacra ( 1963 ) The Crack in Space ( 1963 ) Clans of the Alphane Moon ( 1964 ) The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch ( 1964 ) The Zap Gun ( 1964 ) The Penultimate Truth ( 1964 ) The Unteleported Man ( 1964 ) The Ganymede Takeover ( 1965 ) Counter-Clock World ( 1965 ) Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep ? ( 1966 ) Nick and the Glimmung ( 1966 ) Now Wait for Last Year ( 1966 ) Ubik ( 1966 ) Galactic Pot - Healer ( 1968 ) A Maze of Death ( 1968 ) Our Friends from Frolix 8 ( 1969 ) Flow My Tears , the Policeman Said ( 1974 ) Deus Irae ( 1976 ) Radio Free Albemuth ( 1976 ; published 1985 ) A Scanner Darkly ( 1977 ) VALIS ( 1981 ) The Divine Invasion ( 1981 ) The Transmigration of Timothy Archer ( 1982 ) The Owl in Daylight ( unfinished ) Collections A Handful of Darkness ( 1955 ) The Variable Man ( 1956 ) The Preserving Machine ( 1969 ) The Book of Philip K. Dick ( 1973 ) The Best of Philip K. Dick ( 1977 ) The Golden Man ( 1980 ) Robots , Androids , and Mechanical Oddities ( 1984 ) I Hope I Shall Arrive Soon ( 1985 ) The Collected Stories of Philip K. Dick ( 1987 ) Beyond Lies the Wub ( 1988 ) The Dark Haired Girl ( 1989 ) The Father - Thing ( 1989 ) Second Variety ( 1989 ) The Days of Perky Pat ( 1990 ) The Little Black Box ( 1990 ) The Short Happy Life of the Brown Oxford ( 1990 ) We Can Remember It for You Wholesale ( 1990 ) The Minority Report ( 1991 ) Second Variety ( 1991 ) The Eye of the Sibyl ( 1992 ) The Philip K. Dick Reader ( 1997 ) Minority Report ( 2002 ) Selected Stories of Philip K. Dick ( 2002 ) Paycheck ( 2004 ) Vintage PKD ( 2006 ) Short stories `` Beyond Lies the Wub '' ( 1952 ) `` The Gun '' ( 1952 ) `` The Skull '' ( 1952 ) `` The Little Movement '' ( 1952 ) `` The Defenders '' ( 1953 ) `` Mr. Spaceship '' ( 1953 ) `` Piper in the Woods '' ( 1953 ) `` Roog '' ( 1953 ) `` The Infinites '' ( 1953 ) `` Second Variety '' ( 1953 ) `` Colony '' ( 1953 ) `` The Cookie Lady '' ( 1953 ) `` Impostor '' ( 1953 ) `` Paycheck '' ( 1953 ) `` The Preserving Machine '' ( 1953 ) `` Expendable '' ( 1953 ) `` The Indefatigable Frog '' ( 1953 ) `` The Commuter '' ( 1953 ) `` Out in the Garden '' ( 1953 ) `` The Great C '' ( 1953 ) `` The King of the Elves '' ( 1953 ) `` The Trouble with Bubbles '' ( 1953 ) `` The Variable Man '' ( 1953 ) `` Planet for Transients '' ( 1953 ) `` The Builder '' ( 1953 ) `` Tony and the Beetles '' ( 1953 ) `` Prize Ship '' ( 1954 ) `` Beyond the Door '' ( 1954 ) `` The Crystal Crypt '' ( 1954 ) `` The Short Happy Life of the Brown Oxford '' ( 1954 ) `` The Golden Man '' ( 1954 ) `` Sales Pitch '' ( 1954 ) `` Breakfast at Twilight '' ( 1954 ) `` The Crawlers '' ( 1954 ) `` Exhibit Piece '' ( 1954 ) `` Adjustment Team '' ( 1954 ) `` Shell Game '' ( 1954 ) `` Meddler '' ( 1954 ) `` A World of Talent '' ( 1954 ) `` The Last of the Masters '' ( 1954 ) `` Upon the Dull Earth '' ( 1954 ) `` The Father - thing '' ( 1954 ) `` Strange Eden '' ( 1954 ) `` The Turning Wheel '' ( 1954 ) `` Foster , You 're Dead ! '' ( 1955 ) `` Human Is '' ( 1955 ) `` War Veteran '' ( 1955 ) `` Captive Market '' ( 1955 ) `` Nanny '' ( 1955 ) `` The Chromium Fence '' ( 1955 ) `` Service Call '' ( 1955 ) `` The Mold of Yancy '' ( 1955 ) `` Autofac '' ( 1955 ) `` Psi - man Heal My Child ! '' ( 1955 ) `` The Minority Report '' ( 1956 ) `` Pay for the Printer '' ( 1956 ) `` A Glass of Darkness '' ( 1956 ) `` The Unreconstructed M '' ( 1957 ) `` Null - O '' ( 1958 ) `` Explorers We '' ( 1959 ) `` Recall Mechanism '' ( 1959 ) `` Fair Game '' ( 1959 ) `` War Game '' ( 1959 ) `` All We Marsmen '' ( 1963 ) `` What 'll We Do with Ragland Park ? '' ( 1963 ) `` The Days of Perky Pat '' ( 1963 ) `` If There Were No Benny Cemoli '' ( 1963 ) `` Waterspider '' ( 1964 ) `` Novelty Act '' ( 1964 ) `` Oh , to Be a Blobel ! '' ( 1964 ) `` The War with the Fnools '' ( 1964 ) `` What the Dead Men Say '' ( 1964 ) `` Orpheus with Clay Feet '' ( 1964 ) `` Cantata 140 '' ( 1964 ) `` The Unteleported Man '' ( 1964 ) `` Retreat Syndrome '' ( 1965 ) `` Project Plowshare '' ( 1965 ) `` We Can Remember It for You Wholesale '' ( 1966 ) `` Faith of Our Fathers '' ( 1967 ) `` Not by Its Cover '' ( 1968 ) `` The Electric Ant '' ( 1969 ) `` A. Lincoln , Simulacrum '' ( 1969 ) `` The Pre-persons '' ( 1974 ) `` A Little Something for Us Tempunauts '' ( 1974 ) `` The Exit Door Leads In '' ( 1979 ) `` Rautavaara 's Case '' ( 1980 ) `` I Hope I Shall Arrive Soon '' ( 1980 ) `` The Eye of the Sibyl '' ( 1987 ) `` Stability '' ( 1987 ) Adaptations Films Blade Runner ( 1982 ) Total Recall ( 1990 ) Confessions d'un Barjo ( 1992 ) Screamers ( 1995 ) Impostor ( 2002 ) Minority Report ( 2002 ) Paycheck ( 2003 ) A Scanner Darkly ( 2006 ) Next ( 2007 ) Screamers : The Hunting ( 2009 ) Radio Free Albemuth ( 2010 ) The Adjustment Bureau ( 2011 ) Total Recall ( 2012 ) 2036 : Nexus Dawn ( 2017 ) 2048 : Nowhere to Run ( 2017 ) Blade Runner Black Out 2022 ( 2017 ) Blade Runner 2049 ( 2017 ) TV series Total Recall 2070 ( 1999 ) The Man in the High Castle ( 2015 -- present ) Minority Report ( 2015 ) Philip K. Dick 's Electric Dreams ( 2017 ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Man_in_the_High_Castle_(TV_series)&oldid=805946337 '' Categories : 2010s American drama television series 2015 American television series debuts Alternate history television series Amazon Video original programming Dystopian television series Fictional states of the United States Nazism in fiction Television programs based on works by Philip K. Dick Television series by Scott Free Productions Television series produced in British Columbia Television series set in 1962 Television shows set in Colorado Television shows set in New York City Television shows set in San Francisco World War II alternate histories Hidden categories : CS1 German - language sources ( de ) Use American English from December 2015 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from May 2017 Articles containing German - language text Pages using infobox television with editor parameter Articles containing Japanese - language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2017 Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia Pages using small with an empty input parameter Talk Contents About Wikipedia Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano עברית 日本 語 Polski Português Русский Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 18 October 2017 , at 17 : 17 . 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what month has the most rain in florida

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Climate_of_Florida&oldid=832705903

Climate of Florida - wikipedia Climate of Florida Jump to : navigation , search Köppen climate classification types of Florida The climate of the north and central parts of the US state of Florida is humid subtropical . South Florida has a tropical climate . There is a defined rainy season from May through October , when air mass thundershowers that build in the heat of the day drop heavy but brief summer rainfall . Late summer and early fall bring decaying tropical lows ( and occasionally landfalling tropical cyclones ) that contribute to late summer and early fall rains . In October the dry season sets in across much of Florida ( starting early in the month in northern Florida and near the end of the month in deep southern Florida ) and lasts until late April in most years . Fronts from mid-latitude storms north of Florida occasionally pass through northern and central parts of the state which bring light and brief winter rainfall . Mid and late winter can become severely dry in Florida . In some years the dry season becomes quite severe and water restrictions are imposed to conserve water . While most areas of Florida do not experience any type of frozen precipitation , northern Florida can see fleeting snow or sleet a few times each decade . The Gulf Stream running through the Florida Straits and then north off the Florida East Coast keeps temperatures moderate a few miles inland from around Stuart on the east coast to Ft . Myers on the west side of the state year round , with few extremes in temperature . The tropical ocean current also provides warm sea surface temperatures , giving Florida beaches the warmest ocean surf waters on the United States mainland . Contents ( hide ) 1 Pressure 2 Wind 2.1 African dust outbreaks 2.2 Winter 2.3 Summer 3 Fog 4 Precipitation 4.1 Averages 4.2 Extremes 4.3 Snowfall 5 Thunderstorms 5.1 Tornadoes 6 Tropical cyclones 7 Effect of climate cycles 8 Climates of selected Florida cities 9 See also 10 References 11 External links Pressure ( edit ) The low pressure measured from an extratropical cyclone was 28.84 inches / 976.7 hPa during the Storm of the Century ( 1993 ) . From a tropical cyclone , the lowest pressure measured was 26.35 inches / 892 hPa in the Florida Keys during the Labor Day Hurricane of 1935 . The highest known pressure measured statewide was 30.74 inches / 1041.1 hPa in Tallahassee on February 5 , 1996 and January 4 , 1979 . Wind ( edit ) Over the winter prevailing winds are out of the north across the panhandle south to near Orlando , but are variable in the rest of the state . The summer season sees generally east and southeast winds across the peninsula . During the summer months , the average wind pattern implies a surface ridge axis which normally lies across central Florida , with easterly winds from Tampa southward and southwest winds across northern Florida . The peak wind gust during the 1930 through 1997 period was 115 mph ( 100 knots ) at Miami International Airport during Hurricane Andrew . African dust outbreaks ( edit ) In July the trade winds south of the northward - moving subtropical ridge expand northwestward into Florida . On occasion , dust from the Sahara moving around the southern periphery of the ridge moves into the state , suppressing rainfall and changing the sky from a blue to a white appearance and leads to an increase in red sunsets . Its presence negatively impacts air quality across the Southeastern United States during the summer , by adding to the count of airborne particulates . This is in sharp contrast to the normally clean air over Florida and the southeastern USA , which on average is the cleanest air in the USA . Over 50 % of the African dust that reaches the United States affects Florida . Since 1970 , dust outbreaks have worsened due to periods of drought in Africa . There is a large variability in the dust transport to the Caribbean and Florida from year to year . Dust events are possibly linked to a decline in the health of coral reefs across the Caribbean and Florida , primarily since the 1970s . Winter ( edit ) Fall foliage in North Central Florida . On average , Florida has the mildest winters in the Continental United States . Average lows range from 65 ° F ( 18 ° C ) in Key West to near 41 ° F ( 5 ° C ) degrees Fahrenheit at Tallahassee , while daytime highs range from 64 ° F ( 18 ° C ) at Tallahassee to 77 ° F ( 25 ° C ) at Miami . Predominant tropical easterly winds across central and southern Florida keep temperatures warm during the winter . Occasional strong cold fronts move southward down the peninsula with freezing or near freezing temperatures on a few nights into inland areas of central Florida every few years . A few times each decade Miami might see a winter night fall below 45 F. El Niño winters tend to be cooler due to increased cloud cover , but tend to have fewer freezes . Four hardiness zones exist . USDA zone 11b is found in Key West and the Florida Keys where average extreme lows range from 40 to 50 ° F ( 4 to 10 ° C ) . Zone 10 is found in coastal South Florida where annual extreme low temperatures range from 30 to 40 ° F ( − 1 to 4 ° C ) , though parts of coastal Miami Beach are zone 11 . Next is zone 9b across interior central Florida , where low temperatures range from 25 to 30 ° F ( − 4 to − 1 ° C ) . The coolest , zone 8 , is located in northernwestern Florida from roughly Gainesville and northwest including Tallahassee . Low temperatures range from 10 to 20 ° F ( − 12 to − 7 ° C ) . Florida has experienced 12 major freezes . This includes four `` impact '' freezes , sufficiently severe to kill entire groves of citrus trees , resulting in a noticeable economic effect on citrus growers , prompting them to t groves further south in the state . These impact freezes are indicated by asterisks in the following : Great Freeze of 1894 - 5 * , February 13 -- 14 , 1899 , February 2 -- 6 , 1917 , December 12 -- 13 , 1934 , January 1940 , December 12 -- 13 , 1957 , December 12 -- 13 , 1962 * , January 18 -- 20 , 1977 , January 12 -- 14 , 1981 , December 24 -- 25 , 1983 * , January 20 -- 22 , 1985 , and December 22 -- 26 , 1989 * . Summer ( edit ) See also : Wet season Typical summer afternoon shower from the Everglades travelling eastward over Downtown Miami . During the summer , minimal range from near 70 ° F ( 21 ° C ) in northern Florida to near 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) in the Keys . High temperatures during the summer average in the lower 90s Fahrenheit statewide . Relief from the heat during the summer comes in the form of afternoon and evening thunderstorm activity , late morning and afternoon sea breezes off the relatively cooler ocean , and during the passage of a tropical cyclone . The passage of a cold front through the state is rare during the warm season . The record high temperature for the state is 109 ° F ( 43 ° C ) at Monticello in 1931 . Fog ( edit ) Like the remainder of the Southeastern United States , Florida has a winter maximum in dense fog conditions . Unlike the remainder of the region , the maximum in Florida contains roughly half of the annual occurrences per year , on average . Its summer minimum is less than the remainder of the Southeast . The annual number of heavy fog days ( with visibility of . 25 miles ( 0.40 km ) or less ) has ranged from 50 in Tallahassee , to 1 in Key West , the least foggy region in the state . The two types of fog that are most common in Florida are advection and radiational . Fog can be hazardous to early morning commuters . On January 9 , 2008 , when fog on Interstate 4 combined with smoke from a nearby fire , visibility was reduced to nearly zero . As a result , five individuals died in a 70 - car pileup . Precipitation ( edit ) Average Rainfall for Florida Averages ( edit ) See also : Dry season and Wet season Statewide , the highest rainfall amounts occur during the summer months . In northern Florida , there is a weak winter secondary maximum while statewide the driest months of the year are during the spring . During El Niño , Florida sees greater rainfall between November and March . Due to the lack of the secondary maximum across the peninsula , a distinct dry season is seen in the averages from winter through spring . This dry season provokes brush fires annually as temperatures rise during the late spring , before they fade during early June as the rainy season gets underway . Extremes ( edit ) Hurricane Easy 's Rainfall across the Southeastern United States The heaviest rainfall to occur in 24 hours was measured in Yankeetown during Hurricane Easy ( 1950 ) , 38.70 inches ( 98.3 cm ) . This is also the highest known point storm total maximum related to any tropical cyclone which has impacted Florida , and by itself would be the highest known rainfall total for any month from any location within Florida . This rainfall amount remained the national 24 - hour rainfall record until Tropical Storm Claudette ( 1979 ) . Heavy rainfall events have fallen due to stalled fronts near the state as well , and occur during the March through May and October through November timeframe . The wettest month recorded at a Florida climate station was during May 1891 when Gainesville , Florida received 30.90 inches ( 78.5 cm ) . The wettest year on record for a Florida climate station was during 1879 when 127.24 inches ( 323.2 cm ) fell at Pensacola , Florida . The driest year for a climate station statewide was during 1974 when only 19.99 inches ( 50.8 cm ) fell at Key West . One of the worst years for wildfires was in 1998 , at the end of an El Nino cycle . 480 wildfires consumed 500,000 acres ( 2,000 km ) statewide . In 2010 , the National Weather Service issued more fire alerts in Florida than anywhere else in the nation . A statewide drought began in November 2005 , one month after Hurricane Wilma 's passage through the state , and persisted until 2009 . The previous significant drought occurred in 2000 , which was the state 's driest year on record . Snowfall ( edit ) Main article : Snow in Florida Snow in Jacksonville on December 23 , 1989 Snowfall is rare in Florida . The earliest recorded occurrence of snow or sleet occurred in 1774 in the far northern portion of the state . The latest occurrence of snow or sleet in the spring fell on January 7 , 8 and 9 , 2010 , as a cold front brought scattered snow flurries in the northern and central portions of the state . The state record for snowfall is 5 inches ( 13 cm ) , set in northern Florida during January 1800 , though some debate exists about the accuracy . The earliest in the season that frozen precipitation has fallen was during the Late November 2006 Nor'easter on November 21 across central Florida . The latest in the season that snow or sleet has fallen was on April 8 , 2007 . Snow flurries has been recorded in the air as far south as Homestead , during a January 19 , 1977 event . Thunderstorms ( edit ) Florida reports more thunderstorms than any other US state . Some places report in excess of 90 thunderstorm days per year , making Florida one of the most thundery regions outside of the tropics . Florida receives the highest density of lightning strikes within the United States . Several deaths per year are blamed on lightning , making lightning one of the deadliest weather - related phenomenon in the state . However , since 1992 , the number of lightning deaths has been slowly dropping despite a rising population , suggesting that lightning awareness programs are effective . The most likely targets of lightning strikes are construction workers and others who work outside , though 12 percent of the cases occurred indoors to people using electronic devices . Severe thunderstorms can sometimes produce hail , very strong straight line winds and tornadoes . Very heavy rainfall from thunderstorms can result in flash flooding . Thunderstorms occur most often during the summer but can occur at any time of the year . Tornadoes ( edit ) There are more tornadoes per square mile in Florida than any other state . However , these tornadoes tend to be much weaker and short - lived than in other states like the Midwest or Great Plains . Strong tornadoes do occasionally form in Florida , usually in conjunctions with a cold frontal passage in the winter or spring . A total of 42 people died in February 1998 from the deadliest such tornado outbreak in Central Florida , which occurred during the nighttime hours . While tornadoes in the Midwest are more severe , a higher rate of deaths are experienced in Florida , and Brevard County , specifically , due to higher population density and quantity of manufactured homes . Tropical cyclones ( edit ) Hurricane Wilma ( 2005 ) Main article : List of Florida hurricanes The earliest in the year a tropical cyclone has struck the sunshine state was the Groundhog Day Tropical Storm in 1952 . The latest impact was from a hurricane which struck near Tampa on December 1 , 1925 . The strongest hurricane to strike Florida was the Labor Day Hurricane of 1935 . Hurricane Easy in 1950 produced the wettest known point total from any tropical cyclone . The record number of hurricane strikes on the state in one season is four in 2004 . Hurricanes typically spawn tornadoes within their northeast quadrant . Tropical cyclones have affected Florida in every month of the year but March . Nearly one - third of the cyclones affected the state in September , and nearly three - fourths of the storms affected the state between August and October , which coincides with the peak of the hurricane season . Portions of the coastline have the lowest return period , or the frequency at which a certain intensity or category of hurricane can be expected within 86 mi ( 139 km ) of a given location , in the country . Monroe County was struck by 26 hurricanes since 1926 , which is the greatest total for any county in the United States . Effect of Climate cycles ( edit ) El Niño has the following effects on Florida climate : above average rainfall in the spring . This is followed by wildfire threat when rain dries up . Northern Florida is more susceptible to severe weather ; below normal temperatures , increased number of low pressure systems in the Gulf of Mexico during the winter , and `` almost always '' reduces the frequency of storms and hurricanes . La Niña has the following effects : often dry conditions prevail in late fall , winter and early spring , increased risk of wildfires in spring and summer months , the temperatures average slightly above normal , and the chance of hurricane activity increases substantially . Long term forecasts are made based on these effects . However , they are easily overridden , in winter , by the Arctic oscillation and North Atlantic oscillations , which can only be predicted about two weeks in advance . These can drop the temperature noticeably from seasonal norms . Climates of selected Florida cities ( edit ) The climate regime for much of the state is humid subtropical ( Köppen Cfa ) , though portions of the Gold Coast of southeast Florida , as well as all of the Florida Keys , qualify as tropical wet - and - dry ( Köppen Aw ) . A narrow eastern part of the state including Orlando and Jacksonville receives between 2,400 and 2,800 hours of sunshine annually . The rest of the state , including Miami , receives between 2,800 and 3,200 hours annually . ( hide ) Climate data for Pensacola , Florida Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high ° F ( ° C ) 61.2 ( 16.2 ) 64.4 ( 18 ) 70.2 ( 21.2 ) 76.2 ( 24.6 ) 83.4 ( 28.6 ) 89.0 ( 31.7 ) 90.7 ( 32.6 ) 90.1 ( 32.3 ) 87.0 ( 30.6 ) 79.3 ( 26.3 ) 70.3 ( 21.3 ) 63.4 ( 17.4 ) 77.1 ( 25.1 ) Average low ° F ( ° C ) 42.7 ( 5.9 ) 45.4 ( 7.4 ) 51.7 ( 10.9 ) 57.6 ( 14.2 ) 65.8 ( 18.8 ) 72.1 ( 22.3 ) 74.5 ( 23.6 ) 74.2 ( 23.4 ) 70.4 ( 21.3 ) 59.6 ( 15.3 ) 51.1 ( 10.6 ) 44.7 ( 7.1 ) 59.2 ( 15.1 ) Average rainfall inches ( mm ) 5.34 ( 135.6 ) 4.68 ( 118.9 ) 6.40 ( 162.6 ) 3.89 ( 98.8 ) 4.40 ( 111.8 ) 6.39 ( 162.3 ) 8.02 ( 203.7 ) 6.85 ( 174 ) 5.75 ( 146 ) 4.13 ( 104.9 ) 4.46 ( 113.3 ) 3.97 ( 100.8 ) 64.28 ( 1,632.7 ) Source : NOAA ( hide ) Climate data for Tallahassee , Florida Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high ° F ( ° C ) 63.9 ( 17.7 ) 66.9 ( 19.4 ) 73.3 ( 22.9 ) 80.0 ( 26.7 ) 86.6 ( 30.3 ) 90.6 ( 32.6 ) 91.5 ( 33.1 ) 91.1 ( 32.8 ) 88.2 ( 31.2 ) 81.0 ( 27.2 ) 72.3 ( 22.4 ) 65.5 ( 18.6 ) 79.2 ( 26.2 ) Average low ° F ( ° C ) 39.8 ( 4.3 ) 41.8 ( 5.4 ) 47.4 ( 8.6 ) 53.2 ( 11.8 ) 61.9 ( 16.6 ) 69.2 ( 20.7 ) 71.7 ( 22.1 ) 71.8 ( 22.1 ) 68.5 ( 20.3 ) 57.1 ( 13.9 ) 46.8 ( 8.2 ) 41.2 ( 5.1 ) 55.9 ( 13.3 ) Average rainfall inches ( mm ) 4.37 ( 111 ) 4.86 ( 123.4 ) 5.72 ( 145.3 ) 3.74 ( 95 ) 4.27 ( 108.5 ) 7.11 ( 180.6 ) 8.27 ( 210.1 ) 7.33 ( 186.2 ) 5.43 ( 137.9 ) 3.17 ( 80.5 ) 3.34 ( 84.8 ) 4.18 ( 106.2 ) 61.79 ( 1,569.5 ) Source : Florida Climate Center ( hide ) Climate data for Jacksonville , Florida Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high ° F ( ° C ) 65.1 ( 18.4 ) 67.8 ( 19.9 ) 73.6 ( 23.1 ) 79.7 ( 26.5 ) 85.8 ( 29.9 ) 89.8 ( 32.1 ) 91.9 ( 33.3 ) 90.8 ( 32.7 ) 87.1 ( 30.6 ) 80.3 ( 26.8 ) 73.0 ( 22.8 ) 66.5 ( 19.2 ) 79.3 ( 26.3 ) Average low ° F ( ° C ) 42.5 ( 5.8 ) 44.9 ( 7.2 ) 50.2 ( 10.1 ) 55.9 ( 13.3 ) 63.7 ( 17.6 ) 70.2 ( 21.2 ) 72.8 ( 22.7 ) 72.7 ( 22.6 ) 70.1 ( 21.2 ) 60.8 ( 16 ) 50.7 ( 10.4 ) 44.0 ( 6.7 ) 58.2 ( 14.6 ) Average rainfall inches ( mm ) 3.03 ( 77 ) 3.42 ( 86.9 ) 3.72 ( 94.5 ) 2.82 ( 71.6 ) 3.40 ( 86.4 ) 5.99 ( 152.1 ) 6.57 ( 166.9 ) 7.23 ( 183.6 ) 7.83 ( 198.9 ) 3.92 ( 99.6 ) 1.90 ( 48.3 ) 2.61 ( 66.3 ) 62.44 ( 1,586 ) Source : Florida Climate Center ( hide ) Climate data for Orlando , Florida Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high ° F ( ° C ) 71.8 ( 22.1 ) 73.9 ( 23.3 ) 78.8 ( 26 ) 83.0 ( 28.3 ) 88.2 ( 31.2 ) 91.0 ( 32.8 ) 92.2 ( 33.4 ) 92.0 ( 33.3 ) 90.3 ( 32.4 ) 85.0 ( 29.4 ) 78.9 ( 26.1 ) 73.3 ( 22.9 ) 83.2 ( 28.4 ) Average low ° F ( ° C ) 49.9 ( 9.9 ) 51.3 ( 10.7 ) 55.9 ( 13.3 ) 59.9 ( 15.5 ) 65.9 ( 18.8 ) 71.3 ( 21.8 ) 72.6 ( 22.6 ) 73.0 ( 22.8 ) 71.9 ( 22.2 ) 65.5 ( 18.6 ) 58.7 ( 14.8 ) 52.6 ( 11.4 ) 62.4 ( 16.9 ) Average rainfall inches ( mm ) 2.43 ( 61.7 ) 2.35 ( 59.7 ) 3.54 ( 89.9 ) 2.42 ( 61.5 ) 3.74 ( 95 ) 7.35 ( 186.7 ) 7.15 ( 181.6 ) 6.25 ( 158.8 ) 5.76 ( 146.3 ) 2.73 ( 69.3 ) 2.32 ( 58.9 ) 2.31 ( 58.7 ) 48.35 ( 1,228.1 ) Source : Florida Climate Center ( hide ) Climate data for Tampa , Florida Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high ° F ( ° C ) 70.1 ( 21.2 ) 71.6 ( 22 ) 76.3 ( 24.6 ) 80.6 ( 27 ) 86.3 ( 30.2 ) 88.9 ( 31.6 ) 89.7 ( 32.1 ) 90.0 ( 32.2 ) 89.0 ( 31.7 ) 84.1 ( 28.9 ) 78.0 ( 25.6 ) 72.0 ( 22.2 ) 81.4 ( 27.4 ) Average low ° F ( ° C ) 52.4 ( 11.3 ) 53.8 ( 12.1 ) 58.5 ( 14.7 ) 62.4 ( 16.9 ) 68.9 ( 20.5 ) 74.0 ( 23.3 ) 75.3 ( 24.1 ) 75.4 ( 24.1 ) 74.3 ( 23.5 ) 67.6 ( 19.8 ) 60.7 ( 15.9 ) 54.7 ( 12.6 ) 64.8 ( 18.2 ) Average rainfall inches ( mm ) 2.27 ( 57.7 ) 2.67 ( 67.8 ) 2.84 ( 72.1 ) 1.80 ( 45.7 ) 2.85 ( 72.4 ) 5.50 ( 139.7 ) 6.49 ( 164.8 ) 7.60 ( 193 ) 6.54 ( 166.1 ) 2.29 ( 58.2 ) 1.62 ( 41.1 ) 2.30 ( 58.4 ) 44.77 ( 1,137.2 ) Source : Florida Climate Center ( hide ) Climate data for Miami , Florida Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high ° F ( ° C ) 75.7 ( 24.3 ) 77.0 ( 25 ) 79.7 ( 26.5 ) 82.7 ( 28.2 ) 85.9 ( 29.9 ) 88.3 ( 31.3 ) 89.6 ( 32 ) 89.9 ( 32.2 ) 88.4 ( 31.3 ) 85.1 ( 29.5 ) 80.6 ( 27 ) 76.9 ( 24.9 ) 83.3 ( 28.5 ) Average low ° F ( ° C ) 59.6 ( 15.3 ) 60.9 ( 16.1 ) 64.3 ( 17.9 ) 68.1 ( 20.1 ) 72.2 ( 22.3 ) 75.1 ( 23.9 ) 76.5 ( 24.7 ) 76.8 ( 24.9 ) 75.9 ( 24.4 ) 72.4 ( 22.4 ) 67.7 ( 19.8 ) 61.8 ( 16.6 ) 69.2 ( 20.7 ) Average rainfall inches ( mm ) 1.80 ( 45.7 ) 2.12 ( 53.8 ) 2.49 ( 63.2 ) 3.20 ( 81.3 ) 5.91 ( 150.1 ) 9.33 ( 237 ) 6.24 ( 158.5 ) 7.97 ( 202.4 ) 9.11 ( 231.4 ) 6.95 ( 176.5 ) 2.92 ( 74.2 ) 1.95 ( 49.5 ) 59.97 ( 1,523.2 ) Source : Florida Climate Center ( hide ) Climate data for Key West , Florida Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high ° F ( ° C ) 74.7 ( 23.7 ) 75.7 ( 24.3 ) 78.7 ( 25.9 ) 81.7 ( 27.6 ) 85.2 ( 29.6 ) 88.0 ( 31.1 ) 89.4 ( 31.9 ) 89.6 ( 32 ) 88.2 ( 31.2 ) 84.7 ( 29.3 ) 80.0 ( 26.7 ) 76.1 ( 24.5 ) 82.7 ( 28.2 ) Average low ° F ( ° C ) 64.7 ( 18.2 ) 65.6 ( 18.7 ) 68.7 ( 20.4 ) 72.0 ( 22.2 ) 75.7 ( 24.3 ) 78.4 ( 25.8 ) 79.6 ( 26.4 ) 79.4 ( 26.3 ) 78.4 ( 25.8 ) 75.7 ( 24.3 ) 71.2 ( 21.8 ) 66.6 ( 19.2 ) 73.0 ( 22.8 ) Average rainfall inches ( mm ) 1.96 ( 49.8 ) 1.60 ( 40.6 ) 1.66 ( 42.2 ) 1.82 ( 46.2 ) 3.07 ( 78 ) 4.61 ( 117.1 ) 3.69 ( 93.7 ) 5.30 ( 134.6 ) 6.55 ( 166.4 ) 5.02 ( 127.5 ) 2.49 ( 63.2 ) 2.04 ( 51.8 ) 39.83 ( 1,011.7 ) Source : Florida Climate Center See also ( edit ) Climate Climatology List of wettest known tropical cyclones in Florida Climate of Miami Climate of the Tampa Bay Area References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Köppen Classification Map , clearly showing South Florida has a true tropical climate ( image will take a few seconds to load ) ^ Jump up to : National Weather Service Forecast Office Tallahassee , Florida . Tallahassee Weather Extremes . Retrieved on June 3 , 2007 . Archived October 14 , 2006 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Eric . S. Blake , Edward N. Rappaport , and Christopher W. Landsea . The Deadliest , Costliest , and Most Intense United States Tropical Cyclones from 1851 to 2006 ( AND OTHER FREQUENTLY REQUESTED HURRICANE FACTS ) . Retrieved on June 3 , 2007 . Jump up ^ National Climatic Data Center . Climatic Wind Data for the United States . Retrieved on June 2 , 2007 . Archived June 13 , 2007 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Science Daily . African Dust Called A Major Factor Affecting Southeast U.S. Air Quality . Retrieved on June 10 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Science Daily . Microbes And The Dust They Ride In On Pose Potential Health Risks . Retrieved on June 10 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Usinfo.state.gov . Study Says African Dust Affects Climate in U.S. , Caribbean . Archived June 20 , 2007 , at the Wayback Machine . Retrieved on June 10 , 2007 . Jump up ^ U.S. Geological Survey . Coral Mortality and African Dust . Retrieved on June 10 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Southeast Regional Climate Center . Tallahassee WSO AP Averages from 1948 - 2005 . Archived March 1 , 2007 , at the Wayback Machine . Retrieved on June 2 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Southeast Regional Climate Center . Key West WSO AP Averages from 1948 - 2005 . Archived September 27 , 2007 , at the Wayback Machine . Retrieved on June 2 , 2007 . ^ Jump up to : South Florida Water Management District . EL NINO IN SOUTH FLORIDA . Retrieved on June 2 , 2007 . Archived September 16 , 2007 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Kridler , Chris ( March 5 , 2011 ) . `` Freeze frazzled ? Seek hardier plants '' . Florida Today . Melbourne , Florida . pp. 1D . Jump up ^ `` Timeline of major Florida freezes '' . Florida Today . Melbourne , Florida . January 15 , 2017 . pp. 14A . Retrieved January 15 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Southeast Regional Climate Center . Historical Climate Summaries for Florida . Retrieved on June 2 , 2007 . Jump up ^ National Climatic Data Center . `` State Climate Extremes Committee ( SCsEC ) '' . Retrieved 2015 - 02 - 14 . Jump up ^ Gloria Forthun , M.B. Johnson , W.G. Schmitz , and J. Blume. Trends in Fog Frequency and Duration in the Southeast United States . Retrieved on June 7 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Michael Mogil and Kristen L. Seaman . Florida 's Climate and Weather . Retrieved on 2012 - 16 - 03 . ^ Jump up to : David Roth . Tropical Cyclone Point Maxima . Retrieved on June 2 , 2007 . Jump up ^ David Roth . Hurricane Easy ( 1950 ) Rainfall Graphic . Retrieved on June 2 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Florida Climate Center . Gainesville Precipitation Data . Retrieved on June 2 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Florida Climate Center . Pensacola Precipitation Data . Retrieved on June 2 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Florida Climate Center . Key West Precipitation Data . Retrieved on June 2 , 2007 . ^ Jump up to : Waymer , Jim ( March 11 , 2010 ) . `` Casualties of cold enhance fire fear '' . Melbourne , Florida : Florida Today . pp. 3A . Archived from the original on March 14 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Knapp , Andrew ( February 28 , 2011 ) . `` Wildfire alerts get stricted '' . Florida Today . Melbourne , Florida . pp. 1A . Jump up ^ Travis Reed. Drought Saps Fla . Growers , Golf Courses Retrieved on June 2 , 2007 . Jump up ^ NOAA . SEVERE DROUGHT CONDITIONS / FIRE DANGER LIKELY TO PERSIST THROUGHOUT CENTRAL FLORIDA . Retrieved on June 2 , 2007 . Jump up ^ T. Frederick Davis ( 1908 ) . `` Climatology of Jacksonville , Fla. and Vicinity '' ( PDF ) . U.S. Weather Bureau . Retrieved March 9 , 2008 . Jump up ^ ( 1 ) Archived January 11 , 2010 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ George Winterling ( December 4 , 2003 ) . Snow on the First Coast . Archived June 12 , 2007 , at the Wayback Machine . Retrieved on 2007 - 01 - 22 . Jump up ^ Local6.com . Snow Falls In Central Florida . Archived September 30 , 2007 , at the Wayback Machine . Retrieved on November 26 , 2006 . Jump up ^ National Weather Service Forecast Office Tallahassee , Florida . Florida 's Top 10 Weather Events of the 20th Century . Retrieved on June 3 , 2007 . Archived October 14 , 2006 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Charles H. Paxton , J. Colson and N. Carlisle ( 2008 ) . `` P2. 13 Florida lightning deaths and injuries 2004 - 2007 '' . American Meteorological Society . Retrieved September 5 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Top Ten Tornado Lists '' , tornadoproject.com , archived from the original on February 4 , 2012 Jump up ^ Average Annual Number of Tornadoes , 1991 - 2010 . Downloaded Sunday , 4 August 2013 18 : 25 : 05 EDT . Last Updated Monday , 20 May 2013 10 : 45 : 01 EDT . From National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Jump up ^ United States Department of Commerce ( June 1998 ) . `` Service Assessment : Central Florida Tornado Outbreak February 22 -- 23 , 1998 '' ( PDF ) . National Weather Service . Retrieved September 5 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Study : Florida # 1 In Tornadoes and Deaths '' . Brevard Times . Cocoa Beach , Florida . June 16 , 2014 . Archived from the original on March 10 , 2016 . Jump up ^ National Hurricane Center . Atlantic Tracks File 1851 - 2006 . Retrieved on June 2 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory , Hurricane Research Division ( October 4 , 2006 ) . `` Frequently Asked Questions : Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes ? '' . NOAA . Archived from the original on September 14 , 2009 . Retrieved July 25 , 2006 . Jump up ^ National Hurricane Center ( 2006 ) . `` Tropical Cyclone Climatology '' . Retrieved October 2 , 2007 . ^ Jump up to : Florida Disaster Management accessed March 9 , 2008 Archived December 9 , 2007 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Rice , Doyle ( December 28 , 2010 ) . `` Winter `` wild card '' in play `` . Melbourne , Florida : Florida Today . pp. 4A . Jump up ^ `` united states annual sunshine map '' . HowStuffWorks , Inc . Archived from the original on April 29 , 2011 . Retrieved March 14 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Pensacola Climate Normals '' . National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . Jump up ^ `` Tallahassee Climate Normals '' . Florida Climate Center . Jump up ^ `` Jacksonville Climate Normals '' . Florida Climate Center . Jump up ^ `` Orlando Climate Normals '' . Florida Climate Center . Archived from the original on June 19 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Tampa Climate Normals '' . Florida Climate Center . Archived from the original on June 19 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Miami Climate Normals '' . Florida Climate Center . Jump up ^ `` Key West Climate Normals '' . Florida Climate Center . 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when is made in chelsea available on 4od

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Made_in_Chelsea&oldid=837506591

Made in Chelsea - wikipedia Made in Chelsea Jump to : navigation , search Made in Chelsea Genre Reality television Opening theme `` Punching in a Dream '' by The Naked and Famous ( series 1 ) `` Midnight City '' by M83 ( series 2 , 4 -- present ) `` New France '' by Orbital ( series 3 ) Country of origin United Kingdom Original language ( s ) English No. of series 15 ( plus 4 spin - offs ) No. of episodes 174 ( list of episodes ) Production Executive producer ( s ) Sarah Dillistone David Granger Kelly Lynn Location ( s ) Chelsea , London Running time 60 minutes Production company ( s ) Monkey Kingdom Release Original network E4 Picture format 16 : 9 ( HDTV ) Original release 9 May 2011 ( 2011 - 05 - 09 ) -- present External links Website Made in Chelsea ( abbreviated MIC ) is a BAFTA award - winning , structured - reality television series broadcast by E4 in the United Kingdom . Made in Chelsea chronicles the lives of affluent young people in the West London and South West areas of Belgravia , Kings Road , Chelsea and Knightsbridge , as well as their travels to other locations including Dubai , Finland , Marrakech , Verbier , Saint - Tropez , Venice , New York City , Barbados , Los Angeles , Las Vegas , the South of France and Ibiza . Contents ( hide ) 1 Series 1.1 Series 1 ( 2011 ) 1.2 Series 2 ( 2011 ) 1.3 Series 3 ( 2012 ) 1.4 Series 4 ( 2012 ) 1.5 Series 5 ( 2013 ) 1.6 Series 6 ( 2013 ) 1.7 Series 7 ( 2014 ) 1.8 NYC ( 2014 ) 1.9 Series 8 ( 2014 ) 1.10 Series 9 ( 2015 ) 1.11 LA ( 2015 ) 1.12 Series 10 ( 2015 ) 1.13 Series 11 ( 2016 ) 1.14 South of France ( 2016 ) 1.15 Series 12 ( 2016 ) 1.16 Series 13 ( 2017 ) 1.17 Ibiza ( 2017 ) 1.18 Series 14 ( 2017 ) 1.19 Series 15 ( 2018 ) 2 Cast 2.1 Other appearances 2.2 Royal links 3 Reception 4 Made in Chelsea : The Game 5 Mad on Chelsea 6 Live in Chelsea 7 Played in Chelsea 8 Educating Binky 9 MIC : FIT 10 In Bed With Jamie 11 Jamie Laing 's Happy Hour 12 DVD release 13 International 14 See also 15 References Series ( edit ) Main article : List of Made in Chelsea episodes Year Series Number of episodes Average viewers 2011 Series 1 8 655,000 Series 2 10 598,000 2012 Series 3 10 784,000 Series 4 11 711,000 2013 Series 5 11 897,000 Series 6 11 919,000 2014 Series 7 11 1,138,000 NYC 6 1,022,000 Series 8 11 962,000 2015 Series 9 11 814,000 LA 6 874,000 Series 10 11 842,000 2016 Series 11 11 891,000 South of France 6 768,000 Series 12 11 768,000 2017 Series 13 11 821,000 Ibiza 6 774,000 Series 14 11 707,000 2018 Series 15 11 Series 8 's average figure for the ten episodes where the viewing figures were available . Series 1 ( 2011 ) ( edit ) Main article : Made in Chelsea ( series 1 ) The first series began airing on 9 May 2011 on E4 . The series concluded on 27 June 2011 after 8 episodes . The show was first announced in April 2011 and was described as a `` fly - on - the - wall - drama '' . Filming for the series took place between January and May 2011 , with the first full - length trailer airing 28 April 2011 . This series includes Spencer Matthews and Funda 's turbulent relationship coming to an end after his childhood sweetheart Caggie comes back into his life , Hugo Taylor being torn between two women ; Millie and Rosie , and best friends Francis and Fredrik both realising they 've fallen for the same girl . It also features the breakdown of Ollie and Gabriella 's relationship as he eventually has the courage to come out as bisexual . The DVD for the series was released on 19 September 2011 and features all 8 episodes . Series 2 ( 2011 ) ( edit ) Main article : Made in Chelsea ( series 2 ) The second series began airing on 19 September 2011 on E4 . The series concluded on 21 November 2011 after 10 episodes , however an end of season party episode aired on 28 November 2011 which was hosted by Rick Edwards and featured the cast members reuniting to discuss everything from the series . Filming for the series began on 29 July 2011 . This series featured the arrival of several new cast members including Alice Davidson , Chloe Green , Jamie Laing , Oliver Proudlock and Victoria Baker - Harber as well as the reintroduction of Louise Thompson , the ex-girlfriend of Spencer Matthews who briefly appeared during the first series . On 22 December 2011 , the show 's first Christmas special aired . The series included a rift forming between Binky and Cheska as they 're forced to pick sides with Gabriella and Ollie , Spencer breaking off his brief fling with Louise to chase after Caggie again , and the breakdown of Hugo and Millie 's relationship when it 's announced that both have cheated on each other , leading up to Millie exposing Hugo 's night with Rosie to a room full of guests . Series 3 ( 2012 ) ( edit ) Main article : Made in Chelsea ( series 3 ) The third series began airing on 2 April 2012 on E4 . The series concluded on 4 June 2012 after 10 episodes , however an end of season party episode aired on 11 June 2012 which was hosted by Rick Edwards and featured the cast members reuniting to discuss everything from the series . The series was confirmed on 21 November 2011 following the second series finale . This was the last series to feature original cast members Amber Atherton , Caggie Dunlop and Hugo Taylor , but also saw the introduction of new cast members Kimberley Garner , Natalie Joel and Richard Dinan . The series included a relationship blossoming between Kimberley and Richard until some interference from Cheska led to the discovery that she was living a double life . It also features a love triangle between Spencer , Jamie and Louise causing a drift between best friends , and Millie and Rosie finally rebuilding their friendship . Series 4 ( 2012 ) ( edit ) Main article : Made in Chelsea ( series 4 ) The fourth series began airing on 15 October 2012 on E4 . The series concluded on 17 December 2012 after 10 episodes , however a 60 - minute Christmas special episode aired immediately after the series on 24 December 2012 , which was then followed by an end of season special presented by Rick Edwards on 31 December 2012 featuring a reunion of the cast to discuss events from the series . The series saw the arrival of several new cast members including Andy Jordan , Ashley James , Carly Rothman , Sam Cussins , Sophia Sassoon , Stevie Johnson and Lucy Watson , as well as the departure of original cast members Fredrik Ferrier and Gabriella Ellis . This series also featured the long triangle between Sophia , Francis and Proudlock , the rivalry between Millie and Victoria increasing , the brief reconnection between Gabriella and Ollie , and the rocky relationship between Spencer and Louise until the revelation that he cheated on her . Series 5 ( 2013 ) ( edit ) Main article : Made in Chelsea ( series 5 ) The fifth series began airing on 8 April 2013 on E4 . The series concluded on 17 June 2013 after 11 episodes , however an end of season party episode aired on 24 June 2013 which was hosted by Rick Edwards and featured the cast members reuniting to discuss everything from the series . This was the first series to include new cast members Fran and Olivia Newman - Young , Phoebe Lettice - Thompson and Alex Mytton . It was the only series to feature Josh Acoombs and Oscar Ligenza , and the series saw the departures of original cast members Ollie Locke and Millie Mackintosh as well as Richard Dinan and Ashley James . The series included the end of Spencer and Louise 's relationship after the revelation that Spencer cheated , then both of their attempts to move on as Louise begins a new romance with Andy , and Spencer tries his luck with Lucy . It also featured Ashley struggling to come to terms with Ollie 's sexuality , Jamie realising he has feelings for Phoebe despite being in a relationship with Tara , and Francis and Proudlock once again competing for the same girl . Series 6 ( 2013 ) ( edit ) Main article : Made in Chelsea ( series 6 ) The sixth series began airing on 14 October 2013 on E4 . The series concluded on 16 December 2013 after 10 episodes , however a Christmas special episode aired immediately after the series on 23 December 2013 , which was then followed by an end of season special presented by Rick Edwards on 30 December 2013 featuring a reunion of the cast to discuss events from the series . This was the first series to feature new cast members Sam Thompson , Sophie Hermann and Stephanie Pratt , and was the final series to feature Olivia Newman - Young , Phoebe - Lettice Thompson , and original cast member Francis Boulle . The series featured the love blossoming between Jamie and Lucy despite obstacles in the form of Spencer and Phoebe , the breakdown of Andy and Louise 's relationship as many secrets are revealed , the rivalry between friends Fran and Phoebe as Phoebe discovers Fran has made a pass at her ex-boyfriend , and the start of the relationship for Alex and Binky . Series 7 ( 2014 ) ( edit ) Main article : Made in Chelsea ( series 7 ) The seventh series began airing on 7 April 2014 on E4 . The series concluded on 16 June 2014 after 11 episodes . This is notably the only series since Series 2 where it was n't followed by an End of Season reunion show . It is the first to feature new cast members Riley Uggla and Georgia `` Toff '' Toffolo and the only series to include Riley 's friend , Aurelie Mason - Perez and Ed `` Fordy '' Ford . The series included the rocky relationship between Alex and Binky after a number of revelations about Alex came to light , the isolation of Binky in her friendship group as none of them supported her decision to stay with Alex , a love triangle between Jamie , Lucy and Riley before Jamie realises he still has feelings for Lucy from their previous relationship with each other , and the brief romance between Stephanie and Stevie . NYC ( 2014 ) ( edit ) Main article : Made in Chelsea : NYC A spin off series entitled Made in Chelsea : NYC began airing on 10 August 2014 on E4 . The series concluded on 14 September 2014 after 6 episodes . It was announced on 18 March 2014 that the cast of Made in Chelsea would be travelling to New York City to film a special series of the show . Despite the series featuring all of the Chelsea cast , there were notable absences from Andy Jordan , Georgia `` Toff '' Toffolo and Sophie Hermann . A number of American cast members were introduced during this series including Alik Alfus , Billie Carroll and Jules Hamilton . It also included to brief return of original cast member Gabriella Ellis , who originally featured in the show from series one to four . Alik was the only one who remained as a cast member after this series . This series was also the last to feature original cast member Cheska Hull as well as Riley Uggla . The spin - off series included the love blossoming between Alik and Louise , the competition between Spencer and Stevie for Billie before Stevie 's ex-girlfriend Stephanie arrives , Alex attempting to make amends with people then leaving with more enemies than friends , and the revelation that Lucy and Proudlock have been hooking up . It was revealed that this would be a stand - alone series which would not be promoted as the eighth series . The eighth series in fact followed in October 2014 . Series 8 ( 2014 ) ( edit ) Main article : Made in Chelsea ( series 8 ) The eighth series began airing on 13 October 2014 on E4 . The series concluded on 15 December 2014 after 10 episodes . A Christmas special episode aired immediately after the series on 22 December 2014 , which was then followed by an end of season special presented by Rick Edwards on 29 December 2014 . This is the first series to feature new main cast members Josh Shepherd , Lauren Frazer - Hutton , Tiff Watson and Lonan O'Herlihy , and was the only series to include cast members George Amor and Will Colebrook after they did not return for the ninth series . Lauren was introduced as the new girlfriend of already established cast member Spencer Matthews , whilst Tiffany is the sister of Lucy Watson . The series focused on Spencer and Laurens relationship , an ongoing argument between Binky and Fran , the romance between Alik and Louise , and Sam attempting to win back Tiffany following several cheating allegations . Series 9 ( 2015 ) ( edit ) Main article : Made in Chelsea ( series 9 ) The ninth series began airing on 13 April 2015 on E4 . This series also featured the show 's 100th episode ; broadcast on 15 June 2015 . This series was the first series to include new cast members Emily Weller , Jess Woodley , Millie Wilkinson , Fleur Irving , Josh `` JP '' Patterson , Nicola Hughes , James Dunmore and Elliot Cross , and the last to include long running cast members Andy Jordan and Stevie Johnson , as well as Sophie Hermann , Fran Newman - Young and Lauren Frazer - Hutton . The series focused on blossoming relationships between James and Lucy , and Jamie and Jess , a rift forming between Lucy and Stephanie , and Spencer 's romance with Lauren hitting the rocks when he turns back to his old ways . LA ( 2015 ) ( edit ) Main article : Made in Chelsea : LA A spin off series entitled Made in Chelsea : LA was confirmed on 14 May 2015 . It was announced that the cast of Made in Chelsea would be travelling to Los Angeles to film a special series of the show . It was revealed that this would be a stand - alone series which would not be promoted as the tenth series . The tenth series will in fact follow in October 2015 . Filming for the spin - off began in late May 2015 and concluded in late - July . This is the second spin - off show filmed in America following the NYC special the previous year . The third episode of this series was filmed in Las Vegas . The six - episode series began on 10 August 2015 on E4 . It also featured the brief return of former cast member Gabriella Ellis , as well as the permanent return of Ollie Locke . It was the only series to include American cast members Olivia Fox and Naz Gharai , and the last to include Josh Shepherd . Whilst most of the Chelsea cast featured in this spin - off , there was notable absences from Elliot Cross , Oliver Proudlock , Millie Wilkinson , Nicola Hughes , Rosie Fortescue , Sam Thompson , Spencer Matthews , Tiff Watson and Victoria Baker - Harber . The series included the end of the relationship between Josh and Stephanie , Jamie starting a holiday romance with Naz before eventually realising he actually has feelings for Jess , and Binky opening up to JP about her growing love for him only for him to break things off completely . Series 10 ( 2015 ) ( edit ) Main article : Made in Chelsea ( series 10 ) The tenth series began airing on 19 October 2015 on E4 . The official trailer for the new series was released on 29 September 2015 confirming the start date . It concluded on 4 January 2016 following nine regular episodes , a Christmas special , a New Year special , and an End of Season party hosted by Rick Edwards . This series was the first to include new cast members Emma Walsh , Sam Harney , Tallulah Rufus Isaacs . Richard Dinan also returned to the series having last appeared during the fifth series , and Francis Boulle made a one - off return during the Christmas special . This was also the final series to include original cast member Spencer Matthews , long - running cast member Oliver Proudlock , as well as Millie Wilkinson and Emily Weller , who both made their debuts during the ninth series . The series focused heavily on Sam and Tiff 's rocky relationship coming to an end when Tiff admits to cheating on him during the summer and rumours of Sam cheating surface , until the pair eventually reunite . It also includes Louise and Alik attempting to make their long distance relationship work with obstacles in their way , Binky and JP finally making their relationship official despite commitment issues from his part , and Spencer causing further trouble by hooking up with Ollie 's latest love interest Emma . Series 11 ( 2016 ) ( edit ) Main article : Made in Chelsea ( series 11 ) The eleventh series was confirmed on 1 March 2016 to begin on 11 April 2016 on E4 and concluded on 27 June 2016 following eleven regular episodes and a `` The Aftermath '' special hosted by Rick Edwards . This is the first series not to feature original cast member Spencer Matthews following his departure during the previous series , as well as long running cast member Oliver Proudlock . Ahead of the series , it was confirmed that Jessica Dixon and Olivia Bentley had joined the series as new cast members , however Jessica only appeared in four episodes . They were joined by Frankie Gaff and Matt Draper mid-way through the series . This is the final series to feature long - serving cast member Lucy Watson , James Dunmore , Nicola Hughes , Millie Wilkinson and Tallulah Rufus - Isaacs . The series focused heavily on the fallout between Lucy and Stephanie and the consequences it had for the remaining cast , as well blossoming romance between Jamie and Frankie despite cheating allegations . It also featured Sam and Tiff 's turbulent relationship hit a number of obstacles , and the breakdown of Binky and JP 's relationship . South of France ( 2016 ) ( edit ) Main article : Made in Chelsea : South of France A spin off series entitled Made in Chelsea : South of France was confirmed on 8 June 2016 , and began airing on 1 August 2016 . and concluded after six episodes on 5 September 2016 . It was announced that the cast of Made in Chelsea would be travelling to Cannes to film a special series of the show . It was revealed that this would be a stand - alone series which would not be promoted as the twelfth series . The twelfth series followed in October 2016 . This is the third spin - off show filmed away from Chelsea following NYC in 2014 and LA in 2015 . The series featured the return of former cast member Francis Boulle . Whilst most of the Chelsea cast featured in this spin - off , there was notable absences from Josh `` JP '' Patterson , Richard Dinan and Rosie Fortescue . It is the only series to include French cast member Lukas Avalon , the last to include Louise 's ex-boyfriend Alik Alfus , and first to include her new boyfriend Ryan Libbey . The series focused heavily on the love triangle between Francis , Olivia and Toff before he finally chooses to be with Olivia causing bitterness for Toff , as well as both Jess and Ollie finding holiday romances . It also included the demise of Alex and Jamie 's long - term friendship as Jamie chose to believe Frankie over Alex following multiple revelations . Series 12 ( 2016 ) ( edit ) Main article : Made in Chelsea ( series 12 ) The twelfth series began airing on 10 October 2016 on E4 , and concluded on 26 December 2016 following eleven episodes and a `` Christmas Party '' special episode hosted by Rick Edwards . This series also featured the return of former cast members Fred Ferrier and Oliver Proudlock having last appeared in the fourth and tenth series respectively . New cast members for this series include Emily Blackwell , Julius Cowdrey and Nick Summerfield , as well as Akin Solanke - Caulker , who is the first black cast member to feature in the show . This is the final series to include Jess Woodley , after announcing her departure in February 2017 . This series focused heavily on the divide between the girls as Tiff and Toff 's ongoing feud continued , until they eventually made up much to the distress of Toff 's best friend Jess . It also included Binky testing the boundaries with her relationship with JP causing a confrontation between her friends as they offer her some tough love . As well as this , the start of Olivia and Fred 's new romance is included in this series , the new rivalry between Sam and Julius , and the strain on Louise and Ryan 's relationship taking toll . Series 13 ( 2017 ) ( edit ) Main article : Made in Chelsea ( series 13 ) The thirteenth series began on 20 March 2017 on E4 lasting for eleven episodes . Ahead of the series , cast members Binky Felstead and Josh `` JP '' Patterson announced they were expecting a child . On 14 February 2017 it was announced that Jess Woodley had quit the show having appeared since the ninth series . This was the first series to include new cast members Daisy Robins , Ella Willis , Harry Baron , Mimi Bouchard and Sam Prince . Love Island contestant Tina Stinnes also returned to the series having previously briefly appearing in the seventh series of the show . This was the final series to feature original cast member Alexandra `` Binky '' Felstead who made an announcement of her departure ahead of the final episode , as well as Josh `` JP '' Patterson and Ollie Locke , who also announced their departures from the show . This episode also included the one - off return of Francesa `` Cheska '' Hull as she attended Binky 's baby shower . It was also the last series to include cast members Akin Solanke - Caulker , Rosie Fortescue and Stephanie Pratt who did not return for fourteenth series . The series heavily focused on the rift between Jamie and Frankie following a number of obstacles getting in their way , the end of Olivia and Fredrik 's relationship when his attention sways elsewhere , and JP and Binky planning their future with the imminent arrival of their baby . It also included Louise and Ryan taking their relationship to the next step , and Julius and Ella facing difficulties whilst trying to earn each other 's trust . Ibiza ( 2017 ) ( edit ) Main article : Made in Chelsea : Ibiza A spin off series entitled Made in Chelsea : Ibiza was confirmed on 11 April 2017 and began on 31 July 2017 . It was announced that the cast of Made in Chelsea would be travelling to Ibiza to film a special series of the show . It was revealed that this would be a stand - alone series which would not be promoted as the fourteenth series . The cast for the series was revealed on 19 July 2017 , and only features some of the Made in Chelsea cast , with notable absences from Francis Boulle , Fredrik Ferrier and Oliver Proudlock . Despite announcing they 'd left the show , Alexandra `` Binky '' Felstead and Josh `` JP '' Patterson made a brief appearance during the third episode during a video chat with some of the cast . The series focused heavily on the final nail in the coffin for Sam T and Tiff 's turbulent relationship following their attempt at taking a break , as well as Jamie and Frankie both realising that they 're better off apart . It also included the rivalry between Olivia and Julius escalating , and Sam P betraying Toff one too many times . Series 14 ( 2017 ) ( edit ) Main article : Made in Chelsea ( series 14 ) The fourteenth series began on 9 October 2017 on E4 and concluded on 25 December 2017 following eleven episodes and a `` Christmas Ding Dong '' special episode hosted by Rick Edwards . This series featured the return of former cast members Sophie Hermann and Alik Alfus , having last appeared in the ninth series and South of France spin - off respectably . This was the only series to include new cast member Charlie Mills . Other new cast members include Digby Edgley , James Taylor , Sophie `` Habbs '' Habboo and Clementine Cuthbertson . It was the final series to include Daisy Robins , Emily Blackwell , Ella Willis and Julius Cowdrey following their unannounced departures during the series . Tiff Watson also announced that she had left the series and would not return for the fifteenth . The series focused heavily on the aftermath of Jamie and Frankie 's break - up as they both try to move on from each other , as well as Olivia 's new blossoming romance with Digby , and Louise and Ryan 's relationship hitting the rocks following the return of her ex-boyfriend Alik . It also included Tiff and Sam T finally accepting they 're better off apart . Series 15 ( 2018 ) ( edit ) Main article : Made in Chelsea ( series 15 ) The fifteenth series began on 12 March 2018 on E4 and will conclude on 21 May 2018 following eleven episodes . Ahead of the series it was announced that Tiff Watson had quit the show for good , having previously announced that she 'd just be taking a break . Stanley Johnson also made his first appearance during the first episode with Toff following their appearances together in the seventeenth series of I 'm a Celebrity ... Get Me Out of Here ! Cast ( edit ) Main article : List of Made in Chelsea cast members This is a list of cast members currently appearing in the show . Cast member Series Year Francis Boulle 1 -- 6 , 10 , SoF -- 2011 -- 13 , 2015 , 2016 -- Fredrik Ferrier 1 -- 4 , 12 -- 2011 -- 12 , 2016 -- Mark - Francis Vandelli 1 -- 2011 -- Louise Thompson 1 -- 2011 -- Jamie Laing 2 -- 2011 -- Oliver Proudlock 2 -- 10 , 12 -- 2011 -- 15 , 2016 -- Victoria Baker - Harber 2 -- 2011 -- Alex Mytton 5 -- 2013 -- Sam Thompson 6 -- 2013 -- Sophie Hermann 6 -- 9 , 14 -- 2013 -- 15 , 2017 -- Georgia `` Toff '' Toffolo 7 -- 2014 -- Alik Alfus NYC -- SoF , 14 -- 2014 -- 16 , 2017 -- Olivia Bentley 11 -- 2016 -- Frankie Gaff 11 -- 2016 -- Ryan Libbey SoF -- 2016 -- Mimi Bouchard 13 -- 2017 -- Sam Prince 13 -- 2017 -- Harry Baron 13 -- 2017 -- Digby Edgley 14 -- 2017 -- James Taylor 14 -- 2017 -- Sophie `` Habbs '' Haboo 14 -- 2017 -- Clementine Cuthbertson 14 -- 2017 -- Melissa Tattam 15 -- 2018 -- Ben Darby 15 -- 2018 -- Stanley Johnson 15 -- 2018 -- Other appearances ( edit ) As well as appearing in Made in Chelsea , some of the cast members have competed in other reality TV shows including Celebrity Big Brother , I 'm a Celebrity ... Get Me Out of Here ! , The Jump and Love Island . Celebrity Big Brother Ollie Locke -- Series 13 ( 2014 ) -- Third Stephanie Pratt -- Series 14 ( 2014 ) -- Evicted Sam Thompson - Series 20 ( 2017 ) -- Third Ashley James - Series 21 ( 2018 ) -- Evicted I 'm a Celebrity ... Get Me Out of Here ! Hugo Taylor -- Series 12 ( 2012 ) -- Fifth Spencer Matthews -- Series 15 ( 2015 ) -- Thirteenth ( withdrew ) Georgia `` Toff '' Toffolo -- Series 17 ( 2017 ) -- Winner The Jump Louise Thompson -- Series 2 ( 2015 ) -- Fourth Mark Francis Vandelli -- Series 3 ( 2016 ) -- Eighth ( withdrew ) Spencer Matthews -- Series 4 ( 2017 ) -- Winner Love Island Tina Stinnes -- Series 2 ( 2016 ) -- Dumped Royal links ( edit ) Hugo Taylor has been credited as one of the creators of the show , having originally created a pilot with an almost identical concept for MTV in 2008 before the programme was sold to E4 and Monkey Productions . Hugo had signed up many genuine socialites and high - society members who then dropped out when they realised being on the programme could affect their social standing . Princess Eugenie was being mooted to make a cameo but like many others she pulled out too . In 2008 Hugo was rumoured to be dating Princess Eugenie . He is also known to be friends with Chelsy Davy , the ex-girlfriend of Prince Harry . Out of the entire Made In Chelsea cast , Oliver Proudlock could be the most well connected among royal circles . As a schoolboy he attended Eton with younger cast members Spencer and Stevie ; however he graduated from the famous boarding school in the same year as Prince Harry . Proudlock shares many close friends with the Prince , including Viscount Erleigh ( also known as Julian Rufus Isaacs ) , Arthur Landon and Tom Inskip . James Matthews - whose family own luxury resort Eden Rock , St Barths - is the brother of former cast member Spencer . James , a former banker and an Old Etonian , dated Pippa Middleton 2012 and announced his engagement to her in 2016 , marrying her on May 20 , 2017 . This relationship was discussed in a conversation between Jamie and Spencer during an episode of series 5 . Spencer has been quoted in interviews as saying he knows `` most of the Royals '' . He is close friends with Dave Clark , the former boyfriend of Princess Beatrice . Cast member Richard Dinan is not only friends with Prince Harry but his cousin Cressida Bonas is an ex-girlfriend of the Prince . Reception ( edit ) The series has received mixed reviews from critics and has been heavily compared to The Only Way Is Essex , `` The participants are slimmer , sleeker , moneyed and honey - coloured than their Essex counterparts - but some things remain the same '' . Keith Watson of Metro said , `` What is it these fake reality soaps that proves so gruesomely addictive ? '' , and `` So there you go , just what you need in your life : pointless people . '' whilst Digital Spy said `` It 's all incredibly silly , but we 're already falling in love with it a little bit and it will fill a lovely TOWIE - shaped hole for the summer '' . The first series of the show was positive with viewers . The show drew 583,000 viewers with its first episode and this figure rose to 624,000 for the second episode with another 117,800 viewers watching the repeat an hour later . It also became the most tweeted show on Channel 4 for 2011 . The first series finale managed to draw in 718,000 viewers on its first showing and was the highest rated show on E4 for the entire day . The series managed a high of 791,000 viewers for its sixth episode . The show was renewed for a second series before the end of the first . E4 ′ s commissioning editor , David Williams , explained that `` the staggering amount of audience engagement has proven it to be a perfect fit for E4 ′ s young audience '' . The show managed to trend worldwide on Twitter during the first episode of the second series and carried on trending in the UK for twelve hours after the episode had ended . The third series broke records for the show when it premiered with over 900,000 viewers and reached over a million viewers for the ninth episode , achieving a series peak . The fifth series premiered with 956,000 viewers on 8 April 2013 . The series did not fall under 800,000 viewers each week , making it the most - viewed series since the show began . The sixth series showed viewing figures continue to grow with over 1.1 million viewers tuning in for the premiere of the seventh series in April 2014 . The show won its first BAFTA on 12 May 2013 at the 2013 BAFTAs in the Reality and Structured Factual Category . Series 7 became the first series of Made in Chelsea to average over 1 million viewers for each episode whereas spin - off series NYC had a series average of over 1 million viewers . Series 8 continued to attract large audiences for E4 , whilst 2015 's ninth series also proved successful . 2015 spin - off series `` LA '' also averaged at 874,000 viewers per episode and the tenth series had a series average of 841,000 . The first series broadcast in 2016 , series eleven , had a series average of 891,000 . This was the highest series average since series eight in 2014 . Made in Chelsea : the game ( edit ) An official app created by Channel 4 was made available to download in the fourth quarter of 2013 . A second version was made available to download for Android and iOS phones on 3 April 2014 . The synopsis of the game reads `` The Chelsea gang are back in town with a bang , for yet exciting adventures ! Enjoy a host of brand new story lines - as you once again play to become the ultimate socialite in the world of BAFTA - winning TV show Made in Chelsea . Party with even of the cast as you rise up the social ladder - with Stevie ( your new flatmate ) , Alex and Fran joining the ranks alongside the likes of Spencer , Proudlock and Binky '' . You get to choose what you want to wear with the help of Mark Francis and Victoria and you are able to wear the clothes that other members of the cast wear . Mad on Chelsea ( edit ) Mad on Chelsea is an online show discussing the antics having occurred in Made in Chelsea . It is shown on Channel 4 's online TV service 4oD . Series one was presented by stand - up comedian Jenny Beade , who usually greet two of the Chelsea cast to discuss , dissect and deliberate their latest happenings . She get the low down on the fans ' reactions to the weekly highs and lows of Chelsea life , as well as exploring the locations seen in the series . The first series corresponded with the beginning of series six , with each episode being made available to view through 4oD . A second series coincided with Made in Chelsea 's seventh series return , with each episode being uploaded 48 hours before each weekly episode of Made in Chelsea . The show took a new format ; it was no longer presented by Jenny Bede . Instead conversation was led by various cast members . Episode one of the second series was hosted by Made in Chelsea 's Andy and Spencer , whilst episode two featured Proudlock and Lucy , and episode three featured Cheska and Stevie . The online - show did not return for spin - off series NYC , nor did it return for any other future series ' . Live in Chelsea ( edit ) With the second series of Made in Chelsea a live spin - off concept called Live in Chelsea ( presented by Joel Dommett ) was launched . It involves members of the cast taking turns in front a camera to answer questions directly from the audience live . The show is being filmed in secret locations within Chelsea and being shown exclusively through the internet rather than TV -- using the ShowCaster platform . Played in Chelsea ( edit ) With the sixth series of Made in Chelsea a series of music gigs were launched with cast members presenting them . The gigs were made available for the public to attend through purchasing tickets . Four gigs were confirmed , with them taking place throughout November 2013 . E4 reads - Made in Chelsea , the BAFTA - winning E4 show that `` has the best soundtrack on TV '' ( The Guardian ) has always used the freshest music around and the series has an extensive following as the place to find the best new tunes on television . To celebrate six series of great music in Chelsea we are launching Played In Chelsea -- a season of four gigs on 5th , 10 , 20 and 26 November 2013 . Staged at Under the Bridge in Chelsea , these gigs will be streamed live on the E4 website as well as being made available as a highlights show later in the week on the Channel 4 catch up platform 4oD . Each night of Played in Chelsea was hosted by two of the Made in Chelsea cast and featured three different bands , all of which have featured on Made in Chelsea . Educating Binky ( edit ) Educating Binky is a series of short episodes available to watch on Channel 4 's online service 4oD . Made in Chelsea 's Mark Francis takes fellow cast member Binky Felstead on a tour of London to educate her in the ways of high - end style . As of 29 December 2014 , a total of eight episodes have been made available to watch on the online platform . MIC : fit ( edit ) MIC : FIT is a fitness DVD enabling you to work out with the Chelsea cast and stay in shape . The DVD synopsis reads `` We share the hottest fitness trends , that help us stay in shape when we 're not partying in Chelsea . These workouts will get you fit for St. Tropez and looking hot for The King 's Road ! '' It stars major cast members Spencer Matthews , Lucy Watson , Oliver Proudlock , and Binky Felstead . The DVD was released on 1 December 2014 and received positive reviews . In bed with Jamie ( edit ) In Bed with Jamie is a series of All 4 exclusive shorts featuring cast member Jamie Laing . Every episode follows the format of Jamie interviewing someone in their bed as well as playing a game . The guests have included Spencer Matthews , Ollie Locke and Rosie Fortescue amongst other cast members but people who feature in other E4 shows such as Tattoo Fixers , Drifters and Virtually Famous have also made appearances . Two episodes have debuted each month since June 2015 . Jamie Laing 's Happy hour ( edit ) Jamie Laing 's Happy Hour is a YouTube channel created by long - serving cast member Jamie Laing . He explains that the channel will be where he shares his `` vlogs , funny shenanigans , stupid pranks and crazy challenges '' . The channel is exclusive to Jamie Laing and unrelated to the story - lines of Made in Chelsea . He did however capture his journey to the South of France on June 6 , 2016 to begin filming the spin - off series , South of France . DVD release ( edit ) Series Episodes Discs DVD release date Region 2 8 19 September 2011 All episodes from the first series 12 16 April 2012 All episodes from the second series plus end of series Studio Special and Christmas Special 11 15 October 2012 All episodes from the third series plus end of series Studio Special 12 8 April 2013 All episodes from the fourth series plus end of series Studio Special and Christmas Special 5 11 2 September 2013 All episodes from the fifth series plus end of series Studio Special 6 12 7 April 2014 All episodes from the sixth series plus end of series Studio Special and Christmas Special International ( edit ) The Style Network has bought the rights to air the show in the United States , and began to carry it on 12 November 2012 from the first series . In 2012 , Canadian - American singer Stacey Jackson appeared in a music video with cast members Spencer Matthews and Binky Felstead which was filmed in New York City . Made in Chelsea currently airs in Australia on the Foxtel Networks owned pay TV channel LifeStyle You . See also ( edit ) The Only Way Is Essex Geordie Shore Desperate Scousewives The Real Housewives of Cheshire Ladies of London Desi Rascals Taking New York References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Made in Chelsea : Meet the cast of E4 's answer to TOWIE Metro News '' . metro.co.uk . Retrieved 4 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Made in Chelsea May 9th E4 - YouTube '' . youtube.com . Retrieved 4 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Made In Chelsea 's Hugo tweets ' no hard feelings ' to Rosie and Millie Metro News '' . metro.co.uk . Retrieved 4 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Made In Chelsea 's Gabriella Ellis admits things are ' completely awkward ' with Ollie Locke Metro News '' . metro.co.uk . Retrieved 4 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Made in Chelsea : Series One ( DVD ) ( 2011 ) : Amazon.co.uk : Spencer Matthews , Alexandra Felstead , Rosie Fortescue , Francis Boulle , Francesca Hull , Agne Motiejunaite , Millie Mackintosh , Fredrik Ferrier , Hugo Taylor , Ollie Locke , Gabriella Tristao , Funda Önal , Caggie Dunlop , Mark - Francis Vandelli : DVD & Blu - ray '' . Archived from the original on 22 February 2014 . Retrieved 4 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` E4 reveals plans to replace 1,000 hours of ' Friends ' - TV News - Digital Spy '' . digitalspy.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Made In Chelsea stars do n't know who 's invited back for series 2 Metro News '' . metro.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Chloe Green joins cast of Made In Chelsea News Culture The Independent '' . independent.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Meet the new Made In Chelsea cast members : Guide to series 2 's stars Metro News '' . metro.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Made In Chelsea : Second series to have new cast members - Mirror Online '' . mirror.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Made In Chelsea Christmas special to reveal truth about Hugo and Rosie Metro News '' . metro.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Millie to uncover cheating Hugo and Rosie tryst in Made In Chelsea finale Metro News '' . metro.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` ' Made In Chelsea ' renewed for third series - Made in Chelsea News - Reality TV - Digital Spy '' . digitalspy.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Meet the new Made In Chelsea characters ( prepare to be extremely jealous ) - Mirror Online '' . mirror.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Made In Chelsea 's Cheska sets Kimberley up as ex-boyfriend Diego arrives at the party OK ! Magazine '' . ok.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` ' Made in Chelsea ' series four trailer unveiled - watch - Made in Chelsea News - Reality TV - Digital Spy '' . digitalspy.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Made in Chelsea cast series 4 : Meet the new posh kids on the block - Mirror Online '' . mirror.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Made In Chelsea : New hunks , Andy Jordan , Sam Cussins and Stevie Johnson , have been brought in to give the show a ' face - lift ' ! Unreality TVUnreality TV '' . unrealitytv.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Professor Green , Millie Mackintosh slam `` vile '' Spencer Matthews - Made in Chelsea News - Reality TV - Digital Spy `` . digitalspy.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Made In Chelsea 's newest star Phoebe - Lettice Thompson is dating Foals drummer Jack Bevan ! Unreality TVUnreality TV '' . unrealitytv.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` New Made In Chelsea cast members announced ahead of the fifth series of the E4 show - 3am & Mirror Online '' . mirror.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Millie Mackintosh quitting Made In Chelsea to join fiancé Professor Green on US tour - 3am & Mirror Online '' . mirror.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Made in Chelsea Spencer Matthews and Louise Thompson split over cheating rumours - 3am & Mirror Online '' . mirror.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Made In Chelsea is back : Spencer tells Louise to `` get over '' his cheating - Issy Sampson - Mirror Online `` . mirror.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Made in Chelsea 's Louise Thompson and Lucy Watson in Twitter spat : `` you can have my sloppy seconds '' `` . sugarscape.com . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` ' Made in Chelsea 's Ollie Locke on Ashley split : ' My libido was f * * ked ' - Made in Chelsea News - Reality TV - Digital Spy '' . digitalspy.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Made In Chelsea 's Jamie Laing To Lucy Watson : ' I 've Never Disliked Someone So Much As I Dislike You Right Now ' '' . huffingtonpost.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Meet Made in Chelsea series 6 new recruits Sam and Sophie Radio Times '' . radiotimes.com . Archived from the original on 21 October 2015 . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Made In Chelsea : Spencer Matthews ' new squeeze Stephanie Pratt joins the cast Metro News '' . metro.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Alex Mytton and Binky Felstead finally confirm they are a couple during tonight 's episode of Made in Chelsea '' . radiotimes.com . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Made In Chelsea Binky Felstead : MIC star new boyfriend Alex Mytton Metro News '' . metro.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` When does Made In Chelsea series 7 start ? The new trailer is so amazing - watch here OK ! Magazine '' . ok.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Made In Chelsea 's Binky : `` Alex 's cheating will make me stronger '' - Celebrity News News - Reveal `` . reveal.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Made in Chelsea : Binky Felstead blasts Cheska Hull and Lucy Watson for being `` pathetic '' and opinionated `` . radiotimes.com . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Made In Chelsea recap ! Riley Uggla ditches Jamie Laing over Lucy Watson ! Made In Chelsea 2015 Telly Mix '' . tellymix.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Made In Chelsea series finale : Lucy sleeps with Jamie , Stephanie leaves and Binky and Alex get angry ! Unreality TVUnreality TV '' . unrealitytv.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Made in Chelsea NYC on E4 , Sun 10 Aug 9 : 00pm - Your UK TV Listings at TVGuide.co.uk '' . tvguide.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Made in Chelsea gets New York - based series this summer - Made in Chelsea News - Reality TV - Digital Spy '' . digitalspy.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Made in Chelsea : New York cast revealed but who has failed to make the cut ? - Mirror Online '' . mirror.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Meet Made in Chelsea NYC newcomers Carson , Alik , Billie and Jules : What you need to know - Mirror Online '' . mirror.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Made In Chelsea NYC , Episode 3 : Gabriella 's BACK , Polygamy is IN & Spencer 's In A Three - Way omg - Yahoo Celebrity UK '' . Archived from the original on 2015 - 04 - 02 . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Made In Chelsea : Cheska Hull And Fran Newman - Young ' Furious ' After Being Sent Home From NYC omg - Yahoo Celebrity UK '' . Archived from the original on 2015 - 04 - 02 . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Episode 6 Made in Chelsea NYC : Alik wins Louise 's heart while the Stephanie , Stevie , Billie triangle collapses - Mirror Online '' . mirror.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Episode 2 Made in Chelsea NYC : Tearful Jamie and Alex fall out while Stevie and Spencer pursue Billie - Mirror Online '' . mirror.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ https://uk.celebrity.yahoo.com/gossip/omg/made-in-chelsea-nyc--episode-5--stephanie-pratt-returns--224714840.html Jump up ^ `` Made in Chelsea NYC kicks off with a bang as Binky Felstead finally dumps Alex Mytton '' . radiotimes.com . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Made in Chelsea NYC : Oliver Proudlock and Lucy Watson hook up '' . radiotimes.com . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Made In Chelsea Series 8 is back -- AND there are some new faces in SW3 ! Made in Chelsea heatworld '' . heatworld.com . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Who is Made In Chelsea 's new cast member ? Meet alpha male Josh Shepherd - Celebrity News News - Reveal '' . reveal.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Made In Chelsea series 8 introduces three new castmates Tiffany , Lonan and Will Metro News '' . metro.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Made in Chelsea : Love rat Spencer Matthews ' new girlfriend is set to join the show - Mirror Online '' . mirror.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Fran returns to Made In Chelsea with some mega gossip ( From The Northern Echo ) '' . thenorthernecho.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Made in Chelsea adds 5 new castmembers for series 9 - Made in Chelsea News - Reality TV - Digital Spy '' . digitalspy.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Fleur Irving , Jess Woodley , Emily Weller , Millie Wilkinson , Nicola Hughes and JP -- meet the new Made in Chelsea cast members '' . radiotimes.com . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Made in Chelsea 's hot new boy James Dunmore : Girls think I 'm an arrogant tw * t ! - Now magazine '' . nowmagazine.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Made in Chelsea is heading to LA for a new spinoff show '' . Digital Spy . Jump up ^ `` We 've Got All The Made In Chelsea LA Gossip '' . Look . Jump up ^ Leng , Stephen ( 18 August 2015 ) . `` Made in Chelsea LA : Gabriella Ellis 's return to show does not impress viewers '' . Retrieved 10 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Made in Chelsea series 10 trailer : See Spencer Matthews as you 've never seen him before in bonkers new promo '' . beta.digitalspy.co.uk . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 05 . Jump up ^ chudy , emily ( 28 December 2015 ) . `` Here 's what to expect from the New Year 's Eve special of Made in Chelsea '' . Retrieved 10 December 2016 . Jump up ^ chudy , emily ( 4 January 2016 ) . `` What we learnt from the Made in Chelsea New Year 's Eve special '' . Retrieved 10 December 2016 . Jump up ^ Rajani , Deepika ( 12 October 2015 ) . `` Made In Chelsea is back ! This is who will be appearing in series 10 '' . Retrieved 10 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Made In Chelsea : Francis Boulle makes a very welcome return in the Christmas special '' . Retrieved 10 December 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Spencer Matthews DIDN 'T get fired from Made in Chelsea '' . 8 February 2016 . Retrieved 10 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` MIC 's Tiffany Watson confirms break up with co-star Sam Thompson '' . Retrieved 10 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` MIC 's exes Sam Thompson and Tiffany Watson dating again ? '' . Retrieved 10 December 2016 . Jump up ^ Tutton , Charlotte ( 1 March 2016 ) . `` Made in Chelsea : Series 11 details revealed as TWO new cast members join show '' . Retrieved 10 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Made in Chelsea : Jamie reveals a girl licked his bum '' . 27 June 2016 . Retrieved 10 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Made In Chelsea 11.9 JP Is Controlling , Jess And Matt Are Rolling And Toff Is Enrolling ( In Her First Ever Workplace Pension Scheme ! ) '' . Retrieved 10 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Lucy Watson reveals boyfriend James Dunmore has QUIT Made In Chelsea too '' . Retrieved 10 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Made in Chelsea star Rosie Fortescue confirms Nicola Hughes has been dropped from the show '' . 26 September 2016 . Retrieved 10 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Made In Chelsea 's Jamie Laing : `` Frankie 's beautiful , I really fancy her , she 's really special '' `` . Retrieved 10 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Made In Chelsea : Toff shares photos of Sam Thompson on a `` naughty night out '' `` . Retrieved 10 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Made In Chelsea : Josh JP Patterson tells Binky Felstead he `` ca n't forgive her '' for cheating `` . Retrieved 10 December 2016 . Jump up ^ Tutton , Charlotte ( 9 June 2016 ) . `` Made in Chelsea : Stars head to Cannes for new summer series as fan favourite Francis Bo '' . Retrieved 10 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Confirmed : Made In Chelsea 's South of France series will return on 1 August '' . Retrieved 10 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Everything is right with the world because Francis Boulle is back on Made in Chelsea '' . Retrieved 10 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Made in Chelsea 's Alik Alfus slams ex Louise Thompson '' . 18 August 2016 . Retrieved 10 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Made In Chelsea 's Stephanie Pratt reveals she has kissed co-star Ollie Locke '' . Retrieved 10 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Who is Jess Woodley 's new French boyfriend on Made in Chelsea ? '' . Retrieved 10 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Made in Chelsea series 12 start date and new faces confirmed -- but there 's no Lucy Watson Metro News '' . metro.co.uk . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 10 . Jump up ^ `` Made in Chelsea series 12 trailer is here and here is what we 've learned Metro News '' . metro.co.uk . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 10 . Jump up ^ http://www.radiotimes.com/tv-programme/e/fhdkdy/made-in-chelsea--s12-e12-made-in-chelsea-christmas-party Jump up ^ `` Who are the new Made in Chelsea cast members ? Plus Fredrik and Proudlock make a comeback '' . radiotimes.com . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 10 . Jump up ^ `` Made In Chelsea cast welcomes TWO more newcomers : Emily Blackwell and Julius Cowdrey - Celebrity News News - Reveal '' . reveal.co.uk . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 10 . Jump up ^ `` Akin Solanke - Caulker becomes Made In Chelsea 's first ever black castmember '' . thesun.co.uk . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 10 . ^ Jump up to : http://www.dailystar.co.uk/showbiz-tv/hot-tv/588163/Made-in-Chelsea-Jess-Woodley-quits Jump up ^ http://www.digitalspy.com/tv/made-in-chelsea/news/a816093/made-in-chelsea-series-12-episode-9-twitter-reactions/ Jump up ^ http://metro.co.uk/2016/11/14/made-in-chelsea-fred-took-francis-boules-ex-olivia-on-a-fencing-date-in-the-poshest-betrayal-ever-6258395/ Jump up ^ http://www.tellymix.co.uk/reality-tv/made-in-chelsea/297690-made-in-chelsea-binky-felstead-expecting-baby-josh-jp-paterson.html Jump up ^ http://www.digitalspy.com/tv/made-in-chelsea/news/a821780/made-in-chelsea-series-13-cast-confirmed-new-faces/ Jump up ^ `` Former Love Island posh girl Tina Stinnes making her dramatic return to Made in Chelsea '' . 29 May 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Made In Chelsea favourite announces they 've QUIT show in heartfelt Instagram post '' . 29 May 2017 . Jump up ^ https://www.standard.co.uk/stayingin/tvfilm/when-does-made-in-chelsea-return-series-14-start-date-time-and-cast-a3654216.html Jump up ^ Shenton , Zoe ( 29 May 2017 ) . `` Another former Made In Chelsea star has just announced they 're pregnant '' . Jump up ^ http://www.ok.co.uk/tv/made-in-chelsea/1047405/made-in-chelsea-cast-heading-to-ibiza-summer-special-binky-felstead-josh-jp-patterson-baby Jump up ^ http://www.tellymix.co.uk/reality-tv/made-in-chelsea/322334-made-chelsea-ibiza-start-date-first-trailer-revealed.html Jump up ^ http://www.new-magazine.co.uk/celebrity-news/1128730/made-in-chelsea-ibiza-reveals-first-look-of-summer-cast Jump up ^ https://www.thesun.co.uk/tvandshowbiz/4050992/made-in-chelsea-ibiza-cast-louise-thompson-ryan-libbey/ Jump up ^ http://theguardianusa.com/made-in-chelsea-sophie-hermann-returns-to-tutor-jamie/ Jump up ^ https://www.ok.co.uk/celebrity-feature/1222391/alik-alfus-now-made-in-chelsea-louise-thompson-ex-return-girlfriend-job Jump up ^ Josh Darvill ( 9 October 2017 ) . `` Made In Chelsea 2017 cast for season 14 ! Who 's left , who 's joining ... Made In Chelsea '' . TellyMix . Retrieved 15 October 2017 . Jump up ^ https://thetab.com/uk/newcastle/2017/12/06/two-newcastle-graduates-join-the-cast-of-made-in-chelsea-29896 Jump up ^ http://www.digitalspy.com/tv/made-in-chelsea/news/a850696/made-in-chelsea-cast-2018-tiffany-watson-quits-sam-thompson/ Jump up ^ http://www.capitalfm.com/news/sam-thompson-tiffany-watson-split-reason/ Jump up ^ https://tellymix.co.uk/reality-tv/made-in-chelsea/354316-made-chelsea-2018-start-time-cast-spoilers-episode-1.html Jump up ^ http://www.digitalspy.com/tv/made-in-chelsea/news/a850696/made-in-chelsea-cast-2018-tiffany-watson-quits-sam-thompson/ Jump up ^ http://www.digitalspy.com/tv/made-in-chelsea/news/a852119/made-in-chelsea-returns-toff-stanley-johnson-reactions/ Jump up ^ http://www.digitalspy.com/tv/made-in-chelsea/news/a852154/made-in-chelsea-cast-toff-georgia-toffolo-stanley-johnson-friendship-im-a-celebrity/ Jump up ^ `` Celebrity Big Brother : Ollie Locke finishes in 3rd place '' . Digital Spy . Jump up ^ Carl Greenwood ( 5 September 2014 ) . `` Celebrity Big Brother : Stephanie Pratt evicted from CBB 2014 house to mixed reaction '' . mirror . Jump up ^ `` Hugo Taylor voted off ' I 'm a Celebrity ... Get Me Out of Here ! ' '' . Digital Spy . Jump up ^ `` Joey Essex beats Mike Tindall to be crowned the champion of The Jump 2015 '' . Digital Spy . Jump up ^ `` Arthur Landon on Twitter '' . Twitter . Jump up ^ Photo of Tom Inskip , Oliver Proudlock and Julian Erliegh Jump up ^ `` Celebrity News , Gossip , & Pictures - heatworld '' . heatworld . Jump up ^ `` Meet Cressida Bonas 's family '' . Tatler . Jump up ^ Radford , Ceri ( 9 May 2011 ) , `` Made in Chelsea , E4 , review '' , Telegraph Online , London , retrieved 24 May 2011 Jump up ^ `` Made in Chelsea is The Only Way Is Essex with added ' OK , yah ' '' . Metro.co.uk. 9 May 2011 . Retrieved 24 May 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Made in Chelsea ' : Reality TV goes posh '' . Digital Spy. 9 May 2011 . Retrieved 24 May 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Made in Chelsea ratings rise '' . broadcastnow.co.uk. 17 May 2011 . Retrieved 22 June 2011 . Jump up ^ `` NEWSFLASH : Made in Chelsea Series Two '' . E4. 22 June 2011 . Retrieved 22 June 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Chelsea finale fails to shine '' . Broadcast Now . 28 June 2011 . Retrieved 19 August 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Unreality TV : E4 Commissions Series 2 of Made in Chelsea '' . UnrealityTV. 23 June 2011 . Retrieved 22 August 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Made In Chelsea second series a hit with Twitter as it trends worldwide '' . Metro. 20 September 2011 . Retrieved 20 September 2011 . Jump up ^ `` BARB '' . barb.co.uk . Jump up ^ `` Celebrity News , Gossip , & Pictures - heatworld '' . heatworld . Jump up ^ `` Made in Chelsea ( DVD ) '' . Amazon . Retrieved 19 August 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Made in Chelsea - Series 2 ( DVD ) '' . Amazon . Retrieved 12 March 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Made in Chelsea - Series 3 ( DVD ) '' . amazon.co.uk . Jump up ^ `` Made in Chelsea - Series 4 ( DVD ) : Amazon.co.uk : DVD & Blu - ray '' . Amazon.co.uk . Retrieved 24 May 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` Made In Chelsea - Series 5 ( DVD ) : Amazon.co.uk : DVD & Blu - ray '' . Amazon.co.uk . Retrieved 24 May 2014 . Jump up ^ `` ' Made in Chelsea ' to air in the US on Style Network '' . Digital Spy . Jump up ^ `` MIC 's Spencer Matthews and Binky Felstead starring in music video ? ! '' . Reveal . Jump up ^ `` Made In Chelsea '' . lifestyle.com.au . Made in Chelsea Episodes Cast Series 5 6 7 NYC 8 9 LA 10 11 South of France 12 13 Ibiza 14 15 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Made_in_Chelsea&oldid=837506591 '' Categories : 2011 British television programme debuts 2010s British reality television series E4 reality television programmes English - language television programs Infidelity in television Made in Chelsea Television series about friendship Television shows set in London Hidden categories : Use dmy dates from February 2014 Use British English from February 2014 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2017 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Français Português Русский Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 21 April 2018 , at 07 : 56 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

6292253878764318275

what is a good number of inventory turns

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Inventory_turnover&oldid=835857091

Inventory turnover - wikipedia Inventory turnover Jump to : navigation , search Business administration Management of a business Accounting ( show ) Management accounting Financial accounting Financial audit Business entities ( show ) Cooperative Corporation Limited liability company Partnership Sole proprietorship State - owned enterprise Corporate governance ( show ) Annual general meeting Board of directors Supervisory board Advisory board Audit committee Corporate law ( show ) Commercial law Constitutional documents Contract Corporate crime Corporate liability Insolvency law International trade law Mergers and acquisitions Economics ( show ) Commodity Public economics Labour economics Development economics International economics Mixed economy Planned economy Econometrics Environmental economics Open economy Market economy Knowledge economy Microeconomics Macroeconomics Economic development Economic statistics Finance ( show ) Financial statement Insurance Factoring Cash conversion cycle Insider dealing Capital budgeting Commercial bank Derivative Financial statement analysis Financial risk Public finance Corporate finance Managerial finance International finance Liquidation Stock market Financial market Tax Financial institution Working capital Venture capital Marketing ( show ) Marketing Marketing research Public relations Sales Types of management ( show ) Asset Brand Business intelligence Business development Capacity Change innovation Commercial marketing Communications Conflict Content Customer relationship Distributed Earned value Electronic business Enterprise resource planning management information system Financial Human resource development Incident Integrated Knowledge Materials Network administrator Office Operations services Performance Power Problem Process Product life - cycle Product Project Quality Records Resource Risk crisis Sales Security Service Strategic Supply chain Systems administrator Talent Technology Organization ( show ) Architecture Behavior Communication Culture Conflict Development Engineering Hierarchy Patterns Space Structure Trade ( show ) Business analysis Business ethics Business plan Business judgment rule Consumer behaviour Business operations International business Business model International trade Business process Business statistics Business and economics portal Accounting Historical cost Constant purchasing power Management Tax Major types ( show ) Auditing Cost Forensic Financial Fund Governmental Management Social Tax Key concepts ( show ) Accounting period Accrual Constant purchasing power Economic entity Fair value Going concern Historical cost Matching principle Materiality Revenue recognition Unit of account Selected accounts ( show ) Assets Cash Cost of goods sold Depreciation / Amortization Equity Expenses Goodwill Liabilities Profit Revenue Accounting standards ( show ) Generally - accepted principles Generally - accepted auditing standards Convergence International Financial Reporting Standards International Standards on Auditing Management Accounting Principles Financial statements ( show ) Annual report Balance sheet Cash - flow Equity Income Management discussion Notes to the financial statements Bookkeeping ( show ) Bank reconciliation Debits and credits Double - entry system FIFO and LIFO Journal Ledger / General ledger T accounts Trial balance Auditing ( show ) Financial Internal Firms Report People and organizations ( show ) Accountants Accounting organizations Luca Pacioli Development ( show ) History Research Positive accounting Sarbanes -- Oxley Act Business portal In accounting , the Inventory turnover is a measure of the number of times inventory is sold or used in a time period such as a year.It is calculated to see if a business has an excessive inventory in comparison to its sales level . The equation for inventory turnover equals the cost of goods sold divided by the average inventory . Inventory turnover is also known as inventory turns , merchandise turnover , stockturn , stock turns , turns , and stock turnover . Contents ( hide ) 1 Inventory Turnover Formulas 2 Application in Business 3 Note 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading Inventory turnover formulas ( edit ) The formula for inventory turnover : Inventory Turnover = Net Sales Average Inventory ( \ displaystyle ( \ mbox ( Inventory Turnover ) ) = ( \ frac ( \ mbox ( Net Sales ) ) ( \ mbox ( Average Inventory ) ) ) ) or Inventory Turnover = Cost of Goods Sold Average Inventory ( \ displaystyle ( \ mbox ( Inventory Turnover ) ) = ( \ frac ( \ mbox ( Cost of Goods Sold ) ) ( \ mbox ( Average Inventory ) ) ) ) or Inventory Turnover = Cost of Material − Change in inventories ( of 1 / 2 and 1 / 1 goods ) Inventories ( \ displaystyle ( \ mbox ( Inventory Turnover ) ) = ( \ frac ( \ mbox ( Cost of Material − Change in inventories ( of 1 / 2 and 1 / 1 goods ) ) ) ( \ mbox ( Inventories ) ) ) ) The most basic formula for average inventory : Average Inventory = Beginning inventory + Ending inventory 2 ( \ displaystyle ( \ mbox ( Average Inventory ) ) = ( \ frac ( \ mbox ( Beginning inventory + Ending inventory ) ) ( \ mbox ( 2 ) ) ) ) or just Average Inventory = Ending inventory ( \ displaystyle ( \ mbox ( Average Inventory ) ) = ( \ mbox ( Ending inventory ) ) ) Multiple data points , for example the average of the monthly averages , will provide a much more representative turn figure . The average days to sell the inventory is calculated as follows : Average days to sell the inventory = 365 days Inventory Turnover Ratio ( \ displaystyle ( \ mbox ( Average days to sell the inventory ) ) = ( \ frac ( \ mbox ( 365 days ) ) ( \ mbox ( Inventory Turnover Ratio ) ) ) ) Application in business ( edit ) A low turnover rate may point to overstocking , obsolescence , or deficiencies in the product line or marketing effort . However , in some instances a low rate may be appropriate , such as where higher inventory levels occur in anticipation of rapidly rising prices or expected market shortages . Conversely a high turnover rate may indicate inadequate inventory levels , which may lead to a loss in business as the inventory is too low . This often can result in stock shortages . Some compilers of industry data ( e.g. , Dun & Bradstreet ) use sales as the numerator instead of cost of sales . Cost of sales yields a more realistic turnover ratio , but it is often necessary to use sales for purposes of comparative analysis . Cost of sales is considered to be more realistic because of the difference in which sales and the cost of sales are recorded . Sales are generally recorded at market value , i.e. the value at which the marketplace paid for the good or service provided by the firm . In the event that the firm had an exceptional year and the market paid a premium for the firm 's goods and services then the numerator may be an inaccurate measure . However , cost of sales is recorded by the firm at what the firm actually paid for the materials available for sale . Additionally , firms may reduce prices to generate sales in an effort to cycle inventory . In this article , the terms `` cost of sales '' and `` cost of goods sold '' are synonymous . An item whose inventory is sold ( turns over ) once a year has higher holding cost than one that turns over twice , or three times , or more in that time . Stock turnover also indicates the briskness of the business . The purpose of increasing inventory turns is to reduce inventory for three reasons . Increasing inventory turns reduces holding cost . The organization spends less money on rent , utilities , insurance , theft and other costs of maintaining a stock of good to be sold . Reducing holding cost increases net income and profitability as long as the revenue from selling the item remains constant . Items that turn over more quickly increase responsiveness to changes in customer requirements while allowing the replacement of obsolete items . This is a major concern in fashion industries . When making comparison between firms , it 's important to take note of the industry , or the comparison will be distorted . Making comparison between a supermarket and a car dealer , will not be appropriate , as supermarket sells fast - moving goods such as sweets , chocolates , soft drinks so the stock turnover will be higher . However , a car dealer will have a low turnover due to the item being a slow moving item . As such only intra-industry comparison will be appropriate . Note ( edit ) Some computer programs measure the stock turns of an item using the actual number sold . Inventory Turn = Number of Units Sold ( Over a given period ) Average Number of Units ( For the period ) ( \ displaystyle ( \ mbox ( Inventory Turn ) ) = ( \ frac ( \ text ( Number of Units Sold ( Over a given period ) ) ) ( \ text ( Average Number of Units ( For the period ) ) ) ) ) The important issue is that any organization should be consistent in the formula that it uses . See also ( edit ) Cost accounting Inventory Inventory management software Throughput accounting Stock rotation References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Weygandt , J.J. , Kieso , D.E. , & Kell , W.G. ( 1996 ) . Accounting Principles ( 4th ed . ) . New York , Chichester , Brisbane , Toronto , Singapore : John Wiley & Sons , Inc. p. 802 . Jump up ^ Commercial Loan Analysis : principles and techniques for credit analysts and lenders By Kenneth R. Pirok ISBN 1 - 55738 - 716 - 8 Further reading ( edit ) Business Mathematics , 10th Edition , Chapter 7 , § 4 , ISBN 0 - 321 - 27782 - 1 Inventory Turnover Business Scenarios Business and economics portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Inventory_turnover&oldid=835857091 '' Categories : Management accounting Financial ratios Working capital management Inventory Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Eesti Español فارسی Français Latviešu Nederlands Русский Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska ไทย Tiếng Việt 中文 5 more Edit links This page was last edited on 11 April 2018 , at 05 : 41 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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what does negan mean in the walking dead

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Negan&oldid=819383734

Negan - wikipedia Negan Jump to : navigation , search This article may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may only interest a specific audience . Please help by spinning off or relocating any relevant information , and removing excessive detail that may be against Wikipedia 's inclusion policy . ( November 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Negan The Walking Dead character Negan in the comics ( left ) , and as portrayed by Jeffrey Dean Morgan ( right ) in the television series First appearance Comic : `` Issue # 100 '' Television : 6x16 , `` Last Day on Earth '' Created by Robert Kirkman Charlie Adlard Portrayed by Jeffrey Dean Morgan Information Occupation School Teacher / Coach Saviors Leader Spouse ( s ) Lucille Significant other ( s ) Sherry Amber several unnamed wives Negan is a fictional character in the comic book series The Walking Dead and in the television series of the same name . He is the leader of a group of roughly 500 survivors in the Sanctuary , called the Saviors , a group that enslaves other survivor communities , and forces them to pay tribute to him . In the comics , the character 's appearance is based on Henry Rollins , as confirmed by Charlie Adlard ; Robert Kirkman worked in his excessive use of profanity , derived from other people he knew . Jeffrey Dean Morgan portrays Negan in the television series of the same name and first appeared in the series ' sixth season finale . After Rick Grimes and his fellow survivors agree to begin a trading relationship with the Hilltop Colony , they are ambushed by the Saviors and are forced to obey Negan 's orders to give the Saviors half of their supplies , as the other communities do . Initially obedient , Rick and the others secretly conspire with other communities in the Washington , D.C. area to prepare for war against the Saviors . Negan resides in an abandoned factory , where most of the attractive women -- formerly other men 's girlfriends or wives -- act as his wives . He soon grows fond of Rick 's son , Carl Grimes . Morgan has received critical acclaim for his portrayal of Negan in the television series upon his debut , earning himself the Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Guest Performer in a Drama Series , MTV Movie Award for Best Villain , and Saturn Award for Best Guest Starring Role on Television . When offered the role of Negan , Morgan immediately accepted as he was already a fan of The Walking Dead . Contents ( hide ) 1 Creation 2 Personality 3 Appearances 3.1 Comic book series 3.1. 1 Here 's Negan 3.1. 2 A Larger World 3.1. 3 Something To Fear 3.1. 4 What Comes After 3.1. 5 March to War 3.1. 6 All Out War 3.1. 7 A New Beginning 3.1. 8 Life and Death 3.1. 9 No Turning Back 3.1. 10 Call to Arms 3.1. 11 The Whisperer War 3.2 Television series 3.2. 1 Season 6 3.2. 2 Season 7 3.2. 3 Season 8 4 Development 5 Reception 6 References 7 External links Creation ( edit ) Robert Kirkman conceptualized the character after scrapping the idea of Rick Grimes being forced to protect his son , Carl Grimes , by killing fellow survivor Glenn Rhee . Personality ( edit ) Negan controls his subordinates by intimidation , reward and punishment . Brutal , foul - mouthed and possessing a twisted sense of humor , Negan carries a barbed wire - wrapped baseball bat named Lucille . While he can be psychopathically merciless , he is also ( at least superficially ) empathetic , and pragmatically spares those he sees as potentially useful , and is reasonable when people attempt to negotiate with him . Negan has a penchant for provocation and power games . The stronger the resistance to his will , the more he seems to enjoy the test of wills . He has a genuine disgust for the act of rape . Appearances ( edit ) Comic book series ( edit ) Here 's Negan ( edit ) Prior to the outbreak , Negan was the coach of a local high school , frequently taking bullying tactics to keep the boys in line as to try to be the `` cool teacher '' in school . As his wife Lucille berates him for this behavior , she collapses , and he rushes her to the hospital where she is found to have a life - threatening cancer . As his wife is tended to , Negan tells the truth to his mistress , who immediately leaves him . When the zombie apocalypse starts , the hospital workers tell Negan they are being forced to abandon the hospital and he should leave with them , but he refuses to leave Lucille 's side . With power lost , Lucille soon dies , and Negan is shocked to find her reanimating . He flees the hospital and finds a boy being trapped by walkers , and helps to dispatch them with a fire extinguisher . In return , Negan asks the boy to kill Lucille for him . A larger world ( edit ) At some point after the outbreak , Negan is found by a group led by a man named Dwight . He slowly took control over this group from Dwight , thus forming the Saviors and fiercely ruled over his group . Negan , along with his team ( which includes at least 50 or more other men ) , had made a deal with the Hilltop Colony : the Saviors would use the weaponry the other group was lacking to pull all zombies wandering near the Hilltop 's premises . In return , the Saviors would obtain half of Hilltop 's supplies , such as livestock and crops . To get his point across , if a potential problem would arise , Negan and his men would resort to cruel measures . For example , if they sensed they were being tracked , or if they believed they were n't getting sufficient supplies , the Saviors beat or killed people from Hilltop . The Saviors also sent `` messages '' to the Hilltop community , which were usually very deadly , such as Ethan having to kill Gregory . Something to fear ( edit ) Later , Negan , along with 50 other Saviors , snuck up on Rick 's group and subdued Rick by surprise . They lined up all of the survivors from the van ( Rick , Carl , Glenn , Maggie , Sophia , Michonne , and Heath ) , telling them that Negan wanted revenge for the Saviors who were killed . Without Rick 's consent , Negan imposed a binding deal : everything that belonged to the Alexandria Safe - Zone now belonged to the Saviors . Negan also introduced his weapon of choice ; Lucille , a baseball bat covered in barbed wire . After a long talk about the new world order and whom he should beat to death using Lucille , he finally chose his victim at random : Glenn . Maggie panicked , while Glenn tried talking Negan out of it . However , Negan ignored him and used Lucille to smash Glenn 's skull . Negan laughed , when Glenn attempted to get to his feet , hiking , `` He 's taking it like a champ '' , before swinging the bat again , dislocating Glenn 's jaw and beating Glenn to death . Glenn 's last words were `` Maggie , I 'll find you ! Maggie ! '' . Negan told the mourning and crying group that the Saviors would be back in one week to collect half of everything that Alexandria Safe - Zone owned , or there would be more killings . Rick vowed to avenge Glenn 's murder and kill Negan . Negan laughed at this , beat Rick with his bare hands , and then turned around , leaving the survivors with Glenn 's mangled corpse . What comes after ( edit ) Negan and the Saviors later arrived at the Alexandria Safe - Zone for their first offering . Spencer Monroe arrived at the gate , questioning Negan 's identity , and Negan laughs , referencing the events of Issue 100 . Bemused that not everyone knows his name , Negan remarks that he `` had to make a pretty fucking strong first impression '' and asks Spencer to get Rick . When Spencer leaves , Negan and the Saviors begin killing the roamers in the surrounding area . While the Saviors scavenge each of the houses for supplies , Negan makes several rude comments about his beating of Glenn , about Olivia being overweight , and towards Carl when Carl threatens him . Negan also forces Rick to hold `` Lucille '' while he scavenges the Safe - Zone . When Denise threatens a Savior for taking important medical supplies ( all their opioid painkillers ) , and Rick attempts to reason with Negan , Negan tells the group that their big walls are the only medicine they need . Before Negan departs , he retrieves `` Lucille '' from Rick and whispers , `` I just slid my dick down your throat , and you thanked me for it . '' Negan and his men depart from the Safe - Zone with supplies , but , unbeknownst to them , Carl is hiding in the truck with an assault rifle . Once the Saviors get back to their base , Negan is amazed to see that Dwight is still alive . `` There is always next time , I suppose , '' he says , much to Dwight 's disgust . A Savior finds Carl , and Carl uses the rifle to kill six Saviors . They surround Carl , and he demands to speak with Negan . When Negan arrives , Carl fires at them until he loses control of his gun . Dwight is about to kill Carl when Negan stops Dwight and says , `` Is that any way to treat our new guest ? '' Instead of taking immediate action against young Carl , Negan shows interest in getting to know the child . He goes as far as to lead him through the Saviors ' facilities , revealing that he is the leader of a cult - like domain of selfless followers who bow to his every word and command . Many followers in his ranks are living on a point system in order to sustain their lives , though many give into his graces in exchange for a better lifestyle , most notably the women in his `` harem '' whom he considers his `` wives '' . It is brought to Negan 's attention that one of his many wives , Amber , has committed adultery against him with her former lover . As Negan goes to handle the situation , he brings Carl along to see his wives and how he handles his affairs , before degrading the terrified Amber in front of them all . Afterward , Negan and Carl share a private moment in Negan 's quarters , where he reveals that he 'd like to get to know Carl a little better , but he gets distracted by Carl 's bandaged face . He orders Carl to remove the bandages , showing interest in seeing the injury to his eye . Carl allows him to see it only after being threatened ; he removes the bandages to reveal the disturbing results of having been shot . Negan , in a state of disbelief and awe , jokingly mocks the deformity and goes as far as to ask Carl if he can touch the part of his skull showing through Carl 's exposed eye - socket , which causes Carl to break finally and cry . This appears to have an odd effect on Negan , who takes back the gesture and apologizes , seeing that he has finally found a weakness in the child he finds so dangerous . They are interrupted by one of Negan 's followers who returns `` Lucille '' to him and leaves them alone once again . Negan reverts to coldness and orders Carl to sing a song for him while he swings the bat dangerously close . After this intense encounter , they are interrupted once again , and Negan is told the iron is ready . Negan has Carl hold `` Lucille '' while he follows him to witness the event . In a ritualistic fashion , complete with call and response chanting , with the followers answering to Negan 's words , Negan demonstrates that whoever falls onto his bad graces is dealt with by having their face seared by a hot iron . Tied to the end of a pole , the tool is held over a fire before being handed to Negan , who presses it against the victim 's face as punishment for their betrayal . In this case , it is the face of Amber 's former lover Mark , who is left deformed in the same manner as Dwight , with a portion of his face permanently scarred and an eyeball exposed . After the ritual , Negan dismisses his congregation before turning to Carl , who hands back `` Lucille '' , and Negan leads him away , contemplating what to do with him . Negan runs into Rick while the latter was on his way to find Carl . Negan tells Rick how eager he is to show him `` what he has done to his son '' . Rick , in a fit of rage , then attacks Negan before Negan reveals that Carl is fine , and Negan clarifies that he is eager to show Rick `` that he has done nothing to his son . '' March to war ( edit ) Several days later , Negan arrives at the Alexandria Safe - Zone a few days ahead of schedule ; he 's informed that the community is `` practically '' out of supplies , and Rick went out looking for more . Negan decides that he will stay in Alexandria until Rick returns from the supply run . He makes an offhand comment about Olivia 's weight ; she overhears it and starts to cry . He tries to apologize , but she slaps him . Despite several Saviors ' offering to kill her , Negan dismisses them . Negan is later approached by Spencer Monroe and asks for a little background on the Safe - Zone . After a while , Negan gets impatient with Spencer and wants to know why he came to him . Spencer then tells Negan that Rick is not a suitable leader for the community and asks that once Negan assassinates Rick , Spencer be given control over the Safe - Zone . Negan feels insulted that Spencer would wait until Rick was gone to tell him this . He responds by telling Spencer that Rick may hate him , but , he has guts , unlike Spencer , who acted like a coward . Negan then slashes Spencer 's stomach , killing him almost instantly , causing Spencer 's guts to spill out onto the ground . Negan then remarks that `` he had guts after all . '' He then orders one of his men to clean the mess up `` before a kid sees it . '' Negan asks Denise , who witnessed the attack , where Spencer lived so he could go and shoot some pool . Rick later returns and confronts Negan , who casually blows him off . Rick demands to know what happened , or Negan wo n't leave Alexandria alive . After picking up Lucille and praying to give him strength , Negan drops the excessive profanity he normally uses and tells Rick that he feels like he 's `` bent over backwards to show how reasonable I can be '' in regards to how he brought Carl back to the Safe - Zone safely , and he hints about how Spencer wanted to have him assassinate Rick . After seeing the supplies Rick has gathered , Negan initially demands all of it but then decides to take nothing , as repayment for having killed Spencer . Rick insists that they take their share , and Negan has no objections . As the Saviors are driving back to the foundry , Negan notices Rick and a few others are following them . An instant later , the driver is shot and killed . Confused and angry , Negan takes Lucille and sees Rick pointing a gun at his head . Suddenly , a gunshot is heard , and Rick 's gun is destroyed as well as those of the others who came out with him . Negan remarks on how stupid Rick and the others are to use bullets on the roamers instead of saving them for `` the much more dangerous thinkers '' ( i.e. , the living ) . Negan reveals that before every pickup , he has a back - up team armed with guns surround the Safe - Zone and guard the area while he and the other Saviors go in and salvage for supplies . With a crazed smile on his face , Negan leans into Rick and says that he and the Safe - Zone residents are `` fucking fucked . '' Negan smiles and says that in a stand - off situation , snipers tend to give away their position after several shots . He clarifies that Rick 's `` sniper bitch is as good as dead , '' causing Rick to try and strike him . As Negan holds him off , Carl shoots off a portion of Lucille , causing the Saviors to open fire at the Safe - Zone walls . Negan orders them to stop , and is shocked and angry about the damage to Lucille . Rick tackles him from behind , but Negan subdues him once more . He calls Carl a one - eyed asshole and shouts for Carl to be thrown over the wall , saying : `` I want him to pay for what he 's done ! '' Rick tries to object , but Negan beats him and issues an ultimatum : `` Give me the boy , or I 'll bash in all four skulls of the people out here ! '' Negan admits that he liked Carl at first and that he never had a kid of his own ; if he did , he wanted him to be like Carl . Rick says that if Carl dies , their agreement is over , but , Negan states that it already is over . He orders his men to line up Rick , Heath , Nicholas , and Holly , then begins to decide which one to kill first . He notices a figure falling from the bell tower and smugly repeats that he knew Rick 's sniper was good as dead , not realizing that it 's not Andrea , but Connor . Negan taunts Rick about Andrea 's supposed demise , and Nicholas interrupts him , pleading for his life . Negan berates Nicholas for doing this and accuses him of being a coward . He asks Rick , Heath , or Holly to ask him to kill Nicholas and says if they do so , he will spare them . However , Heath tells him , no , and so Negan begins to pick which one of them he will kill . Negan is interrupted when Paul Monroe grabs a Savior by the foot and uses him as a shield from the Saviors ' bullets . Negan tells his men to stand down , and when he does this , Paul leaps out of a trench and kicks the nearest Savior in the face . Paul orders Rick and the others into a trench and proceeds to fight his way towards Negan . When Paul reaches Negan , he manages to disarm him and hold him hostage . Paul stalls the Saviors until Ezekiel and his men arrive . Negan breaks free from Paul and runs to a truck , where he retreats back to the Sanctuary with his men . Negan is later seen back at the Sanctuary , where he gives the Saviors a speech about their being the dominant force in the world , and they need to remind people of that . Negan then states they are going to war . All out war ( edit ) Several days later , Rick 's army arrives at the Saviors ' base and demands that Negan come out . Initially , Negan is amused by this and begins to taunt him . Rick reveals that they know there are women , children , and others inside who are n't part of this fight , he offers a chance to surrender and let them live ; for the rest , he reaffirms his old saying : `` You kill , and you die . '' Negan plays along with it and asks what will happen if he refuses . After hearing that `` whatever happens , happens '' Negan thinks for a split second and blatantly refuses Rick 's offer . He muses that if he thinks the army he 's assembled `` can actually accomplish something ... that 's fucking rich . '' He briefly entertains the idea of letting Rick 's plan go through only to reveal a wildcard ; after the ambush at Alexandria , Negan ordered Gregory kidnapped and brought to him . Afraid of what Negan might do , Gregory quickly pledged his allegiance ( and that of the Hilltop ) to Negan and the Saviors . After Gregory informed his loyalty towards Negan , he told Negan that the majority of Rick 's army was people from the Hilltop Colony . Negan is pleased with this , but when Rick 's army arrived , he is furious that only eight people accept the ultimatum and leave . Negan berates Gregory for this misinformation and kicks him off the balcony . He refuses Rick 's offer once more , and his snipers begin to fire at the militia . Negan asks Lucille if she `` believes this shit '' and retreats from the bullets and falling glass . He calls Dwight , ordering him to bring the men from the outposts back to help drive off Rick 's army . Dwight agrees but due to the commotion , Negan does n't notice the former 's hesitation to act immediately . As more men rush outside , Negan orders them to start shooting the army before all their snipers are killed . He suddenly notices that all their snipers are taking cover and is initially confused as to why Rick 's militia are shooting not the snipers , but the windows . He then notices the large herd of zombies that are rapidly approaching the Sanctuary walls . He looks outside the fence and tells Dwight that `` I hope you 're wearing your shitting pants . '' Suddenly , Holly drives through the fence , destroying a portion of it and letting the herd inside . Negan frantically orders his men back inside the foundry but notices that Holly is still alive from the crash . He sees a zombie about to kill her and dispatches it . As she looks up , Negan smiles and says that she was n't `` going to get off THAT fucking easy . '' As the zombies converge on the courtyard area , the Saviors retreat inside the foundry to develop a new strategy . Negan delivers an analogy to a group of Saviors about how you can destroy a man `` by fucking his vagina '' , meaning that the best way to destroy a man 's heart is by destroying the woman he loves ; Negan clearly believes this to be Holly since Rick `` was going to drive a car at us ... you would n't let him sacrifice himself to tear our gate down . '' She corrects him by saying he 's got the wrong woman ; Rick loves Andrea , and she was in love with Abraham , the man Dwight killed . Negan refuses to listen , insisting that she is the one who killed Connor `` and a terrible liar . '' He then orders her taken away and goes off to clear his head . Later , Negan is seen outside with more Saviors trying to clear the courtyard of all the zombies , swearing that if any of them die he will `` fuck them up . '' Eventually , too many roamers pour in the fence and Negan 's group retreat inside once more . Negan realizes that if the herd keeps them stuck inside for more than one day , they will all be dead , and he orders squads outside every two hours to clean up the infestation by any means necessary . He goes to interrogate Holly some more but catches David in the middle of trying to rape her . Negan demands that he get away from her and grabs him by the collar . He angrily reminds David one of the Savior 's main rules : `` We do n't rape '' , thus proving Negan does hate sexual violence . As punishment for him breaking this rule , Negan proceeds to stab David in the neck and apologizes to Holly , telling her that `` they ( The Saviors ) are n't monsters . '' After killing David , it is presumed that Negan got word of one of his outposts being overrun by Rick 's army and sent more to fortify the remaining ones . This , in turn , led to Ezekiel 's army being eradicated in a failed attack . Negan also found a way to eliminate all of the zombies that had flooded into the Sanctuary 's courtyard , for he is later seen heading towards Alexandria . When he arrives at the Safe - Zone , he throws a grenade over the wall , and it detonates , demolishing one of the houses and getting Rick 's attention . He threatens that ' there 's more where that came from ' and insists that he 's here to parlay . To support his claim , he has a blindfolded Holly brought out of his truck and offers to release her back to Rick . Rick agrees to talk only when Holly is safely back inside , to which Negan agrees . This is later shown to be a ploy as it 's revealed that Negan had Holly killed and she later reanimated . As the Alexandrians are distracted by this revelation , Negan orders his men to surround Alexandria and throws another grenade over the wall , yelling `` Bombs away , motherfuckers ! '' . Negan is happy seeing all the destruction and chaos and admits to Lucille that `` my dick 's so hard right now ... I should wrap it in barbed wire and call it ' Lucille II ' . '' He asks Lucille if seeing him use the grenades makes her jealous of not being inside to take part in all the mayhem and wishes that he was inside as well watching them all burn . Davis , overhearing the conversation , awkwardly agrees that he 's got a boner too and says ( they 're ) hungry for death as well . Negan , confused by this , asks what the hell he 's talking about . Suddenly , Davis is shot through the eye and gunfire erupts from behind several buildings . Surprised by this , Negan orders his men behind one of the trucks . He asks for one more grenade to use as cover and tells his men `` the last boat is leaving ... you 'd better fucking be on it . '' He manages to escape , and they can make a fast exit . When a Savior makes an offhand comment about retreating , Negan retorts that this was n't a retreat . Pointing towards the smoke coming from Alexandria , he comments that this means they 've `` just fucking won . '' After successfully bombarding Alexandria , Negan is seen leading his men back to Sanctuary when he sees a herd of roamers attacking several people from Alexandria . He orders them to kill the roamers and wonders aloud why they are out here beyond the wall . Nevertheless , he orders Eugene and the others to be taken back with them . Later , Negan somehow finds out that Eugene was making ammunition for Rick 's army and goes to see him . Flanked by Dwight and Carson , Negan demands Eugene to begin producing ammo for the Saviors . When the latter refuses , Negan hands Carson Lucille , then proceeds to grab his own groin ( referring to it as his ' crystal balls ' ) and tells Eugene what will happen if he refuses to cooperate ; smiling , he says that he could iron Eugene 's face ( while glancing at Dwight ) or castrate him . Negan insists that he does n't want to do this , but threatens Eugene by saying that he does things he does n't like all the time . Eugene still refuses to betray Rick and Negan leaves Eugene `` with his thoughts and his dick ... while he still has it . '' After ordering Dwight to lock Eugene up and to check on the others , Negan goes to have sex with one of his wives ( it is implied to be Sherry due to the look he throws at Dwight ) , saying that he 'll see them both the next morning . Early the following day , Negan reveals to the Saviors that he 's come up with a brilliant plan that will help them win the war . He has assembled a group of roamers inside the courtyard to demonstrate his idea , exclaiming `` they are the lynchpin of our plans going forward . '' Reminding them about the fever that comes from getting bit or from any other injury caused by a roamer , Negan approaches one with Lucille . After apologizing to Lucille , Negan begins to rub it all over the roamer , covering the bat with guts and the bacteria that causes the fever . Holding up ' the new and improved Lucille , ' Negan says that even the slightest touch from Lucille will now essentially be a death sentence . He orders the Saviors to do the same to their weapons and then hit the road . Arriving at the Hilltop later that day , Negan and his men hide in the forest just outside the Hilltop . He then issues the order : `` We attack at sundown . '' Several hours later , Negan and his troops arrive at the Hilltop gates , demanding to see Rick . Kal is atop the wall and threatens them by saying they wo n't survive what 's behind the walls . Negan tells him to bring Rick , but Kal says , `` you 're talking to me . '' Insulted , Negan has one of his men shoot Kal off the wall . Once again , Negan demands Rick to show himself . After no response from him , Negan orders his men to further gunk up their weapons , saying `` we 're going in . '' He goes up to Dwight , making sure his arrows are covered . Dwight offhandedly talks back , but Negan dismisses it . He warns Rick one more time what will happen and then orders a truck to ram into the front gates . The truck gets shot up , but Negan issues another to take its place and has motorcycles come in as well . The Saviors pour into the Hilltop and begin to kill off the residents . As gunfire continues to erupt towards them , Negan and Dwight get separated from the other Saviors . Negan is unaware that Dwight is loading an arrow to kill him when he spots Rick away from the other survivors . He tells Dwight to shoot Rick ; no matter where he aims `` that muck will make him sick . '' Dwight is hesitant to do so , but Negan demands to know why he 's waiting and screams at him to shoot Rick . Dwight finally ( and reluctantly ) does so , hitting Rick in the side . After this , Negan declares that `` without him , they 're nothing . Game fucking over . '' After Rick is hit with the arrow , Negan and Dwight retreat to the rest of The Savior horde , hoping to devise a plan of attack against the remaining survivors at Hilltop . When night completely falls on the colony , Negan is almost accidentally shot by one of The Saviors , who states he could n't see properly in the darkness . Negan says that it is not that dark and asks one of his Saviors the status of the battle . The Savior tells him most of The Saviors are now re-grouped , and they are ready to get back on the defensive and Negan orders him and the rest of the men to get ready for their attack on the Hilltop mansion . When they begin their attack , they are immediately surrounded by many of Rick 's forces , who manage to cause Negan to order and retreat and head back to The Savior camps on the hillside near Hilltop . After his and The Saviors ' retreat , Negan is seen back at the camp alongside Dwight , who questions if camping so close to Hilltop is a good idea . Negan says that they are doing it and remarks that he sometimes wonders if Dwight has ever had a brain in his head . He elaborates by saying that Rick 's forces wo n't have enough manpower to counterattack and that because Dwight shot Rick with an arrow , his death will cause the remaining forces to bow back down to Negan , and he says that he will be their Savior again , as long as they let him urinate on Rick 's dead body . Seeing the look on Dwight 's face , Negan says that there 's nothing weird about that ; Negan says that since Rick 's ruined everything , `` it 'd be weird if I DIDN 'T piss all over his dead , bloated body . '' He is informed that Carson has escaped with Eugene . Negan tells him not to worry about it , and that they will deal with them later . Negan arrives at Hilltop 's gates and shoots twice into the air . He claims that he 's here to accept their surrender and asks them to send whoever is now in charge out . He swears the area he 's in will be a safe zone , and there wo n't be any bloodshed . After getting impatient , Negan threatens to come back inside when Rick exits the Hilltop . Bowled over with shock to see him still alive , Negan turns towards Dwight for an answer , but Rick tells him to `` look at me . '' Overcoming his initial shock , Negan asks Rick to surrender , to `` let things go back the way they were '' but Rick refuses . Negan repeats that he only kills people to make an example and threatens Rick that he will do so again if pushed too far , but Rick replies by saying he 's `` the stupidest fucking person still alive . '' Taken aback , Negan asks what he 's talking about . Rick goes on to say that they should pool their resources and people together . Negan does n't believe him , saying that with the system he 's been using , he is saving lives . Rick tells him in the current situation , the only ones who are winning are the undead ; the only way to get through this is by working together . Negan takes this all in , and Rick says that they can take their supplies , but they must give the survivors something in return ; make supplies of their own to give or trade for others via a barter system . A fog seems to lift from Negan 's mind and finally sees what Rick has been talking about ; he realizes that his actions and methods have only helped himself while the communities he 's been threatening have suffered . Negan says he 's been wrong all along and that Rick is right . Rick then slashes Negan 's throat with a knife , responding `` Good . '' Caught by surprise , Negan begins bleeding out while Rick begins to address the remaining Saviors . Negan then tackles Rick and begins beating him . Despite Rick putting up a fight , Negan catches one of Rick 's legs and breaks it . Laughing , he eventually passes out due to blood loss . He eventually wakes up inside one of the rooms in the Hilltop and sees Rick standing over him . He admits to Rick that during the conversation Rick had with Carl , he was able only to catch bits and pieces of it . He knows that Rick decided not to kill him , but asks what 's going to happen now . Rick reveals that he 's going to keep Negan alive so he can see how much Negan was holding the survivors back . Rick also tells Negan that he 's going to rot in jail until he dies an old man . A new beginning ( edit ) Two years after the war , Carl goes to the basement of an unknown house and talks to a figure in the shadows . He tells the figure of how he , Mikey and some other boys went to a girl 's house after class , and that she showed them her breasts . He says it was cool and all , but he had a crush on her ; after this , he is not sure , remarking how he does not want to have someone who does that sort of thing . The figure says that nothing is wrong with the girl and suggest Carl not hold this one instance against her . He then says to Carl that he enjoys their talks and that it is good for him to keep track of the time and days passed . Carl says he is leaving , but before he leaves , the figure asks him if , after all this time , all the things they have shared and the talks they have had , Carl still wants to kill him . He turns around and faces the person behind bars , simply saying : `` Yes , Negan . You know I do . '' Negan asks how he was supposed to know that Carl wanted to kill him and tells him not to insult his intelligence . Negan says that he thought the two of them were friends to which Carl walks away , making Negan retreat into the corner of his cell . Negan says to Rick that his least favorite part of the day is shitting in a bucket , but it is also his favorite as Rick has to be the one to get it . Rick says that he is only bringing him food and that someone else will be out to clean his bucket later . Negan asks if Rick is taking Carl to the Hilltop , slightly shocking Rick . Negan says that he and Carl are friends and that Rick could not break that bond . Negan asks if the creaking he can hear is a windmill , making Rick say that life went on without him , just as he said it would . Negan tells Rick that he is just getting things ready for him and that he will not be in his cell forever . Rick says that he knows Negan will die behind bars , to which Negan says that he wo n't and that deep down , Rick knows he should have killed Negan . Rick asks Negan if he noticed that he does not use profanity all that much anymore and asks why that is . Negan says he does not see the point and that it is best to save his energy . Rick disagrees and responds that `` It 's because I 've fucking neutered you like a dog . You 've got no fight left , you pathetic sack of shit . '' Negan stares at Rick angrily as he turns around and leaves , telling Negan to enjoy his food . Magna and her group later come down to see who was in the jail . When they walk down the stairs to where Negan is being held , Negan grabs the bars to his cell and asks if they are here to rescue him , saying that `` they 're animals . '' This shocks Magna and her group . Negan begs to be released and claims Rick is a monster who locked him up and tortured him for speaking out against him . However , Magna does not believe him , having seen actual victims of torture . Negan admits he was lying but had to give it a try . Magna and her companions leave the cell . Life and death ( edit ) Some time later , Negan is bathing and having his hair cut by Olivia outside his cell door . After finishing , Negan walks back to his cell at gunpoint from Andrea , who calls him a ' fucking monster , ' much to Negan 's amusement . Olivia then proceeds to lock the door , and they both leave Negan alone . However , it turns out Olivia did n't lock Negan 's cell properly as the door swings open , which Negan notices . However , Negan decides not to escape and remains in his cell with the door open until Rick comes downstairs , then taunts him about the numerous ways he could have destroyed Alexandria without anyone realizing , but claimed to stay as sign of good faith and an offering to amend their trust . As Rick locks up the cage and leaves , Negan taunts him again by stating the only reason he 's alive is so Rick can prove to himself that he 's still a good person , and that he wants everyone else to believe he is the only one who can fix the world . No turning back ( edit ) After a tumultuous community meeting regarding Rick 's proposed plan regarding the Whisperers , Rick goes to Negan 's cell and asks for his help . He fills him in on everything that has happened since they 've come into conflict with this new group . Negan advises Rick to keep his group happy , even if that means lying to them , touting his expertise as leader of the Saviors , some of whom disliked him . Rick leaves , and Negan dons a grin . When Negan hears the chants and cheers of Rick 's name at a later town meeting , Negan smiles and says , `` atta boy . '' Call to arms ( edit ) While in his cell , Negan is approached by Brandon Rose , a young Hilltop resident who bears a grudge against Rick , Carl , and the Whisperers ; Rick killed his father as an act of self - defense , Carl beat him up after he had attacked Sophia , and Alpha beheaded his mother . He proposes to help Negan escape , and Negan says he will think about it . Later on Rick and Michonne discover Negan 's empty cell . After his escape , Negan and Brandon enter Whisperer terrain . Here Brandon tells Negan that he wants Negan to pit Rick and the Whisperers against one another . In response , Negan stabs Brandon in the chest and enters the Whisperer zone alone . Shortly afterwards , Negan is ambushed by a group of Whisperers led by Beta and is taken prisoner . They bring him to Alpha . Negan introduces himself and declares his love for Alpha . Negan starts to live with the Whisperers , though without Beta 's trust . During a night at camp , Negan sees two Whisperers trying to rape a woman . He stops them but is knocked down by Beta for interfering . Alpha explains that they allow for things like this to happen in order for women to prove their strength , causing Negan to become angry with her . Later that night , Negan and Alpha have a face to face conversation where Negan reveals how dead inside this world has made him and that he knows Alpha is just pretending to have no emotions , causing Alpha to breakdown . Alpha says that maybe Negan does belong with the Whisperers after all . Negan then slits Alpha 's throat , followed by decapitating her , saying `` wait until Rick gets a look at you ... '' , revealing Negan had no feelings for Alpha all along . The Whisperer war ( edit ) A week after disappearing , Negan turns up with Alpha 's decapitated head and shows it to Rick and Andrea , who are very hesitant to believe and trust him . Negan reassures them that he only wants trust . He says Rick 's way of thinking is inspiring and tries to convince them that his time in prison has rehabilitated him . He says he could 've taken several chances and attacked Rick , but he did n't . He wants to fight with him , not against him . Rick finally agrees to let Negan out of the cell , but not in a community . He will live in an outpost , alone , with only enough food and weaponry to keep him surviving . He is not allowed these freedoms yet , though . He is going to be monitored for a long time and will fight on the front lines against the Whisperers . He will earn his freedom after the war , unless he slips up , in which case he will be immediately killed . Television series ( edit ) In season 8 , Negan vaguely states that he helped young people improve upon their weaknesses and molded them into stronger individuals . Negan later met a woman named Lucille and the pair fell in love and married . Over time however , Negan gradually became unfaithful towards her as he constantly lied and even engaged in an affair . In the onset of the outbreak , Negan was present alongside Lucille who had succumbed to an unknown illness and eventually perished . When she became a walker , Negan was unable to bring himself to put his wife down ; this act of weakness would continue to haunt him and thus Negan strived to become a much stronger person . Sometime after the outbreak , Negan established himself as the tyrannical dictator of a community of survivors called the `` Saviors '' . He wields a baseball bat wrapped in barbed wire that he calls `` Lucille '' ( after his wife ) . Negan quickly gathered a large following and established outposts in various locations around the Washington , D.C. area . Within the structure of the Saviors , Negan has a right - hand man named Simon as well as several lieutenants , including Wade , Bud , Gavin , Arat and Dwight . At some point , Negan and the Saviors encountered the Hilltop Colony and extorted its leader Gregory into giving them half their supplies on a regular basis ; failure to do so would result in the Saviors killing members of their community . To set an example , his goons used a baseball bat to beat a 16 - year - old resident named Rory to death , after which Gregory submitted to Negan 's demands . Negan and his men also made contact with the community known as the Kingdom and made a similar agreement with their leader King Ezekiel . At some point , Dwight fled the Saviors with his wife Sherry , sister - in - law Tina , and a truck full of supplies that they refer to as Patty . Negan subsequently sent out a large group , led by Wade , to retrieve them and the stolen supplies . Season 6 ( edit ) The Saviors become the main antagonists during the second half of season 6 and with their mysterious leader known as Negan being mentioned several times prior to his appearance in the season finale . His name is first heard in `` No Way Out '' when a group of bikers , led by a man named Bud , accost Daryl Dixon , Abraham Ford and Sasha Williams and attempt to steal their weapons , but Daryl kills them . In the season finale , `` Last Day on Earth '' , while driving the ailing Maggie Greene to the Hilltop , Rick and his group run into multiple roadblocks set by the Saviors , which eventually causes Rick 's group to travel by foot . While walking through the woods , the group is ambushed by a large contingent of the Saviors led by Negan 's right - hand man Simon , who take Rick and his group 's weapons and make them get on their knees . Dwight also brings out Daryl , Glenn Rhee , Michonne , and Rosita Espinosa , and makes them get on their knees , too . Negan then comes out of their RV and tells Rick that he must give him all of his possessions , and that Rick and everyone else at Alexandria work for Negan now ; he `` owns '' them . Because Rick 's group killed a lot of Saviors , Negan tells Rick 's group they have to be punished , and he is going to beat one of them to death with `` Lucille '' , a bat wrapped in barbed wire . Negan ca n't decide whom to kill , so he decides to choose the victim in a game of `` Eeny , meeny , miny , moe '' , which he recites while pointing Lucille at each member of the group , before landing on an unseen individual , saying , `` you are it . '' Negan warns the group not to say anything or to move , and he begins to beat the unseen individual to death , as everyone else in the group screams . Season 7 ( edit ) The season premiere , `` The Day Will Come When You Wo n't Be '' , reveals that Negan 's chosen victim is Abraham , whom he bludgeons to death with `` Lucille '' . Enraged , Daryl rushes Negan and punches him in the face , only to be stopped by three Saviors directly . As a reprisal for Daryl 's attack , Negan beats Glenn to death in front of Maggie , his wife . Negan then presents Rick with an ultimatum : pledge total loyalty , or the rest of the group will die . When Rick remains defiant , Negan threatens to kill Rick 's son Carl and the rest of the group unless Rick cuts the boy 's arm off . After some hesitation , Rick raises the axe ; Negan stops him , knowing that he has broken the elder Grimes ' will . Negan then allows the surviving members of the group to depart with the warning that the Saviors will return in a week to collect their supplies . As insurance against further retaliation , Negan takes Daryl with him . In the episode `` The Cell '' , Negan is shown to rule the Sanctuary ( the main Savior stronghold ) through fear and rewarding his personal army of enforcers ( who identify themselves as `` Negan '' in a show of loyalty ) . He keeps Daryl locked in a cell and hopes to break his will and mold him into one of his Saviors . He later tells Daryl about how he married Dwight 's wife , Sherry , to spare him for fleeing Negan ( although Dwight got half his face burned with an iron ) . He offers to end Daryl 's tortures and make his life better if he submits , but Daryl refuses . In the episode `` Service '' , Negan and his men arrive at Alexandria earlier than expected . He forces Rick to give him a tour while Rick holds Lucille and makes pithy comments along the way . Both Rick and Father Gabriel lied to Negan that Maggie did n't make it . He later talks Carl out of shooting a Savior ( though he states he likes the boy and that Carl has `` giant balls '' ) and decides to take all of Alexandria 's guns . When two guns go missing from the inventory , Negan threatens to kill Olivia ( Ann Mahoney ) if they are n't found . This is later resolved when Rick finds them as well as a hunting rifle which was n't in the armory . This impresses Negan who states that `` this is something to build a relationship on '' before telling him to find them something interesting for next time . Before leaving , Negan takes back Lucille and tells Rick that `` I just slid my dick down your throat and you thanked me for it '' as a way of gloating over Rick 's deference to him . Negan next appears in the episode `` Sing Me a Song '' , when he meets his men returning with supplies from the Hilltop . They are attacked by Carl , who kills two of the Saviors and demands Negan come forward . Negan is nonchalant about the imminent danger though he admits to Carl that he `` scares the shit out of him . '' This causes Carl to hesitate and allows for Dwight to disarm him . Negan admonishes Dwight for treating a guest that way and helps Carl up before showing him around the Sanctuary . He brings him to his harem of wives where he asks Sherry about one of his wives cheating on him with her former husband Mark . Sherry confirms it , but asks Negan to be merciful , to which he responds with surprise as he claims he 's never hurt one of them . He later sits Carl down and states that he wants to get to know him better so he should uncover his eye . When Carl begrudgingly does so , Negan pokes fun at the deformity , but when he sees Carl become visibly upset , he shows genuine remorse and apologizes stating that he was just kidding around . He later brings Carl to watch as he burns Mark 's face with a hot iron to teach everyone a lesson about following the rules . He then decides to bring Carl back to Alexandria where they wait for Rick . He interrogates Olivia about his whereabouts and then makes a comment about her weight , which she cries about . When she stops , Negan suggests that they have sex to pass the time , causing her to slap him , which made him like her more . He tells her to make him lemonade whilst Carl gives him a tour of the Safe - Zone . The episode ends with Negan holding Judith while answering Carl 's earlier question about why he had n't killed him or his father with `` I just might do that . '' In the mid-season finale , `` Hearts Still Beating '' , Negan is approached in Alexandria by Spencer Monroe who attempts to bond with him over whiskey and a game of pool . The two seem to hit it off , until Spencer tells Negan about how dangerous Rick is and that he should be in charge for both of their sakes . Negan states that while Rick hates him , he respects that Rick was brave enough to threaten him and swallow his pride to protect others . Disappointed that Spencer `` has no guts '' for going to him while Rick is gone , Negan eviscerates Spencer with a knife while jokingly stating that `` he did have guts after all . '' This provokes Rosita to draw a gun and shoot at Negan , though she misses and instead hits Lucille . Enraged at the attempt on his life and the damage done to Lucille , Negan threatens to have Rosita 's face mutilated unless she tells him where she got the bullet . When she refuses , Negan tells his lieutenant Arat to kill someone , causing Olivia to be gunned down . Rick , having just arrived , sees this and demands to know what happened . Negan calmly replies that he has tried to be reasonable as he returned Carl unharmed and killed Spencer for Rick . When Eugene confesses to making the bullet , Negan takes him prisoner and tells Rick that he is `` way in the hole '' for this incident no matter how many supplies they gather , before departing . After this , Rick finally knows he has to stop Negan , and hereby attempts to convince other communities to put an end to Negan 's reign of terror by forming an alliance to defeat their common enemy . Negan reappears in `` Hostiles and Calamities '' where he greets Eugene entering the Sanctuary . After determining that Eugene is indeed highly intelligent , Negan allows him to get comfortable within the Sanctuary and even sends him two of his wives to provide him with company . When Negan discovers that Sherry is gone , he suspects her of freeing Daryl and has Dwight beaten and thrown in a cell . When he is convinced that Dwight was n't involved and is still loyal , he sends him after Sherry only to learn that she supposedly was killed by walkers . When he finds evidence of Dr. Carson aiding in Daryl 's escape ( secretly planted by Dwight ) , Negan throws him in the fire - pit before apologizing to Dwight for doubting him as well as for his loss . `` Something They Need '' shows Negan visiting a captive Sasha Williams ( who came to the Sanctuary to kill him ) and discovers one of his Saviors , David , attempting to rape her . Negan states that rape is against their rules and that he does n't tolerate such behavior . David apologizes , but Negan rams a knife through his throat , stating he `` does not accept his apology . '' He then apologizes to Sasha and gets her a new T - shirt to replace the one David ripped before complimenting her on her brazen attack . After confirming Rick did n't sanction it , Negan states that she would make a welcome addition to the Saviors , despite his actions against her . He then leaves her with a knife and a choice : kill herself or kill David once he reanimates to show him she 's willing to work with him . He later returns to find , to his delight , that she has killed David . He takes the knife back and informs her that she 's on the right path before stating he knows Rick is conspiring against him as he has a spy in his midst . He 's confident Sasha will be able to help him put an end to Rick 's plans . In the season finale , `` The First Day of the Rest of Your Lives '' , Negan leads a convoy of Saviors to Alexandria with Simon , Dwight , Eugene and Sasha in tow with plans to bring Rick back under his control . He reveals the Scavengers ( a group of survivors Rick paid to help them ) are actually working for him as they hold Rick at gunpoint . Negan brings a coffin forward and reveals Sasha is inside , stating they can have her back alive and he 'll let most of them live if they meet his demands which include all their weapons , Daryl returned to him and Rick to pick someone to be killed by Lucille ( among other things ) . He opens the coffin to find Sasha has reanimated as a walker . After fending her off , the situation devolves into a gunfight . Negan manages to capture Rick and Carl , telling them he did n't want this , but Rick has forced his hand again . Negan then prepares to kill Carl though he admits that he likes him and does n't want him to suffer . Unfortunately for Negan , the Saviors are ambushed by Ezekiel and forces from the Kingdom as well as Maggie leading a group from Hilltop . Caught off guard by Rick 's reinforcements and rapidly losing men , Negan orders a retreat . Once back at the Sanctuary , he questions Eugene as to how Sasha died in the coffin ( suspecting foul play on his part ) before declaring to the assembled Saviors that they are going to war . Season 8 ( edit ) Negan appears in the season premiere , `` Mercy , '' when Rick leads an army of assembled survivors outside the Sanctuary . More amused than worried , Negan refuses to march his people out to fight Rick just to prove `` that my dick is bigger than yours , it is . '' Rick offers Negan 's lieutenants and the Saviors inside the chance to surrender , but states that Negan still has to die . Negan attempts to divide them by bringing out Gregory to order the Hilltoppers to retreat , but this tactic fails . They open fire , decimating the Sanctuary walls , but Negan and his people take cover . They are then surprised by a massive herd of walkers led by Daryl before the gates are blown open and the herd funnels inside . Negan becomes trapped in a trailer with Gabriel , telling him `` I hope you 're wearing your shitting pants . Because you are about to shit your pants . '' In the mid-season finale , `` How It 's Gotta Be '' , a dying Carl ( unknown to Negan ) offers to be killed to spare the rest . Negan however attacks Alexandria anyway , and confronts Rick . After Rick is thrown through a window , he retreats from Negan into the sewers with Michonne , and Carl reveals he suffered a walker bite . Development ( edit ) Jeffrey Dean Morgan was cast as Negan . He made his television debut in the sixth season finale . Reception ( edit ) The character of Negan has been praised by both fans and critics as an antagonist of the series . IGN on their review of Negan 's first appearance , the 100th issue said : `` The new villain already looks to be worthy addition to the book 's cast . I did n't realize how much I missed having a truly awful antagonist like The Governor in this series until now . The villain 's voice is very distinct , allowing Kirkman to toy with a very different approach to dialogue . For a series where the characters sometimes ramble on too much without making a clear point , this character is very much appreciated . '' On their review for Issue # 103 , IGN felt Negan was `` quickly giving the Governor a run for his money in the villainy department '' . When Negan 's community was explored as well as his relationship with Carl Grimes , it was said that `` There 's a palpable tension as we wonder what fate Negan has in mind for his young enemy . But even at his most sinister , Negan remains strangely charismatic . It 's not difficult to understand how he managed to build such a lofty position for himself , complete with multiple wives and the total devotion of an entire town . '' On the Talking Dead , for the season six finale , Morgan stated that soon after Issue # 100 was released , he had many fans approach him and told him that he was right for the role of Negan in the show . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Johnston , Rich ( July 13 , 2012 ) . `` Talking To The Walking Dead Panel '' . Bleeding Cool . Retrieved July 13 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` I 'm Robert Kirkman , Creator of The Walking Dead . AMA ! '' . Reddit . Retrieved March 9 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Goldberg , Lesley ( November 10 , 2015 ) . `` ' Walking Dead ' Casts Major Comics Villain Negan '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved November 10 , 2015 . Jump up ^ A. Lincoln , Ross ; Grobar , Matt ( December 11 , 2016 ) . `` 2016 Critics ' Choice Awards : ' La La Land ' Leads With 8 Wins Including Best Picture ; Donald Glover Unveils Lando Calrissian ' Stache '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved December 11 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Davis , Brandon ( May 8 , 2017 ) . `` The Walking Dead 's Jeffrey Dean Morgan Wins Best Villain At MTV Awards '' . Comic Book . Retrieved May 8 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Siegel , Lucas ( June 29 , 2017 ) . `` Marvel , Star Wars , The Walking Dead win big at 2017 Saturn Awards '' . Syfy Wire . Retrieved June 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Pruner , Aaron ( December 3 , 2015 ) . `` Jeffrey Dean Morgan 's reaction to playing Negan on ' The Walking Dead ' is perfect '' . Screener . Retrieved December 3 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Goldberg , Lesley ( October 29 , 2016 ) . `` ' Walking Dead ' : Will Negan 's Backstory Be Explored ? '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved October 29 , 2016 . Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 95 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 100 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 103 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 104 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 105 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 106 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 107 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 111 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 112 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 113 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 114 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 115 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 116 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 117 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 118 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 119 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 120 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 121 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 122 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 123 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 124 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 125 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 126 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 127 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 128 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 129 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 130 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 140 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 141 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 148 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 149 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 150 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 152 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 153 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 154 Jump up ^ The Walking Dead # 156 Jump up ^ Otterson , Joe ( December 10 , 2017 ) . `` ' Walking Dead ' Recap : Tide of War Turns in Midseason Finale ( SPOILERS ) '' . Variety . Retrieved December 10 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Ausiello , Michael ( November 10 , 2015 ) . `` Jeffrey Dean Morgan Joins Walking Dead Cast as ... Infamous Villain Negan ! '' . TVLine . Retrieved November 10 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Schedeen , Jesse ( July 13 , 2012 ) . `` The Walking Dead # 100 Review '' . IGN . Retrieved July 13 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Schedeen , Jesse ( October 17 , 2012 ) . `` The Walking Dead # 103 Review '' . IGN . Retrieved October 17 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Schedeen , Jesse ( December 12 , 2012 ) . `` The Walking Dead # 105 Review '' . IGN . Retrieved December 12 , 2012 . External links ( edit ) Negan on IMDb ( hide ) The Walking Dead Robert Kirkman Tony Moore Charlie Adlard Comic books The Walking Dead Television series The Walking Dead Episodes season 1 5 6 7 8 Accolades Soundtrack Vol. 1 Talking Dead Fear the Walking Dead Episodes season 1 Web series The Walking Dead Torn Apart Cold Storage The Oath Fear the Walking Dead Flight 462 Passage Video games The Walking Dead Season One `` 400 Days '' Two Michonne Three : A New Frontier Other games Survival Instinct Road to Survival Novels Rise of the Governor The Road to Woodbury The Fall of the Governor Descent Invasion Search and Destroy Return to Woodbury Characters Lists Comic book series Television series Aaron Alden Amy Jessie Anderson Andrea Axel Tara Chambler Clementine Daryl Dixon Merle Dixon Dwight Rosita Espinosa Lee Everett King Ezekiel Abraham Ford Gareth The Governor Gregory Beth Greene Hershel Greene Maggie Greene Carl Grimes Lori Grimes Rick Grimes Dale Horvath Morgan Jones Lilly Milton Mamet Caesar Martinez Deanna Monroe Paul `` Jesus '' Monroe Morales Michonne Negan Olivia The Prisoners Carol Peletier Sophia Peletier Eugene Porter Glenn Rhee Lizzie and Mika Samuels Gabriel Stokes Bob Stookey T - Dog Shane Walsh Sasha Williams Tyreese Williams Comics portal Fictional characters portal Horror fiction portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Negan&oldid=819383734 '' Categories : Characters created by Robert Kirkman Comics characters introduced in 2012 Fictional gangsters Fictional mass murderers Fictional serial killers Fictional torturers Fictional schoolteachers The Walking Dead characters Psychopathy in fiction Hidden categories : Wikipedia articles needing style editing from November 2017 All articles needing style editing Pages using deprecated image syntax All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from April 2016 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Español Français Italiano Português Русский Suomi Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 9 January 2018 , at 02 : 13 . 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the large pad at the base of the thumb is called

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Finger&oldid=835420359

Finger - wikipedia Finger Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Finger ( disambiguation ) and Fingertips ( disambiguation ) . Finger Details Identifiers Latin Digiti manus MeSH D005385 TA A01. 1.00. 030 FMA 75592 Anatomical terminology ( edit on Wikidata ) A finger is a limb of the human body and a type of digit , an organ of manipulation and sensation found in the hands of humans and other primates . Normally humans have five digits , the bones of which are termed phalanges , on each hand , although some people have more or fewer than five due to congenital disorders such as polydactyly or oligodactyly , or accidental or medical amputations . The first digit is the thumb , followed by index finger , middle finger , ring finger , and little finger or pinky . According to different definitions , the thumb can be called a finger , or not . Contents ( hide ) 1 Anatomy 1.1 Skeleton 1.2 Muscles 1.3 Skin 1.4 Fingertip wrinkling in water 1.5 Brain representation 1.6 Other animals 2 Clinical significance 2.1 Anomalies , injuries and diseases 3 History 3.1 Etymology 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links Anatomy Skeleton Illustration depicting the bones of the human hand The thumb ( connected to the trapezium ) is located on one of the sides , parallel to the arm . The palm has five bones known as metacarpal bones , one to each of the five digits . Human hands contain fourteen digital bones , also called phalanges , or phalanx bones : two in the thumb ( the thumb has no middle phalanx ) and three in each of the four fingers . These are the distal phalanx , carrying the nail , the middle phalanx , and the proximal phalanx . Sesamoid bones are small ossified nodes embedded in the tendons to provide extra leverage and reduce pressure on the underlying tissue . Many exist around the palm at the bases of the digits ; the exact number varies between different people . The articulations are : interphalangeal articulations between phalangeal bones , and metacarpophalangeal joints connecting the phalanges to the metacarpal bones . Muscles Play media The precision of finger movements in space and time is highlighted in this motion tracking of two pianists ' fingers playing the same piece ( slow motion , no sound ) . Each finger may flex and extend , abduct and adduct , and so also circumduct . Flexion is by far the strongest movement . In humans , there are two large muscles that produce flexion of each finger , and additional muscles that augment the movement . Each finger may move independently of the others , though the muscle bulks that move each finger may be partly blended , and the tendons may be attached to each other by a net of fibrous tissue , preventing completely free movement . Fingers do not contain muscles ( other than arrector pili ) . The muscles that move the finger joints are in the palm and forearm . The long tendons that deliver motion from the forearm muscles may be observed to move under the skin at the wrist and on the back of the hand . Muscles of the fingers can be subdivided into extrinsic and intrinsic muscles . The extrinsic muscles are the long flexors and extensors . They are called extrinsic because the muscle belly is located on the forearm . The fingers have two long flexors , located on the underside of the forearm . They insert by tendons to the phalanges of the fingers . The deep flexor attaches to the distal phalanx , and the superficial flexor attaches to the middle phalanx . The flexors allow for the actual bending of the fingers . The thumb has one long flexor and a short flexor in the thenar muscle group . The human thumb also has other muscles in the thenar group ( opponens and abductor brevis muscle ) , moving the thumb in opposition , making grasping possible . The extensors are located on the back of the forearm and are connected in a more complex way than the flexors to the dorsum of the fingers . The tendons unite with the interosseous and lumbrical muscles to form the extensorhood mechanism . The primary function of the extensors is to straighten out the digits . The thumb has two extensors in the forearm ; the tendons of these form the anatomical snuff box . Also , the index finger and the little finger have an extra extensor , used for instance for pointing . The extensors are situated within 6 separate compartments . The 1st compartment contains abductor pollicis longus and extensor pollicis brevis . The 2nd compartment contains extensors carpi radialis longus and brevis . The 3rd compartment contains extensor pollicis longus . The extensor digitorum indicis and extensor digititorum communis are within the 4th compartment . Extensor digiti minimi is in the fifth , and extensor carpi ulnaris is in the 6th . The intrinsic muscle groups are the thenar and hypothenar muscles ( thenar referring to the thumb , hypothenar to the small finger ) , the dorsal and palmar interossei muscles ( between the metacarpal bones ) and the lumbrical muscles . The lumbricals arise from the deep flexor ( and are special because they have no bony origin ) and insert on the dorsal extensor hood mechanism . Skin Aside from the genitals , the fingertips possess the highest concentration of touch receptors and thermoreceptors among all areas of the human skin , making them extremely sensitive to temperature , pressure , vibration , texture and moisture . Recent studies suggest fingers can feel nano - scale wrinkles on a seemingly smooth surface , a level of sensitivity not previously recorded . This makes the fingers commonly used sensory probes to ascertain properties of objects encountered in the world , making them prone to injury . The pulp of a finger is the fleshy mass on the palmar aspect of the extremity of the finger . Fingertip wrinkling in water Although a common phenomenon , the underlying functions and mechanism of fingertip wrinkling following immersion in water are relatively unexplored . Originally it was assumed that the wrinkles were simply the result of the skin swelling in water , but it is now understood that the furrows are caused by the blood vessels constricting due to signalling by the sympathetic nervous system in response to water exposure . One hypothesis for why this occurs , the `` rain tread '' hypothesis , posits that the wrinkles may help the fingers grip things when wet , possibly being an adaption from a time when humans dealt with rain and dew in forested primate habitats . A 2013 study supporting this hypothesis found that the wrinkled fingertips provided better handling of wet objects but gave no advantage for handling dry objects . However , a 2014 study attempting to reproduce these results was unable to demonstrate any improvement of handling wet objects with wrinkled fingertips . Brain representation Each finger has an orderly somatotopic representation on the cerebral cortex in the somatosensory cortex area 3b , part of area 1 and a distributed , overlapping representations in the supplementary motor area and primary motor area . The somatosensory cortex representation of the hand is a dynamic reflection of the fingers on the external hand : in syndactyly people have a clubhand of webbed , shortened fingers . However , not only are the fingers of their hands fused , but the cortical maps of their individual fingers also form a club hand . The fingers can be surgically divided to make a more useful hand . Surgeons did this at the Institute of Reconstructive Plastic Surgery in New York to a 32 - year - old man with the initials O.G. . They touched O.G. 's fingers before and after surgery while using MRI brain scans . Before the surgery , the fingers mapped onto his brain were fused close together ; afterward , the maps of his individual fingers did indeed separate and take the layout corresponding to a normal hand . Other animals Chimpanzees have lower limbs that are specialized for manipulation , and ( arguably ) have fingers on their lower limbs as well . The term ' finger ' is not applied to the digits of most other animals , such as canines , felines , or ungulates , none of which can engage in fine manipulation with their forelimbs as a primate can . Clinical significance Anomalies , injuries and diseases Radiograph of Type 1 Syndactyly A rare anatomical variation affects 1 in 500 humans , in which the individual has more than the usual number of digits ; this is known as polydactyly . A human may also be born without one or more fingers or underdevelopment of some fingers such as symbrachydactyly . Extra fingers can be functional . One individual with seven fingers not only used them but claimed that they `` gave him some advantages in playing the piano '' . Phalanges are commonly fractured . A damaged tendon can cause significant loss of function in fine motor control , such as with a mallet finger . They can be damaged by cold , including frostbite and non-freezing cold injury ( NFCI ) ; and heat , including burns . The fingers are commonly affected by diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and gout . Diabetics often use the fingers to obtain blood samples for regular blood sugar testing . Raynaud 's phenomenon and Paroxysmal hand hematoma are neurovascular disorders that affects the fingers . Research has linked the ratio of lengths between the index and ring fingers to higher levels of testosterone , and to various physical and behavioral traits such as penis length and risk for development of alcohol dependence or video game addiction . History Etymology English dictionaries describe finger as meaning either one of the five digits including the thumb , or one of the four excluding the thumb ( in which case they are numbered from 1 to 4 starting with the index finger closest to the thumb ) . Linguistically , it appears that the original sense was to include the thumb as a finger : the word is derived from Old English thūma . The name pinkie derives from Dutch pinkje , of uncertain origin . In English only the digits on the hand are known as fingers . However , in some languages the translated version of fingers can mean either the digits on the hand or feet . In English a digit on a foot has the distinct name of toe . See also Finger snapping Fingerprint Nail ( anatomy ) Paroxysmal hand hematoma Notes ^ Jump up to : Chambers 1998 page 603 ^ Jump up to : Oxford Illustrated pages 311,380 Jump up ^ Tracy L. Kivell ; Pierre Lemelin ; Brian G. Richmond ; Daniel Schmitt ( 10 August 2016 ) . The Evolution of the Primate Hand : Anatomical , Developmental , Functional , and Paleontological Evidence . Springer . pp. 7 -- . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4939 - 3646 - 5 . Jump up ^ Goebl , W. ; Palmer , C. ( 2013 ) . Balasubramaniam , Ramesh , ed . `` Temporal Control and Hand Movement Efficiency in Skilled Music Performance '' . PLoS ONE . 8 ( 1 ) : e50901 . doi : 10.1371 / journal. pone. 0050901 . PMC 3536780 . PMID 23300946 . Jump up ^ `` Feeling small : Fingers can detect nano - scale wrinkles even on a seemingly smooth surface '' . Science Daily . September 16 , 2013 . Jump up ^ medilexicon.com > Medical Dictionary - ' Pulp Of Finger ' Citing : Stedman 's Medical Dictionary . 2006 ^ Jump up to : Changizi , M. ; Weber , R. ; Kotecha , R. ; Palazzo , J. ( 2011 ) . `` Are Wet - Induced Wrinkled Fingers Primate Rain Treads ? '' . Brain , Behavior and Evolution. 77 ( 4 ) : 286 -- 90 . doi : 10.1159 / 000328223 . PMID 21701145 . ^ Jump up to : Haseleu , Julia ; Omerbašić , Damir ; Frenzel , Henning ; Gross , Manfred ; Lewin , Gary R. ( 2014 ) . Goldreich , Daniel , ed . `` Water - Induced Finger Wrinkles Do Not Affect Touch Acuity or Dexterity in Handling Wet Objects '' . PLoS ONE . 9 : e84949 . doi : 10.1371 / journal. pone. 0084949 . PMC 3885627 . PMID 24416318 . Jump up ^ Kareklas , K. ; Nettle , D. ; Smulders , T.V. ( 2013 ) . `` Water - induced finger wrinkles improve handling of wet objects '' . Biology Letters. 9 ( 2 ) : 20120999 . doi : 10.1098 / rsbl. 2012.0999 . PMC 3639753 . PMID 23302867 . Jump up ^ Van Westen , D ; Fransson , P ; Olsrud , J ; Rosén , B ; Lundborg , G ; Larsson , EM ( 2004 ) . `` Fingersomatotopy in area 3b : an fMRI - study '' . BMC Neurosci. 5 : 28 . doi : 10.1186 / 1471 - 2202 - 5 - 28 . PMC 517711 . PMID 15320953 . Jump up ^ Nelson , AJ ; Chen , R ( 2008 ) . `` Digit somatotopy within cortical areas of the postcentral gyrus in humans '' . Cereb Cortex. 18 ( 10 ) : 2341 -- 51 . doi : 10.1093 / cercor / bhm257 . PMID 18245039 . Jump up ^ Kleinschmidt , A ; Nitschke , MF ; Frahm , J ( 1997 ) . `` Somatotopy in the human motor cortex hand area . A high - resolution functional MRI study '' . Eur J Neurosci. 9 ( 10 ) : 2178 -- 86 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1460 - 9568.1997. tb01384. x . PMID 9421177 . Jump up ^ Mogilner , A ; Grossman , JA ; Ribary , U ; Joliot , M ; Volkmann , J ; Rapaport , D ; Beasley , RW ; Llinás , RR ( 1993 ) . `` Somatosensory cortical plasticity in adult humans revealed by magnetoencephalography '' . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA . 90 ( 8 ) : 3593 -- 7 . doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 90.8. 3593 . PMC 46347 . PMID 8386377 . Jump up ^ Dwight , T ( 1892 ) . `` Fusion of hands '' . Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History . 4 : 473 -- 486 . Jump up ^ Researchers Find Association Between Penile Length and Ratio of Length of Men 's Fingers Jump up ^ Kornhuber , J ; Erhard , G ; Lenz , B ; Kraus , T ; Sperling , W ; Bayerlein , K ; Biermann , T ; Stoessel , C ( 2011 ) . `` Low digit ratio 2D : 4D in alcohol dependent patients '' . PLoS ONE . 6 ( 4 ) : e19332 . doi : 10.1371 / journal. pone. 0019332 . PMC 3081847 . PMID 21547078 . Jump up ^ Kornhuber , J. ; Zenses , EM ; Lenz , B ; Stoessel , C ; Bouna - Pyrrou , P ; Rehbein , F ; Kliem , S ; Mößle , T ( 2013 ) . `` Low digit ratio 2D : 4D associated with video game addiction '' . PLoS ONE . 8 ( 11 ) : e79539 . doi : 10.1371 / journal. pone. 0079539 . PMC 3827365 . PMID 24236143 . Jump up ^ Oxford Advanced page 326 References The Chambers Dictionary . Edinburgh : Chambers Harrap Publishers Ltd. 2000 ( 1998 ) . ISBN 0 - 550 - 14000 - X . The Oxford Illustrated Dictionary . Great Britain : Oxford University Press . 1976 ( 1975 ) . Oxford Advanced Learner 's Dictionary of Current English . London : Oxford University Press . 1974 ( 1974 ) . ISBN 0 - 19 - 431102 - 3 . External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Fingers . Look up finger in Wiktionary , the free dictionary . 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Model ( person ) - wikipedia Model ( person ) Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the role a person may take as a model . For other uses , see Model ( disambiguation ) . This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( November 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Model Caitlin O'Connor posing on a typical studio shooting set Models led by supermodel Miranda Kerr do the final runway walk at a fashion show A model is a person with a role either to promote , display or advertise commercial products ( notably fashion clothing in fashion shows ) , or to serve as a visual aid for people who are creating works of art or to pose for photography . Modelling ( `` modeling '' in American English ) is considered to be different from other types of public performance , such as acting or dancing . Although the difference between modelling and performing is not always clear , appearing in a film or a play is not generally considered to be `` modelling '' . Types of modelling include : fashion , glamour , fitness , bikini , fine art , body - part , promotional and commercial print models . Models are featured in a variety of media formats including : books , magazines , films , newspapers , internet and television . Fashion models are sometimes featured in films ( Prêt - à - Porter and Looker ) ; reality TV shows ( America 's Next Top Model and The Janice Dickinson Modeling Agency ) ; and music videos ( `` Freedom ! ' 90 '' , `` Wicked Game '' , `` Daughters '' and `` Blurred Lines '' ) . Celebrities , including actors , singers , sports personalities and reality TV stars , frequently take modelling contracts in addition to their regular work . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Early years 1.2 The 1960s and the beginning of the industry 1.3 The 1970s and 1980s 1.4 The 1990s to present 2 Types 2.1 Fashion modelling 2.1. 1 Runway modelling 2.1. 2 Plus - size models 2.1. 3 Fit models 2.2 Glamour models 2.3 Alternative models 2.4 Parts models 2.5 Fitness models 2.6 Gravure idols 2.7 Commercial print and on - camera models 2.8 Promotional models 2.8. 1 Spokesmodels 2.8. 2 Trade show models 2.8. 3 Atmosphere models 2.8. 4 Podium models 2.9 Art models 2.10 Instagram models 3 See also 4 References 5 Further reading History ( edit ) Early Years ( edit ) Modelling as a profession was first established in 1853 by Charles Frederick Worth , the `` father of haute couture '' , when he asked his wife , Marie Vernet Worth , to model the clothes he designed . The term `` house model '' was coined to describe this type of work . Eventually , this became common practice for Parisian fashion houses . There were no standard physical measurement requirements for a model , and most designers would use women of varying sizes to demonstrate variety in their designs . With the development of fashion photography , the modelling profession expanded to photo modelling . Models remained fairly anonymous , and relatively poorly paid , until the late 1950s . One of the first well - known models was Lisa Fonssagrives , who was very popular in the 1930s . Fonssagrives appeared on over 200 Vogue covers , and her name recognition led to the importance of Vogue in shaping the careers of fashion models . In 1946 , Ford Models was established by Eileen and Gerard Ford in New York ; it is one of the oldest model agencies in the world . One of the most popular models during the 1940s was Jinx Falkenburg who was paid $25 per hour , a large sum at the time . During the 1940s and 1950s , Wilhelmina Cooper , Jean Patchett , Dovima , Dorian Leigh , Suzy Parker , Evelyn Tripp , Carmen Dell'Orefice , and Lisa Fonssagrives dominated fashion . Dorothea Church was among the first black models in the industry to gain notoriety in Paris . However , these models were unknown outside the fashion community . Compared to today 's models , the models of the 1950s were more voluptuous . Wilhelmina Cooper 's measurements were 38 `` - 24 '' - 36 '' whereas Chanel Iman 's measurements are 32 `` - 23 '' - 33 `` . The 1960s and the beginning of the industry ( edit ) Jean Shrimpton in 1965 In the 1960s , the modelling world began to establish modelling agencies . Throughout Europe , secretarial services acted as models ' agents charging them weekly rates for their messages and bookings . For the most part , models were responsible for their own billing . In Germany , agents were not allowed to work for a percentage of a person 's earnings , so referred to themselves as secretaries . With the exception of a few models travelling to Paris or New York , travelling was relatively unheard of for a model . Most models only worked in one market due to different labor laws governing modelling in various countries . In the 1960s , Italy had many fashion houses and fashion magazines but was in dire need of models . Italian agencies would often coerce models to return to Italy without work visas by withholding their pay . They would also pay their models in cash , which models would have to hide from customs agents . It was not uncommon for models staying in hotels such as La Louisiana in Paris or the Arena in Milan to have their hotel rooms raided by the police looking for their work visas . It was rumoured that competing agencies were behind the raids . This led many agencies to form worldwide chains ; for example , the Marilyn Agency has branches in Paris and New York . By the late 1960s , London was considered the best market in Europe due to its more organised and innovative approach to modelling . It was during this period that models began to become household names . Models such as Jean Shrimpton , Joanna Lumley , Tania Mallet , Celia Hammond , Twiggy , Penelope Tree , and Pauline Stone dominated the London fashion scene and were well paid , unlike their predecessors . Twiggy became The Face of ' 66 at the age of 16 . At this time , model agencies were not as restrictive about the models they represented , although it was uncommon for them to sign shorter models . Twiggy , who stood at 5 feet 6 inches ( 168 cm ) with a 32 '' bust and had a boy 's haircut , is credited with changing model ideals . At that time , she earned £ 80 an hour , while the average wage was £ 15 a week . In 1967 , seven of the top model agents in London formed the Association of London Model Agents . The formation of this association helped legitimize modelling and changed the fashion industry . Even with a more professional attitude towards modelling , models were still expected to have their hair and makeup done before they arrived at a shoot . Meanwhile , agencies took responsibility for a model 's promotional materials and branding . That same year , former top fashion model Wilhelmina Cooper opened up her own fashion agency with her husband called Wilhelmina Models . By 1968 , FM Agency and Models 1 were established and represented models in a similar way that agencies do today . By the late 1960s , models were treated better and were making better wages . One of the innovators , Ford Models , was the first agency to advance models money they were owed and would often allow teen models , who did not live locally , to reside in their house , a precursor to model housing . The 1970s and 1980s ( edit ) The innovations of the 1960s flowed into the 1970s fashion scene . As a result of model industry associations and standards , model agencies became more business minded , and more thought went into a model 's promotional materials . By this time , agencies were starting to pay for a model 's publicity . In the early 1970s , Scandinavia had many tall , leggy , blonde - haired , blue - eyed models and not enough clients . It was during this time that Ford Models pioneered scouting . They would spend time working with agencies holding modelling contests . This was the precursor to the Ford Models Supermodel of the World competition which was established in 1980 . Ford also focused their attentions on Brazil which had a wide array of seemingly `` exotic '' models , which eventually led to establishment of Ford Models Brazil . It was also during this time that the Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue debuted . The magazine set a trend by photographing `` bigger and healthier '' California models , and printing their names by their photos , thus turning many of them into household names and establishing the issue as a hallmark of supermodel status . Beverly Johnson in 2007 The 1970s marked numerous milestones in fashion . Beverly Johnson was the first African American to appear on the cover of U.S. Vogue in 1974 . Models , including Grace Jones , Pat Cleveland , Donyale Luna , Minah Bird , Naomi Sims , and Toukie Smith were some of the top black fashion models who paved the way for black women in fashion . In 1975 , Margaux Hemingway landed a then - unprecedented million - dollar contract as the face of Fabergé 's Babe perfume and the same year appeared on the cover of Time magazine , labelled one of the `` New Beauties , '' giving further name recognition to fashion models . Many of the world 's most prominent modelling agencies were established in the 1970s and early 1980s . These agencies created the standard by which agencies now run . In 1974 , Nevs Models was established in London with only a men 's board , the first of its kind . Elite Models was founded in Paris in 1975 as well as Friday 's Models in Japan . The next year Cal - Carries was established in Singapore , the first of a chain of agencies in Asia . In 1977 , Select Model Management opened its doors as well as Why Not Models in Milan . By the 1980s , agencies such as Premier Model Management , Storm Models , Mikas , Marilyn , and Metropolitan Models had been established . In October 1981 , Life cited Shelley Hack , Lauren Hutton and Iman for Revlon , Margaux Hemingway for Fabergé , Karen Graham for Estee Lauder , Christina Ferrare for Max Factor , and Cheryl Tiegs for CoverGirl by proclaiming them the `` million dollar faces '' of the beauty industry . These models negotiated previously unheard of lucrative and exclusive deals with giant cosmetics companies , were instantly recognizable , and their names became well known to the public . By the 1980s , most models were able to make modelling a full - time career . It was common for models to travel abroad and work throughout Europe . As modelling became global , numerous agencies began to think globally . In 1980 , Ford Models , the innovator of scouting , introduced the Ford Models Supermodel of the World contest . That same year , John Casablancas opened Elite Models in New York . In 1981 , cosmetics companies began contracting top models to lucrative endorsement deals . By 1983 , Elite developed its own contest titled the Elite Model Look competition . In New York during the 1980s there were so - called `` model wars '' in which the Ford and Elite agencies fought over models and campaigns . Models were jumping back and forth between agencies such Elite , Wilhelmina , and Ford . In New York , the late 1980s trend was the boyish look in which models had short cropped hair and looked androgynous . In Europe , the trend was the exact opposite . During this time , a lot of American models who were considered more feminine looking moved abroad . By the mid-1980s , big hair was made popular by some musical groups , and the boyish look was out . The curvaceous models who had been popular in the 1950s and early 1970s were in style again . Models like Patti Hansen earned $200 an hour for print and $2,000 for television plus residuals . It was estimated that Hansen earned about $300,000 a year during the 1980s . The 1990s to present ( edit ) Naomi Campbell , one of the most famous supermodels The early 1990s were dominated by the high fashion models of the late 1980s . In 1990 , Linda Evangelista famously said to Vogue , `` we do n't wake up for less than $10,000 a day '' . Evangelista and her contemporaries , Naomi Campbell , Cindy Crawford , Christy Turlington , Tatjana Patitz and Stephanie Seymour , became arguably the most recognizable models in the world , earning the moniker of `` supermodel '' , and were boosted to global recognition and new heights of wealth for the industry . In 1991 , Turlington signed a contract with Maybelline that paid her $800,000 for twelve days ' work each year . Kate Moss , leader of the heroin chic movement By the mid ‐ 1990s , the new `` heroin chic '' movement became popular amongst New York and London editorial clients . While the heroin chic movement was inspired by model Jaime King , who suffered from a heroin addiction , it was Kate Moss who became its poster child through her ads for Calvin Klein . In spite of the heroin chic movement , model Claudia Schiffer earned $12 million . With the popularity of lingerie retailer Victoria 's Secret , and the Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue , there was a need for healthier - looking supermodels such as Tyra Banks and Heidi Klum to meet commercial modelling demand . The mid ‐ 1990s also saw many Asian countries establishing modelling agencies . By the late 1990s , the heroin chic era had run its course . Teen - inspired clothing infiltrated mainstream fashion , teen pop music was on the rise , and artists such as Britney Spears , Aaliyah and Christina Aguilera popularized pleather and bare midriffs . As fashion changed to a more youthful demographic , the models who rose to fame had to be sexier for the digital age . Following Gisele Bundchen 's breakthrough , a wave of Brazilian models including Adriana Lima , Alessandra Ambrosio , and Ana Beatriz Barros rose to fame on runways and became popular in commercial modelling throughout the 2000s . Some have tied this increase in Brazilian models to the trend of magazines featuring celebrities instead of models on their covers . Gemma Ward , an Australian model In the late 2000s , the Brazilians fell out of favour on the runways . Editorial clients were favouring models with a china - doll or alien look to them , such as Gemma Ward and Lily Cole . During the 2000s , Ford Models and NEXT Model Management were engaged in a legal battle , with each agency alleging that the other was stealing its models . However , the biggest controversy of the 2000s was the health of high - fashion models participating in fashion week . While the health of models had been a concern since the 1970s , there were several high - profile news stories surrounding the deaths of young fashion models due to eating disorders and drug abuse . The British Fashion Council subsequently asked designers to sign a contract stating they would not use models under the age of sixteen . On March 3 , 2012 , Vogue banned models under the age of sixteen as well as models who appeared to have an eating disorder . Similarly , other countries placed bans on unhealthy , and underage models , including Spain , Italy , and Israel , which all enacted a minimum body mass index ( BMI ) requirement . In 2013 , New York toughened its child labor law protections for models under the age of eighteen by passing New York Senate Bill No. 5486 , which gives underage models the same labor protections afforded to child actors . Key new protections included the following : underage models are not to work before 5 : 00 pm or after 10 : 00 pm on school nights , nor were they to work later than 12 : 30 am on non-school nights ; the models may not return to work less than twelve hours after they leave ; a pediatric nurse must be on site ; models under sixteen must be accompanied by an adult chaperone ; parents or guardians of underage models must create a trust fund account into which employers will transfer a minimum of 15 % of the child model 's gross earnings ; and employers must set aside time and a dedicated space for educational instruction . Types ( edit ) Fashion modelling ( edit ) `` Fashion model '' redirects here . For the 1945 film , see Fashion Model ( film ) . Runway modelling ( edit ) Main articles : Fashion show , Fashion week , and Runway ( fashion ) See also : Size zero and Female body shape An Indian model auditioning for the Lakme Fashion Week in Mumbai walks the runway in catwalk manner , 2011 Runway models showcase clothes from fashion designers , fashion media , and consumers . They are also called `` live models '' and are self - employed . They are wanted to be over the height of 5'8 '' for men and 5'6 '' for women . Runway models work in different locations , constantly travelling between those cities where fashion is well known -- London , Milan , New York City , and Paris . Second - tier international fashion center cities include : Rome , Florence , Venice , Brescia , Barcelona , Los Angeles , Tokyo , and Moscow . Cities where catalog work comprises the bulk of fashion packaging , merchandising and marketing work are : Miami , San Francisco , Sydney , Chicago , Toronto , Mexico City , Tokyo , Hamburg , London , and Beijing . The criteria for runway models include certain height and weight requirements . During runway shows , models have to constantly change clothes and makeup . Models walk , turn , and stand in order to demonstrate a garment 's key features . Models also go to interviews ( called `` go and sees '' ) to present their portfolios . The more experience a model has , the more likely she / he is to be hired for a fashion show . A runway model can also work in other areas , such as department store fashion shows , and the most successful models sometimes create their own product lines or go into acting . The British Association of Model Agents ( AMA ) says that female models should be around 34 `` - 24 '' - 34 '' and between 5 ft 8 in ( 173 cm ) and 5 ft 11 in ( 180 cm ) tall . The average model is very slender . Those who do not meet the size requirement may try to become a plus - size model . According to the New York Better Business Career Services website , the preferred dimensions for a male model are a height of 5 ft 11 in ( 180 cm ) to 6 ft 2 in ( 189 cm ) , a waist of 29 -- 32 in ( 73.66 -- 81.28 cm ) and a chest measurement of 39 -- 40 in ( 99.06 -- 101.60 cm ) . Male runway models are notably skinny and well toned . Fashion models on the runaway during Los Angeles Fashion Week , 2008 Male and female models must also possess clear skin , healthy hair , and attractive facial features . Stringent weight and body proportion guidelines form the selection criteria by which established , and would ‐ be , models are judged for their placement suitability , on an ongoing basis . There can be some variation regionally , and by market tier , subject to current prevailing trends at any point , in any era , by agents , agencies and end - clients . Formerly , the required measurements for models were 35 `` - 23.5 '' - 35 '' in ( 90 - 60 - 90 cm ) , the alleged measurements of Marilyn Monroe . Today 's fashion models tend to have measurements closer to the AMA - recommended shape , but some - such as Afghan model Zohre Esmaeli - still have 35 `` - 23.5 '' - 35 '' measurements . Although in some fashion centres , a size 00 is more desirable than a size 0 . The often thin shape of many fashion models has been criticized for warping girls ' body image and encouraging eating disorders . Organisers of a fashion show in Madrid in September 2006 turned away models who were judged to be underweight by medical personnel who were on hand . In February 2007 , six months after her sister , Luisel Ramos , also a model , died , Uruguayan model Eliana Ramos became the third fashion model to die of malnutrition in six months . The second victim was Ana Carolina Reston . Luisel Ramos died of heart failure caused by anorexia nervosa just after stepping off the catwalk . In 2015 , France passed a law requiring models to be declared healthy by a doctor in order to participate in fashion shows . The law also requires re-touched images to be marked as such in magazines . Plus - size models ( edit ) Main article : Plus - size model Robyn Lawley , one of the top plus size models in the world , has appeared in many editorials , on runways , and in advertising for top retailers . Plus - size models are models who generally have larger measurements than editorial fashion models . The primary use of plus - size models is to appear in advertising and runway shows for plus - size labels . Plus - size models are also engaged in work that is not strictly related to selling large - sized clothing , e.g. , stock photography and advertising photography for cosmetics , household and pharmaceutical products and sunglasses , footwear and watches . Therefore , plus - size models do not exclusively wear garments marketed as plus - size clothing . This is especially true when participating in fashion editorials for mainstream fashion magazines . Some plus - size models have appeared in runway shows and campaigns for mainstream retailers and designers such as Gucci , Guess , Jean - Paul Gaultier , Levi 's and Versace Jeans . Fit models ( edit ) Main article : Fit model A fit model works as a sort of live mannequin to give designers and pattern makers feedback on the fit , feel , movement , and drape of a garment to be produced in a given size . Glamour models ( edit ) Main article : Glamour photography Glamour models posing on the red carpet -- Hollywood , California Glamour modelling focuses on sexuality and thus general requirements are often unclear , being dependent more on each individual case . Glamour models can be any size or shape . There is no industry standard for glamour modelling and it varies greatly by country . For the most part , glamour models are limited to modelling in calendars , men 's magazines , such as Playboy , bikini modelling , lingerie modelling , fetish modelling , music videos , and extra work in films . However , some extremely popular glamour models transition into commercial print modelling , appearing in swimwear , bikini and lingerie campaigns . It is widely considered that England created the market for glamour modelling when The Sun established Page 3 in 1969 , a section in their newspaper which featured sexually suggestive images of Penthouse and Playboy models . From 1970 models appeared topless . In the 1980s , The Sun 's competitors followed suit and produced their own Page 3 sections . It was during this time that glamour models first came to prominence with the likes of Samantha Fox . As a result , the United Kingdom has a very large glamour market and has numerous glamour modelling agencies to this day . It was not until the 1990s that modern glamour modelling was established . During this time , the fashion industry was promoting models with waif bodies and androgynous looking women , which left a void . Several fashion models , who were deemed too commercial , and too curvaceous , were frustrated with industry standards , and took a different approach . Models such as Victoria Silvstedt left the fashion world and began modelling for men 's magazines . In the previous decades , posing nude for Playboy resulted in models losing their agencies and endorsements . Playboy was a stepping stone which catapulted the careers of Victoria Silvstedt , Pamela Anderson , and Anna Nicole Smith . Pamela Anderson became so popular from her Playboy spreads that she was able to land roles on Home Improvement and Baywatch . In the mid-1990s , a series of men 's magazines were established such as Maxim , FHM , and Stuff . At the same time , magazines including Sweden 's Slitz re-branded themselves as men 's magazines . Pre-internet , these magazines were popular among men in their late teens and early twenties because they were considered to be more tasteful than their predecessors . With the glamour market growing , fashion moved away from the waifs and onto Brazilian bombshells . The glamour market , which consisted mostly of commercial fashion models and commercial print models , became its own genre due to its popularity . Even in a large market like the United Kingdom , however , glamour models are not usually signed exclusively to one agency as they can not rely financially on one agency to provide them with enough work . It was , and still is , a common practice for glamour models to partake in kiss - and - tell interviews about their dalliances with famous men . The notoriety of their alleged bed - hopping often propels their popularity and they are often promoted by their current or former fling . With Page 3 models becoming fixtures in the British tabloids , glamour models such as Jordan , now known as Katie Price , became household names . By 2004 , Page 3 regulars earned anywhere from £ 30,000 to 40,000 , where the average salary of a non-Page 3 model , as of 2011 , was between £ 10,000 and 20,000 . In the early 2000s , glamour models , and aspiring glamour models , appeared on reality television shows such as Big Brother to gain fame . Several Big Brother alumni parlayed their fifteen minutes of fame into successful glamour modelling careers . However , the glamour market became saturated by the mid-2000s , and numerous men 's magazines including Arena , Stuff and FHM in the United States went under . During this time , there was a growing trend of glamour models , including Kellie Acreman and Lauren Pope , becoming DJs to supplement their income . In a 2012 interview , Keeley Hazell said that going topless is not the best way to achieve success and that `` ( she ) was lucky to be in that 1 % of people that get that , and become really successful . '' Alternative models ( edit ) An alternative model is any model who does not fit into the conventional model types and may include punk , goth , fetish , and tattooed models or models with distinctive attributes . This type of modeling is usually a cross between glamour modeling and art modeling . Publishers such as Goliath Books in Germany introduced alternative models and punk photography to larger audiences . Billi Gordon , then known as Wilbert Anthony Gordon , was the top greeting card model in the world and inspired a cottage industry , including greeting cards , T - shirts , fans , stationery , gift bags , etc . Parts models ( edit ) Some models are employed for their body parts . For example , hand models may be used to promote products held in the hand and nail - related products . ( e.g. rings , other jewelry or nail polish ) . They are frequently part of television commercials . Many parts models have exceptionally attractive body parts , but there is also demand for unattractive or unusual looking body parts for particular campaigns . Hands are the most in - demand body parts . Feet models are also in high demand , particularly those who fit sample size shoes . Models are also successful modelling other specific parts including abs , arms , back , bust or chest , legs , and lips . Some petite models ( females who are under 5 ft 6 in ( 1.68 m ) and do not qualify as fashion models ) have found success in women 's body part modelling . Parts model divisions can be found at agencies worldwide . Several agencies solely represent parts models , including Hired Hands in London , Body Parts Models in Los Angeles , Carmen Hand Model Management in New York and Parts Models in New York . Parts Models is the largest parts agency , representing over 300 parts models . Fitness models ( edit ) See also : Fitness and figure competition Fitness model posing with dumbbell Fitness modelling focuses on displaying a healthy , toned physique . Fitness models usually have defined muscle groups . The model 's body weight is greater due to muscle weighing more than fat ; however , they have a lower body fat percentage because the muscles are toned and sculpted . Fitness models are often used in magazine advertising ; they can also in some cases be certified personal fitness trainers . However , other fitness models are also athletes and compete as professionals in fitness and figure competitions . There are several agencies in large markets such as New York , London , and Germany that have fitness modelling agencies . While there is a large market for these models , most of these agencies are a secondary agency promoting models who typically earn their primary income as commercial models . There are also magazines that gear towards specifically fitness modelling or getting fit and in shape . Gravure idols ( edit ) A gravure idol ( グラビア アイドル , gurabia aidoru ) , often abbreviated to gradol ( グラドル , guradoru ) , is a Japanese female model who primarily models on magazines , especially men 's magazines , photobooks or DVDs . `` Gravure '' ( グラビア ) is a Wasei - eigo term derived from `` rotogravure '' , which is a type of intaglio printing process that was once a staple of newspaper photo features . The rotogravure process is still used for commercial printing of magazines , postcards , and cardboard product packaging . Gravure idols appear in a wide range of photography styles and genres . Their photos are largely aimed at male audiences with poses or activities intended to be provocative or suggestive , generally accentuated by an air of playfulness and innocence rather than aggressive sexuality . Although gravure models may sometimes wear clothing that exposes most of their body , they seldom appear fully nude . Gravure models may be as young as pre-teen age up to early thirties . In addition to appearing in mainstream magazines , gravure idols often release their own professional photobooks and DVDs for their fans . Many popular female idols in Japan launched their careers by starting out as gravure idols . Commercial print and on - camera models ( edit ) Commercial print models generally appear in print ads for non-fashion products , and in television commercials . Commercial print models can earn up to $250 an hour . Commercial print models are usually non-exclusive , and primarily work in one location . There are several large fashion agencies that have commercial print divisions , including Ford Models in the United States . Promotional models ( edit ) Main article : Promotional model Two models with the logo of a cigarette brand they were promoting , printed on the backside of their shorts in Ibiza , 2004 A promotional model is a model hired to drive consumer demand for a product , service , brand , or concept by directly interacting with potential consumers . The vast majority of promotional models tend to be attractive in physical appearance . They serve to provide information about the product or service and make it appealing to consumers . While the length of interaction may be short , the promotional model delivers a live experience that reflects on the product or service he or she is representing . This form of marketing touches fewer consumers for the cost than traditional advertising media ( such as print , radio , and television ) ; however , the consumer 's perception of a brand , product , service , or company is often more profoundly affected by a live person - to - person experience . Marketing campaigns that make use of promotional models may take place in stores or shopping malls , at tradeshows , special promotional events , clubs , or even at outdoor public spaces . Promotional models may also be used as TV host / anchor for interviewing celebrities such as at film awards , sports events , etc . They are often held at high traffic locations to reach as many consumers as possible , or at venues at which a particular type of target consumer is expected to be present . Spokesmodels ( edit ) Main article : Spokesmodel `` Spokesmodel '' is a term used for a model who is employed to be associated with a specific brand in advertisements . A spokesmodel may be a celebrity used only in advertisements ( in contrast to a brand ambassador who is also expected to represent the company at various events ) , but more often the term refers to a model who is not a celebrity in their own right . A classic example of the spokesmodel are the models hired to be the Marlboro Man between 1954 and 1999 . Trade show models ( edit ) Trade show models work a trade show floorspace or booth , and represent a company to attendees . Trade show models are typically not regular employees of the company , but are freelancers hired by the company renting the booth space . They are hired for several reasons : trade show models can make a company 's booth more visibly distinguishable from the hundreds of other booths with which it competes for attendee attention . They are articulate and quickly learn and explain or disseminate information on the company and its product ( s ) and service ( s ) . And they can assist a company in handling a large number of attendees which the company might otherwise not have enough employees to accommodate , possibly increasing the number of sales or leads resulting from participation in the show . Atmosphere models ( edit ) Atmosphere models at a sexy costume party Atmosphere models are hired by the producers of themed events to enhance the atmosphere or ambience of their event . They are usually dressed in costumes exemplifying the theme of the event and are often placed strategically in various locations around the venue . It is common for event guests to have their picture taken with atmosphere models . For example , if someone is throwing a `` Brazilian Day '' celebration , they would hire models dressed in samba costumes and headdresses to stand or walk around the party . Podium models ( edit ) Podium model modeling a dress by Sue Wong Podium models differ from runway models in that they do n't walk down a runway , but rather just stand on an elevated platform . They are kind of like live mannequins placed in various places throughout an event . Attendees can walk up to the models and inspect and even feel the clothing . Podium Modeling is a practical alternative way of presenting a fashion show when space is too limited to have a full runway fashion show . Art models ( edit ) Main article : Model ( art ) Art school model , c. 1912 Art models pose for any visual artist as part of the creative process . Art models are often paid professionals who provide a reference or inspiration for a work of art that includes the human figure . The most common types of art created using models are figure drawing , figure painting , sculpture and photography , but almost any medium may be used . Although commercial motives dominate over aesthetics in illustration , its artwork commonly employs models . Models are most frequently employed for art classes or by informal groups of experienced artists that gather to share the expense of a model . Instagram models ( edit ) Instagram models have become popular due to the widespread use of social media . They are models who gain their success as a result of the large number of followers they have on Instagram and other social media . They should not be confused with established models such as Cara Delevingne , who use Instagram to promote their traditional modelling careers , although some models , such as Playboy model Lindsey Pelas , begin their modelling careers conventionally and subsequently become Instagram models . Some models use Instagram success to develop their careers , such as Rosie Roff who worked as a fashion model before being discovered via Instagram and gaining work as a ring girl in American boxing . In some cases , Instagram provides unsigned models with a platform to attract the attention of agencies and talent scouts . American male model Matthew Noszka entered the profession as a result of being discovered on Instagram by Wilhelmina Models . The Instagram model concept originated in the late 2000s , when the boyfriends of fashion bloggers such as Rumi Neely and Chiara Ferragni began photographing their girlfriends in various outfits . Instagram models often attempt to become social media influencers and engage in influencer marketing , promoting products such as fashion brands and detox teas . High - profile influencers able to earn thousands of US dollars for promoting commercial brands . When choosing whom to employ , brands have become less concerned with the number of followers an influencer has and more focussed on their engagement marketing strategy . Research indicates that 89 per cent of influencers use Instagram to promote themselves compared to 20 per cent using Twitter and 16 per cent using Facebook . Some Instagram models have gained high - profile modelling jobs and become celebrities . Fitness model Jen Selter had become an Internet celebrity by 2014 with nearly 2 million Instagram followers , gaining professional sports management work and modelling for Vanity Fair magazine . Cosplayer and model Anna Faith had acquired over 250,000 Instagram followers by 2014 , gaining success from her ability to impersonate the Disney character Elsa . American actress Caitlin O'Connor had almost 300,000 Instagram followers in 2016 , earning most of her social media income from endorsing products on Instagram . Australian personal trainer Kayla Itsines acquired five - and - a-half million Instagram followers allowing her to build a business in the fitness industry . Brazilian model Claudia Alende had gained a following of 2.8 million people on Instagram by 2015 and developed a career as a lingerie model . Plus - size models Iskra Lawrence and Tess Holliday have used Instagram to demonstrate their potential as models . Instagram model techniques and aesthetics have also been used in unconventional or parody profiles . Instagram model Lil Miquela has blurred the line between reality and social media , amassing more than 200,000 followers without it being revealed whether she is real or computer - generated . Australian comedian Celeste Barber had acquired 1.8 million Instagram followers by 2017 , parodying celebrity fashion photographs with real - life reenactments . In 2016 , French organization Addict Aide ran a campaign to raise awareness for alcohol abuse among young people in which a model posed as Louise Delage , a fictitious 25 - year - old Parisian whose Instagram photos nearly always featured alcohol . The account amassed 65,000 followers in a month , after which a reveal video posted to it had over 160,000 views . See also ( edit ) Fashion portal Academy figure Hip hop model Modeling agency List of modeling agencies Modeling website Ring girl Time for print References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` modelworker.com '' . modelworker.com . Archived from the original on 2007 - 10 - 17 . Jump up ^ Walker , Harriet ( 4 May 2009 ) . `` Fabulous faces of fashion : A century of modelling '' . The Independent . Jump up ^ Rosemary Ranck , `` The First Supermodel '' , New York Times February 9 , 1997 . Retrieved September 24 , 2006 Jump up ^ `` fashion models 1940s , fashion modeling in 1940 , Forties Fashion modeling agencies , first fashion modeling agency in New York , 1940s fashion models , John Powers modeling agency , girls of the John Roberts Powers modeling agency , Powers Girls Photographs , popular 1 '' . Oldmagazinearticles.com . Archived from the original on 2011 - 04 - 01 . Retrieved 2012 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ CATHY HORYNPublished : February 04 , 2002 ( 2002 - 02 - 04 ) . `` Jean Patchett , 75 , a Model Who Helped Define the 50 's - New York Times '' . Nytimes.com . Retrieved 2012 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Chanel Iman - Fashion Model - Profile on FMD '' . Fashionmodeldirectory.com . Retrieved 2012 - 09 - 19 . ^ Jump up to : Peter Marlowe ( January 2007 ) . `` A Brief History Of Modelling '' . The Peter Marlowe Model Composite Archives . Archived from the original on 8 July 2008 . Jump up ^ Armstrong , Lisa ( 2012 - 01 - 20 ) . `` David Bailey 's favourite model Jean Shrimpton was the Shrimp who sparked the Sixties - Telegraph '' . London : Fashion.telegraph.co.uk . Retrieved 2012 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Twiggy - The Official Site '' . Twiggylawson.co.uk. 1966 - 02 - 23 . Archived from the original on 2003 - 02 - 11 . Retrieved 2012 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Europe 's Leading Model Agency '' . Models 1 . Archived from the original on 2012 - 10 - 20 . 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Callahan , Susannah . `` Super models class of 1990 back in vogue '' . New York Post ( www.nypost.com ) . NYP HOLDINGS , INC . Retrieved 4 August 2014 . `` Supermodel Status : A Brief History Of The Supermodel '' . Fashion Gone Rogue ( www.fashiongonerogue.com ) . Fashion Gone Rogue . Retrieved 14 July 2015 . Brown , Laura . `` Classic Lindbergh '' . Harper 's Bazaar ( www.harpersbazaar.com ) . Brant Publishing . Retrieved 3 August 2016 . Jump up ^ Death of the Supermodels by C.L. Johnson , Urban Models 21 October 2002 online retrieved 13 July 2006 Archived 15 July 2006 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` Model agency wars Next vs Ford ( Vogue.com UK ) '' . Vogue.co.uk. 2010 - 05 - 24 . Retrieved 2012 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Fashion news : Underage models banned at London Fashion Week '' . Marie Claire . Retrieved 2012 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Vogue bans models who are too skinny , underage - style - TODAY.com '' . Today.msnbc.msn.com . Archived from the original on 2012 - 10 - 04 . Retrieved 2012 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ Darwell , Robert A. ; Theodore C. Max , Edwin Komen , James A. Mercer III , Sheppard , Mullin , Richter & Hampton LLP ( October 29 , 2013 ) . `` The New Catwalk Experience : New York Tightens Laws for Underage Models '' . The National Law Review . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Rusu , M ( April 2013 ) . `` Interview with Catwalk Model Rusu '' ( Printed Publication ) . Expatriates Magazine . Paris . p. 33 . Jump up ^ Vogt , Peter ; Angie Wojak ( 2007 ) . Career Opportunities in the Fashion Industry . Info base Publishing . pp. 191 -- 192 . ISBN 0 - 8160 - 6841 - 0 . Jump up ^ `` Getting Started as a Model '' . associationofmodelagents.org . Jump up ^ sawyer , Meieli . `` how to become a plus size model '' . article . Jump up ^ Effron , Lauren ( 2011 - 09 - 14 ) . `` Fashion Models : By the Numbers '' . ABC News . Retrieved 2012 - 06 - 24 . 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Jump up ^ Blackburn , Jen ( 2012 - 06 - 11 ) . `` Alicia Douvall Baby : Plastic surgery addict opens up to The Sun The Sun Showbiz TV '' . London : The Sun . Retrieved 2012 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ Lee , Cara ( 2011 - 05 - 16 ) . `` Katie Price parties with Peter Andre 's ex Maddy Ford The Sun Showbiz TV '' . London : The Sun . Retrieved 2012 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ Gente ( 2008 - 04 - 26 ) . `` ' Interviú ' desnuda a Nereida Gallardo , la novia de Cristiano Ronaldo '' . 20minutos.es . Retrieved 2012 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` BBC News - Sussex benefit cheat glamour model Dionne Stenner fined '' . Bbc.co.uk. 2011 - 09 - 12 . Retrieved 2012 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Big Brother : Only glamour models allowed - now '' . Nowmagazine.co.uk. 2012 - 06 - 07 . Retrieved 2012 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` MediaCorp launches Style : Men , ARENA to be closed '' ( Press release ) . MediaCorp. 30 April 2009 . Archived from the original on 16 December 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Newsbeat - Revealed : ' My body makes money ' '' . BBC . 2010 - 12 - 10 . Retrieved 2012 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ Seaver , Linda . The Secret of Her Excess Oakland Tribune ( 8 - 13 - 87 ) ^ Jump up to : Hare , Brianna ( August 10 , 2009 ) . `` Their hands are worth 1,200 a day '' . CNN . Jump up ^ `` Meet the model who stands in for Kate Moss '' . Mirror . Retrieved 13 January 2013 . Jump up ^ Susannah Cahalan ( 2010 - 04 - 04 ) . `` The sum of their parts '' . nypost.com . Retrieved 16 December 2012 . ^ Jump up to : FoxNews.com ( July 13 , 2002 ) . `` ' Part ' Time Modeling '' . FoxNews.com . Retrieved October 14 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Cool Companies '' . cnn.com . CNN . Retrieved 16 December 2012 . Jump up ^ `` About Carmen Hand Model Management '' . carmenhandmodels.com . Retrieved 10 January 2013 . Jump up ^ Herald Journal ( March 30 , 2003 ) . `` A Model For Good Hand Care '' . Herald Journal . Retrieved November 11 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Alan Burdick ( July 2002 ) . `` I Was DeNiro 's Leg : Tales from the parts - modeling industry '' . Alan Burdick . Archived from the original on May 13 , 2013 . Retrieved November 11 , 2012 . Jump up ^ BellaSugar ( August 11 , 2009 ) . `` Five Fun Facts About Hand Models '' . BellaSugar . Retrieved November 11 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Jimi Okelana ( March 10 , 2012 ) . `` Japan 101 : Guide to Gravure Idols '' . Axiom Magazine . Archived from the original on 28 July 2016 . Retrieved 2 August 2016 . Jump up ^ Galbraith , P.W. , Karlin , J.G. ( Eds . ) . Idols and Celebrity in Japanese Media Culture . Springer , 2012 . ISBN 1137283785 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link ) ^ Jump up to : Mara Schiavocampo ; Claire Pedersen ; Timor Balaish ; Lauren Effron ( 26 February 2015 ) . `` From Construction to High Fashion : How Instagram Helped This Male Model Get Discovered '' . ABC News . ^ Jump up to : Heather Saul ( 27 March 2016 ) . `` Instafamous : Meet the social media influencers redefining celebrity '' . Independent . ^ Jump up to : Rosie Spinks ( 7 August 2016 ) . `` What It 's Actually Like to Be an Instagram Model '' . Vice . Jump up ^ `` Instagram Models '' . Maxim . Retrieved 2016 - 05 - 01 . Jump up ^ Stephanie Smith ( 22 January 2014 ) . `` Curvy Instagram star Selter gets big sports deal '' . Page SIx . Jump up ^ Stephanie Radvan ( 13 March 2014 ) . `` Jen Selter Shows off her Famous Butt in `` Vanity Fair '' `` . Maxim . Jump up ^ `` ' Frozen ' Lookalike , Anna Faith , Totally Looks Like Elsa '' . The Huffington Post Canada . 13 June 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Why Snapchat 's Influencer Economy Runs on Hot Tubs , Selfies , and Whey Protein '' . Bloomberg L.P . Retrieved 2016 - 07 - 19 . Jump up ^ Blair , Olivia ( 5 October 2016 ) . `` Kayla Itsines : The personal trainer turned Instagram star on social media , body image and her new found fame '' . The Independent . Jump up ^ Sam Webb ( 26 December 2015 ) . `` Millionaire models of Instagram : The stunning women you 've never heard of raking in the cash on social media '' . Daily Mirror . Jump up ^ Maya Oppenheim ( 6 September 2016 ) . `` This Instagram model has thousands of followers and they 're mostly people trying to work out if she 's fake or not '' . The Independent . Jump up ^ `` The model world of Instagram parody star Celeste Barber -- in pictures '' . The Guardian . 30 June 2017 . Jump up ^ Hunt , Elle ( 2016 - 10 - 06 ) . `` Who is Louise Delage ? New Instagram influencer not what she seems '' . the Guardian . Retrieved 2018 - 04 - 11 . Further reading ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Models ( people ) . Gross , Michael . Model : the Ugly Business of Beautiful Women . New York : IT Books , 2011 . ISBN 0 - 062 - 06790 - 7 Hix , Charles , and Michael Taylor . Male Model : the World Behind the Camera . New York : St. Martin 's Press , 1979 . ISBN 0 - 312 - 50938 - 3 Mears , Ashley . Pricing Beauty : the Making of a Fashion Model . Berkeley : University of California Press , 2011 . ISBN 0 - 520 - 26033 - 3 Vogels , Josey , and Smee , Tracy . `` Object of Desire : Idealized Male Bodies Sell Everything from Underwear to Appliances ; Are We Creating a Male Beauty Myth ? '' Hour ( Montréal ) , vol. 3 , no . 46 ( 14 - 20 Dec. 1995 ) , p. ( 1 ) , 10 - 11 . N.B. : The caption title ( on p. 10 ) is `` Male Attention '' . 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what country is south of the united states

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Southern_United_States&oldid=822349642

Southern United states - Wikipedia Southern United states Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the cultural region . For the geographically southern part of the United States , see Sun Belt . Southern United States The Southern United States as defined by the United States Census Bureau . Subregion Southeastern United States , South Central United States , Deep South , Upland South , Dixie , South Atlantic , East South Central , West South Central Population ( 2010 U.S. Census ) Total 114.6 million The Southern United States , also known as the American South , is a region of the United States of America . The South does not fully match the geographic south of the United States but is commonly defined as including the states that fought for the Confederate States of America in the American Civil War . The Deep South is fully located in the southeastern corner . Arizona and New Mexico , which are geographically in the southern part of the country , are rarely considered part , while West Virginia , which separated from Virginia in 1863 , commonly is . Some scholars have proposed definitions of the South that do not coincide neatly with state boundaries . While the states of Delaware and Maryland , as well as the District of Columbia , permitted slavery prior to the start of the Civil War , they remained with the Union . Since the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s , they became more culturally , economically , and politically aligned with the industrial Northern states , and are often identified as part of the Mid-Atlantic or Northeast by many residents , businesses , public institutions , and private organizations . However , the United States Census Bureau puts them in the South . The southeast region was formed by volcanic activity an marine sediments.sn Usually , the South is defined as including the southeastern and south - central United States . The region is known for its culture and history , having developed its own customs , musical styles , and cuisines , which have distinguished it in some ways from the rest of the United States . The Southern ethnic heritage is diverse and includes strong European ( mostly English , Scottish , Scotch - Irish , Irish , German , French and Spanish American ) , African , and some Native American components . Some other aspects of the historical and cultural development of the South have been influenced by the institution of slave labor on plantations in the Deep South to an extent seen nowhere else in the United States ; the presence of a large proportion of African Americans in the population ; support for the doctrine of states ' rights , and the legacy of racial tension magnified by the Civil War and Reconstruction Era , as seen in thousands of lynchings ( mostly from 1880 to 1930 ) , the segregated system of separate schools and public facilities known as `` Jim Crow laws '' , that lasted until the 1960s , and the widespread use of poll taxes and other methods to frequently deny black people of the right to vote or hold office until the 1960s . Since the late 1960s , black people have held many offices in Southern states , especially in the coastal states of Virginia and South Carolina . Many black people have also been elected or appointed as mayors and police chiefs in the metropolises of Columbia , Memphis , Houston , Atlanta , and New Orleans , and serve in both the U.S. Congress and state legislatures . Historically , the South relied heavily on agriculture , and was highly rural until after 1945 . It has since become more industrialized and urban and has attracted national and international migrants . The American South is now among the fastest - growing areas in the United States . Houston is the largest city in the Southern United States . Sociological research indicates that Southern collective identity stems from political , demographic , and cultural distinctiveness from the rest of the United States . The region contains almost all of the Bible Belt , an area of high Protestant church attendance ( especially evangelical churches such as the Southern Baptist Convention ) and predominantly conservative , religion - influenced politics . Indeed , studies have shown that Southerners are more conservative than non-Southerners in several areas , including religion , morality , international relations and race relations . This is evident in both the region 's religious attendance figures and in the region 's usually strong support for the Republican Party in political elections since the 1960s , and especially since the 1990s . Apart from its climate , the living experience in the South increasingly resembles the rest of the nation . The arrival of millions of Northerners ( especially in major metropolitan areas and coastal areas ) and millions of Hispanics has meant the introduction of cultural values and social norms not rooted in Southern traditions . Observers conclude that collective identity and Southern distinctiveness are thus declining , particularly when defined against `` an earlier South that was somehow more authentic , real , more unified and distinct '' . The process has worked both ways , however , with aspects of Southern culture spreading throughout a greater portion of the rest of the United States in a process termed `` Southernization '' . Contents ( hide ) 1 Geography 2 History 2.1 Native American culture 2.2 European colonization 2.3 American Revolution 2.4 Antebellum years 2.5 Civil War 2.6 Reconstruction and Jim Crow 2.7 Late 19th and 20th century -- industrialization and Great Migration 3 Modern economy 4 Education 5 Culture 5.1 Religion 6 Sports 6.1 American football 6.2 Baseball 6.3 Auto racing 6.4 Basketball 6.5 Golf 6.6 Soccer 7 Health 8 Politics 8.1 Presidents from the South 8.2 Other politicians and political movements 9 Race relations 9.1 Native Americans 9.2 Civil rights 10 Symbolism 11 Major cities 12 Major metropolitan areas 13 Major combined statistical areas 14 See also 15 References 16 Further reading 17 External links Geography ( edit ) Texas Hill Country The question of how to define the subregions in the South has been the focus of research for nearly a century . Bluegrass region , Kentucky Glass Mountains , Oklahoma Field of yellow wildflowers in Saint Bernard Parish , Louisiana North Carolina 's Appalachian Mountains Pearl River backwater in Mississippi Misty Bluff along the Buffalo River , Ozark Mountains , Arkansas Tidal wetlands of the Chesapeake Bay in Maryland Cherry River in West Virginia The highlands of Grayson County in Southwest Virginia As defined by the United States Census Bureau , the Southern region of the United States includes sixteen states . As of 2010 , an estimated 114,555,744 people , or thirty - seven percent of all U.S. residents , lived in the South , the nation 's most populous region . The Census Bureau defined three smaller divisions : The South Atlantic States : Delaware , Florida , Georgia , Maryland , North Carolina , South Carolina , Virginia and West Virginia . The East South Central States : Alabama , Kentucky , Mississippi and Tennessee . The West South Central States : Arkansas , Louisiana , Oklahoma , and Texas . The Council of State Governments , an organization for communication and coordination between states , includes in its South regional office the states of Alabama , Arkansas , Florida , Georgia , Kentucky , Louisiana , Mississippi , Missouri , North Carolina , Oklahoma , South Carolina , Tennessee , Texas , Virginia , and West Virginia . Other terms related to the South include : The Old South : can mean either the slave states that existed in 1776 ( Virginia , Delaware , Maryland , Georgia , North Carolina , and South Carolina ) or all the slave states before 1860 ( which included the newer states of Kentucky , Tennessee , Alabama , Florida , Mississippi , Missouri , Arkansas , Louisiana , and Texas ) . The New South : usually including the South Atlantic States . The Solid South : region largely controlled by the Democratic Party from 1877 to 1964 , especially after disfranchisement of most blacks at the turn of the 20th century . Before that , blacks were elected to national office and many to local office through the 1880s ; Populist - Republican coalitions gained victories for Fusionist candidates for governors in the 1890s . Includes at least all the 11 former Confederate States . Southern Appalachia : mainly refers to areas situated in the Southern Appalachian Mountains , namely Eastern Kentucky , East Tennessee , Western North Carolina , Western Maryland , West Virginia , Southwest Virginia , North Georgia , and Northwestern South Carolina . Southeastern United States : usually including the Carolinas , the Virginias , Tennessee , Kentucky , Georgia , Alabama , Mississippi , and Florida . The Deep South : various definitions , usually including Louisiana , Alabama , Mississippi , Georgia , and South Carolina . Occasionally , parts of adjoining states are included ( sections of East Texas , the Mississippi embayment areas of Arkansas and Tennessee , and northern and central Florida ) . The Gulf South : various definitions , usually including Gulf coasts of Florida , Louisiana , Mississippi , Texas and Alabama . The Upper South : Kentucky , Virginia , West Virginia , Tennessee , North Carolina , and on a rare occasion Missouri , Maryland , and Delaware . Dixie : various definitions , but most commonly associated with the 11 states of the Old Confederacy . The Mid-South : Various definitions , including that of the Census Bureau of the East and West South Central United States ; in another informal definition , Tennessee , Arkansas , Mississippi , and sometimes adjoining areas of other states . Border South : Missouri , Kentucky , Maryland , and Delaware were states on the outer rim of the Confederacy that did not secede from the United States in the 1860s , but did have significant numbers of residents who joined the Confederate armed forces . Kentucky and Missouri had Confederate governments - in - exile and were represented in the Confederate Congress and by stars on the Confederate battle flag . West Virginia formed in 1863 after the western region of Virginia broke away to protest the Old Dominion 's joining of the Confederacy , but residents of the new state were about evenly divided on supporting the Union or the Confederacy . The popular definition of the `` South '' is more informal and generally associated with the 11 states that seceded before or during the Civil War to form the Confederate States of America . In order of their secession , these were : South Carolina , Mississippi , Florida , Alabama , Georgia , Louisiana , Texas , Virginia , Arkansas , Tennessee , and North Carolina . These states share commonalities of history and culture that carry on to the present day . Oklahoma was not a state during the Civil War , but all its major Native American tribes signed formal treaties of alliance with the Confederacy . The South is a diverse meteorological region with numerous climatic zones , including temperate , sub-tropical , tropical , and arid -- though the South generally has a reputation as hot and humid , with long summers and short , mild winters . Most of the south -- except for the higher elevations and areas near the western , southern and some northern fringes -- fall in the humid subtropical climate zone . Crops grow readily in the South ; its climate consistently provides growing seasons of at least six months before the first frost . Another common environment occurs in the bayous and swamplands of the Gulf Coast , especially in Louisiana and in Texas . History ( edit ) Main article : History of the Southern United States Native American culture ( edit ) The first well - dated evidence of human occupation in the south United States occurs around 9500 BC with the appearance of the earliest documented Americans , who are now referred to as Paleo - Indians . Paleoindians were hunter - gathers that roamed in bands and frequently hunted megafauna . Several cultural stages , such as Archaic ( ca . 8000 -- 1000 BC ) and the Woodland ( ca . 1000 BC -- AD 1000 ) , preceded what the Europeans found at the end of the 15th century -- the Mississippian culture . The Mississippian culture was a complex , mound - building Native American culture that flourished in what is now the southeastern United States from approximately 800 AD to 1500 AD . Natives had elaborate and lengthy trading routes connecting their main residential and ceremonial centers extending through the river valleys and from the East Coast to the Great Lakes . Some noted explorers who encountered and described the Mississippian culture , by then in decline , included Pánfilo de Narváez ( 1528 ) , Hernando de Soto ( 1540 ) , and Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville ( 1699 ) . Native American descendants of the mound - builders include Alabama , Apalachee , Caddo , Cherokee , Chickasaw , Choctaw , Creek , Guale , Hitchiti , Houma , and Seminole peoples , all of whom still reside in the South . Other peoples whose ancestral links to the Mississippian culture are less clear but were clearly in the region before the European incursion include the Catawba and the Powhatan . European colonization ( edit ) Benjamin Hawkins , seen here on his plantation , teaching Creek Native Americans how to use European technology ( painted in 1805 ) European immigration resulted in a corresponding die off of Native Americans who had not been exposed to various diseases . The predominant culture of the South was rooted in the settlement of the region by British colonists . In the 17th century , most voluntary immigrants were of English origins who settled chiefly along the coastal regions of the Eastern seaboard but had pushed as far inland as the Appalachian Mountains by the 18th century . The majority of early English settlers were indentured servants , who gained freedom after enough work to pay off their passage . The wealthier men who paid their way received land grants known as headrights , to encourage settlement . The Spanish and French established colonies in Florida , Texas and Louisiana . The Spanish colonized Florida in the 16th century , with their communities reaching a peak in the late 17th century . In the British colonies , immigration began in 1607 and continued until the outbreak of the Revolution in 1775 . Settlers cleared land , built houses and outbuildings , and on their own farms . The rich owned large plantations that dominated export agriculture and used slaves . Many were involved in the labor - intensive cultivation of tobacco , the first cash crop of Virginia . Tobacco exhausted the soil quickly , requiring that farmers regularly clear new fields . They used old fields as pasture , and for crops such as corn and wheat , or allowed them to grow into woodlots . In the mid-to - late - 18th century , large groups of Ulster Scots ( later called the Scotch - Irish ) and people from the Anglo - Scottish border region immigrated and settled in the back country of Appalachia and the Piedmont . They were the largest group of non-English immigrants from the British Isles before the American Revolution . In the 1980 Census , 34 % of Southerners reported that they were of English ancestry ; English was the largest reported European ancestry in every Southern state by a large margin . The early colonists engaged in warfare , trade , and cultural exchanges . Those living in the backcountry were more likely to encounter Creek Indians , Cherokee , and Choctaws and other regional native groups . The oldest university in the South , the College of William & Mary , was founded in 1693 in Virginia ; it pioneered in the teaching of political economy and educated future U.S. Presidents Jefferson , Monroe and Tyler , all from Virginia . Indeed , the entire region dominated politics in the First Party System era : for example , four of the first five Presidents -- Washington , Jefferson , Madison , and Monroe -- were from Virginia . The two oldest public universities are also in the South : the University of North Carolina ( 1789 ) and the University of Georgia ( 1785 ) . American Revolution ( edit ) Main article : Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War 1st Maryland Regiment holding the line at the Battle of Guilford in North Carolina With Virginia in the lead , the Southern colonies embraced the American Revolution , providing such leaders as commander in chief George Washington , and the author of the Declaration of Independence , Thomas Jefferson . In 1780 and 1781 , the British largely halted reconquest of the northern states , and concentrated on the south , where they were told there was a large Loyalist population ready to leap to arms once the royal forces arrived . The British took control of Savannah and Charleston , capturing a large American army in the process , and set up a network of bases inland . There were many more Loyalists in the South than in the North , but they were concentrated in larger coastal cities and were not great enough in number to overcome the revolutionaries . Large numbers of loyalists from South Carolina fought for the British in the Battle of Camden . The British forces at the Battle of Monck 's Corner and the Battle of Lenud 's Ferry consisted entirely of Loyalists with the exception of the commanding officer ( Banastre Tarleton ) . Both white and black Loyalists fought for the British at the Battle of Kemp 's Landing in Virginia . Led by Nathanael Greene and other generals , the Americans engaged in Fabian tactics designed to wear down the British invasion force , and to neutralize its strong points one by one . There were numerous battles large and small , with each side claiming some victories . By 1781 , however , British General Cornwallis moved north to Virginia , where an approaching army forced him to fortify and await rescue by the British Navy . The British Navy did arrive , but so did a stronger French fleet , and Cornwallis was trapped . American and French armies , led by Washington , forced Cornwallis to surrender his entire army in Yorktown , Virginia in October 1781 , effectively winning the North American part of the war . The Revolution provided a shock to slavery in the South . Thousands of slaves took advantage of wartime disruption to find their own freedom , catalyzed by the British Governor Dunmore of Virginia 's promise of freedom for service . Many others were removed by Loyalist owners and became slaves elsewhere in the Empire . Between 1770 and 1790 , there was a sharp decline in the percentage of blacks -- from 61 % percent to 44 % in South Carolina and from 45 % to 36 % in Georgia . In addition , some slaveholders were inspired to free their slaves after the Revolution . They were moved by the principles of the Revolution , and Quaker and Methodist preachers worked to encourage slaveholders to free their slaves . Planters such as George Washington often freed slaves by their wills . In the upper South , more than 10 percent of all blacks were free by 1810 , a significant expansion from pre-war proportions of less than 1 percent free . Antebellum years ( edit ) Slaves on a South Carolina plantation ( The Old Plantation , circa 1790 ) Cotton became dominant in the lower South after 1800 . After the invention of the cotton gin , short staple cotton could be grown more widely . This led to an explosion of cotton cultivation , especially in the frontier uplands of Georgia , Alabama and other parts of the Deep South , as well as riverfront areas of the Mississippi Delta . Migrants poured into those areas in the early decades of the 19th century , when county population figures rose and fell as swells of people kept moving west . The expansion of cotton cultivation required more slave labor , and the institution became even more deeply an integral part of the South 's economy . With the opening up of frontier lands after the government forced most Native Americans to move west of the Mississippi , there was a major migration of both whites and blacks to those territories . From the 1820s through the 1850s , more than one million enslaved Africans were transported to the Deep South in forced migration , two - thirds of them by slave traders and the others by masters who moved there . Planters in the Upper South sold slaves excess to their needs as they shifted from tobacco to mixed agriculture . Many enslaved families were broken up , as planters preferred mostly strong males for field work . Two major political issues that festered in the first half of the 19th century caused political alignment along sectional lines , strengthened the identities of North and South as distinct regions with certain strongly opposed interests , and fed the arguments over states ' rights that culminated in secession and the Civil War . One of these issues concerned the protective tariffs enacted to assist the growth of the manufacturing sector , primarily in the North . In 1832 , in resistance to federal legislation increasing tariffs , South Carolina passed an ordinance of nullification , a procedure in which a state would , in effect , repeal a Federal law . Soon a naval flotilla was sent to Charleston harbor , and the threat of landing ground troops was used to compel the collection of tariffs . A compromise was reached by which the tariffs would be gradually reduced , but the underlying argument over states ' rights continued to escalate in the following decades . Horse racing at Jacksonville , Alabama , 1841 The second issue concerned slavery , primarily the question of whether slavery would be permitted in newly admitted states . The issue was initially finessed by political compromises designed to balance the number of `` free '' and `` slave '' states . The issue resurfaced in more virulent form , however , around the time of the Mexican -- American War , which raised the stakes by adding new territories primarily on the Southern side of the imaginary geographic divide . Congress opposed allowing slavery in these territories . Before the Civil War , the number of immigrants arriving at Southern ports began to increase , although the North continued to receive the most immigrants . Hugenots were among the first settlers in Charleston , along with the largest number of Hasidic Jews outside of New York City . Numerous Irish immigrants settled in New Orleans , establishing a distinct ethnic enclave now known as the Irish Channel . Germans also went to New Orleans and its environs , resulting in a large area north of the city ( along the Mississippi ) becoming known as the German Coast ; however , still greater numbers immigrated to Texas ( especially after 1848 ) , where many bought land and were farmers . Many more German immigrants arrived in Texas after the Civil War , where they created the brewing industry in Houston and elsewhere , became grocers in numerous cities , and also established wide areas of farming . By 1840 , New Orleans was the wealthiest city in the country and the third largest in population . The success of the city was based on the growth of international trade associated with products being shipped to and from the interior of the country down the Mississippi River . New Orleans also had the largest slave market in the country , as traders brought slaves by ship and overland to sell to planters across the Deep South . The city was a cosmopolitan port with a variety of jobs that attracted more immigrants than other areas of the South . Because of lack of investment , however , construction of railroads to span the region lagged behind the North . People relied most heavily on river traffic for getting their crops to market and for transportation . Civil War ( edit ) Main articles : American Civil War and Confederate States of America Historic Southern United States . The states in stripes were considered `` border states '' , and gave varying degrees of support to the Southern cause although they remained in the Union . This illustration depicts the original , trans - Allegheny borders of Virginia , thus does not show West Virginia separately . Although members of the Five Tribes in Indian Territory ( today part of Oklahoma ) aligned themselves with the Confederacy , the region is not shaded because at the time it was a territory , not a state . By 1856 , the South had lost control of Congress , and was no longer able to silence calls for an end to slavery -- which came mostly from the more populated , free states of the North . The Republican Party , founded in 1854 , pledged to stop the spread of slavery beyond those states where it already existed . After Abraham Lincoln was elected the first Republican president in 1860 , seven cotton states declared their secession and formed the Confederate States of America before Lincoln was inaugurated . The United States government , both outgoing and incoming , refused to recognize the Confederacy , and when the new Confederate President Jefferson Davis ordered his troops to open fire on Fort Sumter in April 1861 , there was an overwhelming demand , North and South , for war . Only the state of Kentucky attempted to remain neutral , and it could only do so briefly . When Lincoln called for troops to suppress what he referred to as `` combinations too powerful to be suppressed by the ordinary '' judicial or martial means , four more states decided to secede and join the Confederacy ( which then moved its capital to Richmond , Virginia ) . Although the Confederacy had large supplies of captured munitions and many volunteers , it was slower than the Union in dealing with the border states . By March 1862 , the Union largely controlled Maryland , West Virginia , Kentucky and Missouri , had shut down all commercial traffic from all Confederate ports , had prevented European recognition of the Confederate government , and was poised to seize New Orleans . Confederate dead of General Ewell 's Corps who attacked the Union lines at the Battle of Spotsylvania , May 19 , 1864 . In the four years of war 1861 -- 65 the South was the primary battleground , with all but two of the major battles taking place on Southern soil . Union forces relentlessly squeezed the Confederacy , controlling the border states in 1861 , the Tennessee River , the Cumberland River and New Orleans in 1862 , and the Mississippi River in 1863 . In the East , however , the Confederate Army under Robert E. Lee beat off attack after attack in its defense of their capital at Richmond . But when Lee tried to move north , he was repulsed ( and nearly captured ) at Sharpsburg ( 1862 ) and Gettysburg ( 1863 ) . The Confederacy had the resources for a short war , but was unable to finance or supply a longer war . It reversed the traditional low - tariff policy of the South by imposing a new 15 % tax on all imports from the Union . The Union blockade stopped most commerce from entering the South , and smugglers avoided the tax , so the Confederate tariff produced too little revenue to finance the war . Inflated currency was the solution , but that created distrust of the Richmond government . Because of low investment in railroads , the Southern transportation system depended primarily on river and coastal traffic by boat ; both were shut down by the Union Navy . The small railroad system virtually collapsed , so that by 1864 internal travel was so difficult that the Confederate economy was crippled . The Confederate cause was hopeless by the time Atlanta fell and William T. Sherman marched through Georgia in late 1864 , but the rebels fought on , refusing to give up their independence until Lee 's army surrendered in April 1865 . All the Confederate forces surrendered , and the region moved into the Reconstruction Era . The South suffered much more than the North overall , as the Union strategy of attrition warfare meant that Lee could not replace his casualties , and the total war waged by Sherman , Sheridan and other Union armies devastated the infrastructure and caused widespread poverty and distress . The Confederacy suffered military losses of 95,000 men killed in action and 165,000 who died of disease , for a total of 260,000 , out of a total white Southern population at the time of around 5.5 million . Based on 1860 census figures , 8 % of all white males aged 13 to 43 died in the war , including 6 % in the North and about 18 % in the South . Northern military casualties exceeded Southern casualties in absolute numbers , but were two - thirds smaller in terms of proportion of the population affected . Reconstruction and Jim Crow ( edit ) Main articles : Reconstruction Era , Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era , and Voting rights in the United States A Home on the Mississippi , Currier and Ives , 1871 After the Civil War , the South was devastated in terms of population , infrastructure and economy . Because of states ' reluctance to grant voting rights to freedmen , Congress instituted Reconstruction governments . It established military districts and governors to rule over the South until new governments could be established . Many white Southerners who had actively supported the Confederacy were temporarily disenfranchised . Rebuilding was difficult as people grappled with the effects of a new labor economy of a free market in the midst of a widespread agricultural depression . In addition , what limited infrastructure the South had was mostly destroyed by the war . At the same time , the North was rapidly industrializing . To avoid the social effects of the war , most of the Southern states initially passed black codes . Eventually , these were mostly legally nullified by federal law and anti-Confederate legislatures , which existed for a short time during Reconstruction . There were thousands of people on the move , as African Americans tried to reunite families separated by slaves sales , and sometimes migrated for better opportunities in towns or other states . Other freed people moved from plantation areas to cities or towns for a chance to get different jobs . At the same time , whites returned from refuges to reclaim plantations or town dwellings . In some areas , many whites returned to the land to farm for a while . Some freedpeople left the South altogether for states such as Ohio and Indiana , and later , Kansas . Thousands of others joined the migration to new opportunities in the Mississippi and Arkansas Delta bottomlands and Texas . With passage of the 13th Amendment to the Constitution of the United States ( which outlawed slavery ) , the 14th Amendment ( which granted full U.S. citizenship to African Americans ) and the 15th amendment ( which extended the right to vote to African American males ) , African Americans in the South were made free citizens and were given the right to vote . Under Federal protection , white and black Republicans formed constitutional conventions and state governments . Among their accomplishments were creating the first public education systems in Southern states , and providing for welfare through orphanages , hospitals and similar institutions . Northerners came south to participate in politics and business . Some were representatives of the Freedmen 's Bureau and other agencies of Reconstruction ; some were humanitarians with the intent to help black people . Some were adventurers who hoped to benefit themselves by questionable methods . They were all condemned with the pejorative term of carpetbagger . Some Southerners also took advantage of the disrupted environment and made money off various schemes , including bonds and financing for railroads . Secret vigilante organizations such as the Ku Klux Klan -- an organization sworn to perpetuate white supremacy -- had arisen quickly after the war 's end and used lynching , physical attacks , house burnings and other forms of intimidation to keep African Americans from exercising their political rights . Although the first Klan was disrupted by prosecution by the Federal government in the early 1870s , other groups persisted . By the mid-to - late - 1870s , elite Southerners created increasing resistance to the altered social structure . Paramilitary organizations such as the White League in Louisiana ( 1874 ) , the Red Shirts in Mississippi ( 1875 ) and rifle clubs , all `` White Line '' organizations , used organized violence against Republicans , both black and white , to remove Republicans from political office , repress and bar black voting , and restore the Democratic Party to power . In 1876 white Democrats regained power in most of the state legislatures . They began to pass laws designed to strip African Americans and poor whites from the voter registration rolls . The success of late - 19th century interracial coalitions in several states inspired a reaction among some white Democrats , who worked harder to prevent both groups from voting . Despite discrimination , many blacks became property owners in areas that were still developing . For instance , 90 % of the Mississippi 's bottomlands were still frontier and undeveloped after the war . By the end of the century , two - thirds of the farmers in Mississippi 's Delta bottomlands were black . They had cleared the land themselves and often made money in early years by selling off timber . Tens of thousands of migrants went to the Delta , both to work as laborers to clear timber for lumber companies , and many to develop their own farms . By the end of the century , two - thirds of farm owners in the Delta bottomlands were black . However , the long agricultural depression , along with disenfranchisement and lack of access to credit , led to many blacks in the Delta losing their property by 1910 and becoming sharecroppers or landless workers over the following decade . More than two generations of free African Americans lost their stake in property . Child laborers , Bluffton , South Carolina , 1913 Nearly all Southerners , black and white , suffered as a result of the Civil War . Within a few years cotton production and harvest was back to pre-war levels , but low prices through much of the 19th century hampered recovery . They encouraged immigration by Chinese and Italian laborers into the Mississippi Delta . While the first Chinese entered as indentured laborers from Cuba , the majority came in the early 20th century . Neither group stayed long at rural farm labor . The Chinese became merchants and established stores in small towns throughout the Delta , establishing a place between white and black . Migrations continued in the late 19th and early 20th centuries among both blacks and whites . In the last two decades of the 19th century about 141,000 blacks left the South , and more after 1900 , totaling a loss of 537,000 . After that the movement increased in what became known as the Great Migration from 1910 to 1940 , and the Second Great Migration through 1970 . Even more whites left the South , some going to California for opportunities and others heading to Northern industrial cities after 1900 . Between 1880 and 1910 , the loss of whites totaled 1,243,000 . Five million more left between 1940 and 1970 . From 1890 to 1908 , ten of the eleven former Confederate states , along with Oklahoma upon statehood , passed disfranchising constitutions or amendments that introduced voter registration barriers -- such as poll taxes , residency requirements and literacy tests -- that were hard for many poor to meet . Most African Americans , most Mexican Americans , and tens of thousands of poor whites were disfranchised , losing the vote for decades . In some states , grandfather clauses temporarily exempted white illiterates from literacy tests . The numbers of voters dropped drastically throughout the former Confederacy as a result . This can be seen via the feature `` Turnout in Presidential and Midterm Elections '' at the University of Texas ' Politics : Barriers to Voting . Alabama , which had established universal white suffrage in 1819 when it became a state , also substantially reduced voting by poor whites. Democrat controlled legislatures passed Jim Crow laws to segregate public facilities and services , including transportation . While African Americans , poor whites and civil rights groups started litigation against such provisions in the early 20th century , for decades Supreme Court decisions overturning such provisions were rapidly followed by new state laws with new devices to restrict voting . Most blacks in the former Confederacy and Oklahoma could not vote until 1965 , after passage of the Voting Rights Act and Federal enforcement to ensure people could register . Despite increases in the eligible voting population with the inclusion of women , blacks , and those eighteen and over throughout this period , turnout in ex-Confederate states remained below the national average throughout the 20th century . Not until the late 1960s did all American citizens regain protected civil rights by passage of legislation following the leadership of the American Civil Rights Movement . Late 19th and 20th century -- industrialization and Great Migration ( edit ) Main article : Great Migration ( African American ) An illustrated depiction of black people picking cotton , 1913 At the end of the 19th century , white Democrats in the South had created state constitutions that were hostile to industry and business development , with anti-industrial laws extensive from the time new constitutions were adopted in the 1890s . Banking was limited , as was access to credit . States persisted in agricultural economies . Especially in Alabama and Florida , rural minorities held control in many state legislatures long after population had shifted to industrializing cities , and legislators resisted business and modernising interests : Alabama refused to redistrict between 1901 and 1972 , long after major population and economic shifts to cities . For decades Birmingham generated the majority of revenue for the state , for instance , but received little back in services or infrastructure . In the late 19th century , Texas rapidly expanded its railroad network , creating a network of cities connected on a radial plan and linked to the port of Galveston . It was the first state in which urban and economic development proceeded independently of rivers , the primary transportation network of the past . A reflection of increasing industry were strikes and labor unrest : `` in 1885 Texas ranked ninth among forty states in number of workers involved in strikes ( 4,000 ) ; for the six - year period it ranked fifteenth . Seventy - five of the one hundred strikes , chiefly interstate strikes of telegraphers and railway workers , occurred in the year 1886 . '' By 1890 Dallas became the largest city in Texas , and by 1900 it had a population of more than 42,000 , which more than doubled to over 92,000 a decade later . Dallas was the harnessmaking capital of the world and a center of other manufacturing . As an example of its ambitions , in 1907 Dallas built the Praetorian Building , fifteen storeys tall and the first skyscraper west of the Mississippi , soon to be followed by other skyscrapers . Texas was transformed by a railroad network linking five important cities , among them Houston with its nearby port at Galveston , Dallas , Fort Worth , San Antonio , and El Paso . Each exceeded fifty thousand in population by 1920 , with the major cities having three times that population . Business interests were ignored by the Southern Democrat ruling class . Nonetheless , major new industries started developing in cities such as Atlanta , GA ; Birmingham , AL ; and Dallas , Fort Worth and Houston , Texas . Growth began occurring at a geometric rate . Birmingham became a major steel producer and mining town , with major population growth in the early decades of the 20th century . The first major oil well in the South was drilled at Spindletop near Beaumont , Texas , on the morning of January 10 , 1901 . Other oil fields were later discovered nearby in Arkansas , Oklahoma , and under the Gulf of Mexico . The resulting `` Oil Boom '' permanently transformed the economy of the West South Central states and produced the most significant economic expansion after the Civil War . In the early 20th century , invasion of the boll weevil devastated cotton crops in the South , producing an additional catalyst to African Americans ' decisions to leave the South . From 1910 to 1940 , and then from the 1940s to 1970 , more than 6.5 million African Americans left the South in the Great Migration to northern and midwestern cities , defecting from persistent lynching , violence , segregation , poor education , and inability to vote . Black migration transformed many Northern cities , creating new cultures and music . Many African Americans , like other groups , became industrial workers ; others started their own businesses within the communities . Southern whites also migrated to industrial cities , especially Chicago and Detroit , where they took jobs in the booming new auto industry . Photo of sharecropper family in Walker County , Alabama , circa 1937 Later , the Southern economy was dealt additional blows by the Great Depression and the Dust Bowl . After the Wall Street Crash of 1929 , the economy suffered significant reversals and millions were left unemployed . Beginning in 1934 and lasting until 1939 , an ecological disaster of severe wind and drought caused an exodus from Texas and Arkansas , the Oklahoma Panhandle region , and the surrounding plains , in which over 500,000 Americans were homeless , hungry and jobless . Thousands left the region forever to seek economic opportunities along the West Coast . President Franklin D. Roosevelt noted the South as the `` number one priority '' in terms of need of assistance during the Great Depression . His administration created programs such as the Tennessee Valley Authority in 1933 to provide rural electrification and stimulate development . Locked into low - productivity agriculture , the region 's growth was slowed by limited industrial development , low levels of entrepreneurship , and the lack of capital investment . World War II marked a time of change in the South as new industries and military bases were developed by the Federal government , providing badly needed capital and infrastructure in many regions . People from all parts of the US came to the South for military training and work in the region 's many bases and new industries . Farming shifted from cotton and tobacco to include soybeans , corn , and other foods . Industrial growth increased in the 1960s and greatly accelerated into the 1980s and 1990s . Several large urban areas in Texas , Georgia , and Florida grew to over four million people . Rapid expansion in industries such as autos , telecommunications , textiles , technology , banking , and aviation gave some states in the South an industrial strength to rival large states elsewhere in the country . By the 2000 census , the South ( along with the West ) was leading the nation in population growth . However , with this growth has come long commute times and air pollution problems in cities such as Dallas , Houston , Atlanta , Austin , Charlotte , and others that rely on sprawling development and highway networks . Modern economy ( edit ) In the late 20th century , the South changed dramatically . It saw a boom in its service economy , manufacturing base , high technology industries , and the financial sector . Texas in particular witnessed dramatic growth and population change with the dominance of the energy industry and tourism such as the Alamo Mission in San Antonio . Tourism in Florida and along the Gulf Coast also grew steadily throughout the last decades of the 20th century . Numerous new automobile production plants have opened in the region , or are soon to open , such as Mercedes - Benz in Tuscaloosa , Alabama ; Hyundai in Montgomery , Alabama ; the BMW production plant in Spartanburg , South Carolina ; Toyota plants in Georgetown , Kentucky , Blue Springs , Mississippi and San Antonio ; the GM manufacturing plant in Spring Hill , Tennessee ; a Honda factory in Lincoln , Alabama ; the Nissan North American headquarters in Franklin , Tennessee and factories in Smyrna , Tennessee and Canton , Mississippi ; a Kia factory in West Point , Georgia ; and the Volkswagen Chattanooga Assembly Plant in Tennessee . The two largest research parks in the country are located in the South : Research Triangle Park in North Carolina ( the world 's largest ) and the Cummings Research Park in Huntsville , Alabama ( the world 's fourth largest ) . In medicine , the Texas Medical Center in Houston has achieved international recognition in education , research , and patient care , especially in the fields of heart disease , cancer , and rehabilitation . In 1994 the Texas Medical Center was the largest medical center in the world including fourteen hospitals , two medical schools , four colleges of nursing , and six university systems . The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center is consistently ranked the # 1 cancer research and treatment center in the United States . Many major banking corporations have headquarters in the region . Bank of America is in Charlotte , North Carolina . Wachovia was headquartered there before its purchase by Wells Fargo . Regions Financial Corporation is in Birmingham , as is AmSouth Bancorporation , and BBVA Compass . SunTrust Banks is located in Atlanta as is the district headquarters of the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta . BB&T is headquartered in Winston - Salem . Many corporations are headquartered in Atlanta and its surrounding area , such as The Coca - Cola Company , Delta Air Lines , and The Home Depot , and also to many cable television networks , such as the Turner Broadcasting System ( CNN , TBS , TNT , Turner South , Cartoon Network ) , and The Weather Channel . In recent years some southern states , most notably Texas , have lured companies with lower tax burdens and lower cost of living for their workforce . Today , the states with the most Fortune 500 companies include California , New York , and Texas ; closely mirroring the economic and population resources of those states . This economic expansion has enabled parts of the South to report some of the lowest unemployment rates in the United States . But in the U.S. top ten of poorest big cities , the South is represented in the rankings by two cities : Miami , Florida and Memphis , Tennessee . In 2011 , nine out of ten poorest states were in the South . Education ( edit ) Southern public schools in the past ranked in the lower half of some national surveys . When allowance for race is considered , a 2007 US Government list of test scores often shows white fourth and eighth graders performing better than average for reading and math ; while black fourth and eighth graders also performed better than average . This comparison does not hold across the board . Mississippi scores lower than average no matter how the statistics are compared . However , newer data suggests that education in the south is on par with the nation , with 72 % of high schoolers graduating compared to 73 % nationwide . Culture ( edit ) Main article : Culture of the Southern United States Street musicians in Maynardville , Tennessee , photographed in 1935 Several Southern states ( Maryland , Virginia , North Carolina , South Carolina , and Georgia ) were British colonies that sent delegates to sign the Declaration of Independence and then fought against the government along with the Northern colonies during the Revolutionary War . The basis for much Southern culture derives from the pride in these states being among the 13 original colonies , and from the fact that much of the population of the South has strong ancestral links to Colonists who emigrated west . Southern manners and customs reflect the relationship with England and Africa that was held by the early population , with some influences being provided by the Native American populations of the area . Overall , the South has had lower percentages of high school graduates , lower housing values , lower household incomes , and lower cost of living than the rest of the United States . These factors , combined with the fact that Southerners have continued to maintain strong loyalty to family ties , has led some sociologists to label white Southerners an ethnic or quasi-ethnic group , though this interpretation has been subject to criticism on the grounds that proponents of the view do not satisfactorily indicate how Southerners meet the criteria of ethnicity . The predominant culture of the South has its origins with the settlement of the region by large groups of Northern English , Scots lowlanders and Ulster - Scots ( later called the Scotch - Irish ) who settled in Appalachia and the Piedmont in the 18th century , and from parts of southern England such as East Anglia , Kent and the West Country in the 17th century , and the many African slaves who were part of the Southern economy . African - American descendants of the slaves brought into the South compose the United States ' second - largest racial minority , accounting for 12.1 percent of the total population according to the 2000 census . Despite Jim Crow era outflow to the North , the majority of the black population remains concentrated in the Southern states , and has heavily contributed to the cultural blend ( Christianity , foods , art , music ( see spiritual , blues , jazz and rock and roll ) ) that characterize Southern culture today . In previous censuses , the largest ancestry group identified by Southerners was English or mostly English , with 19,618,370 self - reporting `` English '' as an ancestry on the 1980 census , followed by 12,709,872 listing `` Irish '' and 11,054,127 `` Afro - American '' . Almost a third of all Americans who claim English ancestry can be found in the American South , and over a quarter of all Southerners claim English descent as well . The South also continues to have the highest percentage of African Americans in the country , due to the history of slavery . Religion ( edit ) The South has had a majority of its population adhering to evangelical Protestantism ever since the Second Great Awakening , although the upper classes often stayed Anglican / Episcopalian or Presbyterian . The First Great Awakening and the Second Great Awakening from about 1742 about 1850 generated large numbers of Methodists and Baptists , which remain the two main Christian confessions in the South . By 1900 , the Southern Baptist Convention had become the largest Protestant denomination in the whole United States with its membership concentrated in rural areas of the South . Baptists are the most common religious group , followed by Methodists , Pentecostals and other denominations . Roman Catholics historically were concentrated in Maryland , Louisiana , and Hispanic areas such as South Texas and South Florida and along the Gulf Coast . The great majority of black Southerners are either Baptist or Methodist . Statistics show that Southern states have the highest religious attendance figures of any region in the United States , constituting the so - called Bible Belt . Pentecostalism has been strong across the South since the late 19th century . Sports ( edit ) American football ( edit ) Alabama plays Texas in American football for the 2010 BCS National Championship Game American football , especially at the college and high school level , is by far the most popular team sport in most areas of the Southern United States . The region is home to numerous decorated and historic college football programs , particularly in the Southeastern Conference ( known as the `` SEC '' ) , Atlantic Coast Conference ( known as the `` ACC '' ) , and the Big 12 Conference . The SEC , consisting entirely of teams based in Southern states , is widely considered to be the strongest league in contemporary college football and includes the Alabama Crimson Tide , the program with the most national championships in the sport 's history . The sport is also highly competitive and has a spectator following at the high school level , particularly in rural areas where high school football games often serve as prominent community gatherings . Though not as popular on a wider basis as the collegiate game , professional football also has a growing tradition in the Southern United States . Before league expansion began in the 1960s , the only established professional team based in the South was the Washington Redskins , who still retain a large following in many pockets of the region . Later on , the merger - era National Football League began to expand into the football - crazed Deep South in the 1960s with franchises like the Atlanta Falcons , New Orleans Saints , Houston Oilers , Miami Dolphins , and most prominently the Dallas Cowboys , who overtook Washington as the region 's most popular team and eventually became widely considered the most popular team in the United States . In later decades , NFL expansion into Southern states continued , with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers , Jacksonville Jaguars , and Carolina Panthers added to the league , while the Houston Oilers were replaced by the Houston Texans after the Oilers relocated to Nashville to become the Tennessee Titans . Rank Team Sport League Attendance ( avg / game ) Texas A&M Aggies Football NCAA ( SEC ) 105,123 LSU Tigers Football NCAA ( SEC ) 101,723 Alabama Crimson Tide Football NCAA ( SEC ) 101,534 Tennessee Volunteers Football NCAA ( SEC ) 99,754 5 Texas Longhorns Football NCAA ( Big 12 ) 94,103 6 Georgia Bulldogs Football NCAA ( SEC ) 92,746 7 Dallas Cowboys Football NFL 90,069 8 Auburn Tigers Football NCAA ( SEC ) 87,451 9 Florida Gators Football NCAA ( SEC ) 85,834 10 Oklahoma Sooners Football NCAA ( Big 12 ) 85,162 11 Florida State Seminoles Football NCAA ( ACC ) 82,211 12 Clemson Tigers Football NCAA ( ACC ) 81,752 13 South Carolina Gamecocks Football NCAA ( SEC ) 81,381 14 Arkansas Razorbacks Football NCAA ( SEC ) 66,521 15 Carolina Panthers Football NFL 74,056 16 Ole Miss Rebels Football NCAA ( SEC ) 61,547 17 Virginia Tech Hokies Football NCAA ( ACC ) 61,157 18 Mississippi State Bulldogs Football NCAA ( SEC ) 61,127 19 West Virginia Mountaineers Football NCAA ( Big 12 ) 60,000 20 Texas Tech Red Raiders Football NCAA ( Big 12 ) 58,934 21 Kentucky Wildcats Football NCAA ( SEC ) 57,572 Baseball ( edit ) Houston vs Texas face - off during the Lone Star Series in the American League West division of Major League Baseball Baseball has been played in the Southern United States since at least the years leading up to the American Civil War . It was traditionally more popular than American football until the 1980s , and still accounts for the largest annual attendance amongst sports played in the South . The first mention of a baseball team in Houston was on April 11 , 1861 . 19th century and early 20th century games were common , especially once the professional leagues such as the Texas League , the Dixie League , and the Southern League were organized . The short - lived Louisville Colonels were a part of the early National League and American Association , but ceased to exist in 1899 . The first Southern Major League Baseball team after the Colonels appeared in 1962 when the Houston Colt . 45s ( known today as the Houston Astros ) were enfranchised . Later , the Atlanta Braves came in 1966 , followed by the Texas Rangers in 1972 , and finally the Miami Marlins and Tampa Bay Rays in the 1990s . College baseball appears to be more well attended in the Southern U.S. than elsewhere , as teams like Arkansas , LSU , Virginia , Mississippi State , Ole Miss , South Carolina , and Texas are commonly at the top of the NCAA 's attendance . The South generally produces very successful collegiate baseball teams as well , with Virginia , Vanderbilt , LSU , and South Carolina winning recent College World Series Titles . The following is a list of best - attended baseball teams in the Southern U.S. : Rank Team League 2014 overall annual attendance Texas Rangers American League 2,718,733 Baltimore Orioles American League 2,464,473 Atlanta Braves National League 2,354,305 Houston Astros American League 1,751,829 5 Miami Marlins National League 1,732,283 Auto racing ( edit ) The start of the 2015 Daytona 500 , the biggest race in NASCAR , at Daytona International Speedway in Daytona Beach , Florida The Southern states are commonly associated with stock car racing and its most prominent competition NASCAR , which is based in Charlotte , North Carolina . The sport was developed in the Deep South in the early 20th century , with stock car racing 's historic mecca being Daytona Beach , Florida , where cars initially raced on the wide , flat beachfront before the construction of Daytona International Speedway . Though the sport has attained a following throughout the United States , a majority of NASCAR races continue to take place at Southern tracks . Basketball ( edit ) Basketball is very popular throughout the Southern United States as both a recreational and spectator sport , particularly in the states of North Carolina and Kentucky which are home to several historically prominent college basketball programs . Prominent NBA teams based in the South include the Houston Rockets , San Antonio Spurs , Oklahoma City Thunder , Dallas Mavericks , Washington Wizards , Charlotte Hornets , Atlanta Hawks , Orlando Magic , Memphis Grizzlies , New Orleans Pelicans , and the Miami Heat . Golf ( edit ) Golf is a popular recreational sport in most areas of the South , with the region 's warm climate allowing it to host many professional tournaments and numerous destination golf resorts , particularly in the state of Florida . The region is home to The Masters , an elite invitational competition played at Augusta National Golf Club in Augusta , Georgia , which has become one of the professional game 's most important tournaments . Soccer ( edit ) In recent decades association football , known in the South as in the rest of the United States as `` soccer '' , has become a popular sport at youth and collegiate levels throughout the region . The game has been historically widespread at the college level in the Atlantic coast states of Maryland , Virginia , and the Carolinas , which contain many of the nation 's most successful college soccer programs . The establishment of Major League Soccer has led to professional soccer clubs in the Southern cities including FC Dallas , Houston Dynamo , Orlando City , and Atlanta United . The current United States third division soccer league , the United Soccer League , was initially geographically based in the coastal Southeast around clubs in Charleston , Richmond , Charlotte , Wilmington , Raleigh , Virginia Beach , and Atlanta . Health ( edit ) Nine Southern states have obesity rates exceeding thirty percent of the population , the highest in the country : Mississippi , Louisiana , West Virginia , Alabama , Oklahoma , Arkansas , South Carolina , Kentucky , and Texas . Rates for hypertension and diabetes for these states are also the highest in the nation . A study reported that six Southern states have the worst incidence of sleep disturbances in the nation , attributing the disturbances to high rates of obesity and smoking . The South has a higher percentage of obese people and diabetics . It has the largest number of people dying from stroke . and the highest rates of cognitive decline . Life expectancy is lower and death rates are higher in the South than in other regions of the United States for all racial groups . This disparity reflects substantial divergence between the South and other regions since the middle of the 20th century . The East South Central Census Division of the United States ( made up of Kentucky , Tennessee , Mississippi , and Alabama ) had the highest rate of inpatient hospital stays in 2012 . The other divisions , West South Central ( Texas , Oklahoma , Arkansas , and Louisiana ) and South Atlantic ( West Virginia , Delaware , Maryland , Virginia , North Carolina , South Carolina , Georgia , and Florida ) ranked seventh and fifth , respectively . The South had a significantly higher rate of hospital discharges in 2005 than other regions of the United States , but the rate had declined to be closer to the overall national rate by 2011 . For cancer in a region , the South , particularly an axis from West Virginia through Texas , leads the nation in adult obesity , adult smoking , low exercise , low fruit consumption , low vegetable consumption , all known cancer risk factors , which matches a similar high risk axis in `` All Cancers Combined , Death Rates by State , 2011 '' from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . Politics ( edit ) Main article : Politics of the Southern United States While this Confederate Flag pattern is the one most often thought of as the Confederate Flag today , it was actually just one of many used by the Confederate armed forces . Variations of this design served as the Battle Flag of the Armies of Northern Virginia and Tennessee , and as the Confederate Naval Jack , albeit with different shades . A rally against school integration in 1959 . In the first decades after Reconstruction , when white Democrats regained power in the state legislatures , they began to make voter registration more complicated , to reduce black voting . With a combination of intimidation , fraud and violence by paramilitary groups , they suppressed black voting and turned Republicans out of office . From 1890 to 1908 , ten of eleven states ratified new constitutions or amendments that effectively disenfranchised most black voters and many poor white voters . This disfranchisement persisted for six decades into the 20th century , depriving blacks and poor whites of all political representation . Because they could not vote , they could not sit on juries . They had no one to represent their interests , resulting in state legislatures consistently underfunding programs and services , such as schools , for blacks and poor whites . With the collapse of the Republican Party in nearly all parts of the South , the region became known as the `` Solid South '' , and the Democratic Party after 1900 moved to a system of primaries to select their candidates . Victory in a primary was tantamount to election . From the late 1870s to the 1960s , only rarely was a state or national Southern politician a Republican , apart from a few Appalachian mountain districts . Republicans , however , continued to control parts of the Appalachian Mountains and compete for power in the Border States . Apart from a few states ( such as the Byrd Machine in Virginia , the Crump Machine in Memphis ) , and a few other local organizations , the Democratic Party itself was very lightly organized . It managed primaries but party officials had little other role . To be successful a politician built his own network of friends , neighbors and allies . Reelection was the norm , and the result from 1910 to the late 20th century was that Southern Democrats in Congress had accumulated seniority , and automatically took the chairmanships of all committees . By the 1940s the Supreme Court began to find disfranchisement measures like the `` grandfather clause '' and the white primary unconstitutional . Southern legislatures quickly passed other measures to keep blacks disfranchised , even after suffrage was extended more widely to poor whites . Because white Democrats controlled all the Southern seats in Congress they had outsize power in Congress and could sidetrack or filibuster efforts by Northerners to pass legislation against lynching , for example . Increasing support for civil rights legislation by the national Democratic Party beginning in 1948 caused segregationist Southern Democrats to nominate Strom Thurmond on a third - party `` Dixiecrat '' ticket in 1948 . These Dixiecrats returned to the party by 1950 , but Southern Democrats held off Republican inroads in the suburbs by arguing that only they could defend the region from the onslaught of northern liberals and the civil rights movement . In response to the Brown v. Board of Education ruling of 1954 , 101 Southern congressmen ( 19 senators , 82 House members of which 99 were Southern Democrats and 2 were Republicans ) in 1956 denounced the Brown decisions as a `` clear abuse of judicial power ( that ) climaxes a trend in the federal judiciary undertaking to legislate in derogation of the authority of Congress and to encroach upon the reserved rights of the states and the people . '' The manifesto lauded , `` ... those states which have declared the intention to resist enforced integration by any lawful means '' . It was signed by all Southern senators except Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson , and Tennessee senators Albert Gore , Sr. and Estes Kefauver . Virginia closed schools in Warren County , Prince Edward County , Charlottesville , and Norfolk rather than integrate , but no other state followed suit . Democratic governors Orval Faubus of Arkansas , Ross Barnett of Mississippi , John Connally of Texas , Lester Maddox of Georgia , and , especially , George Wallace of Alabama resisted integration and appealed to a rural and blue - collar electorate . US president Lyndon B. Johnson signs the historic Civil Rights Act of 1964 . The northern Democrats ' support of civil rights issues culminated when Democratic President Lyndon B. Johnson signed into law the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 , which ended legal segregation and provided federal enforcement of voting rights for blacks . In the presidential election of 1964 , Barry Goldwater 's only electoral victories outside his home state of Arizona were in the states of the Deep South where few blacks could vote before the 1965 Voting Rights Act . Pockets of resistance to integration in public places broke out in violence during the 1960s by the shadowy Ku Klux Klan , which caused a backlash among moderates . Major resistance to school busing extending into the 1970s . National Republicans such as Richard Nixon began to develop their Southern strategy to attract conservative white Southerners , especially the middle class and suburban voters , in addition to migrants from the North and traditional GOP pockets in Appalachia . The transition to a Republican stronghold in the South took decades . First , the states started voting Republican in presidential elections , except for native sons Jimmy Carter in 1976 and Bill Clinton in 1992 and 1996 . Then the states began electing Republican senators and finally governors . Georgia was the last state to do so , with Sonny Perdue taking the governorship in 2002 . In addition to its middle class and business base , Republicans cultivated the religious right and attracted strong majorities from the evangelical or Fundamentalist vote , mostly Southern Baptists , which had not been a distinct political force prior to 1980 . After the 2012 elections , the eleven states of the former Confederacy were represented by 98 Republicans , 40 Democrats . Presidents from the South ( edit ) The South produced nine of the first twelve Presidents prior to the Civil War . For more than a century after the Civil War , no politician from an antebellum slave state became President unless he either moved North ( like Woodrow Wilson ) or was vice president when the president died in office ( like Andrew Johnson , Harry Truman and Lyndon B. Johnson ) . In 1976 , Jimmy Carter defied this trend and became the first Southerner to break the pattern since Zachary Taylor in 1848 . The South has produced five of the last nine American Presidents : Lyndon B. Johnson ( 1963 -- 69 ) , Jimmy Carter ( 1977 -- 81 ) , George H.W. Bush ( 1989 -- 93 ) , Bill Clinton ( 1993 -- 2001 ) and George W. Bush ( 2001 -- 2009 ) . Johnson was a native of Texas , while Carter is from Georgia , and Clinton from Arkansas . While George H.W. and George W. Bush began their political careers in Texas , they were both born in New England and have their ancestral roots in the region . Other politicians and political movements ( edit ) Bill Clinton , newly - elected Governor of Arkansas speaking with Jimmy Carter in 1978 . Carter and Clinton were both Southern Democrats and elected to the presidencies in 1976 and 1992 . The South has produced various nationally known politicians and political movements . In 1948 , a group of Democratic congressmen , led by Governor Strom Thurmond of South Carolina , split from the Democrats in reaction to an anti-segregation speech given by Minneapolis mayor and future senator Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota . They founded the States Rights Democratic or Dixiecrat Party . During that year 's Presidential election , the party ran Thurmond as its candidate and he carried four Deep South states . In the 1968 Presidential election , Alabama Governor George C. Wallace ran for President on the American Independent Party ticket . Wallace ran a `` law and order '' campaign similar to that of Republican candidate , Richard Nixon . Nixon 's Southern Strategy of gaining electoral votes downplayed race issues and focused on culturally conservative values , such as family issues , patriotism , and cultural issues that appealed to Southern Baptists . In the 1994 mid-term elections , another Southern politician , Newt Gingrich , led the Republican Revolution , ushering in twelve years of GOP control of the House . Gingrich became Speaker of the United States House of Representatives in 1995 and served until his resignation in 1999 . Tom DeLay was the most powerful Republican leader in Congress until he was indicted under criminal charges in 2005 and was forced to step aside by Republican rules . Apart from Bob Dole from Kansas ( 1985 -- 96 ) , the recent Republican Senate Leaders have been Southerners : Howard Baker ( 1981 -- 1985 ) of Tennessee , Trent Lott ( 1996 -- 2003 ) of Mississippi , Bill Frist ( 2003 -- 2006 ) of Tennessee , and Mitch McConnell ( 2007 -- present ) of Kentucky . The Republicans candidates for President have won the South in elections since 1972 , except for 1976 . However , the region is not entirely monolithic , and every successful Democratic candidate since 1976 has claimed at least three Southern states . Barack Obama won Florida , Maryland , Delaware , North Carolina , and Virginia in 2008 but did not repeat his victory in North Carolina during his 2012 reelection campaign . Race relations ( edit ) Main article : Racism in the United States Native Americans ( edit ) Native Americans had lived in the south for nearly 12,000 years . They were defeated by settlers in a series of wars ending in the War of 1812 and the Seminole Wars , and most were removed west to Indian Territory ( now Oklahoma and Kansas ) . However large numbers of Native Americans managed to stay behind by blending into the surrounding society . This was especially true of the wives of Euro - American merchants and miners . Civil rights ( edit ) Racial segregation was commonplace in the South until the 1960s . The South witnessed two major events in the lives of 20th century African Americans : the Great Migration and the American Civil Rights Movement . The Great Migration began during World War I , hitting its high point during World War II . During this migration , blacks left the South to find work in Northern factories and other sectors of the economy . The migration also empowered the growing Civil Rights Movement . While the movement existed in all parts of the United States , its focus was against disfranchisement and the Jim Crow laws in the South . Most of the major events in the movement occurred in the South , including the Montgomery Bus Boycott , the Mississippi Freedom Summer , the March on Selma , Alabama , and the assassination of Martin Luther King , Jr ... In addition , some of the most important writings to come out of the movement were written in the South , such as King 's `` Letter from Birmingham Jail '' . Most of the civil rights landmarks can be found around the South . The Martin Luther King , Jr. , National Historic Site in Atlanta includes a museum that chronicles the American Civil Rights Movement as well as Martin Luther King , Jr. 's boyhood home on Auburn Avenue . Additionally , Ebenezer Baptist Church is located in the Sweet Auburn district as is the King Center , location of Martin Luther and Coretta Scott King 's gravesites . The Civil Rights Movement ended Jim Crow laws across the South . A second migration appears to be underway , with African Americans from the North moving to the South in record numbers . While race relations are still a contentious issue in the South , the region surpasses the rest of the country in many areas of integration and racial equality . According to 2003 report by researchers at the University of Wisconsin -- Milwaukee , Virginia Beach , Charlotte , Nashville - Davidson , and Jacksonville were the four most integrated of the nation 's fifty largest cities , with Memphis at number six . Southern states tend to have a low disparity in incarceration rates between blacks and whites relative to the rest of the country . Symbolism ( edit ) Some Southerners use the Confederate flag to identify themselves with the South , states ' rights and Southern tradition . Groups , such as the League of the South , have a high regard for the secession movement of 1860 , citing a desire to protect and defend Southern heritage . Numerous political battles have erupted over flying the Confederate flag over state capitols , and the naming of public buildings or highways after Confederate leaders , the prominence of certain statues , and the everyday display of Confederate insignia . Other symbols of the South include the Bonnie Blue Flag , magnolia trees , and the song `` Dixie '' . Major cities ( edit ) The South was heavily rural as late as the 1940s , but now the population is increasingly concentrated in metropolitan areas . The following tables show the twenty largest cities , metropolitan , and combined statistical areas in the South . Houston is the largest city in the South . Houston San Antonio Dallas Austin Jacksonville Fort Worth Charlotte El Paso Washington D.C. Nashville Rank City State ( s ) Population ( 2016 est . ) Houston TX 2,303,482 San Antonio TX 1,492,510 Dallas TX 1,317,929 Austin TX 947,890 5 Jacksonville FL 880,619 6 Fort Worth TX 854,113 7 Charlotte NC 842,051 8 El Paso TX 683,080 9 Washington DC 681,170 10 Nashville TN 660,388 11 Memphis TN 652,717 12 Oklahoma City OK 638,367 13 Louisville KY 616,261 14 Baltimore MD 614,664 15 Atlanta GA 472,522 16 Raleigh NC 458,880 17 Miami FL 453,579 18 Virginia Beach VA 452,602 19 Tulsa OK 403,090 20 Arlington TX 392,772 Major metropolitan areas ( edit ) Rank Metropolitan Statistical Area State ( s ) Population ( 2016 est . ) Dallas -- Fort Worth -- Arlington TX 7,233,323 Houston -- The Woodlands -- Sugar Land TX 6,772,470 Washington - Arlington - Alexandria VA -- MD - WV - DC 6,131,977 Miami - Fort Lauderdale - West Palm Beach FL 6,066,387 5 Atlanta - Sandy Springs - Roswell GA 5,789,700 6 Tampa -- St. Petersburg -- Clearwater FL 3,032,171 7 Baltimore -- Columbia - Towson MD 2,798,886 8 Charlotte -- Concord - Gastonia NC -- SC 2,474,314 9 Orlando -- Kissimmee -- Sanford FL 2,441,257 10 San Antonio - New Braunfels TX 2,429,609 11 Cincinnati - Northern Kentucky * OH - IN - KY 2,165,139 12 Austin -- Round Rock - San Marcos TX 2,056,405 13 Nashville - Davidson -- Murfreesboro -- Franklin TN 1,865,298 14 Virginia Beach -- Norfolk -- Newport News VA -- NC 1,726,907 15 Jacksonville FL 1,478,212 16 Oklahoma City - Norman OK 1,373,211 17 Memphis - Forrest City TN -- MS -- AR 1,342,842 18 Raleigh - Cary NC 1,302,946 19 Louisville -- Jefferson County * KY -- IN 1,283,430 20 Richmond - Petersburg VA 1,281,708 * Asterisk indicates part of the metropolitan area is outside the states classified as Southern . Major combined statistical areas ( edit ) Rank Combined Statistical Area State ( s ) Population ( 2015 estimates ) Washington - Baltimore - Arlington DC - MD - VA - WV - PA 9,625,360 Dallas - Fort Worth TX 7,504,362 Houston - The Woodlands - Baytown TX 6,855,069 Miami - Fort Lauderdale - Port St. Lucie FL 6,654,565 5 Atlanta - Athens - Clarke County - Sandy Springs GA 6,365,108 6 Orlando - Deltona - Daytona Beach FL 3,129,308 7 Tampa - St. Petersburg - Clearwater FL 3,030,953 8 Charlotte - Concord NC - SC 2,583,956 9 Cincinnati - Wilmington - Maysville OH - KY - IN 2,216,735 10 Raleigh - Durham - Chapel Hill NC 2,117,103 11 Nashville - Davidson -- Murfreesboro TN 1,951,644 12 Virginia Beach - Norfolk VA - NC 1,828,187 13 Greensboro -- Winston - Salem -- High Point NC 1,642,506 14 Jacksonville - St. Marys - Palatka FL -- GA 1,573,606 15 Louisville / Jefferson County -- Elizabethtown -- Madison KY - IN 1,504,559 16 New Orleans - Metairie - Hammond LA - MS 1,493,205 17 Oklahoma City - Shawnee OK 1,430,327 18 Greenville - Spartanburg - Anderson SC 1,426,625 19 Memphis - Forrest City TN -- MS - AR 1,370,716 20 Birmingham - Hoover - Talladega AL 1,319,238 See also ( edit ) Black Belt ( U.S. region ) Cuisine of the Southern United States Culture of honor ( Southern United States ) King Cotton List of plantations in the United States Rice Belt Southern American English Southern art Southern hospitality Southern literature Territories of the United States on stamps White Southerner Admixture United States portal References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Census Regions and Divisions of the United States '' ( PDF ) . 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Ayers , The Promise of the New South : Life after Reconstruction , New York : Oxford University Press , 1992 ; 15th Anniversary Edition ( pbk ) , 2007 , p. 24 Jump up ^ Richard H. Pildes , `` Democracy , Anti-Democracy , and the Canon '' , Constitutional Commentary , Vol. 17 , 2000 , pp. 12 -- 13 Archived April 28 , 2016 , at the Wayback Machine. , accessed March 10 , 2008 Jump up ^ Glenn Feldman , The Disfranchisement Myth : Poor Whites and Suffrage Restriction in Alabama , Athens : University of Georgia Press , 2004 Jump up ^ Springer , Melanie ( 2014 ) . How the States Shaped the Nation . The University of Chicago : The University of Chicago Press . p. 145 . Jump up ^ Busbee , Wesley F. ; Mississippi : A History ; p. 185 ISBN 0882952277 Jump up ^ `` Dr. Michael McDonald , US Elections Project : Alabama Redistricting Summary , George Mason University '' . Archived from the original on April 6 , 2005 . 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Jump up ^ Milwaukee now fourth poorest city in nation JSOnline , September 28 , 2010 Jump up ^ America 's Poorest States Archived May 21 , 2013 , at the Wayback Machine. , 24 / 7 Wall St Jump up ^ Matus , Ron , ( March 6 , 2005 ) . `` Schools still rank near the bottom '' . St. Petersburg Times . Retrieved September 5 , 2007 . Jump up ^ US Department of Education Archived August 25 , 2009 , at the Wayback Machine . retrieved June 14 , 2008 Jump up ^ `` Graduation Rates Rise in South , Study Finds '' . Education Week . October 14 , 2009 . Retrieved January 12 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Bethune , Lawrence E. `` Scots to Colonial North Carolina before 1775 '' . Lawrence E. Bethune 's M.U.S.I.C.s Project . Jump up ^ Cooper , Christopher A. ; Knotts , H. Gibbs ( 2004 ) . `` Defining Dixie : A State - Level Measure of the Modern Political South '' . American Review of Politics . 25 : 25 -- 39 . Jump up ^ Reed , John Shelton ( 1982 ) . One South : An Ethnic Approach to Regional Culture . Baton Rouge : Louisiana State University Press . p. 3 . ISBN 0 - 8071 - 1003 - 5 . Jump up ^ Smith , William L. ( 2009 ) . `` Southerner and Irish ? Regional and Ethnic Consciousness in Savannah , Georgia '' ( PDF ) . Southern Rural Sociology. 24 ( 1 ) : 223 -- 239 . Jump up ^ Smith , M.G. ( 1982 ) . `` Ethnicity and ethnic groups in America : the view from Harvard '' ( PDF ) . Ethnic and Racial Studies . 5 ( 1 ) : 1 -- 22 . doi : 10.1080 / 01419870.1982. 9993357 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on July 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ David Hackett Fischer , Albion 's Seed : Four British Folkways in America , New York : Oxford University Press , 1989 , pp. 633 -- 639 ^ Jump up to : `` Table 3a . Persons Who Reported a Single Ancestry Group for Regions , Divisions and States : 1980 '' ( PDF ) . census.gov . ^ Jump up to : `` Table 1 . Type of Ancestry Response for Regions , Divisions and States : 1980 '' ( PDF ) . census.gov . Jump up ^ Wilson , Charles Reagan . Ferris , William R. Encyclopedia of Southern culture , p. 556 Jump up ^ Christine Leigh Heyrman , Southern Cross : The Beginnings of the Bible Belt ( 1998 ) Jump up ^ Donald G. Mathews , Religion in the Old South ( 1979 ) Jump up ^ Edward L. Queen , In the South the Baptists Are the Center of Gravity : Southern Baptists and Social Change , 1930 -- 1980 ( 1991 ) Jump up ^ `` Baptists as a Percentage of all Residents '' . Department of Geography and Meteorology , Valparaiso University . 2000 . Archived from the original on May 22 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Samuel S. Hill , Charles H. Lippy , and Charles Reagan Wilson , eds . Encyclopedia of Religion in the South ( 2005 ) Jump up ^ `` The most and least religious states in the US -- Mississippi comes out top , Vermont is bottom -- Christian News on Christian Today '' . christiantoday.com . Jump up ^ Blanton , Anderson , Hittin ' the Prayer Bones : Materiality of Spirit in the Pentecostal South . ( University of North Carolina Press , 2015 ) Jump up ^ 2014 National College Football Attendance Jump up ^ Writers ' Program of the Work Projects Administration on the State of Texas ( 1942 ) . Houston : A History and Guide . American Guide Series . The Anson Jones Press . p. 215 . LCCN 87890145 . OL 2507140M . Jump up ^ `` Base Ball Club '' . The Weekly Telegraph . April 16 , 1861 . Retrieved December 10 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Cutler , Tami ( March 31 , 2014 ) . `` 2014 Division I Baseball Attendance '' ( PDF ) . National Collegiate Baseball Writers Association . Retrieved January 20 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` MLB Attendance '' . ESPN . Retrieved January 19 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Adult Obesity Facts '' . Overweight and Obesity . Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . August 13 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Baird , Joel Banner ( June 30 , 2010 ) . `` Study : Vermont among least obese states '' . The Burlington Free Press . Burlington , VT . pp. 1A , 4A . Retrieved May 12 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The Six Worst States for Sleep '' . 247wallst.com . Retrieved June 29 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Rachel Pomerance , `` Most and Least Obese U.S. States '' , U.S. News & World Report , August 16 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Diabetes Most Prevalent In Southern United States , Study Finds '' , Science Daily , September 25 , 2009 Jump up ^ `` Southern Diet Might Explain the ' stroke Belt ' '' , HealthDay , February 7 , 2013 Jump up ^ Rick Nauert , `` U.S. South Has Higher Risk of Cognitive Decline '' , Psych Central , May 27 , 2011 Jump up ^ `` Geographic and Racial Variation in Premature Mortality in the U.S. : Analyzing the Disparities '' . Jump up ^ CDC . `` Death in the United States '' . Jump up ^ Fenelon , A. ( 2013 ) . `` Geographic Divergence in Mortality in the United States '' . Population and Development Review . 39 ( 4 ) : 611 -- 634 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1728 - 4457.2013. 00630. x . PMC 4109895 . PMID 25067863 . Jump up ^ Wiess , AJ and Elixhauser A ( October 2014 ) . `` Overview of Hospital Utilization , 2012 '' . HCUP Statistical Brief # 180 . Rockville , MD : Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality . Jump up ^ Torio CM , Andrews RM ( September 2014 ) . `` Geographic Variation in Potentially Preventable Hospitalizations for Acute and Chronic Conditions , 2005 -- 2011 '' . HCUP Statistical Brief # 178 . Rockville , MD : Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality . Jump up ^ Matt Stiles , `` The State of the Cancer Nation '' , NPR , April 17 , 2015 . Jump up ^ 2nd map in `` Cancer Prevention and Control , Cancer Rates by State '' , Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , August 25 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Michael Perman , Pursuit of Unity : A Political History of the American South ( 2009 ) Jump up ^ Key ; Southern Politics State and Nation ( 1984 ) Jump up ^ Gordon B. McKinney ( 2010 ) ; Southern Mountain Republicans 1865 -- 1900 . University of North Carolina Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8078 - 9724 - 9 Jump up ^ The classic study is V.O. Key , Southern politics in State and Nation ( 1949 ) Jump up ^ Numan V. Bartley , The New South , 1945 -- 1980 ( 1995 ) pp 455 -- 70 Jump up ^ Bernard Cosman , Five States for Goldwater Continuity and Change in Southern Presidential Voting Patterns ( 1966 ) Jump up ^ David M. Chalmers , Backfire : how the Ku Klux Klan helped the civil rights movement ( 2003 ) Jump up ^ Bartley , The New South pp 408 -- 11 Jump up ^ Earl Black and Merle Black , The Rise of Southern Republicans ( 2003 ) Jump up ^ William C. Martin , With God On Our Side : The Rise of the Religious Right in America ( 2005 ) Jump up ^ Michael Barone , `` Republicans Find Refuge in the House , '' The Wall Street Journal ( Nov. 9 , 2012 ) p . A13 . Jump up ^ `` Romney Bus Tour Charts Course for Battlegrounds Obama Won '' . Businessweek . August 10 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Katzman , 1996 Jump up ^ `` Tracking New Trends in Race Migration '' . News & Notes . National Public Radio . March 14 , 2006 . Retrieved April 4 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Study shows Memphis among most integrated cities '' . Memphis Business Journal . January 13 , 2003 . Jump up ^ Mauer , Marc ; Ryan S. King ( July 2007 ) . `` Uneven Justice : State Rates of Incarceration By Race and Ethnicity '' ( PDF ) . Washington , D.C. : The Sentencing Project . p. 16 . Retrieved April 20 , 2010 . ( Report . ) Jump up ^ `` League of the South Core Beliefs Statement '' . League of the South . June 1994 . Archived from the original on June 15 , 2008 . Retrieved June 12 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Tony Horowitz , Confederates in the Attic ( 1998 ) Jump up ^ Martinez , James Michael ; Richardson , William Donald ; McNinch - Su , Ron , eds. ( 2000 ) . Confederate Symbols . University Press of Florida . ISBN 9780813017587 . Jump up ^ `` Table 1 . Annual Estimates of the Population of Metropolitan and Micropolitan Statistical Areas : April 1 , 2014 to July 1 , 2015 ( CBSA - EST2012 - 01 ) '' . March 2016 United States Census . United States Census Bureau , Population Division . Retrieved May 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Table 1 . Annual Estimates of the Population of Metropolitan and Micropolitan Statistical Areas : April 1 , 2015 to July 1 , 2016 ( CBSA - EST2012 - 01 ) '' . March 2015 United States Census . United States Census Bureau , Population Division . Retrieved February 19 , 2017 . Jump up ^ The 2012 Census population estimate for the part within the South ( Kentucky ) is 431,997 . Jump up ^ The 2010 Census population for the part within the South ( Kentucky ) is 973,271 . Ayers , Edward L. What Caused the Civil War ? Reflections on the South and Southern History ( 2005 ) Cash , Wilbur J. The Mind of the South ( 1941 ) , Cooper , Christopher A. and H. Gibbs Knotts , eds . The New Politics of North Carolina ( U. of North Carolina Press , 2008 ) ISBN 978 - 0 - 8078 - 5876 - 9 Flynt , J. Wayne Dixie 's Forgotten People : The South 's Poor Whites ( 1979 ) . deals with 20th century . David M. Katzman . `` Black Migration '' . The Reader 's Companion to American History . Houghton Mifflin Company . James Grossman ( 1996 ) . `` Chicago and the ' Great Migration ' '' . Illinois History Teacher. 3 ( 2 ) . Archived from the original on September 3 , 2006 . McWhiney , Grady . In Cracker Culture : Celtic Ways in the Old South ( 1988 ) John O. Allen and Clayton E. Jewett ( 2004 ) . Slavery in the South : A State - by - State History . Greenwood Press . ISBN 0 - 313 - 32019 - 5 . Rayford Logan ( 1997 ) . The Betrayal of the Negro from Rutherford B. Hayes to Woodrow Wilson . New York : Da Capo Press . ISBN 0 - 306 - 80758 - 0 . William B. Hesseltine ( 1936 ) . A History of the South , 1607 -- 1936 . Prentice - Hall . Mark , Rebecca , and Rob Vaughan . The South : The Greenwood Encyclopedia of American Regional Cultures ( 2004 ) Robert W. Twyman. and David C. Roller , ed. , ed. ( 1979 ) . Encyclopedia of Southern History . LSU Press . ISBN 0 - 8071 - 0575 - 9 . CS1 maint : Extra text : editors list ( link ) Charles Reagan Wilson and William Ferris , ed. , ed. ( 1989 ) . Encyclopedia of Southern Culture . University of North Carolina Press . ISBN 0 - 8078 - 1823 - 2 . CS1 maint : Extra text : editors list ( link ) Further reading ( edit ) Edward L. Ayers ( 1993 ) . The Promise of the New South : Life after Reconstruction . Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 508548 - 5 . Monroe Lee Billington ( 1975 ) . The Political South in the 20th Century . Scribner . ISBN 0 - 684 - 13983 - 9 . Earl Black and Merle Black ( 2002 ) . The Rise of Southern Republicans . Belknap press . ISBN 0 - 674 - 01248 - 8 . W.J. Cash ( 1935 ) . The Mind of the South . New York : Vintage Books . ISBN 0 - 679 - 73647 - 6 . Pete Daniel ( 2000 ) . Lost Revolutions : The South in the 1950s . University of North Carolina Press . ISBN 0 - 8078 - 4848 - 4 . Davis , Donald , and Mark R. Stoll . Southern United States : An Environmental History ( 2006 ) Edwards , Laura F. `` Southern History as U.S. History , '' Journal of Southern History , 75 ( Aug. 2009 ) , 533 -- 64 . Frederickson , Kari. ( 2013 ) . Cold War Dixie : Militarization and Modernization in the American South . Athens , GA : University of Georgia Press . Michael Kreyling ( 1998 ) . Inventing Southern Literature . University Press of Mississippi . p. 66 . ISBN 1 - 57806 - 045 - 1 . Heather A. Haveman ( 2004 ) . `` Antebellum literary culture and the evolution of American magazines '' . Poetics. 32 : 5 -- 28 . doi : 10.1016 / j. poetic. 2003.12. 002 . Eugene D. Genovese ( 1976 ) . Roll , Jordan , Roll : The World the Slaves Made . New York : Vintage Books . p. 41 . ISBN 0 - 394 - 71652 - 3 . Morris , Christopher ( 2009 ) . `` A More Southern Environmental History '' . Journal of Southern History . 75 ( 3 ) : 581 -- 598 . Howard N. Rabinowitz ( September 1976 ) . `` From Exclusion to Segregation : Southern Race Relations , 1865 -- 1890 '' . Journal of American History . 43 : 325 -- 350 . Nicol C. Rae ( 1994 ) . Southern Democrats . Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 508709 - 7 . Jeffrey A. Raffel ( 1998 ) . Historical Dictionary of School Segregation and Desegregation : The American Experience . Greenwood Press . ISBN 0 - 313 - 29502 - 6 . J. Mills Thornton III . Archipelagoes of My South : Episodes in the Shaping of a Region , 1830 -- 1965 ( 2016 ) online Virts , Nancy ( 2006 ) . `` Change in the Plantation System : American South , 1910 -- 1945 '' . Explorations in Economic History . 43 ( 1 ) : 153 -- 176 . doi : 10.1016 / j. eeh. 2005.04. 003 . Wells , Jonathan Daniel ( 2009 ) . `` The Southern Middle Class '' . Journal of Southern History . 75 ( 3 ) : 651 -- . C. Vann Woodward ( 1955 ) . The Strange Career of Jim Crow . Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 514690 - 5 . Gavin Wright ( 1996 ) . Old South , New South : Revolutions in the Southern Economy Since the Civil War . LSU Press . ISBN 0 - 8071 - 2098 - 7 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Southern United States . Southern United States travel guide from Wikivoyage DocSouth : Documenting the American South -- multimedia collections from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Center for the Study of Southern Culture -- the research center at the University of Mississippi , with a graduate program and undergraduate major in southern studies University of Mississippi Libraries . `` Southern Studies '' . Library Guides . University of North Carolina , Southern Studies . `` Southern Studies Jumpgate '' . 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4158131744923925337

the official website of the philippine amusement and

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Philippine_Amusement_and_Gaming_Corporation&oldid=836785849

Philippine Amusement and gaming Corporation - wikipedia Philippine Amusement and gaming Corporation Jump to : navigation , search This article uses citations that link to broken or outdated sources . Please improve the article or discuss this issue on the talk page . Help on using footnotes is available . ( January 2014 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Philippine Amusement and Gaming Corporation Type Public Industry Casino Headquarters Philippines Key people Andrea D. Domingo ( Chairman and CEO ) Number of employees 11,000 + Website www.pagcor.ph Philippine Amusement and Gaming Corporation ( PAGCOR ) is a government - owned and controlled corporation established through the Presidential Decree 1067 - A. PAGCOR is the Philippines ' largest contributor of revenue to the government after the Bureau of Internal Revenue and the Bureau of . History ( edit ) After its establishment , PAGCOR entered itself into a contract with Philippine Casino Operators Corporation ( PCOC ) for the operation of the floating casino in the Manila Bay in 1977 . However , after the floating casino was gutted by fire in 1979 , PAGCOR shifted its focus to land - based casinos and entered into another contract with PCOC for the management of a casino at the Provident International and Resources Corporation ( PIRC ) building on Imelda Avenue , Parañaque City , Metro Manila , Philippines . Then , under Presidential Decree 1869 , decreed in 1983 , it was mandated to act as the sole government corporation conducting and establishing gaming pools and casinos in the country . In 1986 , it was re-established and reorganized by Philippine President Corazon C. Aquino as a New PAGCOR to help raise funds for the government ; Norberto Quisumbing was appointed as its first Chairman , followed by the former Development Bank of the Philippines chair Alicia LL . Reyes as its Chair and CEO . Reyes was succeeded by Ephraim Genuino under the appointment by Philippine President Gloria Macapagal - Arroyo in 2001 . The firm operates its own casinos and several VIP slot clubs in major cities across the country . It also oversees and regulates privately owned casinos , more than 180 bingo parlors , as well as e-games cafes across the country . The company employs more than 11,000 workers . In June 2007 , PAGCOR gained from a piece of legislation , Republic Act 9487 , which granted the state - run gaming firm , then under the leadership of Chairman Genuino , another 25 years to regulate and operate games of chance , to issue licenses , and to enter into joint venture , management , or investment agreements with private entities for the Entertainment City in the Manila Bay area , Parañaque , and in Newport City , Pasay , in particular . Chairman Genuino successfully attracted investors to the project to put up Las Vegas - style integrated resorts . Two integrated resorts opened in 1 November 2014 . a slot amusement cafe beside Manila Grand Opera House PAGCOR is under the Office of the President of the Philippines . References ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Philippine Amusement and Gaming Corporation . Jump up ^ `` THE NEW MANAGEMENT '' . www.pagcor.ph . Archived from the original on 2011 - 07 - 03 . Retrieved 25 May 2017 . Jump up ^ `` FOURTEENTH CONGRESS OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES 1 First Regular Session '' ( PDF ) . senate.gov.ph. 2007 . Retrieved 25 May 2017 . Jump up ^ http://www.supremecourt.gov.ph/jurisprudence/2003/mar2003/...%5C...%5C2000%5Cmar2000%5C132929.html Jump up ^ http://ocampolaw.co-ph.com/laws/index.php?s=new+pagcor&submit=Search Jump up ^ `` House of Representatives of the Philippines '' . HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES . Archived from the original on 19 March 2012 . Retrieved 5 January 2013 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Philippine_Amusement_and_Gaming_Corporation&oldid=836785849 '' Categories : Gambling companies of the Philippines Government - owned and controlled corporations Companies based in Manila Hidden categories : Articles with broken or outdated citations from January 2014 All articles with broken or outdated citations Talk Help About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 16 April 2018 , at 20 : 46 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

7374492239085572789

when do they blow the shofar on the feast of trumpets

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Shofar&oldid=814051459

Shofar - wikipedia Shofar Jump to : navigation , search For the academic journal , see Shofar ( journal ) . For the Shofar Organization , see Amnon Yitzhak . Shofar Shofar Blowing the shofar A shofar ( pron . / ʃoʊˈfɑːr / , from Hebrew : שׁוֹפָר ‬ ( help info ) , pronounced ( ʃoˈfaʁ ) ) is an ancient musical horn typically made of a ram 's horn , used for Jewish religious purposes . Like the modern bugle , the shofar lacks pitch - altering devices . All pitch control is done by varying the player 's embouchure . The shofar is blown in synagogue services on Rosh Hashanah and at the very end of Yom Kippur , and is also blown every weekday morning in the month of Elul running up to Rosh Hashanah . Shofars come in a variety of sizes and shapes , depending on the choice of animal and level of finish . Contents ( hide ) 1 Bible and rabbinic literature 1.1 Post-Biblical times 1.2 Mitzvah 1.3 Qualifications 2 Shape and material 2.1 Choice of animal 2.2 Construction 3 Sounds 3.1 Foundations in Talmud and Torah 3.2 Modern practice 4 Use in modern times 4.1 Religion 4.2 National liberation 4.3 Non-religious musical usage 4.4 Celebration and protest 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links Bible and rabbinic literature ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( February 2012 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Shofar ( by Alphonse Lévy ( fr ) Caption says : `` To a good year '' The shofar is mentioned frequently in the Hebrew Bible , the Talmud and rabbinic literature . The blast of a shofar emanating from the thick cloud on Mount Sinai made the Israelites tremble in awe ( Exodus 19 : 16 ) . The shofar was used to announce holidays and the Jubilee year . The first day of the seventh month ( Tishrei ) is termed `` a memorial of blowing '' , or `` a day of blowing '' , the shofar . They were used for signifying the start of a war . Later , it was also employed in processions , as musical accompaniment and eventually it was inserted into the temple orchestra by David . Note that the ' trumpets ' described in Numbers 10 are a different instrument , described by the Hebrew word ' trumpet ' ( Hebrew : חצוצרה ‎ ; ḥaṣoṣrah ) , not the word for shofar ( Hebrew : שופר ‎ ) . The Torah describes the first day of the seventh month ( 1st of Tishrei = Rosh HaShanah ) as a zikron teruˁah ( Hebrew : זכרון תרועה ‎ ; memorial of blowing ; Lev. 23 : 24 ) and as a yom teruˁah ( Hebrew : יום תרועה ‎ ; day of blowing ; Num. 29 ) . This was interpreted by the Jewish sages as referring to the sounding of the shofar . In the Temple in Jerusalem , the shofar was sometimes used together with the trumpet . On New Year 's Day the principal ceremony was conducted with the shofar , which instrument was placed in the center with a trumpet on either side ; it was the horn of a wild goat and straight in shape , being ornamented with gold at the mouthpiece . On fast days the principal ceremony was conducted with the trumpets in the center and with a shofar on either side . On those occasions the shofarot were rams ' horns curved in shape and ornamented with silver at the mouthpieces . On Yom Kippur of the jubilee year the ceremony was performed with the shofar as on New Year 's Day . On Rosh Hashanah and other full holidays ( Day of Atonement , Ingathering of the harvest ( Sukkot ) , Passover and the Feast of Weeks -- Pentecost ) a single priest perfected two sacrifices in honor of the full holiday . ( Note that festivals such as Hanukah and Purim , are not considered full holidays requiring an extra sacrifice . ) On Rosh Hashanah , something special occurred during the special sacrifice . Arguably two Shofar sounders played the long notes and one trumpet player played the short note . Accordingly , Rosh Hashanah is called Yom Teruah ( the day of the blast ) . Otherwise , the trumpets had `` top billing '' . Rosh Hashanah 27a , supports this claim : `` Said Raba or it may have been R. Joshua B. Levi : What is the scriptural warrant for this ? -- Because it is written , ' With trumpets and the sound of the Shofar shout ye before the King in the Temple , we require trumpets and the sound of the Shofar ; elsewhere not . ' '' Indeed , on Yom Kippur , the Shofar was sounded to announce the Jubilee Year ( every 50 years , Jews were granted forgiveness , debts were forgiven , indentured Israelites were granted freedom , and the fields `` shall become owned by the priests '' . Shofar first indicated in Yovel ( Jubilee Year -- Lev. 25 : 8 -- 13 ) . Indeed , in Rosh Hashanah 33b , the sages ask why the Shofar sounded in Jubilee year . Further support is found in Rosh Hashanah 29a , indicating the sounding of both Shofars and trumpets . On Jubilee Year , however , only the Shofar blasts . The Rabbi 's created the practice of the Shofar 's sounding every Yom Kippur rather than just on the Jubilee Year ( once in 50 years ) . Otherwise , for all other special days , the Shofar is sounded shorter and two special silver Trumpets announced the sacrifice . When the trumpets sound the signal , all the people who were within the sacrifice prostrate themselves , stretching out flat , face down and on the ground . The shofar was blown in the times of Joshua 5 to help him capture Jericho . As they surrounded the walls , the shofar was blown and the Jews were able to capture the city . The shofar was commonly taken out to war so the troops would know when a battle would begin . The person who would blow the shofar would call out to the troops from atop a hill . All of the troops were able to hear the call of the shofar from their position because of its distinct sound . Post-biblical times ( edit ) Old Jerusalem Yochanan ben Zakkai synagogue -- A flask of oil and a shofar for the anointing of the eagerly - awaited Mashiach . At the inception of the Diaspora , during the short - lived ban on playing musical instruments , the shofar was enhanced in its use , as a sign of mourning for the destruction of the temple . The declaration of the ban 's source was in fact set to music itself as the lamentation ' Al Naharoth Bavel ' within a few centuries of the ban . ( It is noted that a full orchestra played in the temple , the ban was so that this would not be taken for granted , hence the wording of the ban ' if I forget thee O Jerusalem , over my chiefest joy etc . ' . ) The shofar continues to announce the Jewish Year , and the sighting of the new moon , to introduce Shabbat , to carry out the commandment to sound it on Rosh Hashanah , and to mark the end of the day of fasting on Yom Kippur , once the services have been completed in the evening . Secular uses have been discarded ( see a notable exception in a section further down ) . The shofar is primarily associated with Rosh Hashanah ; indeed , Rosh Hashanah is called `` Yom Teruah '' ( or `` Yom T'ruah '' ) ( the day of the shofar blast ) . In the Mishnah ( book of early rabbinic laws derived from the Torah ) , a discussion centers on the primacy of the shofar in the time before the destruction of the second temple ( 70 AD ) . Indeed , the shofar was the center of the ceremony , with two silver trumpets playing a lesser role . On other solemn holidays , fasts , and new moon celebrations , two silver trumpets were featured , with one shofar playing a lesser role . The shofar is also associated with the jubilee year in which , every fifty years , Jewish law provided for the release of all slaves , land , and debts . The sound of the shofar on Rosh Hashanah announced the jubilee year , and the sound of the shofar on Yom Kippur proclaimed the actual release of financial encumbrances . The halakha ( Jewish law ) rules that the shofar may not be sounded on Shabbat , due to the potential that the Ba'al Tekiah ( shofar sounder ) may inadvertently carry it , which is in a class of forbidden Shabbat work . The historical explanation is that , in ancient Israel , the shofar was sounded on Shabbat in the temple located in Jerusalem . After the temple 's destruction , the sounding of the shofar on Shabbat was restricted to the place where the great Sanhedrin ( Jewish legislature and court from 400 BCE to 100 C.E. ) was located . However , when the Sanhedrin ceased to exist , the sounding of the shofar on Shabbat was discontinued . The shofar says , `` Awake , sleepers from your sleep , and slumberers arise from your slumber ! '' Mishneh Torah , Laws of Repentance 3 : 4 . Mitzvah ( edit ) Jewish `` Slichot '' prayer service with shofar during the Days of Repentance preceding Yom Kippur at the Western Wall in Jerusalem 's Old City , 2008 . The Sages indicated that the mitzvah was to hear the sounds of the shofar . They went so far as to consider a shofar blown into a pit or cave and to decide whether a person who hears the original sound or the echo has fulfilled the mitzvah . Mishnah ( Rosh Hashanah 27b ) . The Shulchan Aruch sums up that if the hearer hears the reverberation , the mitzvah is not valid . However , if the listener perceives the direct sounds , he fulfils the mitzvah . Thus , most modern halakhic authorities hold that hearing a shofar on the radio or the Internet would not be valid to satisfy the mitzvah because `` electronically reproduced sounds do not suffice for mitzvot that require hearing a specific natural sound ... However , one should consult a competent rabbi if an unusually pressing situation arises , as some authorities believe that performing mitzvot through electronically reproduced sound is preferable to not performing them at all . '' According to Jewish law women and minors are exempt from the commandment of hearing the shofar blown ( as is the case with any positive , time - bound commandment ) , but they are encouraged to attend the ceremony . If the Baal Tekiyah ( shofar sounder ) blows with the intention that all who hear will perform the mitzvah , then anyone listening -- even someone passing by -- who intends to hear the Shofar can perform the mitzvah because the community blower blows for everybody . If the listener stands still , it is presumed he intends to hear . If one hears the blast but with no intention of fulfilling the mitzvah , then the mitzvah has not been fulfilled . Qualifications ( edit ) Yemenite Jew blowing the shofar , late 1930 's The expert who blows ( or `` blasts '' or `` sounds '' ) the shofar is termed the Tokea ( lit . `` Blaster '' ) or Ba'al Tekiah ( lit . `` Master of the Blast '' ) . Being a Ba'al Tekiah ( shofar sounder ) is an honor . Every male Jew is eligible for this sacred office , providing he is acceptable to the congregation . `` The one who blows the shofar on Rosh Hashanah ... should likewise be learned in the Torah and shall be God - fearing ; the best man available . '' If a potential choice will cause dissension , he should withdraw his candidacy , even if the improper person will be chosen . The Shulchan Aruch discusses who is fit to blow the shofar on behalf of a congregation : Anyone not obligated to fulfill the mitzvah of sounding the shofar can not fulfill the commandment for ( cover ) another whose duty it is to perform the mitzvah . Although a woman ( who is exempt from this mitzvah because it is time bound ) may not blow the shofar for men ( whose duty it is to perform the mitzvah ) , a female Ba'alat Tekiah may intone the shofar for herself and other women . Similarly , she may say a blessing over the mitzvah even though it is not mandatory ( the requisite blessing contains the words `` asher kid'shanu b'mitzvotav v'tzivanu '' , `` who sanctified us with His commandments ( mitzvot ) and commanded us to ... '' , but women are not commanded in this mitzvah ) . Only a freeman ( not even a slave who will become free in the next month ) can be a Ba'al Tekiah . The Ba'al Tekiah shall abstain from anything that may cause ritual contamination for three days prior to Rosh Hashanah . Shape and material ( edit ) Choice of animal ( edit ) According to the Talmud , a shofar may be made from the horn of any animal from the Bovidae family except that of a cow although a ram is preferable . Bovidae horns are made of a layer of keratin ( the same material as human toenails and fingernails ) around a core of bone , with a layer of cartilage in between , which can be removed to leave the hollow keratin horn . An antler , on the other hand , is made of solid bone , so an antler can not be used as a shofar because it can not be hollowed out . There is no requirement for ritual slaughter ( shechita ) , and theoretically , the horn can come from a non-kosher animal because under most , but not all , interpretations of Jewish law the shofar is not required to be muttar be-fikha ( literally : permissible in your mouth ) ; the mitzvah is hearing the shofar , not eating the animal it came from . The shofar falls into the category of tashmishei mitzvah , objects used to perform a mitzvah that do not themselves have inherent holiness . Moreover , because horn is always inedible , it is considered afra be-alma ( mere dust ) and not an unkosher substance . The Elef Hamagen ( 586 : 5 ) delineates the order of preference : 1 ) curved ram ; 2 ) curved other sheep ; 3 ) curved other animal ; 4 ) straight -- ram or otherwise ; 5 ) non-kosher animal ; 6 ) cow . The first four categories are used with a bracha ( blessing ) , the fifth without a bracha , and the last , not at all . A Dall Sheep with horns . Greater Kudu , Namibia . Construction ( edit ) In practice two species are generally used : the Ashkenazi and Sefardi shofar is made from the horn of a domestic ram , while a Yemeni shofar is made from the horn of a kudu . A Moroccan Shofar is a flat Shofar with no curves besides the main curve . A crack or hole in the shofar affecting the sound renders it unfit for ceremonial use . A shofar may not be painted in colors , but it may be carved with artistic designs ( Shulkhan Arukh , Orach Chayim , 586 , 17 ) . Shofars ( especially the Sephardi shofars ) are sometimes plated with silver across part of their length for display purposes , although this invalidates them for use in religious practices . The horn is flattened and shaped by the application of heat , which softens it . A hole is made from the tip of the horn to the natural hollow inside . It is played much like a European brass instrument , with the player blowing through the hole , causing the air column inside to vibrate . Sephardi shofars usually have a carved mouthpiece resembling that of a European trumpet or French horn , but smaller . Ashkenazi shofars do not . Because the hollow of the shofar is irregular in shape , the harmonics obtained when playing the instrument can vary : rather than a pure perfect fifth , intervals as narrow as a fourth , or as wide as a sixth may be produced . A small shofar made from a ram 's horn . A shofar made from the horn of a Greater kudu . A small shofar made from a ram 's horn . Sounds ( edit ) Foundations in Talmud and Torah ( edit ) The Tekiah ( תקיעה ) and teruah ( תרועה ) sounds mentioned in the Tanakh were respectively bass and treble . The tekiah ( or `` t'kiah '' or `` t'qiah '' ) was a plain deep sound ending abruptly ; the teruah ( or `` t'ruah '' ) , a trill between two tekiahs . These two sounds , constituting a single unit of shofar sounding , were rendered three times during a service added specially for Rosh HaShanah : first in honor of God 's Kingship ( malchiyot or malchuyot ) ) ; next to recall the Binding of Isaac , in order to cause the congregation to be remembered before God ( zichronot ) ; and a third time to comply with the precept regarding the shofar ( shofrot ) . The word teruah ( a broken sound ) appears three times in the Bible in the context of the shofar , from which the Talmud derives the rule that three such sounds must be made . In addition , other verses connect the word tekiah ( an unbroken sound ) to teruah twice , thus leading the Talmud to rule that each teruah must be preceded and followed by a tekiah , leading to a total of nine blasts ( tekiah - teruah - tekiah three times ) . Over time doubts arose as to the correct sound of the teruah . The Talmud is uncertain whether it means a moaning / groaning or a staccato beat sound . A system of three sounds was therefore devised to account for all the possibilities : Shevarim ( or `` sh'varim '' ) ( שברים ) is composed of three connected short sounds . Teruah is a series of nine very short notes divided into three disconnected or broken sequences of three notes each . The nine notes of the teruah is equal the three notes of the shevarim in duration . Tekiah is slightly longer than the length of either the shevarim or the teruah . The doubt as to the nature of the Biblical teruah , whether it was simply a broken moan ( shevarim ) , a staccato ( teruah ) or both ( shevarim - teruah ) , necessitates three near - repetitions to make sure of securing the correct sound . The sequence of the shofar blowing is thus : Tekiah , shevarim - teruah , tekiah Tekiah , shevarim , tekiah Tekiah , teruah , and then a final blast of tekiah gedolah , which means `` big tekiah '' , held as long as possible . This series is also known by its acronyms : TaShRaT , TaShaT , TaRaT , respectively . When blowing the shevarim - teruah , the tekiah is lengthened to be slightly longer than the duration of the shevarim and the teruah together . Some opinions require trebling the series , based on the mention of teruah three times in connection with the seventh month ( Lev . xxiii , xxv ; Num . xxix ) , and also on the above - mentioned division of the service into malchiyot , zichronot , and shofarot . To fulfill all of the opinions and criteria above , a total of thirty blasts are sounded , the minimum number required today : Tashrat three times , yielding twelve blasts Tashat three times , yielding nine Tarat three times , yielding nine Alternatively , although fewer opinions are satisfied , some communities sound a single series of Tashrat - Tashat - Tarat without trebling . This may also fulfill the required total of thirty blasts , if tekiah is counted as one note , shevarim three , and teruah nine . Regardless , all halachic authorities teach that one should follow one 's community 's custom . Modern practice ( edit ) Shofar sound for Rosh Hashana , Ashkenaz version ; The National Library of Israel . It is customary to hear 100 or 101 sounds in the synagogue , although the minimum requirement is to hear 30 sounds . The shofar is sounded just before , during and after the Musaf prayer on Rosh Hashanah . For the sounding just before Musaf , after the Torah reading , relevant verses from the Bible are recited , followed by two blessings : one on the Biblical commandment of `` hearing the sound of the shofar '' and the blessing of Shehecheyanu . After that , thirty shofar blasts are sounded . In the Musaf prayer itself , the shofar is sounded three times during the silent prayer , and then again three times during the leader 's repetition . For each of these soundings , ten appropriate selections from the Bible are recited , followed by a benediction , followed finally by a series of ten shofar blasts . After leader 's repetition of the Musaf prayer is completed , a final series of ten ( or eleven , depending on the community 's custom ) shofar blasts are sounded , yielding a total of 100 or 101 blasts . ( Some communities do not blow the shofar during the silent Musaf prayer , instead blowing the 30 blasts after the leader 's repetition . ) After the service is over , it is customary to blow another series of thirty blasts `` to confuse the Adversary '' . According to the Sephardic tradition , a full 101 blasts are sounded , corresponding to the 100 cries of the mother of Sisera , the captain of Jabin 's army who did not return home after being killed by Yael ( Judges 5 : 28 ) . One cry is added to symbolize the legitimate love of a mother mourning her son . Use in modern times ( edit ) Religion ( edit ) The shofar is used mainly on Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur . It is blown in synagogues to mark the end of the fast at Yom Kippur , and blown at four particular occasions in the prayers on Rosh Hashanah . Because of its inherent ties to the Days of Repentance and the inspiration that comes along with hearing its piercing blasts , the shofar is also blown after morning services for the entire month of Elul , the last month of the Jewish civil year and the sixth of the Jewish ecclesiastical year . It is not blown on the last day of month , however , to mark the difference between the voluntary blasts of the month and the mandatory blasts of the holiday . Shofar blasts are also used during penitential rituals such as Yom Kippur Katan and optional prayer services called during times of communal distress . The exact modes of sounding can vary from location to location . In an effort to improve the skills of shofar blowers , an International Day of Shofar Study is observed on Rosh Chodesh Elul , the start of the month preceding Rosh Hashanah . A Jewish Haredi man blowing a Shofar , 2012 . Hasidic Jew , blowing the kudu shofar in Uman , Ukraine , 2010 . Jewish Israeli man blows the Shofar at the Western Wall , Jerusalem National liberation ( edit ) During the Ottoman and the British rule of Jerusalem , Jews were not allowed to sound the shofar at the Western Wall . After the Six Day War , Rabbi Shlomo Goren famously approached the Wall and sounded the shofar . This fact inspired Naomi Shemer to add an additional line to her song Jerusalem of Gold , saying : `` a shofar calls out from the Temple Mount in the Old City . '' Non-religious musical Usage ( edit ) Shlomo Bar , Entertainment ; Shofar blown in Israeli Pop music , 2009 . In pop music , the shofar is used by the Israeli Oriental metal band Salem in their adaptation of `` Al Taster '' psalm . The late trumpeter Lester Bowie played a shofar with the Art Ensemble of Chicago . In the film version of the musical Godspell , the first act opens with cast member David Haskell blowing the shofar . In his performances , Israeli composer and singer Shlomo Gronich uses the shofar to produce a very wide range of notes . Since 1988 Rome - based American composer Alvin Curran 's project Shofar features the shofar as a virtuoso solo instrument and in combination with sets of natural and electronic sounds . Madonna used a shofar played by Yitzhak Sinwani on the Confessions Tour and the album Confessions on a Dance Floor for the song `` Isaac '' , based on Im Nin'alu . In 2003 , The Howard Stern Show featured a contest called `` Blow The Shofar '' , which asked callers to correctly identify popular songs played on the shofar . The shofar is sometimes used in Western classical music . Edward Elgar 's oratorio The Apostles includes the sound of a shofar blowing , although other instruments , such as the flugelhorn , are usually used instead . The shofar has been used in a number of films , both as a sound effect and as part of musical underscores . Elmer Bernstein incorporated the shofar into several cues for his score for Cecil B. DeMille 's The Ten Commandments ; one of the shofar calls recorded by Bernstein was later reused by the sound editors for Return of the Jedi for the Ewoks ' horn calls . Jerry Goldsmith 's scores to the films Alien and Planet of the Apes also incorporate the shofar in their orchestration . Celebration and protest ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( September 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The Shofar has been sounded as a sign of victory and celebration on May 8 , 1945 . Jewish elders were photographed blowing multiple shofars after hearing that the Nazis surrendered . The Shofar has played a major role in the pro-Israel movement and often played in the salute to Israel parade as well as other pro-Israel demonstrations . See also ( edit ) Binding of Isaac Dung - Dkar Erkencho Rosh Hashanah Shankha Shofar blowing Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Jewish prayer - book '' . Cambridge Digital Library . Retrieved 25 September 2014 . Jump up ^ Psalm 81 : 3 ( 4 ) Jump up ^ Leviticus 25 : 9 Jump up ^ Leviticus 23 : 24 Jump up ^ Numbers 29 : 1 Jump up ^ Joshua 6 : 4 ; Judges 3 : 27 ; 7 : 16 , 20 ; 1 Samuel . 8 : 3 Jump up ^ 2 Samuel 6 : 15 ; 1 Chronicles 15 : 28 Jump up ^ Psalm 98 : 6 ; compare Psalm 47 : 5 Jump up ^ Psalm 150 : 3 Jump up ^ Sidney B. Hoenig , `` Origins of the Rosh Hashanah Liturgy '' , The Jewish Quarterly Review , New Series , Vol. 57 , The Seventy - Fifth Anniversary Volume of the Jewish Quarterly Review ( 1967 ) , pp. 312 -- 331 . Published by University of Pennsylvania Press . Origins of the Rosh Hashanah Liturgy . Accessed 31 December 2009 Jump up ^ It has been said that when the mashiach comes , the Sephardic community will be ready to anoint him and blow the shofar to announce his arrival . Legend has it there is a tunnel from under the Yohanan Ben Zakkai synagogue that leads directly to the Temple Mount . Jump up ^ Kitzur Shulchan Aruch 128 : 2 Jump up ^ Arakhin 11a -- b ; Shabbos 35 Jump up ^ Shabbos 35 Jump up ^ Kitzur Shulchan Aruch 133 : 26 Jump up ^ Judith Kaplan Eisenstein , Heritage of Music , New York : UAHC , 1972 , pp. 44 -- 45 . Jump up ^ Rosh Hashanah 29b Jump up ^ Kieval , The High Holy Days , p. 114 Jump up ^ `` Anticipation and Consummation : a Perspective on the Shofar '' ( PDF ) . Jump up ^ Mishnah Berurah 587 : 1 -- 3 Jump up ^ `` Fulfilling Mitzvot Through Electronic Hearing Devices '' , Chaim Jachter and Ezra Frazer , Gray Matter volume 2 pp. 237 -- 244 . ISBN 1 - 933143 - 10 - X Jump up ^ Mishnah Berurah 590 : 9 Jump up ^ Shulkhan Arukh 3 : 72 Jump up ^ Shulchan Aruch , Orach Chaim 589 : 1 -- 6 Jump up ^ Shulkhan Arukh 3 : 73 Jump up ^ Rosh Hashanah , 26a Jump up ^ Mishnah Berurah 586 : 1 Jump up ^ Navon , Mois ( 2001 ) . `` The Ḥillazon and the Principle of `` Muttar be-Fikha '' '' ( PDF ) . The Torah u-Madda Journal . 10 / 2001 : 142 -- 162 . Retrieved 15 June 2016 . see pages 147 - 148 ff . Jump up ^ Megillah 26b Jump up ^ Avot 67b Jump up ^ Elef Hamagen , Rabbi Shemarya Hakreti , edited by Aharon Erand , Jerusalem : Mekitzei Nirdamim , 2003 ^ Jump up to : Rosh Hashanah 34a Jump up ^ Mishnah Berurah 590 : 13 Jump up ^ Mishnah Berurah 590 : 14 Jump up ^ Kitzur Shulchan Aruch 129 : 13 Jump up ^ `` Shofar - Call to Action '' . Chabad . Retrieved 6 November 2011 . Jump up ^ Kitzur Shulchan Aruch 129 : 17 , et seq . Jump up ^ Kitov , Eliyahu . `` One Hundred Sounds '' . Chabad.org . Retrieved 6 November 2011 . Jump up ^ Arthur L. Finkle , Shofar : History , Technique and Jewish Law , ( Saarbrücken , Germany : Hadassah Word Press , 2015 ) Jump up ^ International Day of Shofar Study Jump up ^ Jerusalem of Gold Archived 29 November 1999 at the Wayback Machine . accessed 9 December 2008 Jump up ^ The Abraham Fund Initiatives : Press Clips - Crossing the Middle Eastern Tightrope Archived 9 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine . References ( edit ) Arthur L. Finkle , Easy Guide to Shofar Sounding , Los Angeles : Torah Aura , 2003 Hearing Shofar : The Still Small Voice of the Ram 's Horn by Michael T. Chusid , a three volume compendium of shofar information . Further reading ( edit ) Arthur l . Finkle , Shofar Sounders Reference Manual at the Wayback Machine ( archived 26 October 2009 ) , LA : Torah Aura , 1993 Montagu , Jeremy . 2016 . The Shofar : Its History and Usage . Rowman and Littlefield Publishers . External links ( edit ) Media related to Shofars at Wikimedia Commons Chisholm , Hugh , ed. ( 1911 ) . `` Shofar '' . Encyclopædia Britannica ( 11th ed . ) . Cambridge University Press . Shulkhan Arukh limited English translation includes Rosh Hashanah chapters 585 -- 590 regarding the shofar . Shofar sounds several videos with shofar sounds and explanations High Holidays Rosh Hashanah Erev Rosh Hashanah Rosh Hashanah greetings Rosh Hashanah seder Shofar Shofar blowing Tashlikh Yom Kippur Atonement Break fast Confession Jonah Kapparot Kittel Kol Nidre Ne'ila Repentance Selichot Ten Martyrs Unetanneh Tokef Ten Days of Repentance Avinu Malkeinu Fast of Gedalia Shabbat Shuvah Jewish life Birth and infancy Hebrew birthday Shalom Zachar Brit milah Zeved habat Hebrew name Pidyon haben Coming of age Upsherin Wimpel Bar and Bat Mitzvah Yeshiva Kollel Daily life Ritual washing Prayers and blessings Prayer services Grace after Meals Honorifics Marriage Marriageable age Role of women Tzniut Yichus Matchmaking Engagement Jewish wedding Ketubah Chuppah Sheva Brachot Niddah Mikvah Divorce Religious practice 613 commandments Customs Torah study Weekly Torah reading Daf Yomi Shiur Siyum Chavrusa Chavurah Chiddush Holidays Tzedakah Religious items Sefer Torah Siddur Machzor Tzitzit Tallit Tefillin Mezuzah Kippah Menorah Shofar Four species Death Chevra Kadisha Shiva Kaddish Tehillim Yahrzeit Yahrzeit candle Yizkor Honorifics Musical instruments Strings Acoustic guitar Balalaika Banjo Bass guitar ( electric bass ) Bass amplifier Cavaquinho Classical guitar Electric guitar Guitar amplifier Guitar Harp Hurdy gurdy Guitarrón Guitarra de golpe Lute Mandolin Musical bow Rajão Slack - key guitar Steel guitar String section ( Classical strings ) Violin Viola Cello Double bass Theorbo Timple Ukulele Vihuela Viol Washtub bass Zither Brass Trumpet Fanfare trumpet Trombone Cornet Saxhorn Flugelhorn Tenor horn Baritone horn Euphonium Tuba French horn Sousaphone Mellophone Alphorn Buccina Bugle Contrabass bugle Carnyx Cornett Cornu Dord ( instrument ) German horn Horn Nabal Nyele Ophicleide Post horn Serpent Shofar Sringa Tibetan horn Vienna horn Wagner tuba Wazza Woodwind Piccolo Flute Oboe English horn Bassoon Clarinet Saxophone Recorder Bagpipes Musette de cour Nose flute Sring Tárogató Keyboard Accordion Calliope Carillon Celesta Clavichord Harpsichord Organ Hammond organ Pipe organ Pump organ Pedal keyboard Piano Digital piano Electric piano Electronic piano Synthesizer Percussion Bell Bell tree Cajon Cymbals Djembe Drum Bass drum Snare drum Tenor drum Drum kit Gong Hammered dulcimer Marimba Tambourine Timpani Triangle Vibraphone Xylophone Friction Cristal baschet Glass harmonica Friction drum Lion 's roar Musical saw Nail violin Verrophone Rhythm section Acoustic guitar Bass guitar Double bass Drum kit Drum machine Electric guitar Guitar amplifier Electric piano Hammond organ Leslie speaker Piano Synthesizer Miscellaneous Didgeridoo Turntables used as instrument Harmonica Studio as an instrument Melodica Experimental musical instrument Natural horns and trumpets Alphorn Birch trumpet Bucium Bugle Carnyx Conch Hakgediya Horagai Nagak Cowhorn Swedish Didgeridoo modern Dord Embouchure & hand - stopping Erke Karnal Lituus Lur Brudevælte Lurs Midwinter horn Nyele Olifant Post horn Ramsinga Roman tuba Salpinx Shofar Rosh Hashanah Sringa Tibetan horn Tochacatl Trembita Tube trumpet Vuvuzela Waqra phuku Wazza Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shofar&oldid=814051459 '' Categories : Elul Ancient Hebrew musical instruments Natural horns and trumpets Hebrew words and phrases High Holy Days Jewish ritual objects Rosh Hashanah Israeli musical instruments Animal products Jewish symbols Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Use dmy dates from August 2015 Articles with hAudio microformats Articles needing additional references from February 2012 All articles needing additional references Interlanguage link template link number Articles containing Hebrew - language text Wikipedia articles needing clarification from February 2012 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2012 Articles containing predictions or speculation Articles with unsourced statements from November 2011 Articles needing additional references from September 2015 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Talk Contents About Wikipedia Беларуская Български Boarisch Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español فارسی Français Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Magyar Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan Polski Português Runa Simi Русский Slovenščina Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Türkçe Türkmençe Українська ייִדיש Edit links This page was last edited on 6 December 2017 , at 16 : 59 . 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when does mlb resume after all star break

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=2017_Major_League_Baseball_All-Star_Game&oldid=805208862

2017 Major League Baseball All - Star Game - wikipedia 2017 Major League Baseball All - Star Game Jump to : navigation , search 2017 Major League Baseball All - Star Game 5 6 7 8 9 10 American League 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 National League 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 0 Date July 11 , 2017 Venue Marlins Park City Miami , Florida Managers Brad Mills ( CLE ) Joe Maddon ( CHC ) MVP Robinson Canó ( SEA ) Attendance 37,188 First pitch Roberto Alomar , Rod Carew , Orlando Cepeda , Pedro Martínez , Tony Pérez , Iván Rodríguez Television Fox TV announcers Joe Buck , John Smoltz , Ken Rosenthal and Tom Verducci Radio ESPN Radio announcers Jon Sciambi and Chris Singleton ← 2016 Major League Baseball All - Star Game 2018 → The 2017 Major League Baseball All - Star Game was the 88th edition of the Major League Baseball All Star Game . The game was hosted by the Miami Marlins and was played at Marlins Park on July 11 , 2017 . It was televised nationally by Fox . The game was the first since 2002 whose outcome did not determine home - field advantage for the World Series ; instead , the team with the better regular - season record will have home - field advantage . The Marlins were announced as the hosts on February 10 , 2015 , by Major League Baseball Commissioner Rob Manfred ; the game was the Marlins ' first time hosting , leaving the Tampa Bay Rays as the only MLB franchise not to have hosted an All - Star game . The American League won , 2 -- 1 , in 10 innings . Robinson Canó , second baseman for the Seattle Mariners , hit the game winning home run for the American League and was named the 2017 All - Star Game Most Valuable Player . Contents ( hide ) 1 Fan balloting 1.1 Starters 1.2 Final roster spot 2 Rosters 2.1 American League 2.2 National League 2.2. 1 Roster notes 3 Game summary 3.1 Starting lineup 3.2 Line score 4 Ratings 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links Fan balloting ( edit ) Starters ( edit ) Balloting for the 2017 All - Star Game starters began online May 1 and ended on June 29 . The top vote - getters at each position ( including the designated hitter for the American League ) and the top three among outfielders , would be starters for their respective leagues . The results were announced on July 2 . Bryce Harper was the leading vote - getter with 4,630,306 votes . Final roster spot ( edit ) After the rosters were finalized , a second ballot of five players per league was created for the All - Star Final Vote to determine the 33rd and final player of each roster . The online balloting was conducted from July 2 through July 6 . The winners of the All - Star Final Vote were Mike Moustakas of the American League 's Kansas City Royals and Justin Turner of the National League 's Los Angeles Dodgers . American League Player Team Pos . Elvis Andrus Rangers Shortstop Xander Bogaerts Red Sox Shortstop Didi Gregorius Yankees Shortstop Logan Morrison Rays First baseman Mike Moustakas Royals Third baseman National League Player Team Pos . Justin Bour Marlins First baseman Kris Bryant Cubs Third baseman Anthony Rendon Nationals Third baseman Mark Reynolds Rockies First baseman Justin Turner Dodgers Third baseman Rosters ( edit ) American League ( edit ) Elected starters Position Player Team All - Star Games Pérez , Salvador Salvador Pérez Royals 5 1B Smoak , Justin Justin Smoak Blue Jays 2B Altuve , José José Altuve Astros 5 3B Ramírez , José José Ramírez Indians SS Correa , Carlos Carlos Correa Astros OF Trout , Mike Mike Trout Angels 6 OF Judge , Aaron Aaron Judge Yankees OF Springer , George George Springer Astros DH Dickerson , Corey Corey Dickerson Rays Reserves Position Player Team All - Star Games Sánchez , Gary Gary Sánchez Yankees 1B Alonso , Yonder Yonder Alonso Athletics 2B Canó , Robinson Robinson Canó Mariners 8 2B Castro , Starlin Starlin Castro Yankees 2B Schoop , Jonathan Jonathan Schoop Orioles 3B Moustakas , Mike Mike Moustakas Royals 3B Sanó , Miguel Miguel Sanó Twins SS Lindor , Francisco Francisco Lindor Indians OF Betts , Mookie Mookie Betts Red Sox OF Brantley , Michael Michael Brantley Indians OF García , Avisail Avisail García White Sox OF Upton , Justin Justin Upton Tigers DH Cruz , Nelson Nelson Cruz Mariners 5 Pitchers Player Team All - Star Games Archer , Chris Chris Archer Rays Betances , Dellin Dellin Betances Yankees Darvish , Yu Yu Darvish Rangers Devenski , Chris Chris Devenski Astros Fulmer , Michael Michael Fulmer Tigers Keuchel , Dallas Dallas Keuchel Astros Kimbrel , Craig Craig Kimbrel Red Sox 6 Kintzler , Brandon Brandon Kintzler Twins Kluber , Corey Corey Kluber Indians McCullers Jr. , Lance Lance McCullers Jr . Astros Miller , Andrew Andrew Miller Indians Osuna , Roberto Roberto Osuna Blue Jays Sale , Chris Chris Sale Red Sox 6 Santana , Ervin Ervin Santana Twins Severino , Luis Luis Severino Yankees Vargas , Jason Jason Vargas Royals National League ( edit ) Elected starters Position Player Team All - Star Games Posey , Buster Buster Posey Giants 5 1B Zimmerman , Ryan Ryan Zimmerman Nationals 2B Murphy , Daniel Daniel Murphy Nationals 3B Arenado , Nolan Nolan Arenado Rockies SS Cozart , Zack Zack Cozart Reds OF Blackmon , Charlie Charlie Blackmon Rockies OF Harper , Bryce Bryce Harper Nationals 5 OF Ozuna , Marcell Marcell Ozuna Marlins Reserves Position Player Team All - Star Games Molina , Yadier Yadier Molina Cardinals 8 1B Goldschmidt , Paul Paul Goldschmidt Diamondbacks 5 1B Votto , Joey Joey Votto Reds 5 2B Harrison , Josh Josh Harrison Pirates 2B LeMahieu , DJ DJ LeMahieu Rockies 3B Lamb , Jake Jake Lamb Diamondbacks 3B Turner , Justin Justin Turner Dodgers SS Seager , Corey Corey Seager Dodgers OF Bellinger , Cody Cody Bellinger Dodgers OF Conforto , Michael Michael Conforto Mets OF Inciarte , Ender Ender Inciarte Braves OF Stanton , Giancarlo Giancarlo Stanton Marlins Pitchers Player Team All - Star Games Davis , Wade Wade Davis Cubs Greinke , Zack Zack Greinke Diamondbacks Hand , Brad Brad Hand Padres Holland , Greg Greg Holland Rockies Jansen , Kenley Kenley Jansen Dodgers Kershaw , Clayton Clayton Kershaw Dodgers 7 Knebel , Corey Corey Knebel Brewers Martínez , Carlos Carlos Martínez Cardinals Neshek , Pat Pat Neshek Phillies Ray , Robbie Robbie Ray Diamondbacks Scherzer , Max Max Scherzer Nationals 5 Strasburg , Stephen Stephen Strasburg Nationals Wood , Alex Alex Wood Dodgers Roster notes ( edit ) Mookie Betts was named starter in place of Mike Trout due to injury . Justin Upton was named as the roster replacement for Mike Trout due to injury . Chris Devenski was named as the roster replacement for Dallas Keuchel due to injury . Alex Wood was named as the roster replacement for Clayton Kershaw due to Kershaw starting on Sunday . Robinson Canó was named as the roster replacement for Starlin Castro due to injury . Roberto Osuna was named as the roster replacement for Yu Darvish due to Darvish starting on Sunday . Chris Archer was named as the roster replacement for Michael Fulmer due to Fulmer starting on Sunday . Brandon Kintzler was named as the roster replacement for Corey Kluber due to Kluber starting on Sunday . # : Indicates player would not play ( replaced as per reference notes above ) . Game summary ( edit ) The game was mostly pitching - dominated through the first four innings . After a two - out double by Jonathan Schoop , Miguel Sanó finally got the AL on the board with his fifth inning RBI bloop single . In the bottom of the sixth , Yadier Molina became the oldest catcher to hit a home run in an All - Star game , when he hit one off Ervin Santana in the sixth inning , tying the game at one . Reggie Smith was the last Cardinal to hit an All - Star Game home run in the 1974 game . Robinson Canó hit the game - winning home run in the tenth inning off Wade Davis , and was named the All - Star Game Most Valuable Player . He is the first second baseman since 1998 who was named All - Star Game MVP . Andrew Miller struck out Cody Bellinger swinging to end the night and earned his first career All - Star save . Starting lineup ( edit ) American Order Player Team Position Altuve , José José Altuve Astros 2B Ramírez , José José Ramírez Indians 3B Judge , Aaron Aaron Judge Yankees RF Springer , George George Springer Astros LF 5 Correa , Carlos Carlos Correa Astros SS 6 Smoak , Justin Justin Smoak Blue Jays 1B 7 Dickerson , Corey Corey Dickerson Rays DH 8 Pérez , Salvador Salvador Pérez Royals 9 Betts , Mookie Mookie Betts Red Sox CF Sale , Chris Chris Sale Red Sox National Order Player Team Position Blackmon , Charlie Charlie Blackmon Rockies CF Stanton , Giancarlo Giancarlo Stanton Marlins DH Harper , Bryce Bryce Harper Nationals RF Posey , Buster Buster Posey Giants 5 Murphy , Daniel Daniel Murphy Nationals 2B 6 Arenado , Nolan Nolan Arenado Rockies 3B 7 Zimmerman , Ryan Ryan Zimmerman Nationals 1B 8 Ozuna , Marcell Marcell Ozuna Marlins LF 9 Cozart , Zack Zack Cozart Reds SS Scherzer , Max Max Scherzer Nationals Line score ( edit ) Tuesday , July 11 , 2017 8 : 22 pm ( EDT ) Marlins Park in Miami , Florida Team 5 6 7 8 9 10 American League 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 National League 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 0 Starting pitchers : AL : Chris Sale NL : Max Scherzer WP : Craig Kimbrel ( 1 -- 0 ) LP : Wade Davis ( 0 -- 1 ) Sv : Andrew Miller ( 1 ) Home runs : AL : Robinson Canó ( 1 ) NL : Yadier Molina ( 1 ) Umpires : Home Plate -- Joe West ( crew chief ) ; First Base -- Angel Hernandez ; Second Base -- Mark Carlson ; Third Base -- Chris Conroy ; Left Field -- Manny Gonzalez ; Right Field -- Mike Estabrook ; Replay Official -- Doug Eddings Weather : 73 ° F ( 23 ° C ) , roof closed . First pitch : 8 : 22pm EDT Time of Game : 3 : 16 Attendance : 37,188 Ratings ( edit ) The viewership ratings for the game on FOX were up slightly following the previous year 's all - time low , with a 5.5 national rating , an 11 share , and an estimated 9.28 million viewers . See also ( edit ) Baseball portal List of Major League Baseball All - Star Games Major League Baseball All - Star Game Most Valuable Player Award All - Star Futures Game Home Run Derby Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Mills , the Indians ' bench coach , replaced Terry Francona as the American League 's manager after Francona underwent a catheter ablation to correct an irregular heartbeat . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Withers , Tom ( July 7 , 2017 ) . `` Indians ' Francona has heart procedure , out of All - Star Game '' . Associated Press . Cleveland : AP News . Associated Press . Retrieved July 8 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` All - Star Game Ballot - With rules / instructions '' . MLB.com . Retrieved May 9 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Miller , Doug ( July 3 , 2017 ) . `` Miami , here we come : ASG rosters unveiled '' . MLB.com . MLB Advanced Media . Retrieved July 3 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Newman , Mark ( July 7 , 2017 ) . `` Moose , Turner capture All - Star Final Vote '' . MLB.com . Miami : MLB Advanced Media . Retrieved July 7 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Latimer , Jolene ( July 8 , 2017 ) . `` Turner , Moustakas used teamwork to win All - Star final vote '' . Associated Press . Los Angeles : AP News . Associated Press . Retrieved July 8 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Langosch , Jenifer . `` Molina homers in memorable All - Star night '' . MLB.com . MLB Advanced Media . Retrieved July 13 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Frisaro , Joe . `` Do n't ya know ! Cano powers AL in extras '' . MLB.com . MLB Advanced Media . Retrieved July 11 , 2017 . Jump up ^ DeNicola , Christina . `` Cano hits decisive home run , named MVP '' . MLB.com . MLB Advanced Media . Retrieved July 11 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Cano 10th - inning homer gives AL 2 - 1 All - Star win '' . ESPN . 11 July 2017 . Retrieved 17 July 2017 . Jump up ^ Perez , A.J. ( July 6 , 2017 ) . `` Umpire Angel Hernandez , who 's suing MLB for alleged discrimination , to work All - Star Game '' . USA Today . Gannett Company . Retrieved July 6 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` 2017 All - Star Game '' . Baseball-Reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2017 . External links ( edit ) Official website Major League Baseball All - Star Game Games 1930s -- 1940s 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950s -- 1960s 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1959 2 1960 1960 2 1961 1961 2 1962 1962 2 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970s -- 1980s 1970 1971 1972 1973 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1984 1985 1986 1988 1989 1990s -- 2000s 1990 1991 1992 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010s -- 2020s 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Players American League All - Stars National League All - Stars Events Futures Game ( All - time roster ) Home Run Derby Legends and Celebrity Softball Game Results and Awards Results MVPs Records See also Managers Broadcasters Final Vote Venues Arch Ward 2 -- Two All - Star Games were played these seasons . 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what is the meaning of source for historians

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Historian - wikipedia Historian Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Historian ( disambiguation ) . Herodotus was a Greek historian who lived in the 5th century BC and one of the earliest historians whose work survives . A historian is a person who researches , studies , and writes about the past , and is regarded as an authority on it . Historians are concerned with the continuous , methodical narrative and research of past events as relating to the human race ; as well as the study of all history in time . If the individual is concerned with events preceding written history , the individual is an historian of prehistory . Although `` historian '' can be used to describe amateur and professional historians alike , it is reserved more recently for those who have acquired graduate degrees in the discipline . Some historians , though , are recognized by publications or training and experience . `` Historian '' became a professional occupation in the late nineteenth century as research universities were emerging in Germany and elsewhere . Contents ( hide ) 1 Objectivity 2 History analysis 3 Historiography 3.1 Ancient 3.2 Enlightenment 3.3 19th century 3.4 Professionalization in Germany 3.5 20th century 4 Education and profession 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links Objectivity ( edit ) During the Irving v Penguin Books and Lipstadt trial , it became evident that the court needed to identify what was an `` objective historian '' in the same vein as the reasonable person , and reminiscent of the standard traditionally used in English law of `` the man on the Clapham omnibus '' . This was necessary so that there would be a legal bench mark to compare and contrast the scholarship of an objective historian against the methods employed by David Irving , as before the Irving v Penguin Books and Lipstadt trial , there was no legal precedent for what constituted an objective historian . Justice Gray leant heavily on the research of one of the expert witnesses , Richard J. Evans , who compared illegitimate distortion of the historical record practice by holocaust deniers with established historical methodologies . In summarising Gray 's judgement , in an article published in the Yale Law Journal , Wendie E. Schneider distils these seven points for what he meant by an objective historian : The historian must treat sources with appropriate reservations ; The historian must not dismiss counterevidence without scholarly consideration ; The historian must be even - handed in treatment of evidence and eschew `` cherry - picking '' ; The historian must clearly indicate any speculation ; The historian must not mistranslate documents or mislead by omitting parts of documents ; The historian must weigh the authenticity of all accounts , not merely those that contradict a favored view ; and The historian must take the motives of historical actors into consideration . Schneider uses the concept of the `` objective historian '' to suggest that this could be an aid in assessing what makes an historian suitable as an expert witnesses under the Daubert standard in the United States . Schneider proposed this , because , in her opinion , Irving could have passed the standard Daubert tests unless a court was given `` a great deal of assistance from historians '' . Schneider proposes that by testing an historian against the criteria of the `` objective historian '' then , even if an historian holds specific political views ( and she gives an example of a well - qualified historian 's testimony that was disregarded by a United States court because he was a member of a feminist group ) , providing the historian uses the `` objective historian '' standards , he or she is a `` conscientious historian '' . It was Irving 's failure as an `` objective historian '' not his right wing views that caused him to lose his libel case , as a `` conscientious historian '' would not have `` deliberately misrepresented and manipulated historical evidence '' to support his political views . History analysis ( edit ) Main article : Historical method The process of historical analysis involves investigation and analysis of competing ideas , facts , and purported facts to create coherent narratives that explain `` what happened '' and `` why or how it happened '' . Modern historical analysis usually draws upon other social sciences , including economics , sociology , politics , psychology , anthropology , philosophy , and linguistics . While ancient writers do not normally share modern historical practices , their work remains valuable for its insights within the cultural context of the times . An important part of the contribution of many modern historians is the verification or dismissal of earlier historical accounts through reviewing newly discovered sources and recent scholarship or through parallel disciplines like archaeology . Historiography ( edit ) Main article : Historiography Ancient ( edit ) Reproduction of part of a tenth - century copy of Thucydides 's History of the Peloponnesian War . Understanding the past appears to be a universal human need , and the telling of history has emerged independently in civilizations around the world . What constitutes history is a philosophical question ( see philosophy of history ) . The earliest chronologies date back to Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt , though no historical writers in these early civilizations were known by name . Systematic historical thought emerged in ancient Greece , a development that became an important influence on the writing of history elsewhere around the Mediterranean region . The earliest known critical historical works were The Histories , composed by Herodotus of Halicarnassus ( 484 -- c. 425 BCE ) who later became known as the `` father of history '' ( Cicero ) . Herodotus attempted to distinguish between more and less reliable accounts , and personally conducted research by travelling extensively , giving written accounts of various Mediterranean cultures . Although Herodotus ' overall emphasis lay on the actions and characters of men , he also attributed an important role to divinity in the determination of historical events . Thucydides largely eliminated divine causality in his account of the war between Athens and Sparta , establishing a rationalistic element that set a precedent for subsequent Western historical writings . He was also the first to distinguish between cause and immediate origins of an event , while his successor Xenophon ( c. 431 -- 355 BCE ) introduced autobiographical elements and character studies in his Anabasis . Leonardo Bruni ( c. 1370 -- 1444 ) , the historian who first divided history into the three eras of Antiquity , the Middle Ages , and Modern times . The Romans adopted the Greek tradition . While early Roman works were still written in Greek , the Origines , composed by the Roman statesman Cato the Elder ( 234 -- 149 BCE ) , was written in Latin , in a conscious effort to counteract Greek cultural influence . Strabo ( 63 BCE -- c. 24 CE ) was an important exponent of the Greco - Roman tradition of combining geography with history , presenting a descriptive history of peoples and places known to his era . Livy ( 59 BCE -- 17 CE ) records the rise of Rome from city - state to empire . His speculation about what would have happened if Alexander the Great had marched against Rome represents the first known instance of alternate history . In Chinese historiography , the Classic of History is one of the Five Classics of Chinese classic texts and one of the earliest narratives of China . The Spring and Autumn Annals , the official chronicle of the State of Lu covering the period from 722 to 481 BCE , is among the earliest surviving Chinese historical texts arranged on annalistic principles . Sima Qian ( around 100 BCE ) was the first in China to lay the groundwork for professional historical writing . His written work was the Shiji ( Records of the Grand Historian ) , a monumental lifelong achievement in literature . Its scope extends as far back as the 16th century BCE , and it includes many treatises on specific subjects and individual biographies of prominent people , and also explores the lives and deeds of commoners , both contemporary and those of previous eras . A page of Bede 's Ecclesiastical History of the English People Christian historiography began early , perhaps as early as Luke - Acts , which is the primary source for the Apostolic Age . Writing history was popular among Christian monks and clergy in the Middle Ages . They wrote about the history of Jesus Christ , that of the Church and that of their patrons , the dynastic history of the local rulers . In the Early Middle Ages historical writing often took the form of annals or chronicles recording events year by year , but this style tended to hamper the analysis of events and causes . An example of this type of writing is the Anglo - Saxon Chronicles , which were the work of several different writers : it was started during the reign of Alfred the Great in the late 9th century , but one copy was still being updated in 1154 . Muslim historical writings first began to develop in the 7th century , with the reconstruction of the Prophet Muhammad 's life in the centuries following his death . With numerous conflicting narratives regarding Muhammad and his companions from various sources , scholars had to verify which sources were more reliable . To evaluate these sources , they developed various methodologies , such as the science of biography , science of hadith and Isnad ( chain of transmission ) . They later applied these methodologies to other historical figures in the Islamic civilization . Famous historians in this tradition include Urwah ( d . 712 ) , Wahb ibn Munabbih ( d . 728 ) , Ibn Ishaq ( d . 761 ) , al - Waqidi ( 745 -- 822 ) , Ibn Hisham ( d . 834 ) , Muhammad al - Bukhari ( 810 -- 870 ) and Ibn Hajar ( 1372 -- 1449 ) . Enlightenment ( edit ) During the Age of Enlightenment , the modern development of historiography through the application of scrupulous methods began . Voltaire 's works of history are an excellent example of Enlightenment era history writing . Painting by Pierre Charles Baquoy . French philosophe Voltaire ( 1694 -- 1778 ) had an enormous influence on the art of history writing . His best - known histories are The Age of Louis XIV ( 1751 ) , and Essay on the Customs and the Spirit of the Nations ( 1756 ) . `` My chief object , '' he wrote in 1739 , `` is not political or military history , it is the history of the arts , of commerce , of civilization -- in a word , -- of the human mind . '' He broke from the tradition of narrating diplomatic and military events , and emphasized customs , social history , and achievements in the arts and sciences . He was the first scholar to make a serious attempt to write the history of the world , eliminating theological frameworks , and emphasizing economics , culture , and political history . Edward Gibbon 's Decline of the Roman Empire ( 1776 ) was a masterpiece of late 18th - century history writing . At the same time , philosopher David Hume was having a similar impact on history in Great Britain . In 1754 , he published the History of England , a six - volume work that extended from the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution in 1688 . Hume adopted a similar scope to Voltaire in his history ; as well as the history of Kings , Parliaments , and armies , he examined the history of culture , including literature and science , as well . William Robertson , a Scottish historian , and the Historiographer Royal published the History of Scotland 1542 - 1603 , in 1759 and his most famous work , The history of the reign of Charles V in 1769 . His scholarship was painstaking for the time and he was able to access a large number of documentary sources that had previously been unstudied . He was also one of the first historians who understood the importance of general and universally applicable ideas in the shaping of historical events . The apex of Enlightenment history was reached with Edward Gibbon 's , monumental six - volume work , The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire , published on 17 February 1776 . Because of its relative objectivity and heavy use of primary sources , at the time its methodology became a model for later historians . This has led to Gibbon being called the first `` modern historian '' . The book sold impressively , earning its author a total of about £ 9000 . Biographer Leslie Stephen wrote that thereafter , `` His fame was as rapid as it has been lasting . '' 19th century ( edit ) The tumultuous events surrounding the French Revolution inspired much of the historiography and analysis of the early 19th century . Interest in the 1688 Glorious Revolution was also rekindled by the Great Reform Act of 1832 in England . Thomas Carlyle published his magnum opus , the three - volume The French Revolution : A History in 1837 . The resulting work had a passion new to historical writing . Thomas Macaulay produced his most famous work of history , The History of England from the Accession of James the Second , in 1848 . His writings are famous for their ringing prose and for their confident , sometimes dogmatic , emphasis on a progressive model of British history , according to which the country threw off superstition , autocracy and confusion to create a balanced constitution and a forward - looking culture combined with freedom of belief and expression . This model of human progress has been called the Whig interpretation of history . Jules Michelet , later in his career . In his main work Histoire de France , French historian Jules Michelet coined the term Renaissance ( meaning `` Re-birth '' in French language ) , as a period in Europe 's cultural history that represented a break from the Middle Ages , creating a modern understanding of humanity and its place in the world . The nineteen volume work covered French history from Charlemagne to the outbreak of the Revolution . Michelet was one of the first historians to shift the emphasis of history to the common people , rather than the leaders and institutions of the country . Another important French historian of the period was Hippolyte Taine . He was the chief theoretical influence of French naturalism , a major proponent of sociological positivism and one of the first practitioners of historicist criticism . Literary historicism as a critical movement has been said to originate with him . One of the major progenitors of the history of culture and art , was the Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt Burckhardt 's best - known work is The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy ( 1860 ) . According to John Lukacs , he was the first master of cultural history , which seeks to describe the spirit and the forms of expression of a particular age , a particular people , or a particular place . By the mid-19th century , scholars were beginning to analyse the history of institutional change , particularly the development of constitutional government . William Stubbs 's Constitutional History of England ( 3 vols. , 1874 -- 78 ) was an important influence on this developing field . The work traced the development of the English constitution from the Teutonic invasions of Britain until 1485 , and marked a distinct step in the advance of English historical learning . Karl Marx introduced the concept of historical materialism into the study of world historical development . In his conception , the economic conditions and dominant modes of production determined the structure of society at that point . Previous historians had focused on cyclical events of the rise and decline of rulers and nations . Process of nationalization of history , as part of national revivals in the 19th century , resulted with separation of `` one 's own '' history from common universal history by such way of perceiving , understanding and treating the past that constructed history as history of a nation . A new discipline , sociology , emerged in the late 19th century and analyzed and compared these perspectives on a larger scale . Professionalization in Germany ( edit ) Ranke established history as a professional academic discipline in Germany . The modern academic study of history and methods of historiography were pioneered in 19th - century German universities . Leopold von Ranke was a pivotal influence in this regard , and is considered as the founder of modern source - based history . Specifically , he implemented the seminar teaching method in his classroom , and focused on archival research and analysis of historical documents . Beginning with his first book in 1824 , the History of the Latin and Teutonic Peoples from 1494 to 1514 , Ranke used an unusually wide variety of sources for an historian of the age , including `` memoirs , diaries , personal and formal missives , government documents , diplomatic dispatches and first - hand accounts of eye - witnesses '' . Over a career that spanned much of the century , Ranke set the standards for much of later historical writing , introducing such ideas as reliance on primary sources ( empiricism ) , an emphasis on narrative history and especially international politics ( aussenpolitik ) . Sources had to be hard , not speculations and rationalizations . His credo was to write history the way it was . He insisted on primary sources with proven authenticity . 20th century ( edit ) The term Whig history was coined by Herbert Butterfield in his short book The Whig Interpretation of History in 1931 , ( a reference to the British Whigs , advocates of the power of Parliament ) to refer to the approach to historiography that presents the past as an inevitable progression towards ever greater liberty and enlightenment , culminating in modern forms of liberal democracy and constitutional monarchy . In general , Whig historians emphasized the rise of constitutional government , personal freedoms , and scientific progress . The term has been also applied widely in historical disciplines outside of British history ( the history of science , for example ) to criticize any teleological ( or goal - directed ) , hero - based , and transhistorical narrative . Butterfield 's antidote to Whig history was `` ... to evoke a certain sensibility towards the past , the sensibility which studies the past ' for the sake of the past ' , which delights in the concrete and the complex , which ' goes out to meet the past ' , which searches for ' unlikenesses between past and present ' . '' Butterfield 's formulation received much attention , and the kind of historical writing he argued against in generalised terms is no longer academically respectable . The 20th century saw the creation of a huge variety of historiographical approaches . Marc Bloch 's focus on social history rather than traditional political history was of tremendous influence . The French Annales School radically changed the focus of historical research in France during the 20th century by stressing long - term social history , rather than political or diplomatic themes . The school emphasized the use of quantification and the paying of special attention to geography . An eminent member of this school , Georges Duby , described his approach to history as one that relegated the sensational to the sidelines and was reluctant to give a simple accounting of events , but strived on the contrary to pose and solve problems and , neglecting surface disturbances , to observe the long and medium - term evolution of economy , society , and civilisation . Marxist historiography developed as a school of historiography influenced by the chief tenets of Marxism , including the centrality of social class and economic constraints in determining historical outcomes . Friedrich Engels wrote The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 , which was salient in creating the socialist impetus in British politics from then on , e.g. the Fabian Society . R.H. Tawney 's The Agrarian Problem in the Sixteenth Century ( 1912 ) and Religion and the Rise of Capitalism ( 1926 ) , reflected his ethical concerns and preoccupations in economic history . A circle of historians inside the Communist Party of Great Britain ( CPGB ) formed in 1946 and became a highly influential cluster of British Marxist historians , who contributed to history from below and class structure in early capitalist society . Members included Christopher Hill , Eric Hobsbawm and E.P. Thompson . World history , as a distinct field of historical study , emerged as an independent academic field in the 1980s . It focused on the examination of history from a global perspective and looked for common patterns that emerged across all cultures . Arnold J. Toynbee 's ten - volume A Study of History , written between 1933 and 1954 , was an important influence on this developing field . He took a comparative topical approach to independent civilizations and demonstrated that they displayed striking parallels in their origin , growth , and decay . William H. McNeill wrote The Rise of the West ( 1965 ) to improve upon Toynbee by showing how the separate civilizations of Eurasia interacted from the very beginning of their history , borrowing critical skills from one another , and thus precipitating still further change as adjustment between traditional old and borrowed new knowledge and practice became necessary . Education and profession ( edit ) Further information : List of historians Peter R.L Brown , a professional historian of Late Antiquity and the Medieval period . An undergraduate history degree is often used as a stepping stone to graduate studies in business or law . Many historians are employed at universities and other facilities for post-secondary education . In addition , it is normal for colleges and universities to require the PhD degree for new full - time hires , and a master 's degree for part - timers . Publication is increasingly required by smaller schools , so graduate papers become journal articles and PhD dissertations become published monographs . The graduate student experience is difficult -- those who finish their doctorate in the United States take on average 8 or more years ; funding is scarce except at a few very rich universities . Being a teaching assistant in a course is required in some programs ; in others it is a paid opportunity awarded a fraction of the students . Until the 1980s it was rare for graduate programs to teach how to teach ; the assumption was that teaching was easy and that learning how to do research was the main mission . Professional historians typically work in colleges and universities , archival centers , government agencies , museums , and as freelance writers and consultants . The job market for new PhDs in history is poor and getting worse , with many relegated to part - time `` adjunct '' teaching jobs with low pay and no benefits . See also ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Historians . List of historians Antiquarian Auxiliary sciences of history Historiography Historical revisionism ( negationism ) Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Historian '' . Wordnetweb.princeton.edu . Retrieved June 27 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Herman , A.M. ( 1998 ) . Occupational outlook handbook : 1998 - 99 edition . Indianapolis : JIST Works . Page 525 . ^ Jump up to : Schneider 2001 , p. 1531 . Jump up ^ Schneider 2001 , p. 1534 . Jump up ^ Schneider 2001 , pp. 1534 , 1535 . Jump up ^ Schneider 2001 , pp. 1534 , 1538 . Jump up ^ Schneider 2001 , p. 1539 . Jump up ^ `` deliberately misrepresented and manipulated historical evidence '' Justice Charles Gray ( Schneider 2001 , p. 1533 ) Jump up ^ `` Livy 's History of Rome : Book 9 '' . Mcadams.posc.mu.edu . Retrieved 2010 - 08 - 28 . Jump up ^ Jörn Rüsen ( 2007 ) . Time and History : The Variety of Cultures . Berghahn Books . pp. 54 -- 55 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84545 - 349 - 7 . Jump up ^ Warren , John ( 1998 ) . The past and its presenters : an introduction to issues in historiography , Hodder & Stoughton , ISBN 0 - 340 - 67934 - 4 , pp. 78 -- 79 . Jump up ^ E. Sreedharan ( 2004 ) . A Textbook of Historiography : 500 BC to AD 2000 . Orient Blackswan . p. 115 . Jump up ^ Wertz , S.K. ( 1993 ) . `` Hume and the Historiography of Science '' . Journal of the History of Ideas. 54 ( 3 ) : 411 -- 436 . JSTOR 2710021 . doi : 10.2307 / 2710021 . Jump up ^ The Poker Club Jump up ^ Sher , R.B. , Church and Society in the Scottish Enlightenment : The Moderate Literati of Edinburgh , Princeton , 1985 . Jump up ^ `` William Robertson : An 18th Century Anthropologist - Historian '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved 2012 - 12 - 17 . Jump up ^ Deborah Parsons ( 2007 ) . Theorists of the Modernist Novel : James Joyce , Dorothy Richardson and Virginia Woolf . Routledge . p. 94 . Jump up ^ `` Carlyle -- The Sage Of Chelsea '' . English Literature For Boys And Girls . Farlex Free Library . Retrieved 2009 - 09 - 19 . chapter = ignored ( help ) Jump up ^ Lundin , Leigh ( 2009 - 09 - 20 ) . `` Thomas Carlyle '' . Professional Works . Criminal Brief . Retrieved 2009 - 09 - 20 . Jump up ^ Macaulay , Thomas Babington , History of England . Philadelphia , Pennsylvania : J.B. Lippincott & Co. , 1878 . Vol . V , title page and prefatory `` Memoir of Lord Macaulay '' . Jump up ^ J.R. Western , Monarchy and Revolution . The English State in the 1680s ( London : Blandford Press , 1972 ) , p. 403 . Jump up ^ Brotton , Jerry ( 2002 ) . The Renaissance Bazaar . Oxford University Press . pp. 21 -- 22 . Jump up ^ Kelly , R. Gordon , `` Literature and the Historian '' , American Quarterly , Vol. 26 , No. 2 ( 1974 ) , 143 . Jump up ^ Jakob Burckhardt Renaissance Cultural History Jump up ^ John Lukacs , Remembered Past : John Lukacs on History , Historians , and Historical Knowledge , ed . Mark G Malvasi and Jeffrey O. Nelson , Wilmington , DE : ISI Books , 2004 , 215 . Jump up ^ s : A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature / Stubbs , William Jump up ^ Georgiy Kasianov , Philipp Terr ( 2010 - 04 - 07 ) . A Laboratory of Transnational History Ukraine and recent Ukrainian historiography . p. 7 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84545 - 621 - 4 . Retrieved October 18 , 2010 . This essay deals with , what I call , `` nationalized history '' , meaning a way of perceiving , understanding and treating the past that requires separation of `` one 's own '' history from `` common '' history and its construction as history of a nation . Jump up ^ Frederick C. Beiser ( 2011 ) The German Historicist Tradition , p. 254 Jump up ^ Janelle G. Reinelt , Joseph Roach ( 2007 ) , Critical Theory and Performance , p. 193 Jump up ^ Stern ( ed . ) , The Varieties of History , p. 54 : `` Leopold von Ranke ( 1795 -- 1886 ) is the father as well as the master of modern historical scholarship . '' Jump up ^ Green and Troup ( eds . ) , The Houses of History , p. 2 : `` Leopold von Ranke was instrumental in establishing professional standards for historical training at the University of Berlin between 1824 and 1871 . '' Jump up ^ E. Sreedharan , A textbook of historiography , 500 BC to AD 2000 ( 2004 ) p 185 Jump up ^ Andreas Boldt , `` Ranke : objectivity and history . '' Rethinking History 18.4 ( 2014 ) : 457 - 474 . Jump up ^ Ernst Mayr , `` When Is Historiography Whiggish ? '' Journal of the History of Ideas , April 1990 , Vol. 51 Issue 2 , pp 301 -- 309 in JSTOR Jump up ^ Adrian Wilson and T.G. Ashplant , `` Whig History and Present - Centred History , '' The Historical Journal , 31 ( 1988 ) : 1 -- 16 , at p. 10 . Jump up ^ G.M. Trevelyan ( 1992 ) , p. 208 . Jump up ^ Lucien Febvre , La Terre et l'évolution humaine ( 1922 ) , translated as A Geographical Introduction to History ( London , 1932 ) . Jump up ^ Editions.ehess.fr Jump up ^ William Rose Benét ( 1988 ) p. 961 Jump up ^ William H. McNeill , Arnold J. Toynbee a Life ( 1989 ) Jump up ^ McNeill , William H. ( 1995 ) . `` The Changing Shape of World History '' . History and Theory . 34 ( 2 ) : 8 -- 26 . doi : 10.2307 / 2505432 . Jump up ^ Bls.gov : Social Scientists , Other Archived August 30 , 2009 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Michael Kammen , `` Some Reminiscences and Reflections on Graduate Education in History , Reviews in American History Volume 36 , Number 3 , Sept 2008 pp. 468 - 484 doi : 10.1353 / rah. 0.0027 Jump up ^ Walter Nugent , `` Reflections : `` Where Have All the Flowers Gone ... When Will They Ever Learn ? '' , Reviews in American History Volume 39 , Number 1 , March 2011 , pp. 205 - 211 doi : 10.1353 / rah. 2011.0055 Jump up ^ Anthony Grafton and Robert B. Townsend , `` The Parlous Paths of the Profession '' Perspectives on History ( Sept. 2008 ) online Jump up ^ Robert B. Townsend and Julia Brookins , `` The Troubled Academic Job Market for History . '' Perspectives on History ( 2016 ) 54 # 2 pp 157 - 182 echoes Robert B. Townsend , `` Troubling News on Job Market for History PhDs , '' AHA Today Jan. 4 , 2010 online References ( edit ) Schneider , Wendie Ellen ( June 2001 ) . `` Past Imperfect : Irving v. Penguin Books Ltd. , No. 1996 - I - 1113 , 2000 WL 362478 ( Q.B. Apr. 11 ) , appeal denied ( Dec. 18 , 2000 ) '' ( PDF ) . The Yale Law Journal . Published by : The Yale Law Journal Company . 110 ( 8 ) : 1531 -- 1545 . doi : 10.2307 / 797584 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 5 November 2015 . Vidor , Gian Marco ( 2015 ) . `` Emotions and writing the history of death . An interview with Michel Vovelle , Régis Bertrand and Anne Carol '' . Mortality . Routledge. 20 ( 1 ) . doi : 10.1080 / 13576275.2014. 984485 . Further reading ( edit ) The American Historical Association 's Guide to Historical Literature ed. by Mary Beth Norton and Pamela Gerardi ( 3rd ed. 2 vol , Oxford U.P. 1995 ) 2064 pages ; annotated guide to 27,000 of the most important English language history books in all fields and topics vol 1 online , vol 2 online Allison , William Henry . A guide to historical literature ( 1931 ) comprehensive bibliography for scholarship to 1930 . online edition Barnes , Harry ElmerA history of historical writing ( 1962 ) Barraclough , Geoffrey . History : Main Trends of Research in the Social and Human Sciences , ( 1978 ) Bentley , Michael . ed. , Companion to Historiography , Routledge , 1997 , ISBN 0415030846 pp ; 39 chapters by experts Bender , Thomas , et al . The Education of Historians for Twenty - first Century ( 2003 ) report by the Committee on Graduate Education of the American Historical Association Breisach , Ernst . Historiography : Ancient , Medieval and Modern , 3rd edition , 2007 , ISBN 0 - 226 - 07278 - 9 Boia , Lucian et al. , eds . Great Historians of the Modern Age : An International Dictionary ( 1991 ) Cannon , John , et al. , eds . The Blackwell Dictionary of Historians . Blackwell Publishers , 1988 ISBN 0 - 631 - 14708 - X . Gilderhus , Mark T. History an Historiographical Introduction , 2002 , ISBN 0 - 13 - 044824 - 9 Iggers , Georg G. Historiography in the 20th Century : From Scientific Objectivity to the Postmodern Challenge ( 2005 ) Kelly , Boyd , ed . Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing . ( 1999 ) . Fitzroy Dearborn ISBN 1 - 884964 - 33 - 8 Kramer , Lloyd , and Sarah Maza , eds . A Companion to Western Historical Thought Blackwell 2006 . 520pp ; ISBN 978 - 1 - 4051 - 4961 - 7 . Todd , Richard B. ed . Dictionary of British Classicists , 1500 -- 1960 , ( 2004 ) . Bristol : Thoemmes Continuum , 2004 ISBN 1 - 85506 - 997 - 0 . Woolf D.R. A Global Encyclopedia of Historical Writing ( Garland Reference Library of the Humanities ) ( 2 vol 1998 ) excerpt and text search External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Historians . Look up historian in Wiktionary , the free dictionary . Selected texts by the most known historians GND : 4025098 - 2 NDL : 00569372 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Historian&oldid=801314401 '' Categories : Historians Humanities occupations Hidden categories : CS1 errors : chapter ignored Webarchive template wayback links Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Ænglisc Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Bân - lâm - gú Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto فارسی Français Frysk 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski עברית ქართული Kurdî Latina Македонски മലയാളം मराठी მარგალური Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Português Română Русиньскый Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Türkçe Українська اردو 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 18 September 2017 , at 23 : 28 . 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who maintained law and order throughout japan and negotiated peace

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Surrender_of_Japan&oldid=818081208

Surrender of Japan - wikipedia Surrender of Japan Jump to : navigation , search Japanese foreign affairs minister Mamoru Shigemitsu signs the Japanese Instrument of Surrender on board USS Missouri as General Richard K. Sutherland watches , September 2 , 1945 Representatives of the Empire of Japan stand aboard USS Missouri prior to signing of the Instrument of Surrender . Japan campaign Air raids Mariana Islands Volcano & Ryukyu Is Tokyo Starvation Naval bombardments Yokosuka Sagami Bay Kure Downfall Hiroshima & Nagasaki Sakhalin Kurils Japanese surrender The surrender of Imperial Japan was announced on August 15 and formally signed on September 2 , 1945 , bringing the hostilities of World War II to a close . By the end of July 1945 , the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) was incapable of conducting major operations and an Allied invasion of Japan was imminent . Together with the British Empire and China , the United States called for the unconditional surrender of the Japanese armed forces in the Potsdam Declaration on July 26 , 1945 -- the alternative being `` prompt and utter destruction '' . While publicly stating their intent to fight on to the bitter end , Japan 's leaders ( the Supreme Council for the Direction of the War , also known as the `` Big Six '' ) were privately making entreaties to the still - neutral Soviet Union to mediate peace on terms more favorable to the Japanese . Meanwhile , the Soviets were preparing to attack Japanese forces in Manchuria and Korea ( in addition to South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands ) in fulfillment of promises they had secretly made to the United States and the United Kingdom at the Tehran and Yalta Conferences . On August 6 , 1945 , at 8 : 15 AM local time , the United States detonated an atomic bomb over the Japanese city of Hiroshima . Sixteen hours later , American President Harry S. Truman called again for Japan 's surrender , warning them to `` expect a rain of ruin from the air , the like of which has never been seen on this earth . '' Late in the evening of August 8 , 1945 , in accordance with the Yalta agreements , but in violation of the Soviet -- Japanese Neutrality Pact , the Soviet Union declared war on Japan , and soon after midnight on August 9 , 1945 , the Soviet Union invaded the Imperial Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo . Later in the day , the United States dropped a second atomic bomb , this time on the Japanese city of Nagasaki . Following these events , Emperor Hirohito intervened and ordered the Supreme Council for the Direction of the War to accept the terms the Allies had set down in the Potsdam Declaration for ending the war . After several more days of behind - the - scenes negotiations and a failed coup d'état , Emperor Hirohito gave a recorded radio address across the Empire on August 15 . In the radio address , called the Jewel Voice Broadcast ( 玉音 放送 , Gyokuon - hōsō ) , he announced the surrender of Japan to the Allies . On August 28 , the occupation of Japan led by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers began . The surrender ceremony was held on September 2 , aboard the United States Navy battleship USS Missouri , at which officials from the Japanese government signed the Japanese Instrument of Surrender , thereby ending the hostilities . Allied civilians and military personnel alike celebrated V-J Day , the end of the war ; however , some isolated soldiers and personnel from Japan 's far - flung forces throughout Asia and the Pacific islands refused to surrender for months and years afterwards , some even refusing into the 1970s . The role of the atomic bombings in Japan 's unconditional surrender , and the ethics of the two attacks , is still debated . The state of war formally ended when the Treaty of San Francisco came into force on April 28 , 1952 . Four more years passed before Japan and the Soviet Union signed the Soviet -- Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956 , which formally brought an end to their state of war . Contents ( hide ) 1 Background 1.1 Defense preparations 2 Supreme Council for the Direction of the War 3 Divisions within the Japanese leadership 4 Attempts to deal with the Soviet Union 4.1 Soviet intentions 5 Manhattan Project 6 Events at Potsdam 6.1 Negotiations 6.2 The Potsdam Declaration 6.3 Japanese reaction 7 Hiroshima , Manchuria , and Nagasaki 7.1 August 6 : Hiroshima 7.2 August 9 : Soviet invasion and Nagasaki 8 Imperial intervention , Allied response , and Japanese reply 8.1 August 12 8.2 August 13 -- 14 9 Attempted military coup d'état ( August 12 -- 15 ) 10 Surrender 10.1 Broadcast of the Imperial Rescript on surrender 10.2 Beginning of occupation and the surrender ceremony 11 Further surrenders and continued Japanese military resistance 12 See also 13 References 13.1 Footnotes 13.2 Texts 14 External links Background Main article : Japan campaign Allied landings in the Pacific Theatre of Operations , August 1942 to August 1945 By 1945 , the Japanese had suffered a string of defeats for nearly two years in the South West Pacific , the Marianas campaign , and the Philippines campaign . In July 1944 , following the loss of Saipan , General Hideki Tōjō was replaced as prime minister by General Kuniaki Koiso , who declared that the Philippines would be the site of the decisive battle . After the Japanese loss of the Philippines , Koiso in turn was replaced by Admiral Kantarō Suzuki . The Allies captured the nearby islands of Iwo Jima and Okinawa in the first half of 1945 . Okinawa was to be a staging area for Operation Downfall , the Allied invasion of the Japanese Home Islands . Following Germany 's defeat , the Soviet Union began quietly redeploying its battle - hardened European forces to the Far East , in addition to about forty divisions that had been stationed there since 1941 , as a counterbalance to the million - strong Kwantung Army . The Allied submarine campaign and the mining of Japanese coastal waters had largely destroyed the Japanese merchant fleet . With few natural resources , Japan was dependent on raw materials , particularly oil , imported from Manchuria and other parts of the East Asian mainland , and from the conquered territory in the Dutch East Indies . The destruction of the Japanese merchant fleet , combined with the strategic bombing of Japanese industry , had wrecked Japan 's war economy . Production of coal , iron , steel , rubber , and other vital supplies was only a fraction of that before the war . The rebuilt battlecruiser Haruna sank at her moorings in the naval base of Kure on July 24 during a series of bombings . As a result of the losses it had suffered , the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) had ceased to be an effective fighting force . Following a series of raids on the Japanese shipyard at Kure , Japan , the only major warships in fighting order were six aircraft carriers , four cruisers , and one battleship , none of which could be fueled adequately . Although 19 destroyers and 38 submarines were still operational , their use was limited by the lack of fuel . Defense preparations Faced with the prospect of an invasion of the Home Islands , starting with Kyūshū , and the prospect of a Soviet invasion of Manchuria -- Japan 's last source of natural resources -- the War Journal of the Imperial Headquarters concluded : We can no longer direct the war with any hope of success . The only course left is for Japan 's one hundred million people to sacrifice their lives by charging the enemy to make them lose the will to fight . As a final attempt to stop the Allied advances , the Japanese Imperial High Command planned an all - out defense of Kyūshū codenamed Operation Ketsugō . This was to be a radical departure from the defense in depth plans used in the invasions of Peleliu , Iwo Jima , and Okinawa . Instead , everything was staked on the beachhead ; more than 3,000 kamikazes would be sent to attack the amphibious transports before troops and cargo were disembarked on the beach . If this did not drive the Allies away , they planned to send another 3,500 kamikazes along with 5,000 Shin'yō suicide motorboats and the remaining destroyers and submarines -- `` the last of the Navy 's operating fleet '' -- to the beach . If the Allies had fought through this and successfully landed on Kyūshū , only 3,000 planes would have been left to defend the remaining islands , although Kyūshū would be `` defended to the last '' regardless . The strategy of making a last stand at Kyūshū was based on the assumption of continued Soviet neutrality . A set of caves were excavated near Nagano on Honshu , the largest of the Japanese islands . In the event of invasion , these caves , the Matsushiro Underground Imperial Headquarters , were to be used by the Army to direct the war and to house the Emperor and his family . Supreme Council for the Direction of the war Japanese policy - making centered on the Supreme Council for the Direction of the War ( created in 1944 by earlier Prime Minister Kuniaki Koiso ) , the so - called `` Big Six '' -- the Prime Minister , Minister of Foreign Affairs , Minister of the Army , Minister of the Navy , Chief of the Army General Staff , and Chief of the Navy General Staff . At the formation of the Suzuki government in April 1945 , the council 's membership consisted of : The Suzuki cabinet in June 1945 Prime Minister : Admiral Kantarō Suzuki Minister of Foreign Affairs : Shigenori Tōgō Minister of the Army : General Korechika Anami Minister of the Navy : Admiral Mitsumasa Yonai Chief of the Army General Staff : General Yoshijirō Umezu Chief of the Navy General Staff : Admiral Koshirō Oikawa ( later replaced by Admiral Soemu Toyoda ) All of these positions were nominally appointed by the Emperor and their holders were answerable directly to him . Nevertheless , from 1936 the Japanese Army and Navy held , effectively , a legal right to nominate ( or refuse to nominate ) their respective ministers . Thus , they could prevent the formation of undesirable governments , or by resignation bring about the collapse of an existing government . Emperor Hirohito and Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal Kōichi Kido also were present at some meetings , following the Emperor 's wishes . As Iris Chang reports , `` the Japanese deliberately destroyed , hid or falsified most of their secret wartime documents . '' Divisions within the Japanese leadership For the most part , Suzuki 's military - dominated cabinet favored continuing the war . For the Japanese , surrender was unthinkable -- Japan had never been successfully invaded or lost a war in its history . Only Mitsumasa Yonai , the Navy minister , was known to desire an early end to the war . According to historian Richard B. Frank : Although Suzuki might indeed have seen peace as a distant goal , he had no design to achieve it within any immediate time span or on terms acceptable to the Allies . His own comments at the conference of senior statesmen gave no hint that he favored any early cessation of the war ... Suzuki 's selections for the most critical cabinet posts were , with one exception , not advocates of peace either . After the war , Suzuki and others from his government and their apologists claimed they were secretly working towards peace , and could not publicly advocate it . They cite the Japanese concept of haragei -- `` the art of hidden and invisible technique '' -- to justify the dissonance between their public actions and alleged behind - the - scenes work . However , many historians reject this . Robert J.C. Butow wrote : Because of its very ambiguity , the plea of haragei invites the suspicion that in questions of politics and diplomacy a conscious reliance upon this ' art of bluff ' may have constituted a purposeful deception predicated upon a desire to play both ends against the middle . While this judgment does not accord with the much - lauded character of Admiral Suzuki , the fact remains that from the moment he became Premier until the day he resigned no one could ever be quite sure of what Suzuki would do or say next . Japanese leaders had always envisioned a negotiated settlement to the war . Their prewar planning expected a rapid expansion and consolidation , an eventual conflict with the United States , and finally a settlement in which they would be able to retain at least some new territory they had conquered . By 1945 , Japan 's leaders were in agreement that the war was going badly , but they disagreed over the best means to negotiate its end . There were two camps : the so - called `` peace '' camp favored a diplomatic initiative to persuade Joseph Stalin , the leader of the Soviet Union , to mediate a settlement between the Allies and Japan ; and the hardliners who favored fighting one last `` decisive '' battle that would inflict so many casualties on the Allies that they would be willing to offer more lenient terms . Both approaches were based on Japan 's experience in the Russo -- Japanese War , forty years earlier , which consisted of a series of costly but largely indecisive battles , followed by the decisive naval Battle of Tsushima . As prime minister , Admiral Kantarō Suzuki headed the Japanese government in the final months of the war . In February 1945 , Prince Fumimaro Konoe gave Emperor Hirohito a memorandum analyzing the situation , and told him that if the war continued , the imperial family might be in greater danger from an internal revolution than from defeat . According to the diary of Grand Chamberlain Hisanori Fujita , the Emperor , looking for a decisive battle ( tennōzan ) , replied that it was premature to seek peace `` unless we make one more military gain '' . Also in February , Japan 's treaty division wrote about Allied policies towards Japan regarding `` unconditional surrender , occupation , disarmament , elimination of militarism , democratic reforms , punishment of war criminals , and the status of the emperor . '' Allied - imposed disarmament , Allied punishment of Japanese war criminals , and especially occupation and removal of the Emperor , were not acceptable to the Japanese leadership . On April 5 , the Soviet Union gave the required 12 months ' notice that it would not renew the five - year Soviet -- Japanese Neutrality Pact ( which had been signed in 1941 following the Nomonhan Incident ) . Unknown to the Japanese , at the Tehran Conference in November -- December 1943 , it had been agreed that the Soviet Union would enter the war against Japan once Nazi Germany was defeated . At the Yalta conference in February 1945 , the United States had made substantial concessions to the Soviets to secure a promise that they would declare war on Japan within three months of the surrender of Germany . Although the five - year Neutrality Pact did not expire until April 5 , 1946 , the announcement caused the Japanese great concern , because Japan had amassed its forces in the South to repel the inevitable US attack , thus leaving its Northern islands vulnerable to Soviet invasion . Russian Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov , in Moscow , and Yakov Malik , Soviet ambassador in Tokyo , went to great lengths to assure the Japanese that `` the period of the Pact 's validity has not ended '' . Foreign Minister Shigenori Tōgō At a series of high - level meetings in May , the Big Six first seriously discussed ending the war -- but none of them on terms that would have been acceptable to the Allies . Because anyone openly supporting Japanese surrender risked assassination by zealous army officers , the meetings were closed to anyone except the Big Six , the Emperor , and the Privy Seal -- no second - or third - echelon officers could attend . At these meetings , despite the dispatches from Japanese ambassador Satō in Moscow , only Foreign minister Tōgō realized that Roosevelt and Churchill might have already made concessions to Stalin to bring the Soviets into the war against Japan . As a result of these meetings , Tōgō was authorized to approach the Soviet Union , seeking to maintain its neutrality , or ( despite the very remote probability ) to form an alliance . In keeping with the custom of a new government declaring its purposes , following the May meetings the Army staff produced a document , `` The Fundamental Policy to Be Followed Henceforth in the Conduct of the War , '' which stated that the Japanese people would fight to extinction rather than surrender . This policy was adopted by the Big Six on June 6 . ( Tōgō opposed it , while the other five supported it . ) Documents submitted by Suzuki at the same meeting suggested that , in the diplomatic overtures to the USSR , Japan adopt the following approach : It should be clearly made known to Russia that she owes her victory over Germany to Japan , since we remained neutral , and that it would be to the advantage of the Soviets to help Japan maintain her international position , since they have the United States as an enemy in the future . On June 9 , the Emperor 's confidant Marquis Kōichi Kido wrote a `` Draft Plan for Controlling the Crisis Situation , '' warning that by the end of the year Japan 's ability to wage modern war would be extinguished and the government would be unable to contain civil unrest . `` ... We can not be sure we will not share the fate of Germany and be reduced to adverse circumstances under which we will not attain even our supreme object of safeguarding the Imperial Household and preserving the national polity . '' Kido proposed that the Emperor take action , by offering to end the war on `` very generous terms . '' Kido proposed that Japan withdraw from the formerly European colonies it had occupied provided they were granted independence , that Japan disarm provided this not occur under Allied supervision , and that Japan for a time be `` content with minimum defense . '' Kido 's proposal did not contemplate Allied occupation of Japan , prosecution of war criminals or substantial change in Japan 's system of government . With the Emperor 's authorization , Kido approached several members of the Supreme Council , the `` Big Six . '' Tōgō was very supportive . Suzuki and Admiral Mitsumasa Yonai , the Navy minister , were both cautiously supportive ; each wondered what the other thought . General Korechika Anami , the Army minister , was ambivalent , insisting that diplomacy must wait until `` after the United States has sustained heavy losses '' in Operation Ketsugō . In June , the Emperor lost confidence in the chances of achieving a military victory . The Battle of Okinawa was lost , and he learned of the weakness of the Japanese army in China , of the Kwantung Army in Manchuria , of the navy , and of the army defending the Home Islands . The Emperor received a report by Prince Higashikuni from which he concluded that `` it was not just the coast defense ; the divisions reserved to engage in the decisive battle also did not have sufficient numbers of weapons . '' According to the Emperor : I was told that the iron from bomb fragments dropped by the enemy was being used to make shovels . This confirmed my opinion that we were no longer in a position to continue the war . On June 22 , the Emperor summoned the Big Six to a meeting . Unusually , he spoke first : `` I desire that concrete plans to end the war , unhampered by existing policy , be speedily studied and that efforts made to implement them . '' It was agreed to solicit Soviet aid in ending the war . Other neutral nations , such as Switzerland , Sweden , and the Vatican City , were known to be willing to play a role in making peace , but they were so small they were believed unable to do more than deliver the Allies ' terms of surrender and Japan 's acceptance or rejection . The Japanese hoped that the Soviet Union could be persuaded to act as an agent for Japan in negotiations with America and Britain . Attempts to deal with the Soviet Union Naotake Satō On June 30 , Tōgō told Naotake Satō , Japan 's ambassador in Moscow , to try to establish `` firm and lasting relations of friendship . '' Satō was to discuss the status of Manchuria and `` any matter the Russians would like to bring up . '' Well aware of the overall situation and cognizant of their promises to the Allies , the Soviets responded with delaying tactics to encourage the Japanese without promising anything . Satō finally met with Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov on July 11 , but without result . On July 12 , Tōgō directed Satō to tell the Soviets that : His Majesty the Emperor , mindful of the fact that the present war daily brings greater evil and sacrifice upon the peoples of all the belligerent powers , desires from his heart that it may be quickly terminated . But so long as England and the United States insist upon unconditional surrender , the Japanese Empire has no alternative but to fight on with all its strength for the honor and existence of the Motherland . The Emperor proposed sending Prince Konoe as a special envoy , although he would be unable to reach Moscow before the Potsdam Conference . Satō advised Tōgō that in reality , `` unconditional surrender or terms closely equivalent thereto '' was all that Japan could expect . Moreover , in response to Molotov 's requests for specific proposals , Satō suggested that Tōgō 's messages were not `` clear about the views of the Government and the Military with regard to the termination of the war , '' thus questioning whether Tōgō 's initiative was supported by the key elements of Japan 's power structure . On July 17 , Tōgō responded : Although the directing powers , and the government as well , are convinced that our war strength still can deliver considerable blows to the enemy , we are unable to feel absolutely secure peace of mind ... Please bear particularly in mind , however , that we are not seeking the Russians ' mediation for anything like an unconditional surrender . In reply , Satō clarified : It goes without saying that in my earlier message calling for unconditional surrender or closely equivalent terms , I made an exception of the question of preserving ( the imperial family ) . On July 21 , speaking in the name of the cabinet , Tōgō repeated : With regard to unconditional surrender we are unable to consent to it under any circumstances whatever ... It is in order to avoid such a state of affairs that we are seeking a peace , ... through the good offices of Russia ... it would also be disadvantageous and impossible , from the standpoint of foreign and domestic considerations , to make an immediate declaration of specific terms . American cryptographers had broken most of Japan 's codes , including the Purple code used by the Japanese Foreign Office to encode high - level diplomatic correspondence . As a result , messages between Tokyo and Japan 's embassies were provided to Allied policy - makers nearly as quickly as to the intended recipients . Soviet intentions Main article : Soviet -- Japanese War ( 1945 ) Security concerns dominated Soviet decisions concerning the Far East . Chief among these was gaining unrestricted access to the Pacific Ocean . The year - round ice - free areas of the Soviet Pacific coastline -- Vladivostok in particular -- could be blockaded by air and sea from Sakhalin island and the Kurile Islands . Acquiring these territories , thus guaranteeing free access to the Soya Strait , was their primary objective . Secondary objectives were leases for the Chinese Eastern Railway , Southern Manchuria Railway , Dairen , and Port Arthur . To this end , Stalin and Molotov strung out the negotiations with the Japanese , giving them false hope of a Soviet - mediated peace . At the same time , in their dealings with the United States and Britain , the Soviets insisted on strict adherence to the Cairo Declaration , re-affirmed at the Yalta Conference , that the Allies would not accept separate or conditional peace with Japan . The Japanese would have to surrender unconditionally to all the Allies . To prolong the war , the Soviets opposed any attempt to weaken this requirement . This would give the Soviets time to complete the transfer of their troops from the Western Front to the Far East , and conquer Manchuria ( Manchukuo ) , Inner Mongolia ( Mengjiang ) , Korea , South Sakhalin , the Kuriles , and possibly , Hokkaidō ( starting with a landing at Rumoi ) . Manhattan Project Main article : Manhattan Project In 1939 , Albert Einstein and Leó Szilárd wrote a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt warning him that the Germans might be researching the development of atomic weaponry and that it was necessary that the United States fund research and development of its own such project . Roosevelt agreed , and the result was the Manhattan Project -- a top - secret research program administered by Major General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . The first bomb was tested successfully in the Trinity nuclear test on July 16 , 1945 . As the project neared its conclusion , American planners began to consider the use of the bomb . Groves formed a committee that met in April and May 1945 to draw up a list of targets . One of the primary criteria was that the target cities must not have been damaged by conventional bombing . This would allow for an accurate assessment of the damage done by the atomic bomb . The targeting committee 's list included 18 Japanese cities . At the top of the list were Kyoto , Hiroshima , Yokohama , Kokura , and Niigata . Ultimately , Kyoto was removed from the list at the insistence of Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson , who had visited the city on his honeymoon and knew of its cultural and historical significance . Although the Vice President Henry A. Wallace had been involved in the Manhattan Project since the beginning , his successor , Harry S. Truman , was not briefed on the project by Stimson until April 23 , 1945 , eleven days after he became president on Roosevelt 's death on April 12 , 1945 . On May 2 , 1945 , Truman approved the formation of the Interim Committee , an advisory group that would report on the atomic bomb . It consisted of Stimson , James F. Byrnes , George L. Harrison , Vannevar Bush , James Bryant Conant , Karl Taylor Compton , William L. Clayton , and Ralph Austin Bard , advised by scientists Robert Oppenheimer , Enrico Fermi , Ernest Lawrence , and Arthur Compton . In a June 1 report , the Committee concluded that the bomb should be used as soon as possible against a war plant surrounded by workers ' homes and that no warning or demonstration should be given . The Committee 's mandate did not include the use of the bomb -- its use upon completion was presumed . Following a protest by scientists involved in the project , in the form of the Franck Report , the Committee re-examined the use of the bomb . In a June 21 meeting , it reaffirmed that there was no alternative . Events at Potsdam Wikisource has original text related to this article : Potsdam Declaration Main article : Potsdam Conference The leaders of the major Allied powers met at the Potsdam Conference from July 16 to August 2 , 1945 . The participants were the Soviet Union , the United Kingdom , and the United States , represented by Stalin , Winston Churchill ( later Clement Attlee ) , and Truman respectively . Negotiations Although the Potsdam Conference was mainly concerned with European affairs , the war against Japan was also discussed in detail . Truman learned of the successful Trinity test early in the conference and shared this information with the British delegation . The successful test caused the American delegation to reconsider the necessity and wisdom of Soviet participation , for which the U.S. had lobbied hard at the Tehran and Yalta Conferences . High on the United States ' list of priorities was shortening the war and reducing American casualties -- Soviet intervention seemed likely to do both , but at the cost of possibly allowing the Soviets to capture territory beyond that which had been promised to them at Tehran and Yalta , and causing a postwar division of Japan similar to that which had occurred in Germany . In dealing with Stalin , Truman decided to give the Soviet leader vague hints about the existence of a powerful new weapon without going into details . However , the other Allies were unaware that Soviet intelligence had penetrated the Manhattan Project in its early stages , so Stalin already knew of the existence of the atomic bomb but did not appear impressed by its potential . The Potsdam Declaration It was decided to issue a statement , the Potsdam Declaration , defining `` Unconditional Surrender '' and clarifying what it meant for the position of the emperor and for Hirohito personally . The American and British governments strongly disagreed on this point -- the United States wanted to abolish the position and possibly try him as a war criminal , while the British wanted to retain the position , perhaps with Hirohito still reigning . The Potsdam Declaration went through many drafts until a version acceptable to all was found . On July 26 , the United States , Britain and China released the Potsdam Declaration announcing the terms for Japan 's surrender , with the warning , `` We will not deviate from them . There are no alternatives . We shall brook no delay . '' For Japan , the terms of the declaration specified : the elimination `` for all time ( of ) the authority and influence of those who have deceived and misled the people of Japan into embarking on world conquest '' the occupation of `` points in Japanese territory to be designated by the Allies '' that the `` Japanese sovereignty shall be limited to the islands of Honshū , Hokkaidō , Kyūshū , Shikoku and such minor islands as we determine . '' As had been announced in the Cairo Declaration in 1943 , Japan was to be reduced to her pre-1894 territory and stripped of her pre-war empire including Korea and Taiwan , as well as all her recent conquests . that `` ( t ) he Japanese military forces , after being completely disarmed , shall be permitted to return to their homes with the opportunity to lead peaceful and productive lives . '' that `` ( w ) e do not intend that the Japanese shall be enslaved as a race or destroyed as a nation , but stern justice shall be meted out to all war criminals , including those who have visited cruelties upon our prisoners . '' A session of the Potsdam Conference -- those pictured include Clement Attlee , Ernest Bevin , Vyacheslav Molotov , Joseph Stalin , William D. Leahy , James F. Byrnes , and Harry S. Truman On the other hand , the declaration stated that : `` The Japanese Government shall remove all obstacles to the revival and strengthening of democratic tendencies among the Japanese people . Freedom of speech , of religion , and of thought , as well as respect for the fundamental human rights shall be established . '' `` Japan shall be permitted to maintain such industries as will sustain her economy and permit the exaction of just reparations in kind , but not those which would enable her to rearm for war . To this end , access to , as distinguished from control of , raw materials shall be permitted . Eventual Japanese participation in world trade relations shall be permitted . '' `` The occupying forces of the Allies shall be withdrawn from Japan as soon as these objectives have been accomplished and there has been established , in accordance with the freely expressed will of the Japanese people , a peacefully inclined and responsible government . '' The only use of the term `` unconditional surrender '' came at the end of the declaration : `` We call upon the government of Japan to proclaim now the unconditional surrender of all Japanese armed forces , and to provide proper and adequate assurances of their good faith in such action . The alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction . '' Contrary to what had been intended at its conception , the Declaration made no mention of the Emperor at all . Allied intentions on issues of utmost importance to the Japanese , including whether Hirohito was to be regarded as one of those who had `` misled the people of Japan '' or even a war criminal , or alternatively , whether the Emperor might become part of a `` peacefully inclined and responsible government '' were thus left unstated . The `` prompt and utter destruction '' clause has been interpreted as a veiled warning about American possession of the atomic bomb ( which had been tested successfully on the first day of the conference ) . On the other hand , the declaration also made specific references to the devastation that had been wrought upon Germany in the closing stages of the European war . To contemporary readers on both sides who were not yet aware of the atomic bomb 's existence , it was easy to interpret the conclusion of the declaration simply as a threat to bring similar destruction upon Japan using conventional weapons . Japanese reaction On July 27 , the Japanese government considered how to respond to the Declaration . The four military members of the Big Six wanted to reject it , but Tōgō persuaded the cabinet not to do so until he could get a reaction from the Soviets . In a telegram , Shun'ichi Kase , Japan 's ambassador to Switzerland , observed that `` unconditional surrender '' applied only to the military and not to the government or the people , and he pleaded that it should be understood that the careful language of Potsdam appeared `` to have occasioned a great deal of thought '' on the part of the signatory governments -- `` they seem to have taken pains to save face for us on various points . '' The next day , Japanese newspapers reported that the Declaration , the text of which had been broadcast and dropped by leaflet into Japan , had been rejected . In an attempt to manage public perception , Prime Minister Suzuki met with the press , and stated : I consider the Joint Proclamation a rehash of the Declaration at the Cairo Conference . As for the Government , it does not attach any important value to it at all . The only thing to do is just kill it with silence ( mokusatsu ) . We will do nothing but press on to the bitter end to bring about a successful completion of the war . The meaning of mokusatsu , literally `` kill with silence , '' can range from `` ignore '' to `` treat with contempt '' -- which rather accurately described the range of reactions within the government . On July 30 , Ambassador Satō wrote that Stalin was probably talking to Roosevelt and Churchill about his dealings with Japan , and he wrote : `` There is no alternative but immediate unconditional surrender if we are to prevent Russia 's participation in the war . '' On August 2 , Tōgō wrote to Satō : `` it should not be difficult for you to realize that ... our time to proceed with arrangements of ending the war before the enemy lands on the Japanese mainland is limited , on the other hand it is difficult to decide on concrete peace conditions here at home all at once . '' Hiroshima , Manchuria , and Nagasaki August 6 : Hiroshima Truman announcing the bombing of Hiroshima Problems playing this file ? See media help . On August 6 at 8 : 15 AM local time , the Enola Gay , a Boeing B - 29 Superfortress piloted by Colonel Paul Tibbets , dropped an atomic bomb ( code - named Little Boy by the U.S. ) on the city of Hiroshima in southwest Honshū . Throughout the day , confused reports reached Tokyo that Hiroshima had been the target of an air raid , which had leveled the city with a `` blinding flash and violent blast '' . Later that day , they received U.S. President Truman 's broadcast announcing the first use of an atomic bomb , and promising : We are now prepared to obliterate more rapidly and completely every productive enterprise the Japanese have above ground in any city . We shall destroy their docks , their factories , and their communications . Let there be no mistake ; we shall completely destroy Japan 's power to make war . It was to spare the Japanese people from utter destruction that the ultimatum of July 26 was issued at Potsdam . Their leaders promptly rejected that ultimatum . If they do not now accept our terms they may expect a rain of ruin from the air , the like of which has never been seen on this earth ... The Japanese Army and Navy had their own independent atomic - bomb programs and therefore the Japanese understood enough to know how very difficult building it would be . Therefore , many Japanese and in particular the military members of the government refused to believe the United States had built an atomic bomb , and the Japanese military ordered their own independent tests to determine the cause of Hiroshima 's destruction . Admiral Soemu Toyoda , the Chief of the Naval General Staff , argued that even if the United States had made one , they could not have many more . American strategists , having anticipated a reaction like Toyoda 's , planned to drop a second bomb shortly after the first , to convince the Japanese that the U.S. had a large supply . August 9 : Soviet invasion and Nagasaki Atomic bombing of Nagasaki At 04 : 00 on August 9 word reached Tokyo that the Soviet Union had broken the Neutrality Pact , declared war on Japan , and launched an invasion of Manchuria . When the Russians invaded Manchuria , they sliced through what had once been an elite army and many Russian units only stopped when they ran out of gas . The Soviet 16th Army -- 100,000 strong -- launched an invasion of the southern half of Sakhalin Island . Their orders were to mop up Japanese resistance there , and then -- within 10 to 14 days -- be prepared to invade Hokkaido , the northernmost of Japan 's home islands . The Japanese force tasked with defending Hokkaido , the 5th Area Army , was under strength at two divisions and two brigades , and was in fortified positions on the east side of the island . The Soviet plan of attack called for an invasion of Hokkaido from the west . The Soviet declaration of war also changed the calculation of how much time was left for maneuver . Japanese intelligence was predicting that U.S. forces might not invade for months . Soviet forces , on the other hand , could be in Japan proper in as little as 10 days . The Soviet invasion made a decision on ending the war extremely time sensitive . -- Ward Wilson , Foreign Policy These `` twin shocks '' -- the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and the Soviet entry -- had immediate profound effects on Prime Minister Kantarō Suzuki and Foreign Minister Tōgō Shigenori , who concurred that the government must end the war at once . However , the senior leadership of the Japanese Army took the news in stride , grossly underestimating the scale of the attack . With the support of Minister of War Anami , they started preparing to impose martial law on the nation , to stop anyone attempting to make peace . Hirohito told Kido to `` quickly control the situation '' because `` the Soviet Union has declared war and today began hostilities against us . '' The Supreme Council met at 10 : 30 . Suzuki , who had just come from a meeting with the Emperor , said it was impossible to continue the war . Tōgō Shigenori said that they could accept the terms of the Potsdam Declaration , but they needed a guarantee of the Emperor 's position . Navy Minister Yonai said that they had to make some diplomatic proposal -- they could no longer afford to wait for better circumstances . In the middle of the meeting , shortly after 11 : 00 , news arrived that Nagasaki , on the west coast of Kyūshū , had been hit by a second atomic bomb ( called `` Fat Man '' by the United States ) . By the time the meeting ended , the Big Six had split 3 -- 3 . Suzuki , Tōgō , and Admiral Yonai favored Tōgō 's one additional condition to Potsdam , while General Anami , General Umezu , and Admiral Toyoda insisted on three further terms that modified Potsdam : that Japan handle their own disarmament , that Japan deal with any Japanese war criminals , and that there be no occupation of Japan . Following the atomic bombing of Nagasaki , Truman issued another statement : The British , Chinese , and United States Governments have given the Japanese people adequate warning of what is in store for them . We have laid down the general terms on which they can surrender . Our warning went unheeded ; our terms were rejected . Since then the Japanese have seen what our atomic bomb can do . They can foresee what it will do in the future . The world will note that the first atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima , a military base . That was because we wished in this first attack to avoid , insofar as possible , the killing of civilians . But that attack is only a warning of things to come . If Japan does not surrender , bombs will have to be dropped on her war industries and , unfortunately , thousands of civilian lives will be lost . I urge Japanese civilians to leave industrial cities immediately , and save themselves from destruction . I realize the tragic significance of the atomic bomb . Its production and its use were not lightly undertaken by this Government . But we knew that our enemies were on the search for it . We know now how close they were to finding it . And we knew the disaster which would come to this Nation , and to all peace - loving nations , to all civilization , if they had found it first . That is why we felt compelled to undertake the long and uncertain and costly labor of discovery and production . We won the race of discovery against the Germans . Having found the bomb we have used it . We have used it against those who attacked us without warning at Pearl Harbor , against those who have starved and beaten and executed American prisoners of war , against those who have abandoned all pretense of obeying international laws of warfare . We have used it in order to shorten the agony of war , in order to save the lives of thousands and thousands of young Americans . We shall continue to use it until we completely destroy Japan 's power to make war . Only a Japanese surrender will stop us . Imperial intervention , Allied response , and Japanese reply War Minister Korechika Anami The full cabinet met on 14 : 30 on August 9 , and spent most of the day debating surrender . As the Big Six had done , the cabinet split , with neither Tōgō 's position nor Anami 's attracting a majority . Anami told the other cabinet ministers that , under torture , a captured American P - 51 Mustang fighter pilot had told his interrogators that the United States possessed 100 atom bombs and that Tokyo and Kyoto would be bombed `` in the next few days '' . The pilot , Marcus McDilda , was lying . McDilda , who had been shot down off the coast of Japan two days after the Hiroshima bombing , knew nothing of the Manhattan Project and simply told his interrogators what he thought they wanted to hear to end the torture . The lie , which caused him to be classified as a high - priority prisoner , probably saved him from beheading . In reality , the United States would not have had the third bomb ready for use until around August 19 , with a fourth in September 1945 and then approximately three a month thereafter . The third bomb would have probably been used against Sapporo , primarily to demonstrate America 's ability to deliver the weapon to even the most far flung regions of the home islands . The cabinet meeting adjourned at 17 : 30 with no consensus . A second meeting lasting from 18 : 00 to 22 : 00 also ended with no consensus . Following this second meeting , Suzuki and Tōgō met the Emperor , and Suzuki proposed an impromptu Imperial conference , which started just before midnight on the night of August 9 -- 10 . Suzuki presented Anami 's four - condition proposal as the consensus position of the Supreme Council . The other members of the Supreme Council spoke , as did Kiichirō Hiranuma , the President of the Privy Council , who outlined Japan 's inability to defend itself and also described the country 's domestic problems , such as the shortage of food . The cabinet debated , but again no consensus emerged . At around 02 : 00 ( August 10 ) , Suzuki finally addressed Emperor Hirohito , asking him to decide between the two positions . The participants later recollected that the Emperor stated : I have given serious thought to the situation prevailing at home and abroad and have concluded that continuing the war can only mean destruction for the nation and prolongation of bloodshed and cruelty in the world . I can not bear to see my innocent people suffer any longer ... I was told by those advocating a continuation of hostilities that by June new divisions would be in place in fortified positions ( at Kujūkuri Beach , east of Tokyo ) ready for the invader when he sought to land . It is now August and the fortifications still have not been completed ... There are those who say the key to national survival lies in a decisive battle in the homeland . The experiences of the past , however , show that there has always been a discrepancy between plans and performance . I do not believe that the discrepancy in the case of Kujūkuri can be rectified . Since this is also the shape of things , how can we repel the invaders ? ( He then made some specific reference to the increased destructiveness of the atomic bomb . ) It goes without saying that it is unbearable for me to see the brave and loyal fighting men of Japan disarmed . It is equally unbearable that others who have rendered me devoted service should now be punished as instigators of the war . Nevertheless , the time has come to bear the unbearable ... I swallow my tears and give my sanction to the proposal to accept the Allied proclamation on the basis outlined by the Foreign Minister . According to General Sumihisa Ikeda and Admiral Zenshirō Hoshina , Privy Council President Hiranuma then turned to the Emperor and asked him : `` Your majesty , you also bear responsibility ( sekinin ) for this defeat . What apology are you going to make to the heroic spirits of the imperial founder of your house and your other imperial ancestors ? '' Wikisource has original text related to this article : Japan 's Surrender Communiqués Once the Emperor had left , Suzuki pushed the cabinet to accept the Emperor 's will , which it did . Early that morning ( August 10 ) , the Foreign Ministry sent telegrams to the Allies ( by way of the Swiss `` Federal Political Department '' ( Department of Foreign Affairs ) and Max Grässli in particular ) announcing that Japan would accept the Potsdam Declaration , but would not accept any peace conditions that would `` prejudice the prerogatives '' of the Emperor . That effectively meant no change in Japan 's form of government -- that the Emperor of Japan would remain a position of real power . August 12 The Allied response to Japan 's qualified acceptance of the Potsdam Declaration was written by James F. Byrnes and approved by the British , Chinese , and Soviet governments , although the Soviets agreed only reluctantly . The Allies sent their response ( via the Swiss Foreign Affairs Department ) on August 12 . On the status of the Emperor it said : From the moment of surrender the authority of the Emperor and the Japanese government to rule the state shall be subject to the Supreme Commander of the Allied powers who will take such steps as he deems proper to effectuate the surrender terms ... The ultimate form of government of Japan shall , in accordance with the Potsdam Declaration , be established by the freely expressed will of the Japanese people . In response to the Japanese message President Truman issued a instructions that no further atomic weapons were to dropped on Japan without presidential orders , but allowed military operations ( including the B - 29 firebombings ) to continue until official word of Japanese surrender was received . However , news correspondents incorrectly interpreted a comment by USAF commander Spaatz that the B - 29s were not flying on August 11 ( because of bad weather ) as a statement that a ceasefire was in effect . To avoid giving the Japanese the impression that the Allies had abandoned peace efforts and resumed bombing , Truman then ordered a halt to all further bombings . The Japanese cabinet considered the Allied response , and Suzuki argued that they must reject it and insist on an explicit guarantee for the imperial system . Anami returned to his position that there be no occupation of Japan . Afterward , Tōgō told Suzuki that there was no hope of getting better terms , and Kido conveyed the Emperor 's will that Japan surrender . In a meeting with the Emperor , Yonai spoke of his concerns about growing civil unrest : I think the term is inappropriate , but the atomic bombs and the Soviet entry into the war are , in a sense , divine gifts . This way we do n't have to say that we have quit the war because of domestic circumstances . That day , Hirohito informed the imperial family of his decision to surrender . One of his uncles , Prince Asaka , then asked whether the war would be continued if the kokutai ( imperial sovereignty ) could not be preserved . The Emperor simply replied `` of course . '' August 13 -- 14 The Big Six and the cabinet spent August 13 debating their reply to the Allied response , but remained deadlocked . Meanwhile , the Allies grew doubtful , waiting for the Japanese to respond . The Japanese had been instructed that they could transmit an unqualified acceptance in the clear , but in fact they sent out coded messages on matters unrelated to the surrender parlay . The Allies took this coded response as non-acceptance of the terms . Via Ultra intercepts , the Allies also detected increased diplomatic and military traffic , which was taken as evidence that the Japanese were preparing an `` all - out banzai attack . '' President Truman ordered a resumption of attacks against Japan at maximum intensity `` so as to impress Japanese officials that we mean business and are serious in getting them to accept our peace proposals without delay . '' The United States Third Fleet began shelling the Japanese coast . In the largest bombing raid of the Pacific War , more than 400 B - 29s attacked Japan during daylight on August 14 , and more than 300 that night . A total of 1,014 aircraft were used with no losses . In the longest bombing mission of the war , B - 29s from the 315 Bombardment Wing flew 6,100 km ( 3,800 mi ) to destroy the Nippon Oil Company refinery at Tsuchizaki on the northern tip of Honshū . This was the last operational refinery in the Japan Home Islands , and it produced 67 % of their oil . After the war , the bombing raids were justified as already in progress when word of the Japanese surrender was received , but this is only partially true . A leaflet dropped on Japan after the bombing of Hiroshima . The leaflet says , in part : The Japanese people are facing an extremely important autumn . Your military leaders were presented with thirteen articles for surrender by our three - country alliance to put an end to this unprofitable war . This proposal was ignored by your army leaders ... ( T ) he United States has developed an atom bomb , which had not been done by any nation before . It has been determined to employ this frightening bomb . One atom bomb has the destructive power of 2000 B - 29s . At the suggestion of American psychological operations experts , B - 29s spent August 13 dropping leaflets over Japan , describing the Japanese offer of surrender and the Allied response . The leaflets had a profound effect on the Japanese decision - making process . As August 14 dawned , Suzuki , Kido , and the Emperor realized the day would end with either an acceptance of the American terms or a military coup . The Emperor met with the most senior Army and Navy officers . While several spoke in favor of fighting on , Field Marshal Shunroku Hata did not . As commander of the Second General Army , the headquarters of which had been in Hiroshima , Hata commanded all the troops defending southern Japan -- the troops preparing to fight the `` decisive battle '' . Hata said he had no confidence in defeating the invasion and did not dispute the Emperor 's decision . The Emperor asked his military leaders to cooperate with him in ending the war . At a conference with the cabinet and other councilors , Anami , Toyoda , and Umezu again made their case for continuing to fight , after which the Emperor said : I have listened carefully to each of the arguments presented in opposition to the view that Japan should accept the Allied reply as it stands and without further clarification or modification , but my own thoughts have not undergone any change ... In order that the people may know my decision , I request you to prepare at once an imperial rescript so that I may broadcast to the nation . Finally , I call upon each and every one of you to exert himself to the utmost so that we may meet the trying days which lie ahead . The cabinet immediately convened and unanimously ratified the Emperor 's wishes . They also decided to destroy vast amounts of material pertaining to war crimes and the war responsibility of the nation 's highest leaders . Immediately after the conference , the Foreign Ministry transmitted orders to its embassies in Switzerland and Sweden to accept the Allied terms of surrender . These orders were picked up and received in Washington at 02 : 49 , August 14 . Difficulty with senior commanders on the distant war fronts was anticipated . Three princes of the Imperial Family who held military commissions were dispatched on August 14 to deliver the news personally . Prince Tsuneyoshi Takeda went to Korea and Manchuria , Prince Yasuhiko Asaka to the China Expeditionary Army and China Fleet , and Prince Kan'in Haruhito to Shanghai , South China , Indo - China and Singapore . The text of the Imperial Rescript on surrender was finalized by 19 : 00 August 14 , transcribed by the official court calligrapher , and brought to the cabinet for their signatures . Around 23 : 00 , the Emperor , with help from an NHK recording crew , made a gramophone record of himself reading it . The record was given to court chamberlain Yoshihiro Tokugawa , who hid it in a locker in the office of Empress Kōjun 's secretary . Attempted military coup d'état ( August 12 -- 15 ) Main article : Kyūjō incident Kenji Hatanaka , leader of the coup d'état Late on the night of August 12 , 1945 , Major Kenji Hatanaka , along with Lieutenant Colonels Masataka Ida , Masahiko Takeshita ( Anami 's brother - in - law ) , and Inaba Masao , and Colonel Okitsugu Arao , the Chief of the Military Affairs Section , spoke to War Minister Korechika Anami ( the army minister and `` most powerful figure in Japan besides the Emperor himself '' ) , and asked him to do whatever he could to prevent acceptance of the Potsdam Declaration . General Anami refused to say whether he would help the young officers in treason . As much as they needed his support , Hatanaka and the other rebels decided they had no choice but to continue planning and to attempt a coup d'état on their own . Hatanaka spent much of August 13 and the morning of August 14 gathering allies , seeking support from the higher - ups in the Ministry , and perfecting his plot . Shortly after the conference on the night of August 13 -- 14 at which the surrender finally was decided , a group of senior army officers including Anami gathered in a nearby room . All those present were concerned about the possibility of a coup d'état to prevent the surrender -- some of those present may have even been considering launching one . After a silence , General Torashirō Kawabe proposed that all senior officers present sign an agreement to carry out the Emperor 's order of surrender -- `` The Army will act in accordance with the Imperial Decision to the last . '' It was signed by all the high - ranking officers present , including Anami , Hajime Sugiyama , Yoshijirō Umezu , Kenji Doihara , Torashirō Kawabe , Masakazu Kawabe , and Tadaichi Wakamatsu . `` This written accord by the most senior officers in the Army ... acted as a formidable firebreak against any attempt to incite a coup d'état in Tokyo . '' The coup collapsed after Shizuichi Tanaka convinced the rebellious officers to go home . Tanaka committed suicide nine days later . Around 21 : 30 on August 14 , Hatanaka 's rebels set their plan into motion . The Second Regiment of the First Imperial Guards had entered the palace grounds , doubling the strength of the battalion already stationed there , presumably to provide extra protection against Hatanaka 's rebellion . But Hatanaka , along with Lt. Col. Jirō Shiizaki , convinced the commander of the 2nd Regiment of the First Imperial Guards , Colonel Toyojirō Haga , of their cause , by telling him ( falsely ) that Generals Anami and Umezu , and the commanders of the Eastern District Army and Imperial Guards Divisions were all in on the plan . Hatanaka also went to the office of Shizuichi Tanaka , commander of the Eastern region of the army , to try to persuade him to join the coup . Tanaka refused , and ordered Hatanaka to go home . Hatanaka ignored the order . Originally , Hatanaka hoped that simply occupying the palace and showing the beginnings of a rebellion would inspire the rest of the Army to rise up against the move to surrender . This notion guided him through much of the last days and hours and gave him the blind optimism to move ahead with the plan , despite having little support from his superiors . Having set all the pieces into position , Hatanaka and his co-conspirators decided that the Guard would take over the palace at 02 : 00 . The hours until then were spent in continued attempts to convince their superiors in the Army to join the coup . At about the same time , General Anami committed seppuku , leaving a message that , `` I -- with my death -- humbly apologize to the Emperor for the great crime . '' Whether the crime involved losing the war , or the coup , remains unclear . Wikisource has original text related to this article : Imperial Guards Division Strategic Order No. 584 At some time after 01 : 00 , Hatanaka and his men surrounded the palace . Hatanaka , Shiizaki and Captain Shigetarō Uehara ( of the Air Force Academy ) went to the office of Lt. General Takeshi Mori to ask him to join the coup . Mori was in a meeting with his brother - in - law , Michinori Shiraishi . The cooperation of Mori , as commander of the 1st Imperial Guards Division , was crucial . When Mori refused to side with Hatanaka , Hatanaka killed him , fearing Mori would order the Guards to stop the rebellion . Uehara killed Shiraishi . These were the only two murders of the night . Hatanaka then used General Mori 's official stamp to authorize Imperial Guards Division Strategic Order No. 584 , a false set of orders created by his co-conspirators , which would greatly increase the strength of the forces occupying the Imperial Palace and Imperial Household Ministry , and `` protecting '' the Emperor . The palace police were disarmed and all the entrances blocked . Over the course of the night , Hatanaka 's rebels captured and detained eighteen people , including Ministry staff and NHK workers sent to record the surrender speech . The rebels , led by Hatanaka , spent the next several hours fruitlessly searching for Imperial House Minister Sōtarō Ishiwatari , Lord of the Privy Seal Kōichi Kido , and the recordings of the surrender speech . The two men were hiding in the `` bank vault '' , a large chamber underneath the Imperial Palace . The search was made more difficult by a blackout in response to Allied bombings , and by the archaic organization and layout of the Imperial House Ministry . Many of the names of the rooms were unrecognizable to the rebels . The rebels did find the chamberlain Tokugawa . Although Hatanaka threatened to disembowel him with a samurai sword , Tokugawa lied and told them he did not know where the recordings or men were . During their search , the rebels cut nearly all of the telephone wires , severing communications between the palace grounds and the outside world . At about the same time , another group of Hatanaka 's rebels led by Captain Takeo Sasaki went to Prime Minister Suzuki 's office , intent on killing him . When they found it empty , they machine - gunned the office and set the building on fire , then left for his home . Hisatsune Sakomizu had warned Suzuki , and he escaped minutes before the would - be assassins arrived . After setting fire to Suzuki 's home , they went to the estate of Kiichirō Hiranuma to assassinate him . Hiranuma escaped through a side gate and the rebels burned his house as well . Suzuki spent the rest of August under police protection , spending each night in a different bed . Around 03 : 00 , Hatanaka was informed by Lieutenant Colonel Masataka Ida that the Eastern District Army was on its way to the palace to stop him , and that he should give up . Finally , seeing his plan collapsing around him , Hatanaka pleaded with Tatsuhiko Takashima , Chief of Staff of the Eastern District Army , to be given at least ten minutes on the air on NHK radio , to explain to the people of Japan what he was trying to accomplish and why . He was refused . Colonel Haga , commander of the 2nd Regiment of the First Imperial Guards , discovered that the Army did not support this rebellion , and he ordered Hatanaka to leave the palace grounds . Just before 05 : 00 , as his rebels continued their search , Major Hatanaka went to the NHK studios , and , brandishing a pistol , tried desperately to get some airtime to explain his actions . A little over an hour later , after receiving a telephone call from the Eastern District Army , Hatanaka finally gave up . He gathered his officers and walked out of the NHK studio . At dawn , Tanaka learned that the palace had been invaded . He went there and confronted the rebellious officers , berating them for acting contrary to the spirit of the Japanese army . He convinced them to return to their barracks . By 08 : 00 , the rebellion was entirely dismantled , having succeeded in holding the palace grounds for much of the night but failing to find the recordings . Hatanaka , on a motorcycle , and Shiizaki , on horseback , rode through the streets , tossing leaflets that explained their motives and their actions . Within an hour before the Emperor 's broadcast , sometime around 11 : 00 , August 15 , Hatanaka placed his pistol to his forehead , and shot himself . Shiizaki stabbed himself with a dagger , and then shot himself . In Hatanaka 's pocket was found his death poem : `` I have nothing to regret now that the dark clouds have disappeared from the reign of the Emperor . '' Surrender Broadcast of the Imperial Rescript on surrender The Gyokuon - hōsō , the radio broadcast in which Hirohito read the Imperial Rescript on the Termination of the War , August 15 , 1945 . Truman announcing surrender of Japan , September 1 , 1945 Problems playing these files ? See media help . Wikisource has original text related to this article : Japanese Instrument of Surrender At 12 : 00 noon Japan standard time on August 15 , the Emperor 's recorded speech to the nation , reading the Imperial Rescript on the Termination of the War , was broadcast : After pondering deeply the general trends of the world and the actual conditions obtaining in Our Empire today , We have decided to effect a settlement of the present situation by resorting to an extraordinary measure . We have ordered Our Government to communicate to the Governments of the United States , Great Britain , China and the Soviet Union that Our Empire accepts the provisions of their Joint Declaration . To strive for the common prosperity and happiness of all nations as well as the security and well - being of Our subjects is the solemn obligation which has been handed down by Our Imperial Ancestors and which lies close to Our heart . Indeed , We declared war on America and Britain out of Our sincere desire to ensure Japan 's self - preservation and the stabilization of East Asia , it being far from Our thought either to infringe upon the sovereignty of other nations or to embark upon territorial aggrandizement . But now the war has lasted for nearly four years . Despite the best that has been done by everyone -- the gallant fighting of the military and naval forces , the diligence and assiduity of Our servants of the State , and the devoted service of Our one hundred million people -- the war situation has developed not necessarily to Japan 's advantage , while the general trends of the world have all turned against her interest . Moreover , the enemy has begun to employ a new and most cruel bomb , the power of which to do damage is , indeed , incalculable , taking the toll of many innocent lives . Should we continue to fight , not only would it result in an ultimate collapse and obliteration of the Japanese nation , but also it would lead to the total extinction of human civilization . Such being the case , how are We to save the millions of Our subjects , or to atone Ourselves before the hallowed spirits of Our Imperial Ancestors ? This is the reason why We have ordered the acceptance of the provisions of the Joint Declaration of the Powers ... The hardships and sufferings to which Our nation is to be subjected hereafter will be certainly great . We are keenly aware of the inmost feelings of all of you , Our subjects . However , it is according to the dictates of time and fate that We have resolved to pave the way for a grand peace for all the generations to come by enduring the unendurable and suffering what is unsufferable . The low quality of the recording , combined with the Classical Japanese language used by the Emperor in the Rescript , made the recording very difficult to understand for most listeners . Public reaction to the Emperor 's speech varied -- many Japanese simply listened to it , then went on with their lives as best they could , while some Army and Navy officers chose suicide over surrender . A small crowd gathered in front of the Imperial Palace in Tokyo and cried , but as author John Dower notes , the tears they shed `` reflected a multitude of sentiments ... anguish , regret , bereavement and anger at having been deceived , sudden emptiness and loss of purpose '' . On August 17 , Suzuki was replaced as prime minister by the Emperor 's uncle , Prince Higashikuni , perhaps to forestall any further coup or assassination attempts ; Mamoru Shigemitsu replaced Tōgō as foreign minister . Japan 's forces were still fighting against the Soviets as well as the Chinese , and managing their cease - fire and surrender was difficult . The last air combat by Japanese fighters against American reconnaissance bombers took place on August 18 . The Soviet Union continued to fight until early September , taking the Kuril Islands . Beginning of occupation and the surrender ceremony Allied personnel celebrate the Japanese surrender in Paris . Allied civilians and servicemen alike rejoiced at the news of the end of the war . A photograph , V -- J day in Times Square , of an American sailor kissing a woman in New York , and a news film of the Dancing Man in Sydney have come to epitomize the immediate celebrations . August 14 and 15 are celebrated as Victory over Japan Day in many Allied countries . Allied battleships in Sagami Bay , August 28 , 1945 Japan 's sudden surrender after the unexpected use of atomic weapons surprised most governments outside the US and UK . The Soviet Union had some intentions of occupying Hokkaidō . Unlike the Soviet occupations of eastern Germany and northern Korea , however , these plans were frustrated by the opposition of President Truman . Japanese officials left for Manila on August 19 to meet Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers Douglas MacArthur , and to be briefed on his plans for the occupation . On August 28 , 150 US personnel flew to Atsugi , Kanagawa Prefecture , and the occupation of Japan began . They were followed by USS Missouri , whose accompanying vessels landed the 4th Marines on the southern coast of Kanagawa . Other Allied personnel followed . MacArthur arrived in Tokyo on August 30 , and immediately decreed several laws : No Allied personnel were to assault Japanese people . No Allied personnel were to eat the scarce Japanese food . Flying the Hinomaru or `` Rising Sun '' flag was severely restricted . MacArthur at surrender ceremony . The flag flown by Perry is visible in the background . The formal surrender occurred on September 2 , 1945 , around 9 a.m. Tokyo time , when representatives from the Empire of Japan signed the Japanese Instrument of Surrender in Tokyo Bay aboard USS Missouri . Japanese Foreign Minister Shigemitsu signed for the Japanese government , while Gen. Umezu signed for the Japanese armed forces . On Missouri that day was the American flag flown in 1853 on USS Powhatan by Commodore Matthew C. Perry on the first of his two expeditions to Japan . Perry 's expeditions had resulted in the Convention of Kanagawa , which forced the Japanese to open the country to American trade . After the formal surrender on September 2 aboard Missouri , investigations into Japanese war crimes began quickly . At a meeting with General MacArthur later in September , Emperor Hirohito offered to take blame for the war crimes , but his offer was rejected , and he was never tried . Legal procedures for the International Military Tribunal for the Far East were issued on January 19 , 1946 . In addition to August 14 and 15 , September 2 , 1945 , is also known as V-J Day . President Truman declared September 2 to be V-J Day , but noted that `` It is not yet the day for the formal proclamation of the end of the war nor of the cessation of hostilities . '' In Japan , August 15 is often called Shūsen - kinenbi ( 終戦 記念 日 ) , which literally means the `` memorial day for the end of the war , '' but the government 's name for the day ( which is not a national holiday ) is Senbotsusha o tsuitō shi heiwa o kinen suru hi ( 戦没 者 を 追悼 し 平和 を 祈念 する 日 , `` day for mourning of war dead and praying for peace '' ) . Further surrenders and continued Japanese military resistance Following the signing of the instrument of surrender , many further surrender ceremonies took place across Japan 's remaining holdings in the Pacific . Japanese forces in Southeast Asia surrendered on September 2 , 1945 , in Penang , September 10 in Labuan , September 11 in Kingdom of Sarawak and September 12 in Singapore . Taiwan 's Retrocession Day ( October 25 ) , marked the end of Japanese rule of Taiwan and the subsequent rule by the Republic Of China government . It was not until 1947 that all prisoners held by America and Britain were repatriated . As late as April 1949 , China still held more than 60,000 Japanese prisoners . Some , such as Shozo Tominaga , were not repatriated until the late 1950s . The logistical demands of the surrender were formidable . After Japan 's capitulation , more than 5,400,000 Japanese soldiers and 1,800,000 Japanese sailors were taken prisoner by the Allies . The damage done to Japan 's infrastructure , combined with a severe famine in 1946 , further complicated the Allied efforts to feed the Japanese POWs and civilians . The state of war between the United States and Japan officially ended when the Treaty of San Francisco took effect on April 28 , 1952 . Japan and the Soviet Union formally made peace four years later , when they signed the Soviet -- Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956 . Some Japanese holdouts , especially on small Pacific Islands , refused to surrender at all ( believing the declaration to be propaganda or considering surrender against their code ) . Some may never have heard of it . Teruo Nakamura , the last known holdout , emerged from his hidden retreat in Indonesia in December 1974 , while two other Japanese soldiers , who had joined Communist guerrillas at the end of the war , fought in southern Thailand until 1991 . Surrender ceremonies throughout the Pacific theater Hatazō Adachi , the commander of the Japanese 18th Army in New Guinea , surrenders his sword to the commander of the Australian 6th Division , Horace Robertson . Kaida Tatsuichi , commander of the Japanese 4th Tank Regiment , and his chief of staff Shoji Minoru listen to the terms of surrender on HMAS Moresby at Timor . Chen Yi ( right ) accepting the receipt of Order No. 1 signed by Rikichi Andō ( left ) , the last Japanese Governor - General of Taiwan , in Taipei City Hall Masatane Kanda signs the instrument of surrender of Japanese forces on Bougainville Island , New Guinea . A Japanese officer surrenders his sword to a British Lieutenant in a ceremony in Saigon , French Indochina . A Japanese Navy officer signing the surrender of Penang aboard HMS Nelson on September 2 , 1945 . Penang was liberated by the Royal Marines on the following day under Operation Jurist . Masao Baba , Lieutenant General of the Japanese 37th Army signs the surrender document in Labuan , British Borneo , being watched by Australian Major General George Wootten and other Australian units . The official surrender ceremony of the Japanese to the Australian forces on board HMAS Kapunda at Kuching , Kingdom of Sarawak on September 11 , 1945 The Japanese Southern Armies surrender at Singapore on September 12 , 1945 . General Itagaki surrendered to the British represented by Lord Mountbatten at Municipal Hall , Singapore . The surrender ceremony of the Japanese to the Australian forces at Keningau , British North Borneo on September 17 , 1945 The surrender ceremony of the Japanese to the British forces with General Itagaki surrendering his sword to General Frank Messervy at Kuala Lumpur , British Malaya on February 22 , 1946 See also Japan portal World War II portal Aftermath of World War II Japanese holdouts Post -- World War II economic expansion Japanese post-war economic miracle Hypothetical Axis victory in World War II Japanese dissidence during the early Shōwa period Japanese American service in World War II Mokusatsu References Footnotes ^ Jump up to : Frank , 90 . Jump up ^ Skates , 158 , 195 . Jump up ^ Bellamy , Chris ( 2007 ) . Absolute War : Soviet Russia in the Second World War . Alfred A. Knopf . p. 676 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 375 - 41086 - 4 . Jump up ^ Frank , 87 -- 88 . Jump up ^ Frank , 81 . Jump up ^ Pape , Robert A. ( Fall 1993 ) . `` Why Japan Surrendered '' . International Security . 18 ( 2 ) : 154 -- 201 . doi : 10.2307 / 2539100 . Jump up ^ Feifer , 418 . ^ Jump up to : Reynolds , 363 . Jump up ^ Frank , 89 , citing Daikichi Irokawa , The Age of Hirohito : In Search of Modern Japan ( New York : Free Press , 1995 ; ISBN 978 - 0 - 02 - 915665 - 0 ) . Japan consistently overstated its population as 100 million , when in fact the 1944 census counted 72 million . Jump up ^ Skates , 100 -- 115 . Jump up ^ Hasegawa , 295 -- 296 Jump up ^ McCormack , 253 . Jump up ^ Frank , 87 . Jump up ^ Frank , 86 . Jump up ^ Spector 33 . Jump up ^ The exact role of the Emperor has been a subject of much historical debate . Following PM Suzuki 's orders , many key pieces of evidence were destroyed in the days between Japan 's surrender and the start of the Allied occupation . Starting in 1946 , following the constitution of the Tokyo tribunal , the imperial family began to argue that Hirohito was a powerless figurehead , which brought some historians to accept this point of view . Others , like Herbert Bix , John W. Dower , Akira Fujiwara , and Yoshiaki Yoshimi , argue that he actively ruled from behind the scenes . According to Richard Frank , `` Neither of these polar positions is accurate '' , and the truth appears to lie somewhere in between. -- Frank , 87 . Jump up ^ Iris Chang ( 2012 ) . The Rape of Nanking : The Forgotten Holocaust of World War II . Basic Books . p. 177 . Jump up ^ For more details on what was destroyed see Page Wilson ( 2009 ) . Aggression , Crime and International Security : Moral , Political and Legal Dimensions of International Relations . Taylor & Francis . p. 63 . Jump up ^ Alan Booth . Lost : Journeys through a Vanishing Japan . Kodansha Globe , 1996 , ISBN 978 - 1 - 56836 - 148 - 2 . Page 67 . Jump up ^ Frank , 92 . Jump up ^ Frank , 91 -- 92 . Jump up ^ Butow , 70 -- 71 . Jump up ^ Spector , 44 -- 45 . Jump up ^ Frank , 89 . Jump up ^ Bix , 488 -- 489 . Jump up ^ Michael J. Hogan ( March 29 , 1996 ) . Hiroshima in History and Memory . Cambridge University Press . p. 86 . Jump up ^ Hasegawa , 39 . Jump up ^ Hasegawa , 39 , 68 . Jump up ^ Frank , 291 . ^ Jump up to : Soviet - Japanese Neutrality Pact , April 13 , 1941 . ( Avalon Project at Yale University ) Declaration Regarding Mongolia , April 13 , 1941 . ( Avalon Project at Yale University ) Jump up ^ Soviet Denunciation of the Pact with Japan . Avalon Project , Yale Law School . Text from United States Department of State Bulletin Vol . XII , No. 305 , April 29 , 1945 . Retrieved February 22 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Molotov 's note was neither a declaration of war nor , necessarily , of intent to go to war . Legally , the treaty still had a year to run after the notice of cancellation . But the Foreign Commissar 's tone suggested that this technicality might be brushed aside at Russia 's convenience . '' `` So Sorry , Mr. Sato '' . Time , April 16 , 1945 . Jump up ^ Russia and Japan Archived 2011 - 09 - 13 at the Wayback Machine. , declassified CIA report from April 1945 . Jump up ^ Slavinskiĭ ( page 153 - 4 ) , quoting from Molotov 's diary , recounts the conversation between Molotov and Satō , the Japanese ambassador to Moscow : After Molotov has read the statement , Satō `` permits himself to ask Molotov for some clarifications '' , saying he thinks his government expects that during that year April 25 , 1945 -- April 25 , 1946 , the Soviet government will maintain the same relations with Japan it had maintained up to present , `` bearing in mind that the Pact remains in force '' . Molotov replies that `` Factually Soviet - Japanese relations revert to the situation in which they were before conclusion of the Pact '' . Satō observes that in that case the Soviet and Japanese government interpret the question differently . Molotov replies that `` there is some misunderstanding '' and explains that `` on expiry of the five year period ... Soviet - Japanese relations will obviously revert to the status quo ante conclusion of the Pact '' . After further discussion , Molotov states : `` The period of the Pact 's validity has not ended '' . Boris Nikolaevich Slavinskiĭ , The Japanese - Soviet Neutrality Pact : A Diplomatic History 1941 -- 1945 , Translated by Geoffrey Jukes , 2004 , Routledge . ( Extracts on - line ) . Page 153 - 4 . Later in his book ( page 184 ) , Slavinskiĭ further summarizes the chain of events : `` Even after Germany 's exit from the war , Moscow went on saying the Pact was still operative , and that Japan had no cause for anxiety about the future of Soviet - Japanese relations . '' May 21 , 1945 : Malik ( Soviet ambassador to Tokyo ) tells Sukeatsu Tanakamura , representing Japanese fishing interests in Soviet waters , that the treaty continues in force . May 29 , 1945 : Molotov tells Satō : `` we have not torn up the pact '' . June 24 , 1945 : Malik tells Kōki Hirota that the Neutrality Pact ... will continue ... until it expires . Note , however , that Malik did not know ( had not been informed ) that the Soviets were preparing to attack . Slavinskiĭ , pg. 184 . Jump up ^ Frank , 93 . Jump up ^ Frank , 95 . Jump up ^ Frank , 93 -- 94 . Jump up ^ Frank , 96 . Jump up ^ Toland , John . The Rising Sun . Modern Library , 2003 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8129 - 6858 - 3 . Page 923 . Jump up ^ Frank , 97 , quoting The Diary of Marquis Kido , 1931 -- 45 : Selected Translations into English , p 435 -- 436 . Jump up ^ Frank , 97 -- 99 . ^ Jump up to : Frank , 100 , quoting Terasaki , 136 -- 37 . Jump up ^ Frank , 102 . Jump up ^ Frank , 94 . Jump up ^ Frank , 221 , citing Magic Diplomatic Summary No. 1201 . Jump up ^ Frank , 222 -- 3 , citing Magic Diplomatic Summary No. 1205 , 2 ( PDF ) . Jump up ^ Frank , 226 , citing Magic Diplomatic Summary No. 1208 , 10 -- 12 . Jump up ^ Frank , 227 , citing Magic Diplomatic Summary No. 1209 . Jump up ^ Frank , 229 , citing Magic Diplomatic Summary No. 1212 . Jump up ^ Frank , 230 , citing Magic Diplomatic Summary No. 1214 , 2 -- 3 ( PDF ) . Jump up ^ `` Some messages were deciphered and translated the same day and most within a week ; a few in cases of key change took longer '' -- The Oxford Guide to World War II , ed . I.C.B. Dear . Oxford : Oxford University Press , 2007 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 534096 - 9 S.v. `` MAGIC '' . Jump up ^ Hasegawa , 60 . Jump up ^ Hasegawa , 19 . Jump up ^ Hasegawa , 25 . Jump up ^ Hasegawa , 32 . ^ Jump up to : Hasegawa , 86 . Jump up ^ Hasegawa , 115 -- 116 . Jump up ^ Frank , 279 . Jump up ^ Hewlett and Anderson , pp. 16 -- 18 . Jump up ^ Hewlett and Anderson , pp. 81 -- 83 . Jump up ^ Hewlett and Anderson , pp. 376 -- 380 . Jump up ^ United States Army Corps of Engineers , Manhattan Engineer District ( 1946 ) . `` The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki '' . OCLC 77648098 . Retrieved January 23 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Quiner , Tom . `` What lesson can we learn from Japan ? '' . Retrieved December 30 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Frank , pp. 254 -- 255 . ^ Jump up to : Hasegawa , 67 . Jump up ^ Schmitz , p. 182 . Jump up ^ Hewlett and Anderson , p. 19 . Jump up ^ Hewlett and Anderson , pp. 340 -- 342 . Jump up ^ Hewlett and Anderson , pp. 340 -- 342 . Jump up ^ Hewlett and Anderson , pp. 344 -- 345 . Jump up ^ Hasegawa , p. 90 . Jump up ^ Frank , p. 256 . Jump up ^ Frank , p. 260 . Jump up ^ Hasegawa , 152 -- 153 . Jump up ^ `` American officials meeting in Washington on August 10 , 1945 ... decided that a useful dividing line between the U.S. and Soviet administrative occupation zones would be the 38th parallel across the midsection of the ( Korean ) peninsula , thereby leaving Korea 's central city , Seoul , within the U.S. zone . This arrangement was suggested to the Soviet side shortly after the USSR entered both the Pacific War and the Korean peninsula . The Soviets accepted that dividing line , even though their attempt to obtain a corresponding northern Japan occupation zone on the island of Hokkaido was rejected by Washington . '' -- Edward A. Olsen . Korea , the Divided Nation . Greenwood Publishing Group , 2005 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 275 - 98307 - 9 . Page 62 . Jump up ^ Rhodes , 690 . Jump up ^ Hasegawa , 145 -- 148 . Jump up ^ Hasegawa , 118 -- 119 . Jump up ^ Weintraub , 288 . ^ Jump up to : Frank , 234 . Jump up ^ Frank , 236 , citing Magic Diplomatic Summary No. 1224 . Jump up ^ Frank , 236 , citing Magic Diplomatic Summary No. 1225 , 2 ( PDF ) . Jump up ^ Tucker , Spencer . A Global Chronology of Conflict : From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East : From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East , p. 2086 ( ABC - CLIO , 2009 ) . Jump up ^ White House Press Release Announcing the Bombing of Hiroshima , August 6 , 1945 . The American Experience : Truman . PBS.org . Sourced to The Harry S. Truman Library , `` Army press notes , '' box 4 , Papers of Eben A. Ayers . Jump up ^ `` While senior Japanese officers did not dispute the theoretical possibility of such weapons , they refused to concede that the United States had vaulted over the tremendous practical problems to create an atomic bomb . '' On August 7 , the Imperial Staff released a message saying that Hiroshima had been struck by a new type of bomb . A team led by Lieutenant General Seizō Arisue was sent to Hiroshima on August 8 to sort out several competing theories as to the cause of the explosion , including that Hiroshima was struck by a magnesium or liquid - oxygen bomb. -- Frank , 270 -- 271 . Jump up ^ Frank , 270 -- 271 . Jump up ^ Frank , 283 -- 284 . Jump up ^ Soviet Declaration of War on Japan , August 8 , 1945 . ( Avalon Project at Yale University ) Jump up ^ The Soviets delivered a declaration of war to Japanese ambassador Satō in Moscow two hours before the invasion of Manchuria . However , despite assurances to the contrary they did not deliver Satō 's cable notifying Tokyo of the declaration , and cut the embassy phone lines . This was revenge for the Japanese sneak attack on Port Arthur 40 years earlier . The Japanese found out about the attack from radio broadcast from Moscow. -- Butow , 154 -- 164 ; Hoyt , 401 . Jump up ^ Wilson , Ward ( 30 May 2013 ) . `` The Bomb Did n't Beat Japan ... Stalin Did '' . foreignpolicy.com . Retrieved 18 June 2016 . Jump up ^ Sadao Asada . `` The Shock of the Atomic Bomb and Japan 's Decision to Surrender : A Reconsideration '' . The Pacific Historical Review , Vol. 67 , No. 4 ( Nov. 1998 ) , pp. 477 -- 512 . Jump up ^ Frank , 288 -- 9 . Jump up ^ Diary of Kōichi Kido , 1966 , p. 1223 . Jump up ^ Frank , 290 -- 91 . Jump up ^ Radio Report to the American People on the Potsdam Conference by President Harry S. Truman , Delivered from the White House at 10 p.m , August 9 , 1945 Jump up ^ Hasagawa , 207 -- 208 . Jump up ^ Jerome T. Hagen . War in the Pacific : America at War , Volume I. Hawaii Pacific University , ISBN 978 - 0 - 9762669 - 0 - 7 . Chapter , `` The Lie of Marcus McDilda '' , 159 -- 162 . Jump up ^ Hasegawa 298 . Jump up ^ `` S ( eaman ) : ... Then there will be another one the first part of September . Then there are three definite . There is a possibility of a fourth one In September , either the middle or the latter part . H ( ull ) : Now , how many in October ? S : Probably three in October . H : That 's three definite , possibly four by the end of September ; possibly three more by the end of October ; making a total possibility of seven . That is the information I want . S : So you can figure on three a month with a possibility of a fourth one . If you get the fourth one , you wo n't get it next month . That is up to November . H : The last one , which is a possibility for the end of October , could you count on that for use before the end of October ? S : You have a possibility of seven , with a good chance of using them prior to the 31st of October . H : They come out approximately at the rate of three a month . '' - Transcript of a telephone conversation between General John E. Hull , assistant chief of staff for the War Department 's Operations Division , and Colonel L.E. Seeman , an assistant of General Groves ( incorrectly spelled Seaman in the document ) National Security Archives Retrieved December 5 , 2017 Jump up ^ According to Frank 303 , the order of precedence for targets of the third atomic mission were ( 1 ) Sapporo ( 2 ) Hakodate ( 3 ) Oyabu ( 4 ) Yokosuka ( 5 ) Osaka . ( 6 ) Nagoya . Jump up ^ Hasagawa , 209 . Jump up ^ Frank , 295 -- 296 . Jump up ^ Bix , 517 , citing Yoshida , Nihonjin no sensôkan , 42 -- 43 . Jump up ^ Hoyt , 405 . Jump up ^ Frank , 302 . Jump up ^ `` Truman said he had given orders to stop atomic bombing . He said the thought of wiping out another 100,000 was too horrible . He did n't like the idea of killing , as he said , ' all those kids . ' '' Diary of Commerce Secretary Henry Wallace , August 10th 1945 National Security Archives Retrieved December 5th , 2017 . `` It is not to be released over Japan without express authority from the President . '' - Reply written on memo from General Groves , head of the Manhattan Project , to General Marshall , USA chief of staff regarding the preparations for a third atomic strike . August 10th , 1945 National Security Archives Retrieved December 5th , 2017 . Jump up ^ Frank , 303 . Jump up ^ While the ceasefire was in effect , Spaatz made a momentous decision . Based on evidence from the European Strategic Bombing Survey , he ordered the strategic bombing to refocus its efforts away from firebombing Japanese cities , to concentrate on wiping out Japanese oil and transportation infrastructure . Frank , 303 -- 307 . Jump up ^ Frank , 310 . Jump up ^ Terasaki , 129 . Jump up ^ Bix , 129 . ^ Jump up to : Frank , 313 . Jump up ^ Smith , 188 . Jump up ^ Wesley F. Craven and James L. Cate , The Army Air Forces in World War II , Vol. 5 , pp. 732 -- 33 . ( Catalog entry , U Washington . ) Jump up ^ Smith , 183 . Jump up ^ Smith , 187 . Jump up ^ Smith 187 -- 188 notes that though the daytime bombers had already attacked Japan , the night bombers had not yet taken off when radio notification of the surrender was received . Smith also notes that , despite substantial efforts , he has found no historical documentation relating to Spaatz 's order to go ahead with the attack . ^ Jump up to : Frank , 314 . ^ Jump up to : Frank , 315 . Jump up ^ Bix , 558 . Jump up ^ MacArthur , Douglas . `` Reports of General MacArthur Vol II - Part II '' . US Army Center of Military History . Retrieved 16 February 2016 . On the same day that the Rescript to the armed forces was issued , three Imperial Princes left Tokyo by air as personal representatives of the Emperor to urge compliance with the surrender decision upon the major overseas commands . The envoys chosen all held military rank as officers of the Army , and they had been guaranteed safety of movement by General MacArthur 's headquarters . General Prince Yasuhiko Asaka was dispatched as envoy to the headquarters of the expeditionary forces in China , Maj. Gen. Prince Haruhiko Kanin to the Southern Army , and Lt. Col. Prince Tsuneyoshi Takeda to the Kwantung Army in Manchuria . Jump up ^ Fuller , Richard Shokan : Hirohito 's Samurai 1992 p. 290 ISBN 1 - 85409 - 151 - 4 ^ Jump up to : Hasegawa , 244 . ^ Jump up to : Hoyt , 409 . Jump up ^ Frank , 316 . Jump up ^ Frank , 318 . Jump up ^ Hoyt 407 -- 408 . Jump up ^ Frank , 317 . Jump up ^ Frank , 319 . Jump up ^ Butow , 220 . Jump up ^ Hoyt , 409 -- 410 . Jump up ^ The Pacific War Research Society , 227 . Jump up ^ The Pacific War Research Society , 309 . Jump up ^ Butow , 216 . ^ Jump up to : Hoyt , 410 . Jump up ^ The Pacific War Research Society , 279 . ^ Jump up to : Wainstock , 115 . Jump up ^ The Pacific War Research Society , 246 . Jump up ^ Hasegawa , 247 . Jump up ^ The Pacific War Research Society , 283 . Jump up ^ Hoyt , 411 . Jump up ^ The Pacific War Research Society , 303 . Jump up ^ The Pacific War Research Society , 290 . Jump up ^ The Pacific War Research Society , 311 . Jump up ^ `` Text of Hirohito 's Radio Rescript '' , The New York Times , p. 3 , 15 August 1945 , retrieved 8 August 2015 Jump up ^ Dower , 34 . Jump up ^ `` The Emperor 's Speech : 67 Years Ago , Hirohito Transformed Japan Forever '' . The Atlantic . Retrieved May 23 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Dower , 38 -- 39 . Jump up ^ Spector , 558 . ( Spector incorrectly identifies Higashikuni as the Emperor 's brother . ) Jump up ^ The Last to Die Military Aviation Air & Space Magazine . Airspacemag.com . Retrieved on 2010 - 08 - 05 . Jump up ^ Which day they celebrate V-J day depends on the local time at which they received word of Japan 's surrender . British Commonwealth countries celebrate the 15th , whereas the United States celebrates the 14th . Jump up ^ Wood , James . `` The Australian Military Contribution to the Occupation of Japan , 1945 -- 1952 '' ( PDF ) . Australian War Museum . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2009 - 11 - 04 . Retrieved August 12 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Hasegawa , 271ff Jump up ^ Individuals and prefectural offices could apply for permission to fly it . The restriction was partially lifted in 1948 and completely lifted the following year . Jump up ^ USS Missouri was anchored at 35 ° 21 ′ 17 '' N 139 ° 45 ′ 36 '' E ' Jump up ^ USS Missouri Instrument of Surrender , WWII , Pearl Harbor , Historical Marker Database , www.hmdb.org , Retrieved 2012 - 03 - 27 . Jump up ^ `` 1945 Japan surrenders '' . Retrieved 2015 - 08 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` The framed flag in lower right is that hoisted by Commodore Matthew C. Perry on 14 July 1853 , in Yedo ( Tokyo ) Bay , on his first expedition to negotiate the opening of Japan . '' Formal Surrender of Japan , 2 September 1945 -- Surrender Ceremonies Begin Archived 2 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine ... United States Naval Historical Center . Retrieved February 25 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Dower , 41 . ^ Jump up to : `` 1945 : Japan signs unconditional surrender '' On This Day : September 2 , BBC . Jump up ^ The Tokyo War Crimes Trials ( 1946 -- 1948 ) . The American Experience : MacArthur . PBS . Retrieved February 25 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Radio Address to the American People after the Signing of the Terms of Unconditional Surrender by Japan , '' Archived 2012 - 02 - 11 at the Wayback Machine . Harry S. Truman Library and Museum ( 1945 - 09 - 01 ) . Jump up ^ 厚生 労働省 : 全国 戦没 者 追悼 式 について ( in Japanese ) . Ministry of Health , Labour and Welfare. 2007 - 08 - 08 . Retrieved 2008 - 02 - 16 . Jump up ^ `` BBC - WW2 People 's War - Operation Jurist and the end of the War '' . www.bbc.co.uk . Retrieved 2017 - 03 - 11 . Jump up ^ `` The Japanese Formally Surrender '' . National Library Board , Singapore . September 12 , 1945 . Retrieved October 18 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Ng Yuzin Chiautong ( 1972 ) . `` Historical and Legal Aspects of the International Status of Taiwan ( Formosa ) '' . World United Formosans for Independence ( Tokyo ) . Retrieved 2010 - 02 - 25 . Jump up ^ `` Taiwan 's retrocession procedurally clear : Ma '' . The China Post . CNA. 2010 - 10 - 26 . Archived from the original on 2015 - 09 - 24 . Retrieved 2015 - 08 - 14 . Jump up ^ Dower , 51 . Jump up ^ Cook 40 , 468 . Jump up ^ Weinberg , 892 . Jump up ^ Cook 403 gives the total number of Japanese servicemen as 4,335,500 in Japan on the day of the surrender , with an additional 3,527,000 abroad . Jump up ^ Frank , 350 -- 352 . Jump up ^ Cook contains an interview with Iitoyo Shogo about his experiences as POW of the British at Galang Island -- known to prisoners as `` Starvation Island '' . Jump up ^ `` Preface '' . Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan . Jump up ^ H.P. Wilmott , Robin Cross & Charles Messenger , World War II , Dorling Kindersley , 2004 , p. 293 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7566 - 0521 - 6 Texts Bix , Herbert ( 2001 ) . Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan . New York : Perennial . ISBN 978 - 0 - 06 - 093130 - 8 . Butow , Robert J.C. ( 1954 ) . Japan 's Decision to Surrender . stanford , California : Stanford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8047 - 0460 - 1 . Cook , Haruko Taya ; Theodore F. Cook ( 1992 ) . Japan at War : An Oral History . New Press . ISBN 978 - 1 - 56584 - 039 - 3 . Dower , John ( 1999 ) . Embracing Defeat : Japan in the Wake of World War II . W.W. Norton . ISBN 978 - 0 - 393 - 04686 - 1 . Feifer , George ( 2001 ) . The Battle of Okinawa : The Blood and the Bomb . Guilford , CT : The Lyons Press . ISBN 978 - 1 - 58574 - 215 - 8 . Ford , Daniel ( September 1995 ) . `` The Last Raid : How World War Two Ended '' . Air & Space Smithsonian . pp. 74 -- 81 . Archived from the original on August 10 , 2004 . Frank , Richard B. ( 1999 ) . Downfall : the End of the Imperial Japanese Empire . New York : Penguin . ISBN 978 - 0 - 14 - 100146 - 3 . Glantz , David M. ( February 1983 ) . `` August Storm : The Soviet 1945 Strategic Offensive in Manchuria '' . Fort Leavenworth , KA : Leavenworth Paper No. 7 , Command and General Staff College . Archived from the original on July 23 , 2011 . Retrieved May 31 , 2012 . Glantz , David M. ( June 1983 ) . `` August Storm : Soviet Tactical and Operational Combat in Manchuria , 1945 '' . Fort Leavenworth , KA : Leavenworth Paper No. 8 , Command and General Staff College . Archived from the original on March 16 , 2003 . Retrieved May 31 , 2012 . Glantz , David M. ( 1995 ) `` The Soviet Invasion of Japan '' . Quarterly Journal of Military History , vol. 7 , no . 3 , Spring 1995 . Glantz , David M. ( 2003 ) . The Soviet Strategic Offensive in Manchuria , 1945 ( Cass Series on Soviet ( Russian ) Military Experience , 7 ) . Routledge . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7146 - 5279 - 5 . Hasegawa , Tsuyoshi ( 2005 ) . Racing the Enemy : Stalin , Truman , and the Surrender of Japan . Cambridge , Massachusetts : Harvard University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 674 - 01693 - 4 . Hewlett , Richard G. ; Anderson , Oscar E. ( 1962 ) . The New World , 1939 -- 1946 . A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission . University Park , Pennsylvania : Pennsylvania State University Press . ISBN 0 - 520 - 07186 - 7 . Hoyt , Edwin P. ( 1986 ) . Japan 's War : The Great Pacific Conflict , 1853 -- 1952 . New York : Cooper Square Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8154 - 1118 - 5 . The Pacific War Research Society ( 1968 ) ( 1965 ) . Japan 's Longest Day ( English language ed . ) . Palo Alto , California : Kodansha International . Reynolds , Clark G. ( 1968 ) . The Fast Carriers ; The Forging of an Air Navy . New York , Toronto , London , Sydney : McGraw - Hill . Rhodes , Richard ( 1986 ) . The Making of the Atomic Bomb . Simon and Schuster . ISBN 978 - 0 - 671 - 44133 - 3 . Schmitz , David F. ( 2001 ) . Henry L. Stimson : The First Wise Man . Wilmington , Delaware : Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8420 - 2632 - 1 . Skates , John Ray ( 1994 ) . The Invasion of Japan : Alternative to the Bomb . Columbia , SC : University of South Carolina Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 87249 - 972 - 0 . Smith , John B. ; Malcolm McConnell ( 2002 ) . The Last Mission : The Secret Story of World War II 's Final Battle . New York : Broadway Books . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7679 - 0778 - 1 . Slavinskiĭ , Boris Nikolaevich ( 2004 ) . The Japanese - Soviet Neutrality Pact : A Diplomatic History , 1941 -- 1945 . Nissan Institute / Routledge Japanese studies series . London ; New York : RoutledgeCurzon . ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 32292 - 8 . Spector , Ronald H. ( 1985 ) . Eagle against the Sun . Vintage . ISBN 978 - 0 - 394 - 74101 - 7 . Thomas , Gordon , and Witts , Max Morgan ( 1977 ) . Enola Gay. 1978 reprint , New York : Pocket Books . ISBN 0 - 671 - 81499 - 0 . Hidenari Terasaki ( 寺崎 英 成 ) ( 1991 ) . Shōwa Tennō dokuhakuroku : Terasaki Hidenari , goyō - gakari nikki ( 昭和 天皇 独白 録 寺崎 英 成 ・ 御用 掛 日記 ) . Tokyo : Bungei Shunjū . ISBN 978 - 4 - 16 - 345050 - 6 . ( in Japanese ) Wainstock , Dennis ( 1996 ) . The Decision to Drop the Atomic Bomb . Greenwood Publishing Group . ISBN 978 - 0 - 275 - 95475 - 8 . Weinberg , Gerhard L. ( 1999 ) . A World at Arms : A Global History of World War II . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 55879 - 2 . Weintraub , Stanley ( 1995 ) . The Last Great Victory : The End of World War II . Dutton Adult . ISBN 978 - 0 - 525 - 93687 - 9 . External links Library resources about Surrender of Japan Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Wikimedia Commons has media related to Surrender of Japan . 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language script ( ja ) CS1 Japanese - language sources ( ja ) Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Articles containing Japanese - language text All articles with vague or ambiguous time Vague or ambiguous time from September 2017 Articles with hAudio microformats All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2015 Articles with Japanese - language external links Featured articles Talk View source Contents About Wikipedia Български Català Dansk Deutsch Español Euskara Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Magyar Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Polski Português Română Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 1 January 2018 , at 12 : 23 . 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the imp of the perverse edgar allan poe summary

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=The_Imp_of_the_Perverse_(short_story)&oldid=788643022

The Imp of the Perverse ( short story ) - wikipedia The Imp of the Perverse ( short story ) Jump to : navigation , search `` The Imp of the Perverse '' 1935 illustration by Arthur Rackham Author Edgar Allan Poe Country United States Language English Genre ( s ) Short story Published in Graham 's Magazine Publication date July 1845 `` The Imp of the Perverse '' is a short story by 19th - century American author and critic Edgar Allan Poe . Beginning as an essay , it discusses the narrator 's self - destructive impulses , embodied as the symbolic metaphor of The Imp of the Perverse . The narrator describes this spirit as the agent that tempts a person to do things `` merely because we feel we should not . '' Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot summary 2 Analysis 3 Publication history 4 Critical response 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Plot summary ( edit ) The narrator explains at length his theory on `` The Imp of the Perverse '' , which he believes causes people to commit acts against their self - interest . This essay - like discussion is presented objectively , though the narrator admits that he is `` one of the many uncounted victims of the Imp of the Perverse '' . He then explains how his conviction for murder was the result of this . The narrator murders a man using a candle that emits a poisonous vapor . The victim enjoyed reading in bed at night and , using the candle for illumination , dies in his poorly ventilated room . No evidence is left behind , causing the coroner to believe the man 's death is an act of God . The narrator inherits the man 's estate and , knowing he can never be caught , enjoys the benefits of his murderous act for many years . The narrator remains unsuspected , though he occasionally reassures himself by repeating under his breath , `` I am safe '' . One day , he notes that he will remain safe only if he is not foolish enough to openly confess . In saying so , however , he begins to question if he is capable of confessing . He fearfully runs through the streets , arousing suspicion . When finally stopped , he feels struck by some `` invisible fiend '' . He reveals his secret with `` distinct enunciation '' , though in such a hurry as if afraid of being interrupted . He is quickly tried and convicted of murder and sentenced to death by hanging . Analysis ( edit ) `` The Imp of the Perverse '' begins as an essay rather than as a work of fiction , a format that Poe previously used in `` The Premature Burial '' . It is , therefore , less about plot and more about theory . As Poe describes this theory : We stand upon the brink of a precipice . We peer into the abyss -- we grow sick and dizzy . Our first impulse is to shrink away from the danger . Unaccountably we remain ... it is but a thought , although a fearful one , and one which chills the very marrow of our bones with the fierceness of the delight of its horror . It is merely the idea of what would be our sensations during the sweeping precipitancy of a fall from such a height ... for this very cause do we now the most vividly desire it . The work theorizes that all people have self - destructive tendencies , including the narrator . The narrator 's ultimate confession as a murderer is not inspired by any feelings of guilt but , instead , from a desire to publicize his actions despite knowing that he should not . Poe 's theory of the Imp of the Perverse may also be an early notion of the subconscious and repression which would not be fully theorized until Sigmund Freud . Many of Poe 's characters display a failure to resist the Imp of the Perverse -- including the murderer in `` The Black Cat '' and the narrator in `` The Tell - Tale Heart '' . The opposite of this impulse is seen in Poe 's character C. Auguste Dupin who exhibits reason and deep analysis . One of the earliest examples , which predates `` The Imp of the Perverse '' , was in Poe 's novel The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket . In one scene , the title character is overcome by an overwhelming desire to let himself fall off a steep cliff . Additionally , scholars and critics suggest that Poe had his own Imp of the Perverse . Poe biographer Jeffrey Meyers suggested that Poe wrote it to justify his own actions of self - torment and self - destruction . James M. Hutchisson says that the work reflects Poe 's jealousy and sense of betrayal that led to his public feud with Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and New England literary culture ; the so - called `` Longfellow War '' was occurring at the same time Poe wrote `` The Imp of the Perverse '' . Three months after the story was published , Poe lashed out against Boston 's literary circle by trying to hoax them by reading his obscure poem `` Al Aaraaf '' at a lecture . Biographer Daniel Stashower suggests Poe 's purposeful attempt to provoke his audience and alienate himself further was inspired by his Imp of the Perverse . Publication history ( edit ) `` The Imp of the Perverse '' was first published in the July 1845 issue of Graham 's Magazine . A slightly revised version appeared in the Boston - based gift book May - Flower for 1846 . Critical response ( edit ) Poe reported in the Broadway Journal in December 1845 that the Nassau Monthly at Princeton College harshly criticized `` The Imp of the Perverse '' . Calling it a `` humbug '' , the reviewer noted that the author 's line of reasoning about this philosophical idea was difficult to follow . `` He chases from the wilderness of phrenology into that of transcendentalism , then into that of metaphysics generally ; then through many weary pages into the open field of inductive philosophy , where he at last corners the poor thing , and then most unmercifully pokes it to death with a long stick . '' See also ( edit ) The Imp of the Perverse -- Generalized metaphor named after the short story by Poe References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Sova , Dawn B. Edgar Allan Poe : A to Z . New York : Checkmark Books , 2001 : 114 . ISBN 0 - 8160 - 4161 - X Jump up ^ Peeples , Scott . Edgar Allan Poe Revisited . New York : Twayne Publishers , 1998 : 147 . ISBN 0 - 8057 - 4572 - 6 ^ Jump up to : Meyers , Jeffrey . Edgar Allan Poe : His Life and Legacy . New York : Cooper Square Press , 1992 : 58 . ISBN 0 - 8154 - 1038 - 7 Jump up ^ Hoffman , Daniel . Poe Poe Poe Poe Poe Poe Poe . Baton Rouge , La. : Louisiana State University Press , 1998 : 12 . ISBN 0 - 8071 - 2321 - 8 ^ Jump up to : Sova , Dawn B. Edgar Allan Poe : A to Z . New York : Checkmark Books , 2001 : 113 . ISBN 0 - 8160 - 4161 - X Jump up ^ Hutchisson , James M. Poe. Jackson : University Press of Mississippi , 2005 : 202 . ISBN 1 - 57806 - 721 - 9 Jump up ^ Peeples , Scott . Edgar Allan Poe Revisited . New York : Twayne Publishers , 1998 : 57 . ISBN 0 - 8057 - 4572 - 6 Jump up ^ Hutchisson , James M. Poe. Jackson : University Press of Mississippi , 2005 : 201 . ISBN 1 - 57806 - 721 - 9 Jump up ^ Stashower , Daniel . The Beautiful Cigar Girl : Mary Rogers , Edgar Allan Poe , and the Invention of Murder . New York : Dutton , 2006 : 274 . ISBN 0 - 525 - 94981 - X Jump up ^ Thomas , Dwight & David K. Jackson . The Poe Log : A Documentary Life of Edgar Allan Poe , 1809 -- 1849 . Boston : G.K. Hall & Co. , 1987 : 571 . ISBN 0 - 7838 - 1401 - 1 Jump up ^ Thomas , Dwight & David K. Jackson . The Poe Log : A Documentary Life of Edgar Allan Poe , 1809 -- 1849 . Boston : G.K. Hall & Co. , 1987 : 602 -- 603 . ISBN 0 - 7838 - 1401 - 1 External links ( edit ) The full text of The Imp of the Perverse at Wikisource Media related to The Imp of the Perverse at Wikimedia Commons Publication history of `` The Imp of the Perverse '' at the Edgar Allan Poe Society Online Study guide from Cummings Study Guides The Imp of the Perverse public domain audiobook at LibriVox ( hide ) Edgar Allan Poe Bibliography Poems `` Tamerlane '' ( 1827 ) `` Al Aaraaf '' ( 1829 ) `` Sonnet to Science '' ( 1829 ) `` To Helen '' ( 1831 ) `` The City in the Sea '' ( 1831 ) `` The Haunted Palace '' ( 1839 ) `` The Conqueror Worm '' ( 1843 ) `` Lenore '' ( 1843 ) `` Eulalie '' ( 1843 ) `` The Raven '' ( 1845 ) `` Ulalume '' ( 1847 ) `` A Dream Within a Dream '' ( 1849 ) `` Eldorado '' ( 1849 ) `` The Bells '' ( 1849 ) `` Annabel Lee '' ( 1849 ) '' Tales `` Metzengerstein '' ( 1832 ) `` Bon - Bon '' ( 1832 ) `` MS . Found in a Bottle '' ( 1833 ) `` Berenice '' ( 1835 ) `` Morella '' ( 1835 ) `` The Unparalleled Adventure of One Hans Pfaall '' ( 1835 ) `` Ligeia '' ( 1838 ) `` A Predicament '' ( 1838 ) `` The Devil in the Belfry '' ( 1839 ) `` The Man That Was Used Up '' ( 1839 ) `` The Fall of the House of Usher '' ( 1839 ) `` William Wilson '' ( 1839 ) `` The Conversation of Eiros and Charmion '' ( 1839 ) `` The Business Man '' ( 1840 ) `` The Man of the Crowd '' ( 1840 ) `` The Murders in the Rue Morgue '' ( 1841 ) `` A Descent into the Maelström '' ( 1841 ) `` Never Bet the Devil Your Head '' ( 1841 ) `` Eleonora '' ( 1841 ) `` The Oval Portrait '' ( 1842 ) `` The Masque of the Red Death '' ( 1842 ) `` The Mystery of Marie Rogêt '' ( 1842 ) `` The Pit and the Pendulum '' ( 1842 ) `` The Tell - Tale Heart '' ( 1843 ) `` The Gold - Bug '' ( 1843 ) `` The Black Cat '' ( 1843 ) `` The Spectacles '' ( 1844 ) `` A Tale of the Ragged Mountains '' ( 1844 ) `` The Premature Burial '' ( 1844 ) `` The Oblong Box '' ( 1844 ) `` The Angel of the Odd '' ( 1844 ) `` Thou Art the Man '' ( 1844 ) `` The Purloined Letter '' ( 1844 ) `` Some Words with a Mummy '' ( 1845 ) `` The Thousand - and - Second Tale of Scheherazade '' ( 1845 ) `` The Imp of the Perverse '' ( 1845 ) `` The System of Doctor Tarr and Professor Fether '' ( 1845 ) `` The Facts in the Case of M. Valdemar '' ( 1845 ) `` The Cask of Amontillado '' ( 1846 ) `` Hop - Frog '' ( 1849 ) Essays `` Maelzel 's Chess Player '' ( 1836 ) `` The Philosophy of Furniture '' ( 1840 ) `` Morning on the Wissahiccon '' ( 1844 ) `` The Philosophy of Composition '' ( 1846 ) `` The Poetic Principle '' ( 1846 ) Eureka : A Prose Poem ( 1848 ) Novels The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket ( 1837 ) The Journal of Julius Rodman ( 1840 ) Collections Tamerlane and Other Poems ( 1827 ) Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque ( 1840 ) Play Politian ( 1835 ) Other The Conchologist 's First Book ( 1839 ) The Balloon - Hoax ( 1844 ) The Light - House ( 1849 ) Related Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe ( wife ) Eliza Poe ( mother ) David Poe Jr. ( father ) William Henry Poe ( brother ) Poe Museum Poe Cottage Edgar Allan Poe House and Museum National Historic Site The Penn magazine Death Edgar Award In popular culture film and television music Poe Toaster Tales of Mystery & Imagination BNF : cb421304866 ( data ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Imp_of_the_Perverse_(short_story)&oldid=788643022 '' Categories : Short stories by Edgar Allan Poe 1845 short stories Works originally published in Graham 's Magazine Hidden categories : Pages using deprecated image syntax Articles with LibriVox links Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikisource Čeština Deutsch Español Français Italiano Português Română Русский 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 2 July 2017 , at 16 : 41 . 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what is the primary subsistence crop in latin america

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Subsistence_agriculture&oldid=821728509

Subsistence agriculture - wikipedia Subsistence agriculture Jump to : navigation , search Like most farmers in Africa , this Cameroonian man cultivates at the subsistence level . Subsistence agriculture is a self - sufficiency farming system in which the farmers focus on growing enough food to feed themselves and their entire families . The output is mostly for local requirements with little or no surplus trade . The typical subsistence farm has a range of crops and animals needed by the family to feed and clothe themselves during the year . Planting decisions are made principally with an eye toward what the family will need during the coming year , and secondarily toward market prices . Tony Waters writes : `` Subsistence peasants are people who grow what they eat , build their own houses , and live without regularly making purchases in the marketplace . '' However , despite the primacy of self - sufficiency in subsistence farming , today most subsistence farmers also participate in trade to some degree , though usually it is for goods that are not necessary for survival , and may include sugar , iron roofing sheets , bicycles , used clothing , and so forth . Most subsistence farmers today reside in developing countries , although their amount of trade as measured in cash is less than that of consumers in countries with modern complex markets , many have important trade contacts and trade items that they can produce because of their special skills or special access to resources valued in the marketplace . Subsistence agriculture also emerged independently in Mexico where it was based on maize cultivation , and the Andes where it was based on the domestication of the potato . Subsistence agriculture was the dominant mode of production in the world until recently , when market - based capitalism became widespread . Subsistence horticulture may have developed independently in South East Asia and Papua New Guinea . Subsistence farming continues today in large parts of rural Africa , and parts of Asia and Latin America . In 2015 , about 2 billion people ( slightly more than 25 % of the world 's population ) in 500 million households living in rural areas of developing nations survive as `` smallholder '' farmers , working less than 2 hectares ( 5 acres ) of land . Subsistence agriculture had largely disappeared in Europe by the beginning of World War I , and in North America with the movement of sharecroppers and tenant farmers out of the American South and Midwest during the 1930s and 1940s . As recently as the 1950s , it was still common on family farms in North America and Europe to grow much of a family 's own food and make much of its own clothing , although sales of some of the farm 's production earned enough currency to buy certain staples , typically including sugar ; coffee and tea ; petroleum distillates ( petrol , kerosene , fuel oil ) ; textile products such as bolts of cloth , needles , and thread ; medicines ; hardware products such as nails , screws , and wire ; and a few discretionary items such as candy or books . Many of the preceding items , as well as occasional services from physicians , veterinarians , blacksmiths , and others , were often bought with barter rather than currency . In Central and Eastern Europe subsistence and semi-subsistence agriculture reappeared within the transition economy since about 1990 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Types of subsistence farming 1.1 Shifting agriculture 1.2 Primitive agriculture 1.3 Nomadic herding 1.4 Intensive subsistence farming 2 See also 3 References 4 Further reading Types of subsistence farming ( edit ) Shifting agriculture ( edit ) Main article : Shifting cultivation In this type of agriculture , a patch of forest land is cleared by a combination of felling and burning , and crops are grown . After 2 - 3 years the fertility of the soil begins to decline , the land is abandoned and the farmer moves to clear a fresh piece of land elsewhere in the forest as the process continues . While the land is left fallow the forest regrows in the cleared area and soil fertility and biomass is restored . After a decade or more , the farmer may return to the first piece of land . This form of agriculture is sustainable at low population densities , but higher population loads require more frequent clearing which prevents soil fertility from recovering , opens up more of the forest canopy , and encourages scrub at the expense of large trees , eventually resulting in deforestation and land erosion . Shifting cultivation is called Dredd in India , Ladang in Indonesia , Milpa in Central America and Mexico and Jhumming in North East India . Primitive agriculture ( edit ) While this ' slash - and - burn ' technique may describe the method for opening new land , commonly the farmers in question have in existence at the same time smaller fields , sometimes merely gardens , near the homestead there they practice intensive ' non-shifting '' techniques until shortage of fields where they can employ `` slash and burn '' to clear land and ( by the burning ) provide fertilizer ( ash ) . Such gardens nearer the homestead often regularly receive household refuse , the manure of any household chickens or goats , and compost piles where refuse is thrown initially just to get it out of the way . However , such farmers often recognize the value of such compost and apply it regularly to their smaller fields . They also may irrigate part of such fields if they are near a source of water . In some areas of tropical Africa , at least , such smaller fields may be ones in which crops are grown on raised beds . Thus farmers practicing ' slash and burn ' agriculture are often much more sophisticated agriculturalists than the term `` slash and burn '' subsistence farmers suggest . Nomadic herding ( edit ) In this type of farming people migrate along with their animals from one place to another in search of fodder for their animals . Generally they rear cattle , sheep , goats , camels and / or yaks for milk , skin , meat and wool . This way of life is common in parts of central and western Asia , India , east and south - west Africa and northern Eurasia . Examples are the nomadic Bhotiyas and Gujjars of the Himalayas . They carry their belongings , such as tents , etc ... , on the backs of donkeys , horses , and camels . In mountainous regions , like Tibet and The Andes , Yak and Llama are reared . Reindeer are the livestock in arctic and sub-arctic areas . Ships , goats and camels are common animals and cattle , horses are also important . Intensive subsistence farming ( edit ) In Intensive subsistence agriculture , the farmer cultivates a small plot of land using simple tools and more labour . Climate , with large number of days with sunshine and fertile soils permits growing of more than one crop annually on the same plot . Farmers use their small land holdings to produce enough , for their local consumption , while remaining produce is used for exchange against other goods . It results in much more food being produced per acre compared to other subsistence patterns . In the most intensive situation , farmers may even create terraces along steep hillsides to cultivate rice paddies . Such fields are found in densely populated parts of Asia , such as in The Philippines . They may also intensify by using manure , artificial irrigation and animal waste as fertilizer . Intensive subsistence farming is prevalent in the thickly populated areas of the monsoon regions of south , southwest , and east Asia . See also ( edit ) Cash crop Commercial agriculture Extensive agriculture Hoe - farming Industrial agriculture Opium replacement Subsistence fishing References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Tony Waters . The Persistence of Subsistence Agriculture : life beneath the level of the marketplace . Lanham , MD : Lexington Books . 2007 . Jump up ^ Marvin P Miracle , `` Subsistence Agriculture : Analytical Problems and Alternative Concepts '' , American Journal of Agricultural Economics , May 1968 , pp. 292 - 310 . Jump up ^ Goran Hyden . Beyond Ujamaa in Tanzania : Underdevelopment and an Uncaptured Peasantry . Berkeley : University of California Press . 1980 . Jump up ^ Rapsomanikis , George ( 2015 ) . `` The economic lives of smallholder farmers '' ( PDF ) . Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations . p. 9 . Archived ( PDF ) from the original on 2016 - 05 - 04 . Retrieved 2018 - 01 - 11 . About two - thirds of the developing world 's 3 billion rural people live in about 475 million small farm households , working on land plots smaller than 2 hectares . Jump up ^ Steffen Abele and Klaus Frohberg ( Eds . ) . `` Subsistence Agriculture in Central and Eastern Europe : How to Break the Vicious Circle ? '' Studies on the Agricultural and Food Sector in Central and Eastern Europe . IAMO , 2003 . Jump up ^ `` Agriculture Ecosystems & Environment ( AGR ECOSYST ENVIRON ) '' . Soil erosion from shifting cultivation and other smallholder land use in Sarawak , Malaysia . 4.42 . Further reading ( edit ) Charles Sellers . The Market Revolution : Jacksonian America , 1815 - 1846 . New York : Oxford University Press . 1991 . Howard , Sir Albert . ( 1943 ) An Agricultural Testament . Oxford University Press . Waters , Tony ( 2010 ) . `` Farmer Power : The continuing confrontation between subsistence farmers and development bureaucrats '' / Marvin P Miracle , `` Subsistence Agriculture : Analytical Problems and Alternative Concepts , American Journal of Agricultural Economics , May , 1968 , pp292 - 310 . it is growing crops only for families ( hide ) Simple living Practices Barter Cord - cutting DIY ethic Downshifting Dry toilet Forest gardening Freeganism Frugality Gift economy Intentional community Local currency Low - impact development Minimalism No frills Off - the - grid Permaculture Self - sufficiency Subsistence agriculture Sustainable living Sustainable sanitation Veganism Vegetarianism War tax resistance WWOOF Religious and spiritual Asceticism Aparigraha Cynicism Detachment Distributism Jesus movement Mendicant Mindfulness Monasticism New Monasticism Plain dress Plain people Quakers Rastafari Temperance Testimony of simplicity Tolstoyan movement Secular movements Back - to - the - land Car - free Compassionate living Environmental Hippie Slow Small house Transition town Open Source Ecology Notable writers Wendell Berry Ernest Callenbach G.K. Chesterton Duane Elgin Mahatma Gandhi Richard Gregg Tom Hodgkinson Harlan Hubbard Satish Kumar Helen Nearing Scott Nearing Peace Pilgrim Vicki Robin Nick Rosen Dugald Semple E.F. Schumacher Henry David Thoreau Leo Tolstoy Modern - day adherents Mark Boyle Jim Merkel Suelo Thomas Media `` Anekdote zur Senkung der Arbeitsmoral '' Escape from Affluenza The Good Life The Moon and the Sledgehammer Mother Earth News The Power of Half Small Is Beautiful Walden Related topics Affluenza Agrarianism Anarcho - primitivism Anti-consumerism Appropriate technology Bohemianism Consumerism Deep ecology Degrowth Ecological footprint Food miles Green anarchism The good life Global warming Hedonophobia Intentional living Itinerant Low - technology Nonviolence Peak oil Sustainability Work -- life balance Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Subsistence_agriculture&oldid=821728509 '' Categories : Agriculture Tropical agriculture Agricultural labor Agricultural economics Simple living Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Alemannisch Català Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Français Gaeilge Galego हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk Português Русский Simple English Svenska 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 January 2018 , at 07 : 46 . 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berlin - take my breathe away theme from top gun

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Take_My_Breath_Away&oldid=817704866

Take My Breath Away - wikipedia Take My Breath Away Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the Berlin song . For other uses , see Take My Breath Away ( disambiguation ) . `` Take My Breath Away '' Single by Berlin from the album Top Gun ( soundtrack ) and Count Three & Pray B - side `` Radar Radio '' Released June 15 , 1986 Format 7 '' 12 '' CD cassette single Recorded 1986 Length 4 : 17 Label Columbia Geffen Songwriter ( s ) Giorgio Moroder Tom Whitlock Producer ( s ) Giorgio Moroder Berlin singles chronology `` Dancing in Berlin '' ( 1984 ) `` Take My Breath Away '' ( 1986 ) `` Like Flames '' ( 1986 ) `` Dancing in Berlin '' ( 1984 ) `` Take My Breath Away '' ( 1986 ) `` Like Flames '' ( 1986 ) `` Take My Breath Away '' A sample of Berlin 's `` Take My Breath Away '' from Top Gun soundtrack and Count Three & Pray Problems playing this file ? See media help . `` Take My Breath Away '' is a song written by Italian DJ Giorgio Moroder and Tom Whitlock for the film Top Gun , performed by the band Berlin . It won the Academy Award for Best Original Song , as well as the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song in 1986 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Recording 2 Releases and performances 3 Music video 4 Personnel 4.1 Additional personnel 5 Track listings 6 Charts and sales 6.1 Weekly charts 6.2 Year - end charts 6.3 Certifications 7 Jessica Simpson cover version 7.1 Original 2 - track release 7.2 Australian CD single 7.3 Brazilian Promo CD single 7.4 Remixes and other versions 7.5 Awards and nominations 7.6 Chart performance and certifications 7.7 Charts 7.7. 1 Weekly charts 7.7. 2 Year - end charts 7.7. 3 Certifications 8 See also 9 References 9.1 Notes 10 External links Recording ( edit ) Once Giorgio Moroder wrote the musical backing to what would become `` Take My Breath Away '' , lyricist Tom Whitlock wrote the lyrics driving home from the studio , and then spent a few hours at home polishing them . The demo done with a background singer impressed director Tony Scott and producers Jerry Bruckheimer and Don Simpson , who decided to film more romantic scenes between Tom Cruise and Kelly McGillis to feature the song . The song was originally offered to The Motels ; they released their original demo on their compilation album Anthologyland . Columbia Records suggested some of their signed artists , but eventually Moroder thought of the band Berlin , whose hit song `` No More Words '' he had produced . Whitlock did a few lyrical changes before Terri Nunn recorded the vocals . Moroder said that he is most proud of this song , of all the other hits he has had in his career . Releases and performances ( edit ) `` Take My Breath Away '' was the second single from the Top Gun soundtrack album , following Kenny Loggins ' `` Danger Zone , '' and was released in 1986 as a split single alongside the song `` Radar Radio '' : `` Take My Breath Away ( Love Theme from Top Gun ) '' ( performed by Berlin ) `` Radar Radio '' ( performed by Giorgio Moroder featuring Joe Pizzulo , written by Giorgio Moroder and Tom Whitlock ) The song peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 , and also topped the charts in Canada , the United Kingdom , The Netherlands , the Republic of Ireland and Belgium . `` Take My Breath Away '' is available on both the original Top Gun soundtrack album and the expanded edition . The song was also featured in several of the band 's best - of and remix albums : Best of Berlin 1979 -- 1988 , Master Series , Greatest Hits Remixed ( which includes a `` Mission UK Remix '' version ) , Live : Sacred & Profane and Metro Greatest Hits . `` Take My Breath Away '' was one of the only songs not written by Berlin 's John Crawford that they had performed on any album up to that point . `` Take My Breath Away '' was re-released in the United Kingdom in October 1990 to coincide with the first television showing of Top Gun ( by ITV , on the evening of October 6 , 1990 ) as well as Peugeot 's new television advertising campaign for the 405 model range . The re-release reached number three on the UK Singles Chart . Music video ( edit ) The music video features scenes from the film Top Gun intermingled with Berlin 's singer Terri Nunn performing the song in blue coveralls walking between pieces of planes in a windy aircraft boneyard ( part of the Mojave Air & Space Port ) at night . Bandmates John Crawford and Rob Brill are shown relaxing in the yard and then following Terri . This video clip can be seen occasionally in VH1 Europe 's Top 10 Movie Soundtracks program . This video was re-released within the 2004 Top Gun DVD Collector 's Edition . Personnel ( edit ) Terri Nunn : vocals Ric Olsen : lead guitar David Diamond : rhythm guitars Matt Reid : synthesizers John Crawford : bass Rob Brill : drums , percussion Additional personnel ( edit ) Luís Jardim , Osamu Kitajima , Masakazu Yoshizawa : percussion Richard Niles : orchestral arrangements Art Damage Choir , John Batdorf , William Batstone , Lance Ellington , George Merrill , Tessa Niles : additional backing vocals Track listings ( edit ) 12 '' `` Take My Breath Away '' -- 4 : 13 `` Radar Radio '' by Giorgio Moroder featuring Joe Pizzulo -- 3 : 40 UK release `` Take My Breath Away '' -- 4 : 13 `` Danger Zone '' by Kenny Loggins -- 3 : 36 Charts and sales ( edit ) Weekly charts ( edit ) Chart ( 1986 -- 90 ) Peak position Australia ( Kent Music Report ) Austria ( Ö3 Austria Top 40 ) Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Flanders ) Canada ( RPM ) Top Singles Canada Adult Contemporary ( RPM ) Finland ( Suomen virallinen lista ) 15 France ( SNEP ) Germany ( Official German Charts ) Ireland ( IRMA ) Italy ( FIMI ) 5 Netherlands ( Dutch Top 40 ) New Zealand ( Recorded Music NZ ) Norway ( VG - lista ) Spain ( AFYVE ) Sweden ( Sverigetopplistan ) Switzerland ( Schweizer Hitparade ) UK Singles ( Official Charts Company ) US Billboard Hot 100 US Billboard Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks US Cash Box Top 100 Chart ( 1988 -- 90 ) Peak position UK Singles Chart 52 Chart ( 1990 ) Peak position Irish Singles Chart 7 UK Singles Chart Year - end charts ( edit ) Chart ( 1986 -- 90 ) Rank Australia KMR 6 Canada RPM Top Singles 23 UK 5 US Billboard Hot 100 27 US Cash Box 21 Certifications ( edit ) Region Certification Certified units / Sales Canada ( Music Canada ) Gold 50,000 France ( SNEP ) Gold 500,000 United Kingdom ( BPI ) Silver 200,000 United States ( RIAA ) Gold 500,000 sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone Jessica Simpson cover version ( edit ) `` Take My Breath Away '' Single by Jessica Simpson from the album In This Skin : Collector 's Edition Released March 7 , 2004 Format CD single Recorded Genre Pop R&B Length 3 : 15 Label Columbia Songwriter ( s ) Giorgio Moroder Tom Whitlock Producer ( s ) Billy Mann Jessica Simpson singles chronology `` With You '' ( 2003 ) `` Take My Breath Away '' ( 2004 ) `` Angels '' ( 2004 ) `` With You '' ( 2003 ) `` Take My Breath Away '' ( 2004 ) `` Angels '' ( 2004 ) Audio sample file help Music video `` Take My Breath Away '' on Youtube.com American singer Jessica Simpson covered `` Take My Breath Away '' and released it as the third single from the album In This Skin in 2004 . Her version was produced by Billy Mann . Simpson chose to cover this song because she felt that it was the theme song of her relationship with her then husband , Nick Lachey . Simpson 's version was also included on the compilation album Now That 's What I Call Music ! 16 ( from the US Now ! series ) . The remix is seen on Much Dance 2005 . It also received heavy airplay on Mainstream Urban stations . Original 2 - track release ( edit ) `` Take My Breath Away '' `` Fly '' Australian CD single ( edit ) `` Take My Breath Away '' `` With You '' ( Acoustic Version ) `` Take My Breath Away '' ( Eddie Baez Late Night Club Mix ) `` Take My Breath Away '' ( Passengerz Hourglass Mix ) `` Take My Breath Away '' ( Video ) Brazilian Promo CD single ( edit ) `` Take My Breath Away '' `` Take My Breath Away '' ( Eddie Baez Late Night Club Mix ) `` Take My Breath Away '' ( Eddie Baez Late Night Dub Mix ) `` Take My Breath Away '' ( Passengerz Hourglass Mix ) Remixes and other versions ( edit ) `` Take My Breath Away '' ( Album Version ) `` Take My Breath Away '' ( Eddie Baez Night Dub Mix ) `` Take My Breath Away '' ( Orangefuzzz Club Mix ) `` Take My Breath Away '' ( Passengerz Hourglass Mix ) `` Take My Breath Away '' ( Eddie Baez Late Night Club Mix ) Awards and nominations ( edit ) Year Award Work Result Teen Choice Awards Choice Music : Love Song `` Take My Breath Away '' Nominated 2005 People 's Choice Awards Favorite Remake `` Take My Breath Away '' Nominated Groovevolt Music and Fashion Awards Best Song Performance -- Female `` Take My Breath Away '' Nominated Chart performance and certifications ( edit ) `` Take My Breath Away '' became a number - twenty hit on the Billboard Hot 100 , as well as a top ten hit on the Top 40 Tracks and the Top 40 Mainstream charts . The song also became another number - one hit for Simpson on the Hot 100 Singles Sales . Although the song did not break records of any sorts , it performed decently on the other tracks it charted on : the Adult Top 40 , the Adult Contemporary , the Hot 100 Airplay , the Hot Dance Club Play , and the Hot Digital Tracks . In late 2005 it received a gold certification by the RIAA . Charts ( edit ) Weekly charts ( edit ) Chart ( 2004 ) Peak position Australia ( ARIA ) 15 Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Wallonia ) 16 Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Flanders ) 32 Brazil ( ABPD ) 34 Canada ( Canadian Singles Chart ) 10 France ( SNEP ) 18 Italy ( FIMI ) 41 Japan ( Oricon ) 59 Sweden ( Sverigetopplistan ) 43 UK ( Official Charts Company ) 159 Ukraine ( FDR Charts ) 6 US Billboard Hot 100 20 US Mainstream Top 40 ( Billboard ) 8 US Dance Club Songs ( Billboard ) 10 US Adult Top 40 ( Billboard ) 29 US Adult Contemporary ( Billboard ) 23 Venezuela Pop Rock ( Record Report ) 16 Year - end charts ( edit ) Country Rank Australian Singles Chart 99 Belgium Ultratop Singles 58 US Hot 100 Singles Sales 11 Certifications ( edit ) Country Certification Australia Gold United States Gold See also ( edit ) List of Dutch Top 40 number - one singles of 1986 List of number - one singles of 1986 ( Ireland ) List of number - one singles from the 1980s ( UK ) List of Hot 100 number - one singles of 1986 ( U.S. ) References ( edit ) Top Gun Soundtrack Extended Edition Booklet Notes ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Roberts , David ( 2006 ) . British Hit Singles & Albums ( 19th ed . ) . London : Guinness World Records Limited . p. 136 . ISBN 1 - 904994 - 10 - 5 . ^ Jump up to : Back to the 80s : Interview with Tom Whitlock , co-writer of ' Take My Breath Away ' & more -- Kickin ' it Old School Jump up ^ `` Liner notes of Martha Davis and The Motels : Anthologyland '' . Jump up ^ http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2015/s4253475.htm Jump up ^ 1 maart 2007 . `` peugeot 405 '' . YouTube . Retrieved 2009 - 10 - 18 . Jump up ^ Top Gun Soundtrack : Take My Breath Away Video http://www.topgunsoundtrack.com/Take_My_Breath_Away.html#Video Jump up ^ `` australian-charts.com - Forum - Top 100 End of Year AMR Charts - 1980s ( ARIA Charts : Special Occasion Charts ) '' . Retrieved 9 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Austriancharts.at -- Berlin -- Take My Breath Away '' ( in German ) . Ö3 Austria Top 40 . Jump up ^ `` Ultratop.be -- Berlin -- Take My Breath Away '' ( in Dutch ) . Ultratop 50 . Jump up ^ `` Item Display - RPM - Library and Archives Canada '' . Collectionscanada.gc.ca . Retrieved 2014 - 05 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` Item Display - RPM - Library and Archives Canada '' . Collectionscanada.gc.ca . Retrieved 2014 - 05 - 02 . Jump up ^ Nyman , Jake ( 2005 ) . Suomi soi 4 : Suuri suomalainen listakirja ( in Finnish ) ( 1st ed . ) . Helsinki : Tammi . ISBN 951 - 31 - 2503 - 3 . Jump up ^ `` Lescharts.com -- Berlin -- Take My Breath Away '' ( in French ) . Les classement single . Jump up ^ `` Musicline.de -- Berlin Single - Chartverfolgung '' ( in German ) . Media Control Charts . PhonoNet GmbH . ^ Jump up to : Irish Single Chart Irishcharts.ie . Retrieved September 8 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Italian Single Chart HitparadeItalia . Retrieved November 3 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Nederlandse Top 40 -- Berlin '' ( in Dutch ) . Dutch Top 40 . Jump up ^ `` Charts.org.nz -- Berlin -- Take My Breath Away '' . Top 40 Singles . Jump up ^ `` Norwegiancharts.com -- Berlin -- Take My Breath Away '' . VG - lista . Jump up ^ Salaverri , Fernando ( September 2005 ) . Sólo éxitos : año a año , 1959 -- 2002 ( 1st ed . ) . Spain : Fundación Autor - SGAE . ISBN 84 - 8048 - 639 - 2 . Jump up ^ `` Swedishcharts.com -- Berlin -- Take My Breath Away '' . Singles Top 100 . Jump up ^ `` Swisscharts.com -- Berlin -- Take My Breath Away '' . Swiss Singles Chart . Jump up ^ `` Berlin : Artist Chart History '' . Official Charts Company . ^ Jump up to : Billboard Allmusic.com . Retrieved September 8 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Cash Box Top 100 Singles , September 13 , 1986 Jump up ^ `` Take My Breath Away '' ( 1988 release ) , UK Singles Chart Chartstats.com . Retrieved September 8 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Take My Breath Away '' ( 1990 release ) , UK Singles Chart Chartstats.com . Retrieved September 8 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Forum -- ARIA Charts : Special Occasion Charts -- Top 100 End of Year AMR Charts -- 1980s '' . Australian-charts.com . Hung Medien . Retrieved 13 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Canada , Library and Archives ( 23 May 2017 ) . `` RPM Weekly - Top Singles of 1986 '' . Archived from the original on 23 November 2015 . Retrieved 26 December 2016 . Jump up ^ http://www.uk-charts.top-source.info/top-100-1986.shtml Jump up ^ Musicoutfitters.com Jump up ^ Cash Box Year - End Charts : Top 100 Pop Singles , December 27 , 1986 Jump up ^ Canada certifications `` Canadian single certifications -- Berlin -- Take My Breath Away '' . Music Canada . Jump up ^ French certifications `` French single certifications -- Berlin -- Take My Breath Away '' ( in French ) . InfoDisc . Select BERLIN and click OK Jump up ^ UK certifications `` British single certifications -- Berlin -- Take My Breath Away '' . British Phonographic Industry . Enter Take My Breath Away in the search field and then press Enter . Jump up ^ U.S. certifications `` American single certifications -- Berlin -- Take My Breath Away '' . Recording Industry Association of America . If necessary , click Advanced , then click Format , then select Single , then click SEARCH Jump up ^ `` ® R&R : : Going For Adds TM : : CHR / Top 40 '' . Gfa.radioandrecords.com. 2004 - 03 - 07 . Archived from the original on 2013 - 06 - 22 . Retrieved 2014 - 05 - 02 . Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20080313200459/http://www.moono.com/news/news00420.html Jump up ^ http://www.peopleschoice.com/pca/awards/nominees/index.jsp?year=2005 Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 2014 - 11 - 15 . Retrieved 2014 - 11 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` Australian-charts.com -- Jessica Simpson -- Take My Breath Away '' . ARIA Top 50 Singles . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Ultratop.be -- Jessica Simpson -- Take My Breath Away '' ( in French ) . Ultratop 50 . Jump up ^ `` Ultratop.be -- Jessica Simpson -- Take My Breath Away '' ( in Dutch ) . Ultratop 50 . Retrieved 2011 - 01 - 16 . Jump up ^ `` Brazil '' ( PDF ) . ABPD . May 8 , 2004 . Retrieved March 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Canadian Singles Chart '' . Billboard . Retrieved 2016 - 12 - 12 . Jump up ^ `` Lescharts.com -- Jessica Simpson -- Take My Breath Away '' ( in French ) . Les classement single . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Italiancharts.com -- Jessica Simpson -- Take My Breath Away '' . Top Digital Download . Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Jessica Simpson - Take My Breath Away Tokyo Hot 100 - Search : 2004 - 06 - 03 '' . Oricon. 2004 - 06 - 03 . Retrieved October 8 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Swedishcharts.com -- Jessica Simpson -- Take My Breath Away '' . Singles Top 100 . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Chart Log UK - DJ S -- The System Of Life '' . Zobbel.de . Retrieved 27 July 2016 . Jump up ^ `` ФДР - Радіо - Розсилки '' . Fdr.com.ua . Archived from the original on 2014 - 05 - 05 . Retrieved 2014 - 05 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` Jessica Simpson Chart History ( Hot 100 ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Jessica Simpson Chart History ( Pop Songs ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Jessica Simpson Chart History ( Dance Club Songs ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Jessica Simpson Chart History ( Adult Pop Songs ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Jessica Simpson Chart History ( Adult Contemporary ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Pop Rock '' ( in Spanish ) . Record Report . 2004 - 05 - 15 . Archived from the original on 2006 - 07 - 16 . Retrieved 2017 - 03 - 31 . Jump up ^ Australian Recording Industry Association ( 2004 ) . `` ARIA Annual Chart '' . Retrieved June 4 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Ultratop ( 2004 ) . `` Ultratop Annual '' . Retrieved October 4 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Billboard.BIZ ( 2004 ) . `` Year End Chart '' . Retrieved October 4 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` ARIA Charts - Accreditations - 2004 Singles '' . Aria.com.au . Retrieved 2012 - 06 - 23 . External links ( edit ) Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics Preceded by `` Venus '' by Bananarama U.S. Billboard Hot 100 number - one single September 6 , 1986 -- September 13 , 1986 Succeeded by `` Stuck with You '' by Huey Lewis and the News Preceded by `` Every Loser Wins '' by Nick Berry UK number one single 8 November 1986 ( for three weeks ) Succeeded by `` The Final Countdown '' by Europe Berlin Terri Nunn Dave Schulz Carlton Bost Chris Olivas John Crawford David Diamond Ric Olsen Matt Reid Rod Learned Rob Brill Virginia Macolino Dan Van Patten Chris Ruiz - Velasco Studio albums Information Pleasure Victim Love Life Count Three & Pray Singles `` Sex ( I 'm A ... ) '' `` The Metro '' `` No More Words '' `` Take My Breath Away '' `` Like Flames '' Compilations Best of Berlin 1979 - 1988 Related articles Discography The Big F Top Gun soundtrack Original release `` Danger Zone '' ( Kenny Loggins ) `` Mighty Wings '' ( Cheap Trick ) `` Playing with the Boys '' ( Kenny Loggins ) `` Lead Me On '' ( Teena Marie ) `` Take My Breath Away ( Love Theme from Top Gun ) ( Berlin ) `` Hot Summer Nights '' ( Miami Sound Machine ) `` Heaven in Your Eyes '' ( Loverboy ) `` Through the Fire '' ( Larry Greene ) `` Destination Unknown '' ( Marietta ) `` Top Gun Anthem '' ( Harold Faltermeyer & Steve Stevens ) 1999 Special Edition bonus tracks `` ( Sittin ' on ) the Dock of the Bay '' ( Otis Redding ) `` Memories '' ( Harold Faltermeyer ) `` Great Balls of Fire '' ( Jerry Lee Lewis ) `` You 've Lost That Lovin ' Feelin ' '' ( The Righteous Brothers ) `` Playing with the Boys '' ( 12 '' Version ) ( Kenny Loggins ) 2006 Deluxe Edition bonus tracks `` Ca n't Fight This Feeling '' ( REO Speedwagon ) `` Broken Wings '' ( Mr. Mister ) `` The Final Countdown '' ( Europe ) `` Nothing 's Gonna Stop Us Now '' ( Starship ) `` The Power of Love '' ( Jennifer Rush ) Academy Award for Best Original Song 1934 -- 1940 `` The Continental '' Music : Con Conrad Lyrics : Herb Magidson ( 1934 ) `` Lullaby of Broadway '' Music : Harry Warren Lyrics : Al Dubin ( 1935 ) `` The Way You Look Tonight '' Music : Jerome Kern Lyrics : Dorothy Fields ( 1936 ) `` Sweet Leilani '' Music and lyrics : Harry Owens ( 1937 ) `` Thanks for the Memory '' Music : Ralph Rainger Lyrics : Leo Robin ( 1938 ) `` Over the Rainbow '' Music : Harold Arlen Lyrics : E.Y. Harburg ( 1939 ) `` When You Wish upon a Star '' Music : Leigh Harline Lyrics : Ned Washington ( 1940 ) 1941 -- 1950 `` The Last Time I Saw Paris '' Music : Jerome Kern Lyrics : Oscar Hammerstein II ( 1941 ) `` White Christmas '' Music and Lyrics : Irving Berlin ( 1942 ) `` You 'll Never Know '' Music : Harry Warren Lyrics : Mack Gordon ( 1943 ) `` Swinging on a Star '' Music : Jimmy Van Heusen Lyrics : Johnny Burke ( 1944 ) `` It Might as Well Be Spring '' Music : Richard Rodgers Lyrics : Oscar Hammerstein II ( 1945 ) `` On the Atchison , Topeka and the Santa Fe '' Music : Harry Warren Lyrics : Johnny Mercer ( 1946 ) `` Zip - a-Dee - Doo - Dah '' Music : Allie Wrubel Lyrics : Ray Gilbert ( 1947 ) `` Buttons and Bows '' Music : Jay Livingston Lyrics : Ray Evans ( 1948 ) `` Baby , It 's Cold Outside '' Music and Lyrics : Frank Loesser ( 1949 ) `` Mona Lisa '' Music and Lyrics : Ray Evans and Jay Livingston ( 1950 ) 1951 -- 1960 `` In the Cool , Cool , Cool of the Evening '' Music : Hoagy Carmichael Lyrics : Johnny Mercer ( 1951 ) `` High Noon ( Do Not Forsake Me , Oh My Darlin ' ) '' Music : Dimitri Tiomkin Lyrics : Ned Washington ( 1952 ) `` Secret Love '' Music : Sammy Fain Lyrics : Paul Francis Webster ( 1953 ) `` Three Coins in the Fountain '' Music : Jule Styne Lyrics : Sammy Cahn ( 1954 ) `` Love Is a Many Splendored Thing '' Music : Sammy Fain Lyrics : Paul Francis Webster ( 1955 ) `` Que Sera , Sera ( Whatever Will Be , Will Be ) '' Music and lyrics : Jay Livingston and Ray Evans ( 1956 ) `` All the Way '' Music : Jimmy Van Heusen Lyrics : Sammy Cahn ( 1957 ) `` Gigi '' Music : Frederick Loewe Lyrics : Alan Jay Lerner ( 1958 ) `` High Hopes '' Music : Jimmy Van Heusen Lyrics : Sammy Cahn ( 1959 ) `` Never on Sunday '' Music and lyrics : Manos Hatzidakis ( 1960 ) 1961 -- 1970 `` Moon River '' Music : Henry Mancini Lyrics : Johnny Mercer ( 1961 ) `` Days of Wine and Roses '' Music : Henry Mancini Lyrics : Johnny Mercer ( 1962 ) `` Call Me Irresponsible '' Music : Jimmy Van Heusen Lyrics : Sammy Cahn ( 1963 ) `` Chim Chim Cher - ee '' Music and lyrics : Richard M. Sherman and Robert B. Sherman ( 1964 ) `` The Shadow of Your Smile '' Music : Johnny Mandel Lyrics : Paul Francis Webster ( 1965 ) `` Born Free '' Music : John Barry Lyrics : Don Black ( 1966 ) `` Talk to the Animals '' Music and lyrics : Leslie Bricusse ( 1967 ) `` The Windmills of Your Mind '' Music : Michel Legrand Lyrics : Alan and Marilyn Bergman ( 1968 ) `` Raindrops Keep Fallin ' on My Head '' Music : Burt Bacharach Lyrics : Hal David ( 1969 ) `` For All We Know '' Music : Fred Karlin Lyrics : Robb Royer and Jimmy Griffin ( 1970 ) 1971 -- 1980 `` Theme from Shaft '' Music and lyrics : Isaac Hayes ( 1971 ) `` The Morning After '' Music and lyrics : Al Kasha and Joel Hirschhorn ( 1972 ) `` The Way We Were '' Music : Marvin Hamlisch Lyrics : Alan and Marilyn Bergman ( 1973 ) `` We May Never Love Like This Again '' Music and lyrics : Al Kasha and Joel Hirschhorn ( 1974 ) `` I 'm Easy '' Music and lyrics : Keith Carradine ( 1975 ) `` Evergreen ( Love Theme from A Star Is Born ) '' Music : Barbra Streisand Lyrics : Paul Williams ( 1976 ) `` You Light Up My Life '' Music and lyrics : Joseph Brooks ( 1977 ) `` Last Dance '' Music and lyrics : Paul Jabara ( 1978 ) `` It Goes Like It Goes '' Music : David Shire Lyrics : Norman Gimbel ( 1979 ) `` Fame '' Music : Michael Gore Lyrics : Dean Pitchford ( 1980 ) 1981 -- 1990 `` Arthur 's Theme ( Best That You Can Do ) '' Music and lyrics : Burt Bacharach , Carole Bayer Sager , Christopher Cross and Peter Allen ( 1981 ) `` Up Where We Belong '' Music : Jack Nitzsche and Buffy Sainte - Marie Lyrics : Will Jennings ( 1982 ) `` Flashdance ... What a Feeling '' Music : Giorgio Moroder Lyrics : Keith Forsey and Irene Cara ( 1983 ) `` I Just Called to Say I Love You '' Music and lyrics : Stevie Wonder ( 1984 ) `` Say You , Say Me '' Music and lyrics : Lionel Richie ( 1985 ) `` Take My Breath Away '' Music : Giorgio Moroder Lyrics : Tom Whitlock ( 1986 ) `` ( I 've Had ) The Time of My Life '' Music : Franke Previte , John DeNicola and Donald Markowitz Lyrics : Franke Previte ( 1987 ) `` Let the River Run '' Music and lyrics : Carly Simon ( 1988 ) `` Under the Sea '' Music : Alan Menken Lyrics : Howard Ashman ( 1989 ) `` Sooner or Later ( I Always Get My Man ) '' Music and Lyrics : Stephen Sondheim ( 1990 ) 1991 -- 2000 `` Beauty and the Beast '' Music : Alan Menken Lyrics : Howard Ashman ( 1991 ) `` A Whole New World '' Music : Alan Menken Lyrics : Tim Rice ( 1992 ) `` Streets of Philadelphia '' Music and lyrics : Bruce Springsteen ( 1993 ) `` Can You Feel the Love Tonight '' Music : Elton John Lyrics : Tim Rice ( 1994 ) `` Colors of the Wind '' Music : Alan Menken Lyrics : Stephen Schwartz ( 1995 ) `` You Must Love Me '' Music : Andrew Lloyd Webber Lyrics : Tim Rice ( 1996 ) `` My Heart Will Go On '' Music : James Horner Lyrics : Will Jennings ( 1997 ) `` When You Believe '' Music and lyrics : Stephen Schwartz ( 1998 ) `` You 'll Be in My Heart '' Music and lyrics : Phil Collins ( 1999 ) `` Things Have Changed '' Music and lyrics : Bob Dylan ( 2000 ) 2001 -- 2010 `` If I Did n't Have You '' Music and lyrics : Randy Newman ( 2001 ) `` Lose Yourself '' Music : Eminem , Jeff Bass and Luis Resto Lyrics : Eminem ( 2002 ) `` Into the West '' Music and lyrics : Fran Walsh , Howard Shore and Annie Lennox ( 2003 ) `` Al otro lado del río '' Music and lyrics : Jorge Drexler ( 2004 ) `` It 's Hard out Here for a Pimp '' Music and lyrics : Juicy J , Frayser Boy and DJ Paul ( 2005 ) `` I Need to Wake Up '' Music and lyrics : Melissa Etheridge ( 2006 ) `` Falling Slowly '' Music and lyrics : Glen Hansard and Markéta Irglová ( 2007 ) `` Jai Ho '' Music : A.R. Rahman Lyrics : Gulzar ( 2008 ) `` The Weary Kind '' Music and lyrics : Ryan Bingham and T Bone Burnett ( 2009 ) `` We Belong Together '' Music and lyrics : Randy Newman ( 2010 ) 2011 -- present `` Man or Muppet '' Music and lyrics : Bret McKenzie ( 2011 ) `` Skyfall '' Music and lyrics : Adele Adkins and Paul Epworth ( 2012 ) `` Let It Go '' Music and lyrics : Kristen Anderson - Lopez and Robert Lopez ( 2013 ) `` Glory '' Music and lyrics : John Stephens and Lonnie Lynn ( 2014 ) `` Writing 's on the Wall '' Music and lyrics : James Napier and Sam Smith ( 2015 ) `` City of Stars '' Music : Justin Hurwitz Lyrics : Benj Pasek and Justin Paul ( 2016 ) Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song ( 1980s ) `` Fame '' Lyrics by Dean Pitchford , Music by Michael Gore ( 1980 ) `` Arthur 's Theme ( Best That You Can Do ) '' Music & Lyrics by Peter Allen , Burt Bacharach , Christopher Cross , & Carole Bayer Sager ( 1981 ) `` Up Where We Belong '' Lyrics by Wilbur Jennings , Music by Jack Nitzsche & Buffy Sainte - Marie ( 1982 ) `` Flashdance ... What a Feeling '' Lyrics by Irene Cara , Keith Forsey , Music by Giorgio Moroder ( 1983 ) `` I Just Called to Say I Love You '' Music & Lyrics by Stevie Wonder ( 1984 ) `` Say You , Say Me '' Music & Lyrics by Lionel Richie ( 1985 ) `` Take My Breath Away '' Lyrics by Tom Whitlock , Music by Giorgio Moroder ( 1986 ) `` ( I 've Had ) The Time of My Life '' Lyrics by Franke Previte , Music by John DeNicola & Donald Markowitz ( 1987 ) `` Let the River Run '' Music & Lyrics by Carly Simon / `` Two Hearts '' Lyrics by Phil Collins , Music by Lamont Dozier ( 1988 ) `` Under the Sea '' Lyrics by Howard Ashman , Music by Alan Menken ( 1989 ) Complete List ( 1960s ) ( 1970s ) ( 1980s ) ( 1990s ) ( 2000s ) ( 2010s ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Take_My_Breath_Away&oldid=817704866 '' Categories : 1986 singles 1995 singles 2004 singles Berlin ( band ) songs Jessica Simpson songs Best Original Song Golden Globe winning songs Best Original Song Academy Award - winning songs Billboard Hot 100 number - one singles European Hot 100 Singles number - one singles Dutch Top 40 number - one singles Irish Singles Chart number - one singles UK Singles Chart number - one singles Music videos directed by Chris Applebaum Songs written by Giorgio Moroder Songs written by Tom Whitlock Pop ballads Song recordings produced by Giorgio Moroder The Flying Pickets songs Songs from Top Gun Columbia Records singles Geffen Records singles 1986 songs 1980s ballads Hidden categories : CS1 Finnish - language sources ( fi ) All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from December 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links CS1 French - language sources ( fr ) CS1 Spanish - language sources ( es ) Articles with hAudio microformats Singlechart usages for Austria Singlechart usages for Flanders Singlechart usages for France Singlechart usages for Germany Singlechart usages for Dutch40 Singlechart usages for New Zealand Singlechart usages for Norway Singlechart usages for Sweden Singlechart usages for Swiss Singlechart usages for UKsinglesbyname Singlechart called without song Singlechart usages for Australia Singlechart usages for Wallonia Singlechart usages for Italy Singlechart usages for Billboardhot100 Singlechart usages for Billboardpopsongs Singlechart usages for Billboarddanceclubplay Singlechart usages for Billboardadultpopsongs Singlechart usages for Billboardadultcontemporary Talk Contents About Wikipedia Dansk Deutsch Español Français 한국어 Հայերեն Italiano Nederlands Polski Português Русский Svenska Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 30 December 2017 , at 02 : 26 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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how hot are coals in a wood fire

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Ember&oldid=762237697

Ember - wikipedia Ember Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Ember ( disambiguation ) . Embers of coal A bonfire in rural Australia , with a large number of embers being blown by the wind . Ember of Charcoal Used for cooking An ember is a glowing , hot coal made of greatly heated wood , coal , or other carbon - based material that remain after , or sometimes precede , a fire . Embers can glow very hot , sometimes as hot as the fire which created them . They radiate a substantial amount of heat long after the fire has been extinguished , and if not taken care of properly can rekindle a fire that is thought to be completely extinguished and can pose a fire hazard . In order to avoid the danger of accidentally spreading a fire , many campers pour water on the embers or cover them in dirt . Alternatively , embers can be used to relight a fire after it has gone out without the need to rebuild the fire - In a conventional fireplace , a fire can easily be relit up to 12 hours after it goes out , provided that there is enough space for air to circulate between the embers and the introduced fuel . They are often used for cooking , such as in charcoal barbecues . This is because embers radiate a more constant form of heat , as opposed to an open fire which is constantly changing along with the heat it radiates . An ember is usually formed when a fire has only partially burnt a piece of fuel , and there is still usable chemical energy in that piece of fuel . Often this happens because the usable chemical energy is so deep into the center that air ( specifically oxygen ) does not reach it , therefore not causing combustion ( carbon - based fuel + O → CO + H O + C + other chemicals involved ) . It continues to stay hot and does not lose its thermal energy quickly because combustion is still happening at a low level . The small yellow , orange and red lights often seen among the embers are actually combustion . There just is not enough combustion happening at one time to create a flame . Once the embers are completely ' burned through ' , they are not carbon as is commonly believed ( carbon burns , and is not normally left behind ) , but rather various other oxidized minerals like calcium and phosphorus . At that point they are normally called ashes . See : Wood ash for more on the residue that is left . Embers play a large role in forest fires . Since embers are typically burnt leaves and thus small and lightweight , they can easily become airborne . During a large fire , with the right wind conditions , embers can be blown far ahead of the fire front , starting spot fires several kilometres away . A number of practical measures can be undertaken by homeowners to reduce the consequences of such an `` ember attack '' that bombards especially wooden structures and starts property fires . See also ( edit ) Spark , an airborne ember References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Protect Your Property - Make your property safe from bushfire '' . Australian Country Fire Authority . Archived from the original on 2008 - 07 - 22 . Retrieved 2008 - 07 - 25 . External links ( edit ) Look up ember in Wiktionary , the free dictionary . Wikimedia Commons has media related to Embers . Firelighting Campfire Bonfire Glossary Components Ember Fire triangle Firewood Spark Tinder Wood ash Wood fuel Topics Autoignition temperature Combustion Friction fire Minimum ignition energy Smouldering Early starters Burning glass ( Solar Spark Lighter ) Fire piston Fire plough Fire - saw Fire striker Flint Hand drill Bow drill Pump drill Modern starters Match Chisquero Black match Electric match Ferrocerium Lighter Blowtorch Other equipment Char cloth Feather stick Fire pan Fire pit Fire ring Matchbook Matchbox Punk Tinderbox Torch Chuckmuck Related articles Arson Control of fire by early humans Native American use of fire Outdoor cooking Firem'n Chit Pyrolysis Pyromania Survival skills Fire portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ember&oldid=762237697 '' Categories : Fire Talk About Wikipedia Bikol Central Brezhoneg Català Deutsch Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español Euskara فارسی Français Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ಕನ್ನಡ Lumbaart Magyar Norsk Occitan Português Русский Tagalog اردو Winaray Žemaitėška 15 more Edit links This page was last edited on 27 January 2017 , at 15 : 07 . About Wikipedia

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compare the composition and function of audit committee in nigeria and united states

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Audit_committee&oldid=822939141

Audit committee - wikipedia Audit committee Jump to : navigation , search The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject . You may improve this article , discuss the issue on the talk page , or create a new article , as appropriate . ( November 2012 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) In a U.S. publicly traded company , an audit committee is an operating committee of the board of directors charged with oversight of financial reporting and disclosure . Committee members are drawn from members of the company 's board of directors , with a Chairperson selected from among the committee members . A qualifying ( cf . paragraph `` Composition '' below ) audit committee is required for a U.S. publicly traded company to be listed on a stock exchange . Audit committees are typically empowered to acquire the consulting resources and expertise deemed necessary to perform their responsibilities . The role of audit committees continues to evolve as a result of the passage of the Sarbanes - Oxley Act of 2002 . Many audit committees also have oversight of regulatory compliance and risk management activities . Not for profit entities may also have an audit committee . Internationally , the audit committee is a committee of the board of directors responsible for oversight of the financial reporting process , selection of the independent auditor , and receipt of audit results both internal and external . The committee assists the board of directors fulfill its corporate governance and overseeing responsibilities in relation to an entity 's financial reporting , internal control system , risk management system and internal and external audit functions . Its role is to provide advice and recommendations to the board within the scope of its terms of reference / charter . Terms of reference and requirements for an audit committee vary by country , but may be influenced by economic and political unions capable of passing legislation . The European Union directives are applied across Europe through legislation at the country level . Although specific legal requirements may vary by country in Europe , the source of legislation on corporate governance issues is often found at the European Union level and within the non-mandatory corporate governance codes that cross national boundaries . Contents ( hide ) 1 Definitions 2 Composition 3 Responsibilities 3.1 Role in oversight of financial reporting and accounting 3.2 Role in oversight of the external auditor 3.3 Role in oversight of regulatory compliance 3.4 Role in monitoring the effectiveness of the internal control process and of the internal audit 3.5 Role in oversight of risk management 4 Impact of the Sarbanes - Oxley Act of 2002 5 History 5.1 Interaction with the Board , and with non-executive Board Members 5.2 Frequency of interaction with management 5.3 Executive sessions 5.4 Evaluation 6 Survey results 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Definitions ( edit ) Institute of Internal Auditors definition : `` The Audit committee refers to the governance body that is charged with oversight of the organization 's audit and control functions . Although these fiduciary duties are often delegated to an audit committee of the board of directors , the ( ... ) Practice Advisory is also intended to apply to other oversight groups with equivalent authority and responsibility , such as trustees , legislative bodies , owners of an owner - managed entity , internal control committees , or full boards of directors '' ( IIA Practice Advisory 2060 - 2 of 2004 ) . In Nigeria , the Audit Committee is defined as a `` Committee of Directors and the enterprises shareholders representatives whose specific responsibility is to review the annual financial statements before submission to the Board of Directors '' . The above definitions are focused on the private sector . A similar definition has been developed by the government auditors in the INTOSAI 's Internal Control Standards : `` A committee of the Board of Directors whose role typically focuses on aspects of financial reporting and on the entity 's processes to manage business and financial risk , and for compliance with significant applicable legal , ethical , and regulatory requirements . The Audit Committee typically assists the Board with the oversight of ( a ) the integrity of the entity 's financial statements , ( b ) the entity 's compliance with legal and regulatory requirements , ( c ) the independent auditors ' qualifications and independence , ( d ) the performance of the entity 's internal audit function and that of the independent auditors and ( e ) compensation of company executives ( in absence of a remuneration committee ) . '' ( Standard INTOSAI GOV # 9100 , `` Internal Control Standards for the Public Sector '' , annex 2 ) `` INTOSAI definition '' ( PDF ) . INTOSAI definition . INTOSAI . Retrieved 1 April 2011 . In India , according to Section 177 ( 1 ) of the Companies Act 2013 , the Board of Directors of every listed company and such other class or classes of companies , as may be prescribed , shall constitute an Audit Committee . As per Rule 6 ( Committees of the Board ) of the Companies ( Meetings of Board and its Powers ) Rules , 2014 , the Board of directors of every listed companies and the following classes of companies shall constitute an Audit Committee and a Nomination and Remuneration Committee of the Board : All public companies having : Paid - up Capital ≥ ₹ 10 Crore ; Turnover ≥ ₹ 100 Crore ; Loans + Borrowings + Debentures + Deposits ≥ ₹ 50 Crore . Composition ( edit ) Usually , membership of the Committee is subject to the maximum number of 6 persons . In the USA , a qualifying audit committee is required for listed publicly traded companies . To qualify , the committee must be composed of independent outside directors with at least one qualifying as a financial expert . European Union , 8th Directive on company law 2006 / 43 / EC : `` Each public - interest entity shall have an audit committee . The Member State shall determine whether audit committees are to be composed of non-executive members of the administrative body and / or members of the supervisory body of the audited entity and / or members appointed by the general meeting of shareholders of the audited entity . At least one member of the audit committee shall be independent and shall have competence in accounting and / or auditing . '' Institute of Internal Auditors best practice : `` The audit committee will consist of at least three and no more than six members of the board of directors ... Each committee member will be both independent and financially literate . At least one member shall be designated as the `` financial expert , '' as defined by applicable legislation and regulation '' . Responsibilities ( edit ) Boards of Directors and their committees rely on management to run the daily operations of the business . The Board 's role is better described as oversight or monitoring , rather than execution . Responsibilities of the audit committee typically include : Overseeing the financial reporting and disclosure process . Monitoring choice of accounting policies and principles . Overseeing hiring , performance and independence of the external auditors . Oversight of regulatory compliance , ethics , and whistleblower hotlines . Monitoring the internal control process . Overseeing the performance of the internal audit function . Discussing risk management policies and practices with management . The duties of an audit committee are typically described in a committee charter , often available on the entity 's website. × European Union : Directive 2006 / 43 / EC , article 41.2 : ( ... ) the audit committee shall , inter alia : ( a ) Monitor the financial reporting process ; ( b ) Monitor the effectiveness of the company 's internal control , internal audit where applicable , and risk management systems ; ( c ) Monitor the statutory audit of the annual and consolidated accounts ; ( d ) Review and monitor the independence of the statutory auditor or audit firm , and in particular the provision of additional services to the audited entity . Public sector : Cf . Standard INTOSAI GOV # 9100 Role in oversight of financial reporting and accounting ( edit ) Audit committees typically review financial statements quarterly and annually in public companies . In addition , members will often discuss complex accounting estimates and judgments made by management and the implementation of new accounting principles or regulations . Audit committees interact regularly with senior financial management such as the CFO and Controller and are in a position to comment on the capabilities of these managers . Should significant problems with accounting practices or personnel be identified or alleged , a special investigation may be directed by the audit committee , using outside consulting resources as deemed necessary . External auditors are also required to report to the committee on a variety of matters , such as their views on management 's selection of accounting principles , accounting adjustments arising from their audits , any disagreement or difficulties encountered in working with management , and any identified fraud or illegal acts . Role in oversight of the external auditor ( edit ) Audit committees typically approve selection of the external auditor . The external auditor ( also called a public accounting firm ) reviews the entity 's financial statements quarterly and issues an opinion on the accuracy of the entity 's annual financial statements . Changing an external auditor typically also requires audit committee approval . Audit committees also help ensure the external auditor is independent , meaning no conflicts of interest exist that might interfere with the auditor 's ability to issue its opinion on the financial statements . European Union : Directive 2006 / 43 / EC , article 41.3 and 41.4 : `` In a public - interest entity , the proposal of the administrative or supervisory body for the appointment of a statutory auditor or audit firm shall be based on a recommendation made by the audit committee . The statutory auditor or audit firm shall report to the audit committee on key matters arising from the statutory audit , and in particular on material weaknesses in internal control in relation to the financial reporting process . '' Role in oversight of regulatory compliance ( edit ) Audit committees discuss litigation or regulatory compliance risks with management , generally via briefings or reports of the General Counsel , the top lawyer in the organisation . Larger corporations may also have a Chief Compliance Officer or Ethics Officer that report incidents or risks related to the entity 's code of conduct . Role in monitoring the Effectiveness of the internal control process and of the internal audit ( edit ) Internal control includes the policies and practices used to control the operations , accounting , and regulatory compliance of the entity . Management and both the internal auditing function and external auditors provide reporting to the audit committee regarding the effectiveness and efficiency of internal control . IIA Practice Advisory : Cf . PA1110 - 1 paragraphs 2 and 3 ( where the `` board '' means `` an organization 's governing body , such as a board of directors , supervisory board , ( ... ) any other designated body of the organization , including the audit committee to whom the chief audit executive may functionally report ) European best practice for the role of the Audit Committee in overseeing internal audit : cf . Role in oversight of risk management ( edit ) Organizations have a variety of functions that perform activities to understand and address risks that threaten the achievement of the organization 's objectives . The policies and practices used by the entity to identify , prioritize , and respond to the risks ( or opportunities ) are typically discussed with the audit committee . Having such a discussion is required for listing on the New York Stock Exchange . Many organizations are developing their practices towards a goal of a risk - based management approach called Enterprise risk management . Audit committee involvement in non-financial risk topics varies significantly by entity . Dr. Ram Charan has argued for risk management early warning systems at the corporate board level . European best practice for the role of the Audit Committee in risk management : cf . Impact of the Sarbanes - Oxley Act of 2002 ( edit ) The Sarbanes - Oxley Act of 2002 increased audit committees ' responsibilities and authority . It raised membership requirements and committee composition to include more independent directors . Companies were required to disclose whether or not a financial expert is on the Committee . Further , the Securities and Exchange Commission and the stock exchanges proposed new regulations and rules to strengthen audit committees . History ( edit ) Below are a few key milestones in the evolution of audit committees : 1939 : The New York Stock Exchange ( NYSE ) first endorsed the audit committee concept . 1972 : The U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission ( SEC ) first recommends that publicly held companies establish audit committees composed of outside ( non-management ) directors . 1977 : NYSE adopts a listing requirement that audit committees be composed entirely of independent directors . 1988 : AICPA issues SAS 61 `` Communication with Audit Committees '' addressing communications between the external auditor , audit committee and management of SEC reporting companies . 1999 : NYSE , NASD , AMEX , SEC and AICPA finalize major rule changes based on Blue Ribbon Committee on Improving the Effectiveness of the Corporate Audit Committee . 2002 : Sarbanes - Oxley Act is passed in the wake of corporate scandals and includes whistleblower and financial expert disclosure requirements for audit committees . Interaction with the board , and with non-executive board members ( edit ) The European Confederation of Institutes of Internal Auditing ( ECIIA ) 's best practice : `` The work of the audit committee can only be valuable if sufficient time is allotted on the board agenda for the audit committee to present the results of its work . The audit committee should also feel that the board is taking appropriate action on its report . '' European Union best practice : Cf . European Parliament resolution of 10 March 2009 on implementation of Directive 2006 / 43 / EC on statutory audits of annual accounts and consolidated accounts ( 2008 / 2247 ( INI ) ) : ' ' '' ( ... ) Stresses that recent experience shows the need for frequent and high - quality interaction within audit committees and between independent directors , supervisory boards and auditors ; and that non-executive board members should consider carefully the possibility of having meetings without executive board members being present . '' ' ' Frequency of interaction with management ( edit ) Many audit committee chairpersons conduct interim calls with key members of management between quarterly meetings . Key contacts may include the CEO , CFO , Chief Auditor , and external audit partner . Many boards also schedule dinners prior to formal meetings that allow informal interaction with management . Some companies also require their boards to spend a certain amount of time learning their operations beyond board meeting attendance . Executive sessions ( edit ) These are formally scheduled private meetings between the audit committee and key members of management or the external auditor . These meetings typically are unstructured and provide the opportunity for the committee to obtain the feedback of these managers in private . A key question audit committee members ask in such sessions is : `` Is there anything you would like to bring to our attention ? '' Evaluation ( edit ) Audit committees should complete a self - evaluation annually to identify improvement opportunities . This involves comparing the committee 's performance versus its charter , any formal guidelines and rules , and against best practices . Such a review is confidential and may or may not include evaluations of particular members . Survey results ( edit ) Various consulting and public accounting firms perform research on audit committees , to provide benchmarking data . Some results are identified below : 54 % of committee members surveyed felt the audit committee was `` very effective , '' while 38 % indicated `` somewhat effective . '' Risk management , internal control , and accounting estimates and judgments were the top priority areas for 2007 . Most audit committees have 3 - 4 members and are usually chaired by persons with experience as a CFO , external auditor , or CEO . Audit committees meet 6 - 10 times per year , either face - to - face or via teleconference , with the former lasting from 1 -- 4 hours and the latter 1 -- 2 hours . Audit committee members devoted 50 -- 150 hours to their responsibilities each year . The percentage of audit committees with oversight responsibility for : IT compliance ( 66 % ) , business continuity ( 50 % ) , and information security ( 45 % ) . 41 % were `` very satisfied '' with the internal audit function , while 52 % were `` somewhat satisfied . '' Two - thirds felt the Chief Internal Audit position was for a professional internal auditor , rather than as a `` stepping stone '' to other roles . 93 % indicated the audit committee was `` somewhat '' or `` much more '' effective since the Sarbanes - Oxley Act was implemented in 2002 . 58 % of committee members were `` somewhat satisfied '' that they understood management 's processes to identify and assess significant business risks . Only 17 % of audit committees had primary responsibility for oversight of non-financial risk ; the full board had this responsibility in 56 % of companies . In a 2011 study , the Council of Europe concluded that : `` The Benchmarking results from a sample of 15 international organisations in Europe show that 11 have an audit committee ( of which the name may vary from Audit Committee , Advisory Committee on Audits , Audit Advisory Board , Audit Progress Committee , Finance and Audit Committee , Independent Advisory Oversight Committee , Independent Audit Advisory Committee of Experts ) and in seven , the Audit committee plays a role in the selection of the External Auditor '' . A 2009 study on 23 international organisations showed that 10 had an Audit Committee and 3 considered having one in future , with 8 reporting to the Governing Body level and 2 reporting to DG / Executive Director level . The sizes of all Audit Committees were between 3 and 9 members , with 5 committees having a mix of external expert members and internal members . See also ( edit ) Corporate governance ISA 310 Knowledge of the Business References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Prasad , Suresh . `` Audit Committee to be constituted by BOD of specified Company '' . AUBSP . Retrieved 2 February 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` European Directive 2006 / 43 / EC of 17 May 2006 '' . European Commission . Retrieved 12 April 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Sample Audit Committee Charter '' . IIA . Retrieved 6 April 2011 . Jump up ^ AICPA `` The Audit Committee Toolkit '' New York ; 2004 . Jump up ^ `` CPA Journal AC Responsibilities '' . Nysscpa.org . Retrieved 2011 - 10 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` Sample Charter '' . Dell.com . Retrieved 2011 - 10 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` INTOSAI definition '' ( PDF ) . INTOSAI definition . INTOSAI . Retrieved 1 April 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Audit Committee Effectiveness : What Works Best - 2nd Edition . '' Institute of Internal Auditors and Price Waterhouse . Altamonte Springs , FLA ; 2000 . ^ Jump up to : `` ECIIA Guidance on the 8th EU Company Law Directive '' ( PDF ) . www.eciia.eu . Retrieved 12 April 2011 . Jump up ^ Charan , Ram ( 2005 ) . Boards That Deliver . Jossey Bass . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7879 - 7139 - 7 . ^ Jump up to : `` KPMG AC Journey 2005 - 2006 '' ( PDF ) . Kpmg.com . Retrieved 2011 - 10 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` Audit Committee Effectiveness : What Works Best - 2nd Edition '' Institute of Internal Auditors and Price Waterhouse . Altamonte Springs , FLA ; 2000 . Jump up ^ `` KPMG AC Survey 2007 '' ( PDF ) . Kpmg.com . Retrieved 2011 - 10 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` KPMG AC Study 2008 '' ( PDF ) . Kpmg.com . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2008 - 12 - 07 . Retrieved 2011 - 10 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` Document of 3 / 12 / 10 presented to the CoE Committee of Ministers '' . Council of Europe . Retrieved 11 April 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Benchmarking exercise on Financial Governance '' . eca.europa.eu . Retrieved 11 April 2011 . External links ( edit ) Example of Audit Committee Terms of Reference : at the Council of Europe ( 1 . Guiding principle , 2 . Role of the Committee , 3 . Membership of the Committee , 4 . Terms of appointment , 5 . Rules and procedures , 6 . Access to documents , 7 . Reporting , 8 . Resources ) : wcd.coe.int/wcd/ViewDoc.jsp ? id = 1684131&Site = CM 12 January 2011 . Sample Audit Committee Charter by TheIIA.org Committee Charter Powerpoint presentation on Audit Committee by TheIIA.org : Purpose , Process , and Professionalism. ( 1 ) National Association of Corporate Directors Association of Audit Committee Members , Inc . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Audit_committee&oldid=822939141 '' Categories : Auditing Corporate governance Corporate law Committees Board of directors Hidden categories : Articles with limited geographic scope from November 2012 USA - centric Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch فارسی Italiano עברית नेपाली Polski Português Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 29 January 2018 , at 11 : 15 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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type of volcanic eruption is mostly observed in the philippines

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Types_of_volcanic_eruptions&oldid=819481234

Types of volcanic eruptions - wikipedia Types of volcanic eruptions Jump to : navigation , search `` Eruption '' redirects here . For other uses , see Eruption ( disambiguation ) . `` Volcanic eruption '' and `` Volcanic eruptions '' redirect here . For the short story , see Volcanic Eruption . For the film company , see Volcanic Eruptions . Some of the eruptive structures formed during volcanic activity ( counterclockwise ) : a Plinian eruption column , Hawaiian pahoehoe flows , and a lava arc from a Strombolian eruption . Several types of volcanic eruptions -- during which lava , tephra ( ash , lapilli , volcanic bombs and volcanic blocks ) , and assorted gases are expelled from a volcanic vent or fissure -- have been distinguished by volcanologists . These are often named after famous volcanoes where that type of behavior has been observed . Some volcanoes may exhibit only one characteristic type of eruption during a period of activity , while others may display an entire sequence of types all in one eruptive series . There are three different types of eruptions . The most well - observed are magmatic eruptions , which involve the decompression of gas within magma that propels it forward . Phreatomagmatic eruptions are another type of volcanic eruption , driven by the compression of gas within magma , the direct opposite of the process powering magmatic activity . The third eruptive type is the phreatic eruption , which is driven by the superheating of steam via contact with magma ; these eruptive types often exhibit no magmatic release , instead causing the granulation of existing rock . Within these wide - defining eruptive types are several subtypes . The weakest are Hawaiian and submarine , then Strombolian , followed by Vulcanian and Surtseyan . The stronger eruptive types are Pelean eruptions , followed by Plinian eruptions ; the strongest eruptions are called `` Ultra-Plinian . '' Subglacial and phreatic eruptions are defined by their eruptive mechanism , and vary in strength . An important measure of eruptive strength is Volcanic Explosivity Index ( VEI ) , an order of magnitude scale ranging from 0 to 8 that often correlates to eruptive types . Contents ( hide ) 1 Eruption mechanisms 1.1 Volcanic explosivity index 2 Magmatic eruptions 2.1 Hawaiian 2.2 Strombolian 2.3 Vulcanian 2.4 Peléan 2.5 Plinian 3 Phreatomagmatic eruptions 3.1 Surtseyan 3.2 Submarine 3.3 Subglacial 4 Phreatic eruptions 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Eruption mechanisms ( edit ) Diagram showing the scale of VEI correlation with total ejecta volume . Volcanic eruptions arise through three main mechanisms : Gas release under decompression causing magmatic eruptions Thermal contraction from chilling on contact with water causing phreatomagmatic eruptions Ejection of entrained particles during steam eruptions causing phreatic eruptions There are two types of eruptions in terms of activity , explosive eruptions and effusive eruptions . Explosive eruptions are characterized by gas - driven explosions that propels magma and tephra . Effusive eruptions , meanwhile , are characterized by the outpouring of lava without significant explosive eruption . Volcanic eruptions vary widely in strength . On the one extreme there are effusive Hawaiian eruptions , which are characterized by lava fountains and fluid lava flows , which are typically not very dangerous . On the other extreme , Plinian eruptions are large , violent , and highly dangerous explosive events . Volcanoes are not bound to one eruptive style , and frequently display many different types , both passive and explosive , even in the span of a single eruptive cycle . Volcanoes do not always erupt vertically from a single crater near their peak , either . Some volcanoes exhibit lateral and fissure eruptions . Notably , many Hawaiian eruptions start from rift zones , and some of the strongest Surtseyan eruptions develop along fracture zones . Scientists believed that pulses of magma mixed together in the chamber before climbing upward -- a process estimated to take several thousands of years . But Columbia University volcanologists found that the eruption of Costa Rica 's Irazú Volcano in 1963 was likely triggered by magma that took a nonstop route from the mantle over just a few months . Volcanic Explosivity Index ( edit ) See also : List of largest volcanic eruptions The volcanic explosivity index ( commonly shortened to VEI ) is a scale , from 0 to 8 , for measuring the strength of eruptions . It is used by the Smithsonian Institution 's Global Volcanism Program in assessing the impact of historic and prehistoric lava flows . It operates in a way similar to the Richter scale for earthquakes , in that each interval in value represents a tenfold increasing in magnitude ( it is logarithmic ) . The vast majority of volcanic eruptions are of VEIs between 0 and 2 . Volcanic eruptions by VEI index VEI Plume height Eruptive volume * Eruption type Frequency * * Example 0 < 100 m ( 330 ft ) 1,000 m ( 35,300 cu ft ) Hawaiian Continuous Kilauea 100 -- 1,000 m ( 300 -- 3,300 ft ) 10,000 m ( 353,000 cu ft ) Hawaiian / Strombolian Fortnightly Stromboli 1 -- 5 km ( 1 -- 3 mi ) 1,000,000 m ( 35,300,000 cu ft ) Strombolian / Vulcanian Monthly Galeras ( 1992 ) 3 -- 15 km ( 2 -- 9 mi ) 10,000,000 m ( 353,000,000 cu ft ) Vulcanian 3 months Nevado del Ruiz ( 1985 ) 10 -- 25 km ( 6 -- 16 mi ) 100,000,000 m ( 0.024 cu mi ) Vulcanian / Peléan 18 months Eyjafjallajökull ( 2010 ) 5 > 25 km ( 16 mi ) 1 km ( 0.24 cu mi ) Plinian 10 -- 15 years Mount St. Helens ( 1980 ) 6 > 25 km ( 16 mi ) 10 km ( 2 cu mi ) Plinian / Ultra-Plinian 50 -- 100 years Santa Maria ( 1902 ) 7 > 25 km ( 16 mi ) 100 km ( 20 cu mi ) Ultra-Plinian 500 -- 1000 years Tambora ( 1815 ) 8 > 25 km ( 16 mi ) 1,000 km ( 200 cu mi ) Supervolcanic 50,000 + years Lake Toba ( 74 k.y.a. ) * This is the minimum eruptive volume necessary for the eruption to be considered within the category . * * Values are a rough estimate . They indicate the frequencies for volcanoes of that magnitude OR HIGHER † There is a discontinuity between the 1st and 2nd VEI level ; instead of increasing by a magnitude of 10 , the value increases by a magnitude of 100 ( from 10,000 to 1,000,000 ) . Magmatic eruptions ( edit ) Magmatic eruptions produce juvenile clasts during explosive decompression from gas release . They range in intensity from the relatively small lava fountains on Hawaii to catastrophic Ultra-Plinian eruption columns more than 30 km ( 19 mi ) high , bigger than the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 that buried Pompeii . Hawaiian ( edit ) Main article : Hawaiian eruption Diagram of a Hawaiian eruption . ( key : 1 . Ash plume 2 . Lava fountain 3 . Crater 4 . Lava lake 5 . Fumaroles 6 . Lava flow 7 . Layers of lava and ash 8 . Stratum 9 . Sill 10 . Magma conduit 11 . Magma chamber 12 . Dike ) Click for larger version . Hawaiian eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption , named after the Hawaiian volcanoes with which this eruptive type is hallmark . Hawaiian eruptions are the calmest types of volcanic events , characterized by the effusive eruption of very fluid basalt - type lavas with low gaseous content . The volume of ejected material from Hawaiian eruptions is less than half of that found in other eruptive types . Steady production of small amounts of lava builds up the large , broad form of a shield volcano . Eruptions are not centralized at the main summit as with other volcanic types , and often occur at vents around the summit and from fissure vents radiating out of the center . Hawaiian eruptions often begin as a line of vent eruptions along a fissure vent , a so - called `` curtain of fire . '' These die down as the lava begins to concentrate at a few of the vents . Central - vent eruptions , meanwhile , often take the form of large lava fountains ( both continuous and sporadic ) , which can reach heights of hundreds of meters or more . The particles from lava fountains usually cool in the air before hitting the ground , resulting in the accumulation of cindery scoria fragments ; however , when the air is especially thick with clasts , they can not cool off fast enough due to the surrounding heat , and hit the ground still hot , the accumulation of which forms spatter cones . If eruptive rates are high enough , they may even form splatter - fed lava flows . Hawaiian eruptions are often extremely long lived ; Puʻu ʻŌʻō , a cinder cone of Kilauea , has been erupting continuously since 1983 . Another Hawaiian volcanic feature is the formation of active lava lakes , self - maintaining pools of raw lava with a thin crust of semi-cooled rock ; there are currently only 5 such lakes in the world , and the one at Kīlauea 's Kupaianaha vent is one of them . Ropey pahoehoe lava from Kilauea , Hawai ʻi . Flows from Hawaiian eruptions are basaltic , and can be divided into two types by their structural characteristics . Pahoehoe lava is a relatively smooth lava flow that can be billowy or ropey . They can move as one sheet , by the advancement of `` toes , '' or as a snaking lava column . A'a lava flows are denser and more viscous than pahoehoe , and tend to move slower . Flows can measure 2 to 20 m ( 7 to 66 ft ) thick . A'a flows are so thick that the outside layers cools into a rubble - like mass , insulating the still - hot interior and preventing it from cooling . A'a lava moves in a peculiar way -- the front of the flow steepens due to pressure from behind until it breaks off , after which the general mass behind it moves forward . Pahoehoe lava can sometimes become A'a lava due to increasing viscosity or increasing rate of shear , but A'a lava never turns into pahoehoe flow . Hawaiian eruptions are responsible for several unique volcanological objects . Small volcanic particles are carried and formed by the wind , chilling quickly into teardrop - shaped glassy fragments known as Pele 's tears ( after Pele , the Hawaiian volcano deity ) . During especially high winds these chunks may even take the form of long drawn - out strands , known as Pele 's hair . Sometimes basalt aerates into reticulite , the lowest density rock type on earth . Although Hawaiian eruptions are named after the volcanoes of Hawaii , they are not necessarily restricted to them ; the largest lava fountain ever recorded formed on the island of Izu Ōshima ( on Mount Mihara ) in 1986 , a 1,600 m ( 5,249 ft ) gusher that was more than twice as high as the mountain itself ( which stands at 764 m ( 2,507 ft ) ) . Volcanoes known to have Hawaiian activity include : Puʻu ʻŌʻō , a parasitic cinder cone located on Kilauea on the island of Hawai ʻi which has been erupting continuously since 1983 . The eruptions began with a 6 km ( 4 mi ) - long fissure - based `` curtain of fire '' on 3 January . These gave way to centralized eruptions on the site of Kilauea 's east rift , eventually building up the still active cone . For a list of all of the volcanoes of Hawaii , see List of volcanoes in the Hawaiian -- Emperor seamount chain . Mount Etna , Italy . Mount Mihara in 1986 ( see above paragraph ) Strombolian ( edit ) Main article : Strombolian eruption Diagram of a Strombolian eruption . ( key : 1 . Ash plume 2 . Lapilli 3 . Volcanic ash rain 4 . Lava fountain 5 . Volcanic bomb 6 . Lava flow 7 . Layers of lava and ash 8 . Stratum 9 . Dike 10 . Magma conduit 11 . Magma chamber 12 . Sill ) Click for larger version . Strombolian eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption , named after the volcano Stromboli , which has been erupting continuously for centuries . Strombolian eruptions are driven by the bursting of gas bubbles within the magma . These gas bubbles within the magma accumulate and coalesce into large bubbles , called gas slugs . These grow large enough to rise through the lava column . Upon reaching the surface , the difference in air pressure causes the bubble to burst with a loud pop , throwing magma in the air in a way similar to a soap bubble . Because of the high gas pressures associated with the lavas , continued activity is generally in the form of episodic explosive eruptions accompanied by the distinctive loud blasts . During eruptions , these blasts occur as often as every few minutes . The term `` Strombolian '' has been used indiscriminately to describe a wide variety of volcanic eruptions , varying from small volcanic blasts to large eruptive columns . In reality , true Strombolian eruptions are characterized by short - lived and explosive eruptions of lavas with intermediate viscosity , often ejected high into the air . Columns can measure hundreds of meters in height . The lavas formed by Strombolian eruptions are a form of relatively viscous basaltic lava , and its end product is mostly scoria . The relative passivity of Strombolian eruptions , and its non-damaging nature to its source vent allow Strombolian eruptions to continue unabated for thousands of years , and also makes it one of the least dangerous eruptive types . An example of the lava arcs formed during Strombolian activity . This image is of Stromboli itself . Strombolian eruptions eject volcanic bombs and lapilli fragments that travel in parabolic paths before landing around their source vent . The steady accumulation of small fragments builds cinder cones composed completely of basaltic pyroclasts . This form of accumulation tends to result in well - ordered rings of tephra . Strombolian eruptions are similar to Hawaiian eruptions , but there are differences . Strombolian eruptions are noisier , produce no sustained eruptive columns , do not produce some volcanic products associated with Hawaiian volcanism ( specifically Pele 's tears and Pele 's hair ) , and produce fewer molten lava flows ( although the eruptive material does tend to form small rivulets ) . Volcanoes known to have Strombolian activity include : Parícutin , Mexico , which erupted from a fissure in a cornfield in 1943 . Two years into its life , pyroclastic activity began to wane , and the outpouring of lava from its base became its primary mode of activity . Eruptions ceased in 1952 , and the final height was 424 m ( 1,391 ft ) . This was the first time that scientists are able to observe the complete life cycle of a volcano . Mount Etna , Italy , which has displayed Strombolian activity in recent eruptions , for example in 1981 , 1999 , 2002 -- 2003 , and 2009 . Mount Erebus in Antarctica , the southernmost active volcano in the world , having been observed erupting since 1972 . Eruptive activity at Erebus consists of frequent Strombolian activity . Stromboli itself . The namesake of the mild explosive activity that it possesses has been active throughout historical time ; essentially continuous Strombolian eruptions , occasionally accompanied by lava flows , have been recorded at Stromboli for more than a millennium . Vulcanian ( edit ) Main article : Vulcanian eruption Diagram of a Vulcanian eruption . ( key : 1 . Ash plume 2 . Lapilli 3 . Lava fountain 4 . Volcanic ash rain 5 . Volcanic bomb 6 . Lava flow 7 . Layers of lava and ash 8 . Stratum 9 . Sill 10 . Magma conduit 11 . Magma chamber 12 . Dike ) Click for larger version . Vulcanian eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption , named after the volcano Vulcano . It was named so following Giuseppe Mercalli 's observations of its 1888 -- 1890 eruptions . In Vulcanian eruptions , intermediate viscous magma within the volcano make it difficult for vesiculate gases to escape . Similar to Strombolian eruptions , this leads to the buildup of high gas pressure , eventually popping the cap holding the magma down and resulting in an explosive eruption . However , unlike Strombolian eruptions , ejected lava fragments are not aerodynamic ; this is due to the higher viscosity of Vulcanian magma and the greater incorporation of crystalline material broken off from the former cap . They are also more explosive than their Strombolian counterparts , with eruptive columns often reaching between 5 and 10 km ( 3 and 6 mi ) high . Lastly , Vulcanian deposits are andesitic to dacitic rather than basaltic . Initial Vulcanian activity is characterized by a series of short - lived explosions , lasting a few minutes to a few hours and typified by the ejection of volcanic bombs and blocks . These eruptions wear down the lava dome holding the magma down , and it disintegrates , leading to much more quiet and continuous eruptions . Thus an early sign of future Vulcanian activity is lava dome growth , and its collapse generates an outpouring of pyroclastic material down the volcano 's slope . Tavurvur in Papua New Guinea erupting . Deposits near the source vent consist of large volcanic blocks and bombs , with so - called `` bread - crust bombs '' being especially common . These deeply cracked volcanic chunks form when the exterior of ejected lava cools quickly into a glassy or fine - grained shell , but the inside continues to cool and vesiculate . The center of the fragment expands , cracking the exterior . However the bulk of Vulcanian deposits are fine grained ash . The ash is only moderately dispersed , and its abundance indicates a high degree of fragmentation , the result of high gas contents within the magma . In some cases these have been found to be the result of interaction with meteoric water , suggesting that Vulcanian eruptions are partially hydrovolcanic . Volcanoes that have exhibited Vulcanian activity include : Sakurajima , Japan has been the site of Vulcanian activity near - continuously since 1955 . Tavurvur , Papua New Guinea , one of several volcanoes in the Rabaul Caldera . Irazú Volcano in Costa Rica exhibited Vulcanian activity in its 1965 eruption . Peléan ( edit ) Main article : Peléan eruption Diagram of Peléan eruption . ( key : 1 . Ash plume 2 . Volcanic ash rain 3 . Lava dome 4 . Volcanic bomb 5 . Pyroclastic flow 6 . Layers of lava and ash 7 . Stratum 8 . Magma conduit 9 . Magma chamber 10 . Dike ) Click for larger version . Peléan eruptions ( or nuée ardente ) are a type of volcanic eruption , named after the volcano Mount Pelée in Martinique , the site of a massive Peléan eruption in 1902 that is one of the worst natural disasters in history . In Peléan eruptions , a large amount of gas , dust , ash , and lava fragments are blown out the volcano 's central crater , driven by the collapse of rhyolite , dacite , and andesite lava dome collapses that often create large eruptive columns . An early sign of a coming eruption is the growth of a so - called Peléan or lava spine , a bulge in the volcano 's summit preempting its total collapse . The material collapses upon itself , forming a fast - moving pyroclastic flow ( known as a block - and - ash flow ) that moves down the side of the mountain at tremendous speeds , often over 150 km ( 93 mi ) per hour . These massive landslides make Peléan eruptions one of the most dangerous in the world , capable of tearing through populated areas and causing massive loss of life . The 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée caused tremendous destruction , killing more than 30,000 people and completely destroying the town of St. Pierre , the worst volcanic event in the 20th century . Peléan eruptions are characterized most prominently by the incandescent pyroclastic flows that they drive . The mechanics of a Peléan eruption are very similar to that of a Vulcanian eruption , except that in Peléan eruptions the volcano 's structure is able to withstand more pressure , hence the eruption occurs as one large explosion rather than several smaller ones . Volcanoes known to have Peléan activity include : Mount Pelée , Martinique . The 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée completely devastated the island , destroying the town of St. Pierre and leaving only 3 survivors . The eruption was directly preceded by lava dome growth . Mayon Volcano , the Philippines most active volcano . It has been the site of many different types of eruptions , Peléan included . Approximately 40 ravines radiate from the summit and provide pathways for frequent pyroclastic flows and mudslides to the lowlands below . Mayon 's most violent eruption occurred in 1814 and was responsible for over 1200 deaths . The 1951 Peléan eruption of Mount Lamington . Prior to this eruption the peak had not even been recognized as a volcano . Over 3,000 people were killed , and it has become a benchmark for studying large Peléan eruptions . Pyroclastic flows at Mayon Volcano , Philippines , 1984 . The lava spine that developed after the 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée Mount Lamington following the devastating 1951 eruption . Plinian ( edit ) Main article : Plinian eruption Diagram of a Plinian eruption . ( key : 1 . Ash plume 2 . Magma conduit 3 . Volcanic ash rain 4 . Layers of lava and ash 5 . Stratum 6 . Magma chamber ) Click for larger version . Plinian eruptions ( or Vesuvian ) are a type of volcanic eruption , named for the historical eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD that buried the Roman towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum and , specifically , for its chronicler Pliny the Younger . The process powering Plinian eruptions starts in the magma chamber , where dissolved volatile gases are stored in the magma . The gases vesiculate and accumulate as they rise through the magma conduit . These bubbles agglutinate and once they reach a certain size ( about 75 % of the total volume of the magma conduit ) they explode . The narrow confines of the conduit force the gases and associated magma up , forming an eruptive column . Eruption velocity is controlled by the gas contents of the column , and low - strength surface rocks commonly crack under the pressure of the eruption , forming a flared outgoing structure that pushes the gases even faster . These massive eruptive columns are the distinctive feature of a Plinian eruption , and reach up 2 to 45 km ( 1 to 28 mi ) into the atmosphere . The densest part of the plume , directly above the volcano , is driven internally by gas expansion . As it reaches higher into the air the plume expands and becomes less dense , convection and thermal expansion of volcanic ash drive it even further up into the stratosphere . At the top of the plume , powerful prevailing winds drive the plume in a direction away from the volcano . 21 April 1990 eruptive column from Redoubt Volcano , as viewed to the west from the Kenai Peninsula . These highly explosive eruptions are associated with volatile - rich dacitic to rhyolitic lavas , and occur most typically at stratovolcanoes . Eruptions can last anywhere from hours to days , with longer eruptions being associated with more felsic volcanoes . Although they are associated with felsic magma , Plinian eruptions can just as well occur at basaltic volcanoes , given that the magma chamber differentiates and has a structure rich in silicon dioxide . Plinian eruptions are similar to both Vulcanian and Strombolian eruptions , except that rather than creating discrete explosive events , Plinian eruptions form sustained eruptive columns . They are also similar to Hawaiian lava fountains in that both eruptive types produce sustained eruption columns maintained by the growth of bubbles that move up at about the same speed as the magma surrounding them . Regions affected by Plinian eruptions are subjected to heavy pumice airfall affecting an area 0.5 to 50 km ( 0 to 12 cu mi ) in size . The material in the ash plume eventually finds its way back to the ground , covering the landscape in a thick layer of many cubic kilometers of ash . Lahar flows from the 1985 eruption of Nevado del Ruiz , which totally destroyed the town of Armero in Colombia . However the most dangerous eruptive feature are the pyroclastic flows generated by material collapse , which move down the side of the mountain at extreme speeds of up to 700 km ( 435 mi ) per hour and with the ability to extend the reach of the eruption hundreds of kilometers . The ejection of hot material from the volcano 's summit melts snowbanks and ice deposits on the volcano , which mixes with tephra to form lahars , fast moving mudslides with the consistency of wet concrete that move at the speed of a river rapid . Major Plinian eruptive events include : The AD 79 eruption of Mount Vesuvius buried the Roman towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum under a layer of ash and tephra . It is the model Plinian eruption . Mount Vesuvius has erupted several times since then . Its last eruption was in 1944 and caused problems for the allied armies as they advanced through Italy . It was the report by Pliny that Younger that lead scientists to refer to vesuvian eruptions as `` Plinian '' . The 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens in Washington , which ripped apart the volcano 's summit , was a Plinian eruption of Volcanic Explosivity Index ( VEI ) 5 . The strongest types of eruptions , with a VEI of 8 , are so - called `` Ultra-Plinian '' eruptions , such as the most recent one at Lake Toba 74 thousand years ago , which put out 2800 times the material erupted by Mount St. Helens in 1980 . Hekla in Iceland , an example of basaltic Plinian volcanism being its 1947 -- 48 eruption . The past 800 years have been a pattern of violent initial eruptions of pumice followed by prolonged extrusion of basaltic lava from the lower part of the volcano . Pinatubo in the Philippines on 15 June 1991 , which produced 5 km ( 1 cu mi ) of dacitic magma , a 40 km ( 25 mi ) high eruption column , and released 17 megatons of sulfur dioxide . Phreatomagmatic eruptions ( edit ) Main article : Phreatomagmatic eruption Phreatomagmatic eruptions are eruptions that arise from interactions between water and magma . They are driven from thermal contraction ( as opposed to magmatic eruptions , which are driven by thermal expansion ) of magma when it comes in contact with water . This temperature difference between the two causes violent water - lava interactions that make up the eruption . The products of phreatomagmatic eruptions are believed to be more regular in shape and finer grained than the products of magmatic eruptions because of the differences in eruptive mechanisms . There is debate about the exact nature of phreatomagmatic eruptions , and some scientists believe that fuel - coolant reactions may be more critical to the explosive nature than thermal contraction . Fuel coolant reactions may fragment the volcanic material by propagating stress waves , widening cracks and increasing surface area that ultimately leads to rapid cooling and explosive contraction - driven eruptions . Surtseyan ( edit ) Main article : Surtseyan eruption Diagram of a Surtseyan eruption . ( key : 1 . Water vapor cloud 2 . Compressed ash 3 . Crater 4 . Water 5 . Layers of lava and ash 6 . Stratum 7 . Magma conduit 8 . Magma chamber 9 . Dike ) Click for larger version . A Surtseyan eruption ( or hydrovolcanic ) is a type of volcanic eruption caused by shallow - water interactions between water and lava , named so after its most famous example , the eruption and formation of the island of Surtsey off the coast of Iceland in 1963 . Surtseyan eruptions are the `` wet '' equivalent of ground - based Strombolian eruptions , but because of where they are taking place they are much more explosive . This is because as water is heated by lava , it flashes in steam and expands violently , fragmenting the magma it is in contact with into fine - grained ash . Surtseyan eruptions are the hallmark of shallow - water volcanic oceanic islands , however they are not specifically confined to them . Surtseyan eruptions can happen on land as well , and are caused by rising magma that comes into contact with an aquifer ( water - bearing rock formation ) at shallow levels under the volcano . The products of Surtseyan eruptions are generally oxidized palagonite basalts ( though andesitic eruptions do occur , albeit rarely ) , and like Strombolian eruptions Surtseyan eruptions are generally continuous or otherwise rhythmic . A distinct defining feature of a Surtseyan eruption is the formation of a pyroclastic surge ( or base surge ) , a ground hugging radial cloud that develops along with the eruption column . Base surges are caused by the gravitational collapse of a vaporous eruptive column , one that is denser overall then a regular volcanic column . The densest part of the cloud is nearest to the vent , resulting a wedge shape . Associated with these laterally moving rings are dune - shaped depositions of rock left behind by the lateral movement . These are occasionally disrupted by bomb sags , rock that was flung out by the explosive eruption and followed a ballistic path to the ground . Accumulations of wet , spherical ash known as accretionary lapilli is another common surge indicator . Over time Surtseyan eruptions tend to form maars , broad low - relief volcanic craters dug into the ground , and tuff rings , circular structures built of rapidly quenched lava . These structures are associated with a single vent eruption , however if eruptions arise along fracture zones a rift zone may be dug out ; these eruptions tend to be more violent then the ones forming a tuff ring or maars , an example being the 1886 eruption of Mount Tarawera . Littoral cones are another hydrovolcanic feature , generated by the explosive deposition of basaltic tephra ( although they are not truly volcanic vents ) . They form when lava accumulates within cracks in lava , superheats and explodes in a steam explosion , breaking the rock apart and depositing it on the volcano 's flank . Consecutive explosions of this type eventually generate the cone . Volcanoes known to have Surtseyan activity include : Surtsey , Iceland . The volcano built itself up from depth and emerged above the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Iceland in 1963 . Initial hydrovolcanics were highly explosive , but as the volcano grew out rising lava started to interact less with the water and more with the air , until finally Surtseyan activity waned and became more Strombolian in character . Ukinrek Maars in Alaska , 1977 , and Capelinhos in the Azores , 1957 , both examples of above - water Surtseyan activity . Mount Tarawera in New Zealand erupted along a rift zone in 1886 , killing 150 people . Ferdinandea , a seamount in the Mediterranean Sea , breached sea level in July 1831 and was the source of a dispute over sovereignty between Italy , France , and Great Britain . The volcano did not build tuff cones strongly enough to withstand erosion , and disappeared back below the waves soon after it appeared . The underwater volcano Hunga Tonga in Tonga breached sea level in 2009 . Both of its vents exhibited Surtseyan activity for much of the time . It was also the site of an earlier eruption in May 1988 . Surtsey , erupting 13 days after breaching the water . A tuff ring surrounds the vent . The fissure formed by the 1886 eruption of Mount Tarawera , an example of a fracture zone eruption . Submarine ( edit ) Main article : Submarine eruption Diagram of a Submarine eruption . ( key : 1 . Water vapor cloud 2 . Water 3 . Stratum 4 . Lava flow 5 . Magma conduit 6 . Magma chamber 7 . Dike 8 . Pillow lava ) Click to enlarge . Submarine eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption that occurs underwater . An estimated 75 % of the total volcanic eruptive volume is generated by submarine eruptions near mid ocean ridges alone , however because of the problems associated with detecting deep sea volcanics , they remained virtually unknown until advances in the 1990s made it possible to observe them . Submarine eruptions may produce seamounts which may break the surface to form volcanic islands and island chains . Submarine volcanism is driven by various processes . Volcanoes near plate boundaries and mid-ocean ridges are built by the decompression melting of mantle rock that rises on an upwelling portion of a convection cell to the crustal surface . Eruptions associated with subducting zones , meanwhile , are driven by subducting plates that add volatiles to the rising plate , lowering its melting point . Each process generates different rock ; mid-ocean ridge volcanics are primarily basaltic , whereas subduction flows are mostly calc - alkaline , and more explosive and viscous . Spreading rates along mid-ocean ridges vary widely , from 2 cm ( 0.8 in ) per year at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge , to up to 16 cm ( 6 in ) along the East Pacific Rise . Higher spreading rates are a probably cause for higher levels of volcanism . The technology for studying seamount eruptions did not exist until advancements in hydrophone technology made it possible to `` listen '' to acoustic waves , known as T - waves , released by submarine earthquakes associated with submarine volcanic eruptions . The reason for this is that land - based seismometers can not detect sea - based earthquakes below a magnitude of 4 , but acoustic waves travel well in water and long periods of time . A system in the North Pacific , maintained by the United States Navy and originally intended for the detection of submarines , has detected an event on average every 2 to 3 years . The most common underwater flow is pillow lava , a circular lava flow named after its unusual shape . Less common are glassy , marginal sheet flows , indicative of larger - scale flows . Volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks are common in shallow - water environments . As plate movement starts to carry the volcanoes away from their eruptive source , eruption rates start to die down , and water erosion grinds the volcano down . The final stages of eruption caps the seamount in alkalic flows . There are about 100,000 deepwater volcanoes in the world , although most are beyond the active stage of their life . Some exemplary seamounts are Loihi Seamount , Bowie Seamount , Davidson Seamount , and Axial Seamount . Subglacial ( edit ) Main article : Subglacial eruption A diagram of a Subglacial eruption . ( key : 1 . Water vapor cloud 2 . Crater lake 3 . Ice 4 . Layers of lava and ash 5 . Stratum 6 . Pillow lava 7 . Magma conduit 8 . Magma chamber 9 . Dike ) Click for larger version . Subglacial eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption characterized by interactions between lava and ice , often under a glacier . The nature of glaciovolcanism dictates that it occurs at areas of high latitude and high altitude . It has been suggested that subglacial volcanoes that are not actively erupting often dump heat into the ice covering them , producing meltwater . This meltwater mix means that subglacial eruptions often generate dangerous jökulhlaups ( floods ) and lahars . The study of glaciovolcanism is still a relatively new field . Early accounts described the unusual flat - topped steep - sided volcanoes ( called tuyas ) in Iceland that were suggested to have formed from eruptions below ice . The first English - language paper on the subject was published in 1947 by William Henry Mathews , describing the Tuya Butte field in northwest British Columbia , Canada . The eruptive process that builds these structures , originally inferred in the paper , begins with volcanic growth below the glacier . At first the eruptions resemble those that occur in the deep sea , forming piles of pillow lava at the base of the volcanic structure . Some of the lava shatters when it comes in contact with the cold ice , forming a glassy breccia called hyaloclastite . After a while the ice finally melts into a lake , and the more explosive eruptions of Surtseyan activity begins , building up flanks made up of mostly hyaloclastite . Eventually the lake boils off from continued volcanism , and the lava flows become more effusive and thicken as the lava cools much more slowly , often forming columnar jointing . Well - preserved tuyas show all of these stages , for example Hjorleifshofdi in Iceland . Products of volcano - ice interactions stand as various structures , whose shape is dependent on complex eruptive and environmental interactions . Glacial volcanism is a good indicator of past ice distribution , making it an important climatic marker . Since they are imbedded in ice , as ice retracts worldwide there are concerns that tuyas and other structures may destabalize , resulting in mass landslides . Evidence of volcanic - glacial interactions are evident in Iceland and parts of British Columbia , and it is even possible that they play a role in deglaciation . Herðubreið , a tuya in Iceland . Glaciovolcanic products have been identified in Iceland , the Canadian province of British Columbia , the U.S. states of Hawaii and Alaska , the Cascade Range of western North America , South America and even on the planet Mars . Volcanoes known to have subglacial activity include : Mauna Kea in tropical Hawaii . There is evidence of past subglacial eruptive activity on the volcano in the form of a subglacial deposit on its summit . The eruptions originated about 10,000 years ago , during the last ice age , when the summit of Mauna Kea was covered in ice . In 2008 , the British Antarctic Survey reported a volcanic eruption under the Antarctica ice sheet 2,200 years ago . It is believed to be that this was the biggest eruption in Antarctica in the last 10,000 years . Volcanic ash deposits from the volcano were identified through an airborne radar survey , buried under later snowfalls in the Hudson Mountains , close to Pine Island Glacier . Iceland , well known for both glaciers and volcanoes , is often a site of subglacial eruptions . An example an eruption under the Vatnajökull ice cap in 1996 , which occurred under an estimated 2,500 ft ( 762 m ) of ice . As part of the search for life on Mars , scientists have suggested that there may be subglacial volcanoes on the red planet . Several potential sites of such volcanism have been reviewed , and compared extensively with similar features in Iceland : Viable microbial communities have been found living in deep ( − 2800 m ) geothermal groundwater at 349 K and pressures > 300 bar . Furthermore , microbes have been postulated to exist in basaltic rocks in rinds of altered volcanic glass . All of these conditions could exist in polar regions of Mars today where subglacial volcanism has occurred . Phreatic eruptions ( edit ) Main article : Phreatic eruption Diagram of a phreatic eruption . ( key : 1 . Water vapor cloud 2 . Magma conduit 3 . Layers of lava and ash 4 . Stratum 5 . Water table 6 . Explosion 7 . Magma chamber ) Phreatic eruptions ( or steam - blast eruptions ) are a type of eruption driven by the expansion of steam . When cold ground or surface water come into contact with hot rock or magma it superheats and explodes , fracturing the surrounding rock and thrusting out a mixture of steam , water , ash , volcanic bombs , and volcanic blocks . The distinguishing feature of phreatic explosions is that they only blast out fragments of pre-existing solid rock from the volcanic conduit ; no new magma is erupted . Because they are driven by the cracking of rock strata under pressure , phreatic activity does not always result in an eruption ; if the rock face is strong enough to withstand the explosive force , outright eruptions may not occur , although cracks in the rock will probably develop and weaken it , furthering future eruptions . Often a precursor of future volcanic activity , phreatic eruptions are generally weak , although there have been exceptions . Some phreatic events may be triggered by earthquake activity , another volcanic precursor , and they may also travel along dike lines . Phreatic eruptions form base surges , lahars , avalanches , and volcanic block `` rain . '' They may also release deadly toxic gas able to suffocate anyone in range of the eruption . Volcanoes known to exhibit phreatic activity include : Mount St. Helens , which exhibited phreatic activity just prior to its catastrophic 1980 eruption ( which was itself Plinian ) . Taal Volcano , Philippines , 1965 . La Soufrière of Guadeloupe ( Lesser Antilles ) , 1975 -- 1976 activity . Soufrière Hills volcano on Montserrat , West Indies , 1995 -- 2012 . Poás Volcano , has frequent geyser like phreatic eruptions from its crater lake . Mount Bulusan , well known for its sudden phreatic eruptions . Mount Ontake , all historical eruptions of this volcano have been phreatic including the deadly 2014 eruption . See also ( edit ) Volcanoes portal List of currently erupting volcanoes List of Quaternary volcanic eruptions Prediction of volcanic activity Timeline of volcanism on Earth References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Heiken , G. & Wohletz , K. Volcanic Ash . University of California Press . p. 246 . Jump up ^ `` VHP Photo Glossary : Effusive Eruption '' . USGS. 29 December 2009 . Retrieved 3 August 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Volcanoes of Canada : Volcanic eruptions '' . Geological Survey of Canada . Natural Resources Canada . 2 April 2009 . 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Retrieved 5 August 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Chadwick , Bill ( 10 January 2006 ) . `` Recent Submarine Volcanic Eruptions '' . Vents Program . NOAA . Retrieved 5 August 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Hubert Straudigal & David A Clauge . `` The Geological History of Deep - Sea Volcanoes : Biosphere , Hydrosphere , and Lithosphere Interactions '' ( PDF ) . Oceanography . Seamounts Special Issue . Oceanography Society . 32 ( 1 ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 13 June 2010 . Retrieved 4 August 2010 . Jump up ^ Paul Wessel ; David T. Sandwell ; Seung - Sep Kim . `` The Global Seamount Census '' ( PDF ) . Oceanography . Seamounts Special Issue . Oceanography Society . 23 ( 1 ) . ISSN 1042 - 8275 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 13 June 2010 . Retrieved 25 June 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Glaciovolcanism -- University of British Columbia '' . University of British Columbia . Retrieved 5 August 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Black , Richard ( 20 January 2008 ) . `` Ancient Antarctic eruption noted '' . BBC News . Retrieved 5 August 2010 . Jump up ^ Alden , Andrew . `` Tuya or Subglacial Volcano , Iceland '' . about.com . Retrieved 5 August 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Kinds of Volcanic Eruptions '' . Volcano World . Oregon State University . Retrieved 5 August 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Iceland 's subglacial eruption '' . Hawaiian Volcano Observatory . USGS. 11 October 1996 . Retrieved 5 August 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Subglacial Volcanoes On Mars '' . Space Daily . 27 June 2001 . Retrieved 5 August 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Leonid N. Germanovich & Robert P. Lowell ( 1995 ) . `` The mechanism of phreatic eruptions '' . Journal of Geophysical Research . Solid Earth . American Geophysical Union . 100 ( B5 ) : 8417 -- 34 . Bibcode : 1995JGR ... 100.8417 G . doi : 10.1029 / 94JB03096 . Retrieved 7 August 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` VHP Photo Glossary : Phreatic eruption '' . USGS. 17 July 2008 . Retrieved 6 August 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Watson , John ( 5 February 1997 ) . `` Types of volcanic eruptions '' . USGS . Retrieved 7 August 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Phreatic Eruptions -- John Seach '' . Volcano World . Retrieved 6 August 2010 . Further reading ( edit ) Grant Heiken & Kenneth Wohletz ( 1985 ) . Volcanic Ash . University of California Press . p. 258 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 520 - 05241 - 3 . Retrieved 5 August 2010 . A.B. Starostin , A.A. Barmin & O.E. Melnik ( May 2005 ) . `` A transient model for explosive and phreatomagmatic eruptions '' . Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research . Volcanic Eruption Mechanisms -- Insights from intercomparison of models of conduit processes . 143 ( 1 -- 3 ) : 133 -- 51 . Bibcode : 2005JVGR ... 143 ... 133S . doi : 10.1016 / j. jvolgeores. 2004.09. 014 . Retrieved 5 August 2010 . Pyle , D.M. ( January 1989 ) . `` The thickness , volume and grainsize of tephra fall deposits '' . Bulletin of Volcanology. 51 ( 1 ) : 1 -- 15 . Bibcode : 1989BVol ... 51 ... 1P . doi : 10.1007 / BF01086757 . Colleen M. Riley ; William I. Rose ; Gregg J.S. Bluth ( 28 October 2003 ) . `` Quantitative shape measurements of distal volcanic ash '' ( PDF ) . Journal of Geophysical Research . 108 ( B10 ) . Bibcode : 2003JGRB ... 108.2504 R . doi : 10.1029 / 2001JB000818 . William Henry Mathews ( September 1947 ) . `` '' Tuyas , '' flat - topped volcanoes in northern British Columbia `` . American Journal of Science . 245 ( 9 ) : 560 -- 70 . doi : 10.2475 / ajs. 245.9. 560 ... This is the original landmark paper by William Henry Mathews that first described tuyas and subglacial eruptions . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Diagrams of volcanic eruptions . USGS Hawaiian Volcano Observatory ( HVO ) homepage . USGS . Distinguishing eruptive types . How Volcanoes Work . San Diego State University . Types of volcanic eruptions Magmatic Hawaiian eruption Strombolian eruption Vulcanian eruption Peléan eruption Plinian eruption Phreatomagmatic Surtseyan eruption Submarine eruption Subglacial eruption Phreatic Phreatic eruption Other classifications Effusive eruption Explosive eruption Subaerial eruption Lateral eruption Limnic eruption Natural disasters Geological Earthquakes Mass wasting Landslides Mudflows Lahars Ice calving Volcano eruption Avalanches Sinkholes Quicksands Water Flood Coastal flood Flash flood Storm surge Limnic eruption Tsunami Cloudburst Meteotsunami Weather Ice Cold wave Winter storm Thundersnow Ice storm Blizzard Ground blizzard Snowsquall Hail Freezing rain Whiteout ( weather ) Black ice Cryoseism Freezing drizzle Ice dam Ice jacking Jumble ice Heat Droughts Heat waves Heat burst Backdraft Megadrought Torridness Wind Storms Storm surge Dust storm Thunderstorm Severe thunderstorm Supercell Firestorm Gale Sirocco Simoon Haboob Cyclone Mesocyclone Tropical cyclones Extratropical cyclone Subtropical cyclone European windstorm Derechos Atlantic hurricane Typhoon Downdraft Tornado Multiple - vortex tornado Landspout Waterspout Fire whirl Gustnado Dust devil Whirlwind Lightning strike Air - mass thunderstorm Hypercane Microburst Monsoon Fire Wildfires Firestorm Fire whirl Health Outbreak Epidemic Pandemic Famine Space Gamma - ray burst Fast radio burst Cosmic rays ( Ultra-high - energy cosmic ray ) Impact event Meteor shower Particle shower Solar proton event Solar flare Coronal mass ejection Geomagnetic storm Astrophysical jet Kilonova Nova Supernova impostor Pair - instability supernova Supernova Hypernova Quark - nova Stellar collision Galactic collision Galactic merger Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Types_of_volcanic_eruptions&oldid=819481234 '' Categories : Volcanic eruption types Hidden categories : Pages using web citations with no URL Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list Use dmy dates from October 2012 Good articles Talk Contents About Wikipedia Azərbaycanca বাংলা Беларуская Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Español فارسی Français Furlan Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Қазақша Kiswahili Македонски მარგალური Nederlands 日本 語 Polski Português Română Русский Sicilianu Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi தமிழ் Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 9 January 2018 , at 16 : 25 . 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who benefited from the industrial revolution in britain

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Industrial_Revolution&oldid=816711474

Industrial Revolution - wikipedia Industrial Revolution Jump to : navigation , search A Roberts loom in a weaving shed in 1835 . Textiles were the leading industry of the Industrial Revolution and mechanized factories , powered by a central water wheel or steam engine , were the new workplace . The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840 . This transition included going from hand production methods to machines , new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes , the increasing use of steam power , the development of machine tools and the rise of the factory system . Textiles were the dominant industry of the Industrial Revolution in terms of employment , value of output and capital invested ; the textile industry was also the first to use modern production methods . The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain , and many of the technological innovations were British . By the mid-18th century Britain controlled a global trading empire with colonies in North America and Africa , and with some political influence on the Indian subcontinent , through the activities of the East India Company . The development of trade and the rise of business were major causes of the Industrial Revolution . The Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in history ; almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way . In particular , average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth . Some economists say that the major impact of the Industrial Revolution was that the standard of living for the general population began to increase consistently for the first time in history , although others have said that it did not begin to meaningfully improve until the late 19th and 20th centuries . GDP per capita was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of the modern capitalist economy , while the Industrial Revolution began an era of per - capita economic growth in capitalist economies . Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals and plants . The precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians , as is the pace of economic and social changes . Eric Hobsbawm held that the Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the 1780s and was not fully felt until the 1830s or 1840s , while T.S. Ashton held that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830 . Rapid industrialization first began in Britain , starting with mechanized spinning in the 1780s , with high rates of growth in steam power and iron production occurring after 1800 . Mechanized textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe and the United States in the early 19th century , with important centres of textiles , iron and coal emerging in Belgium and the United States and later textiles in France . An economic recession occurred from the late 1830s to the early 1840s when the adoption of the original innovations of the Industrial Revolution , such as mechanized spinning and weaving , slowed and their markets matured . Innovations developed late in the period , such as the increasing adoption of locomotives , steamboats and steamships , hot blast iron smelting and new technologies , such as the electrical telegraph , widely introduced in the 1840s and 1850s , were not powerful enough to drive high rates of growth . Rapid economic growth began to occur after 1870 , springing from a new group of innovations in what has been called the Second Industrial Revolution . These new innovations included new steel making processes , the large - scale manufacture of machine tools and the use of increasingly advanced machinery in steam - powered factories . Contents ( hide ) 1 Etymology 2 Important technological developments 2.1 Textile manufacture 2.1. 1 British textile industry statistics 2.1. 2 Cotton 2.1. 3 Wool 2.1. 4 Silk 2.2 Metallurgy 2.3 Steam power 2.4 Machine tools 2.5 Chemicals 2.6 Cement 2.7 Gas lighting 2.8 Glass making 2.9 Paper machine 2.10 Agriculture 2.11 Mining 2.12 Other developments 2.13 Transportation 2.13. 1 Canals 2.13. 2 Roads 2.13. 3 Railways 3 Social effects 3.1 Factory system 3.2 Impact on women and family life 3.3 Standards of living 3.3. 1 Food and nutrition 3.3. 2 Housing 3.3. 3 Clothing and consumer goods 3.4 Population increase 3.5 Labour conditions 3.5. 1 Social structure and working conditions 3.5. 2 Factories and urbanisation 3.5. 3 Child labour 3.5. 4 Organisation of labour 3.5. 5 Luddites 3.5. 6 Destruction of hand textile production in India , China , etc . 3.5. 7 Effect on cotton production and expansion of slavery 3.6 Impact on environment 3.7 Other effects 4 Industrialisation beyond the United Kingdom 4.1 Continental Europe 4.1. 1 Belgium 4.1. 1.1 Demographic effects 4.1. 2 France 4.1. 3 Germany 4.1. 4 Sweden 4.2 Japan 4.3 United States 5 Second Industrial Revolution 6 Causes 6.1 Causes in Europe 6.2 Causes in Britain 6.3 Transfer of knowledge 6.3. 1 Protestant work ethic 7 Opposition from Romanticism 8 See also 9 References 9.1 Sources 10 External links Etymology The earliest recorded use of the term `` Industrial Revolution '' seems to have been in a letter from 6 July 1799 written by French envoy Louis - Guillaume Otto , announcing that France had entered the race to industrialise . In his 1976 book Keywords : A Vocabulary of Culture and Society , Raymond Williams states in the entry for `` Industry '' : `` The idea of a new social order based on major industrial change was clear in Southey and Owen , between 1811 and 1818 , and was implicit as early as Blake in the early 1790s and Wordsworth at the turn of the ( 19th ) century . '' The term Industrial Revolution applied to technological change was becoming more common by the late 1830s , as in Jérôme - Adolphe Blanqui 's description in 1837 of la révolution industrielle . Friedrich Engels in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 spoke of `` an industrial revolution , a revolution which at the same time changed the whole of civil society '' . However , although Engels wrote in the 1840s , his book was not translated into English until the late 1800s , and his expression did not enter everyday language until then . Credit for popularising the term may be given to Arnold Toynbee , whose 1881 lectures gave a detailed account of the term . Some historians , such as John Clapham and Nicholas Crafts , have argued that the economic and social changes occurred gradually and the term revolution is a misnomer . This is still a subject of debate among some historians . Important technological developments The commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations , beginning in the second half of the 18th century . By the 1830s the following gains had been made in important technologies : Textiles -- mechanised cotton spinning powered by steam or water increased the output of a worker by a factor of around 500 . The power loom increased the output of a worker by a factor of over 40 . The cotton gin increased productivity of removing seed from cotton by a factor of 50 . Large gains in productivity also occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen , but they were not as great as in cotton . Steam power -- the efficiency of steam engines increased so that they used between one - fifth and one - tenth as much fuel . The adaptation of stationary steam engines to rotary motion made them suitable for industrial uses . The high pressure engine had a high power to weight ratio , making it suitable for transportation . Steam power underwent a rapid expansion after 1800 . Iron making -- the substitution of coke for charcoal greatly lowered the fuel cost for pig iron and wrought iron production . Using coke also allowed larger blast furnaces , resulting in economies of scale . The cast iron blowing cylinder was first used in 1760 . It was later improved by making it double acting , which allowed higher blast furnace temperatures . The puddling process produced a structural grade iron at a lower cost than the finery forge . The rolling mill was fifteen times faster than hammering wrought iron . Hot blast ( 1828 ) greatly increased fuel efficiency in iron production in the following decades . Invention of machine tools -- The first machine tools were invented . These included the screw cutting lathe , cylinder boring machine and the milling machine . Textile manufacture Main article : Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution British textile industry Statistics The share of value added by the cotton textile industry in Britain was 2.6 % in 1760 , 17 % in 1801 and 22.4 % in 1831 . Value added by the British woollen industry was 14.1 % in 1801 . Cotton factories in Britain numbered approximately 900 in 1797 . In 1760 approximately one - third of cotton cloth manufactured in Britain was exported , rising to two - thirds by 1800 . In 1781 cotton spun amounted to 5.1 million pounds , which increased to 56 million pounds by 1800 . In 1800 less than 0.1 % of world cotton cloth was produced on machinery invented in Britain . In 1788 there were 50,000 spindles in Britain , rising to 7 million over the next 30 years . Wages in Lancashire , a core region for cottage industry and later factory spinning and weaving , were about one - sixth those in India in 1770 , when overall productivity in Britain was about three times higher than in India . Cotton Parts of India , China , Central America , South America and the Middle - East have a long history of hand manufacturing cotton textiles , which became a major industry sometime after 1000 AD . In tropical and subtropical regions where it was grown , most was grown by small farmers alongside their food crops and was spun and woven in households , largely for domestic consumption . In the 15th century China began to require households to pay part of their taxes in cotton cloth . By the 17th century almost all Chinese wore cotton clothing . Almost everywhere cotton cloth could be used as a medium of exchange . In India a significant amount of cotton textiles were manufactured for distant markets , often produced by professional weavers . Some merchants also owned small weaving workshops . India produced a variety of cotton cloth , some of exceptionally fine quality . The Age of Discovery was followed by a period of colonialism beginning around the 16th century . Following the opening of a trade route to India around southern Africa by the Portuguese , the Dutch established the Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie ( abbr . VOC ) or Dutch East India Company and the British founded the East India Company , along with smaller companies of different nationalities which established trading posts and employed agents to engage in trade throughout the Indian Ocean region and between the Indian Ocean region and North Atlantic Europe . One of the largest segments of this trade was in cotton textiles , which were purchased in India and sold in Southeast Asia , including the Indonesian archipelago , where spices were purchased for sale to Southeast Asia and Europe . By the mid 1760s cloth was over three - quarters of the East India Company 's exports . Indian textiles were in demand in North Atlantic region of Europe where previously only wool and linen were available ; however , the amount of cotton goods consumed in Western Europe was minor until the early 19th century . European colonial empires at the start of the Industrial Revolution . By 1600 Flemish refugees began weaving cotton cloth in English towns where cottage spinning and weaving of wool and linen was well established ; however , they were left alone by the guilds who did not consider cotton a threat . Earlier European attempts at cotton spinning and weaving were in 12th century Italy and 15th century southern Germany , but these industries eventually ended when the supply of cotton was cut off . The Moors in Spain grew , spun and wove cotton beginning around the 10th century . British cloth could not compete with Indian cloth because India 's labor cost was approximately one - fifth that of Britain 's . In 1700 and 1721 the British government passed Calico Acts in order to protect the domestic woollen and linen industries from the increasing amounts of cotton fabric imported from India . The demand for heavier fabric was met by a domestic industry based around Lancashire that produced fustian , a cloth with flax warp and cotton weft . Flax was used for the warp because wheel - spun cotton did not have sufficient strength , but the resulting blend was not as soft as 100 % cotton and was more difficult to sew . On the eve of the Industrial Revolution , spinning and weaving were done in households , for domestic consumption and as a cottage industry under the putting - out system . Occasionally the work was done in the workshop of a master weaver . Under the putting - out system , home - based workers produced under contract to merchant sellers , who often supplied the raw materials . In the off season the women , typically farmers ' wives , did the spinning and the men did the weaving . Using the spinning wheel , it took anywhere from four to eight spinners to supply one hand loom weaver . The flying shuttle patented in 1733 by John Kay , with a number of subsequent improvements including an important one in 1747 , doubled the output of a weaver , worsening the imbalance between spinning and weaving . It became widely used around Lancashire after 1760 when John 's son , Robert , invented the drop box , which facilitated changing thread colors . Lewis Paul patented the roller spinning frame and the flyer - and - bobbin system for drawing wool to a more even thickness . The technology was developed with the help of John Wyatt of Birmingham . Paul and Wyatt opened a mill in Birmingham which used their new rolling machine powered by a donkey . In 1743 a factory opened in Northampton with 50 spindles on each of five of Paul and Wyatt 's machines . This operated until about 1764 . A similar mill was built by Daniel Bourn in Leominster , but this burnt down . Both Lewis Paul and Daniel Bourn patented carding machines in 1748 . Based on two sets of rollers that travelled at different speeds , it was later used in the first cotton spinning mill . Lewis 's invention was later developed and improved by Richard Arkwright in his water frame and Samuel Crompton in his spinning mule . Model of the spinning jenny in a museum in Wuppertal . Invented by James Hargreaves in 1764 , the spinning jenny was one of the innovations that started the revolution . In 1764 in the village of Stanhill , Lancashire , James Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny , which he patented in 1770 . It was the first practical spinning frame with multiple spindles . The jenny worked in a similar manner to the spinning wheel , by first clamping down on the fibres , then by drawing them out , followed by twisting . It was a simple , wooden framed machine that only cost about £ 6 for a 40 - spindle model in 1792 , and was used mainly by home spinners . The jenny produced a lightly twisted yarn only suitable for weft , not warp . The spinning frame or water frame was developed by Richard Arkwright who , along with two partners , patented it in 1769 . The design was partly based on a spinning machine built for Thomas High by clockmaker John Kay , who was hired by Arkwright . For each spindle , the water frame used a series of four pairs of rollers , each operating at a successively higher rotating speed , to draw out the fibre , which was then twisted by the spindle . The roller spacing was slightly longer than the fibre length . Too close a spacing caused the fibres to break while too distant a spacing caused uneven thread . The top rollers were leather - covered and loading on the rollers was applied by a weight . The weights kept the twist from backing up before the rollers . The bottom rollers were wood and metal , with fluting along the length . The water frame was able to produce a hard , medium count thread suitable for warp , finally allowing 100 % cotton cloth to be made in Britain . A horse powered the first factory to use the spinning frame . Arkwright and his partners used water power at a factory in Cromford , Derbyshire in 1771 , giving the invention its name . The only surviving example of a spinning mule built by the inventor Samuel Crompton . The mule produced high quality thread with minimal labour . Samuel Crompton 's Spinning Mule was introduced in 1779 . Mule implies `` hybrid '' because it was a combination of the spinning jenny and the water frame , in which the spindles were placed on a carriage , which went through an operational sequence during which the rollers stopped while the carriage moved away from the drawing roller to finish drawing out the fibres as the spindles started rotating . Crompton 's mule was able to produce finer thread than hand spinning and at a lower cost . Mule spun thread was of suitable strength to be used as warp , and finally allowed Britain to produce highly competitive yarn in large quantities . Interior of Marshall 's Temple Works Realising that the expiration of the Arkwright patent would greatly increase the supply of spun cotton and lead to a shortage of weavers , Edmund Cartwright developed a vertical power loom which he patented in 1785 . In 1776 he patented a two - man operated loom which was more conventional . Cartwright built two factories ; the first burned down and the second was sabotaged by his workers . Cartwright 's loom design had several flaws , the most serious being thread breakage . Samuel Horrocks patented a fairly successful loom in 1813 . Horock 's loom was improved by Richard Roberts in 1822 and these were produced in large numbers by Roberts , Hill & Co . The demand for cotton presented an opportunity to planters in the Southern United States , who thought upland cotton would be a profitable crop if a better way could be found to remove the seed . Eli Whitney responded to the challenge by inventing the inexpensive cotton gin . With a cotton gin a man could remove seed from as much upland cotton in one day as would have previously taken a woman working two months to process at one pound per day . These advances were capitalised on by entrepreneurs , of whom the best known is Richard Arkwright . He is credited with a list of inventions , but these were actually developed by such people as Thomas Highs and John Kay ; Arkwright nurtured the inventors , patented the ideas , financed the initiatives , and protected the machines . He created the cotton mill which brought the production processes together in a factory , and he developed the use of power -- first horse power and then water power -- which made cotton manufacture a mechanised industry . Other inventors increased the efficiency of the individual steps of spinning ( carding , twisting and spinning , and rolling ) so that the supply of yarn increased greatly . Before long steam power was applied to drive textile machinery . Manchester acquired the nickname Cottonopolis during the early 19th century owing to its sprawl of textile factories . Although mechanization dramatically decreased the cost of cotton cloth , by the mid-19th century machine woven cloth still could not equal the quality of hand woven Indian cloth , in part due to the fineness of thread made possible by the type of cotton used in India , which allowed high tread counts . However , the high productivity of British textile manufacturing allowed coarser grades of British cloth to undersell hand spun and woven fabric in low - wage India , eventually destroying the industry . Wool The earliest attempts at mechanized spinning were with wool ; however , wool spinning proved more difficult to mechanize than cotton . Productivity improvement in wool spinning during the Industrial Revolution was significant , but was far less that that of cotton . Silk Lombe 's Mill site today , rebuilt as Derby Silk Mill Arguably the first highly mechanised factory was John Lombe 's water - powered silk mill at Derby , operational by 1721 . Lombe learned silk thread manufacturing by taking a job in Italy and acting as an industrial spy ; however , since the silk industry there was a closely guarded secret , the state of the industry there is unknown . Although Lombe 's factory was technically successful , the supply of raw silk from Italy was cut off to eliminate competition . In order to promote manufacturing the Crown paid for models of Lombe 's machinery which were exhibited in the Tower of London . Metallurgy The reverberatory furnace could produce cast iron using mined coal . The burning coal remained separate from the iron ore and so did not contaminate the iron with impurities like sulphur and ash . This opened the way to increased iron production . The Iron Bridge , Shropshire , England , the world 's first bridge constructed of iron . A major change in the metal industries during the era of the Industrial Revolution was the replacement of wood and other bio-fuels with coal . For a given amount of heat , coal required much less labour to mine than cutting wood and converting it to charcoal , and coal was more abundant than wood . In the smelting and refining of iron , coal and to a lesser degree coke produced inferior iron than charcoal because the impurities in coal , at least until solutions to contamination were developed . Use of coal in smelting started somewhat before the Industrial Revolution , based on innovations by Sir Clement Clerke and others from 1678 , using coal reverberatory furnaces known as cupolas . These were operated by the flames playing on the ore and charcoal or coke mixture , reducing the oxide to metal . This has the advantage that impurities ( such as sulphur ash ) in the coal do not migrate into the metal . This technology was applied to lead from 1678 and to copper from 1687 . It was also applied to iron foundry work in the 1690s , but in this case the reverberatory furnace was known as an air furnace . ( The foundry cupola is a different ( and later ) innovation . ) This was followed by Abraham Darby , who made great strides using coke to fuel his blast furnaces at Coalbrookdale in 1709 . However , the coke pig iron he made was used mostly for the production of cast iron goods , such as pots and kettles . He had the advantage over his rivals in that his pots , cast by his patented process , were thinner and cheaper than theirs . Coke pig iron was hardly used to produce wrought iron in forges until the mid-1750s , when his son Abraham Darby II built Horsehay and Ketley furnaces ( not far from Coalbrookdale ) . By then , coke pig iron was cheaper than charcoal pig iron . Since cast iron was becoming cheaper and more plentiful , it began being a structural material following the building of the innovative Iron Bridge in 1778 by Abraham Darby III . Wrought iron for smiths to forge into consumer goods was still made in finery forges , as it long had been . However , new processes were adopted in the ensuing years . The first is referred to today as potting and stamping , but this was superseded by Henry Cort 's puddling process . Cort developed two significant iron manufacturing processes : rolling in 1783 and puddling in 1784 . Rolling replaced hammering for consolidating wrought iron and expelling some of the dross . Rolling was 15 times faster than hammering with a trip hammer . Roller mills were first used for making sheets , but later were developed for rolling structural shapes such as angles and rails . Puddling produced a structural grade iron at a relatively low cost . Puddling was a means of decarburizing pig iron by slow oxidation as the iron was manually stirred using a long rod . The decarburized iron , having a higher melting point than cast iron , was raked into globs by the puddler . When the glob was large enough the puddler would remove it . Puddling was backbreaking and extremely hot work . Few puddlers lived to be 40 . Puddling was done in a reverberatory furnace , allowing coal or coke to be used as fuel . The puddling process continued to be used until the late 19th century when iron was being displaced by steel . Because puddling required human skill in sensing the iron globs , it was never successfully mechanised . Up to that time , British iron manufacturers had used considerable amounts of imported iron to supplement native supplies . This came principally from Sweden from the mid-17th century and later also from Russia from the end of the 1720s . However , from 1785 , imports decreased because of the new iron making technology , and Britain became an exporter of bar iron as well as manufactured wrought iron consumer goods . Hot blast , patented by James Beaumont Neilson in 1828 , was the most important development of the 19th century for saving energy in making pig iron . By using waste exhaust heat to preheat combustion air , the amount of fuel to make a unit of pig iron was reduced at first by between one - third using coal or two - thirds using coke ; however , the efficiency gains continued as the technology improved . Hot blast also raised the operating temperature of furnaces , increasing their capacity . Using less coal or coke meant introducing fewer impurities into the pig iron . This meant that lower quality coal or anthracite could be used in areas where coking coal was unavailable or too expensive ; however , by the end of the 19th century transportation costs fell considerably . Two decades before the Industrial Revolution an improvement was made in the production of steel , which was an expensive commodity and used only where iron would not do , such as for cutting edge tools and for springs . Benjamin Huntsman developed his crucible steel technique in the 1740s . The raw material for this was blister steel , made by the cementation process . The supply of cheaper iron and steel aided a number of industries , such as those making nails , hinges , wire and other hardware items . The development of machine tools allowed better working of iron , causing it to be increasingly used in the rapidly growing machinery and engine industries . Steam power Main article : Steam power during the Industrial Revolution A Watt steam engine . James Watt transformed the steam engine from a reciprocating motion that was used for pumping to a rotating motion suited to industrial applications . Watt and others significantly improved the efficiency of the steam engine . The development of the stationary steam engine was an important element of the Industrial Revolution ; however , during the early period of the Industrial Revolution , most industrial power was supplied by water and wind . In Britain by 1800 an estimated 10,000 horsepower was being supplied by steam . By 1815 steam power had grown to 210,000 hp . The first commercially successful industrial use of steam power was due to Thomas Savery in 1698 . He constructed and patented in London a low - lift combined vacuum and pressure water pump , that generated about one horsepower ( hp ) and was used in numerous water works and in a few mines ( hence its `` brand name '' , The Miner 's Friend ) . Savery 's pump was economical in small horsepower ranges , but was prone to boiler explosions in larger sizes . Savery pumps continued to be produced until the late 18th century . The first successful piston steam engine was introduced by Thomas Newcomen before 1712 . A number of Newcomen engines were installed in Britain for draining hitherto unworkable deep mines , with the engine on the surface ; these were large machines , requiring a significant amount of capital to build , and produced about 5 hp ( 3.7 kW ) . They were also used to power municipal water supply pumps . They were extremely inefficient by modern standards , but when located where coal was cheap at pit heads , opened up a great expansion in coal mining by allowing mines to go deeper . Despite their disadvantages , Newcomen engines were reliable and easy to maintain and continued to be used in the coalfields until the early decades of the 19th century . By 1729 , when Newcomen died , his engines had spread ( first ) to Hungary in 1722 , Germany , Austria , and Sweden . A total of 110 are known to have been built by 1733 when the joint patent expired , of which 14 were abroad . In the 1770s the engineer John Smeaton built some very large examples and introduced a number of improvements . A total of 1,454 engines had been built by 1800 . Newcomen 's steam - powered atmospheric engine was the first practical piston steam engine . Subsequent steam engines were to power the Industrial Revolution . A fundamental change in working principles was brought about by Scotsman James Watt . With financial support from his business partner Englishman Matthew Boulton , he had succeeded by 1778 in perfecting his steam engine , which incorporated a series of radical improvements , notably the closing off of the upper part of the cylinder , thereby making the low - pressure steam drive the top of the piston instead of the atmosphere , use of a steam jacket and the celebrated separate steam condenser chamber . The separate condenser did away with the cooling water that had been injected directly into the cylinder , which cooled the cylinder and wasted steam . Likewise , the steam jacket kept steam from condensing in the cylinder , also improving efficiency . These improvements increased engine efficiency so that Boulton & Watts engines used only 20 -- 25 % as much coal per horsepower - hour as Newcomen 's . Boulton and Watt opened the Soho Foundry for the manufacture of such engines in 1795 . By 1783 the Watt steam engine had been fully developed into a double - acting rotative type , which meant that it could be used to directly drive the rotary machinery of a factory or mill . Both of Watt 's basic engine types were commercially very successful , and by 1800 , the firm Boulton & Watt had constructed 496 engines , with 164 driving reciprocating pumps , 24 serving blast furnaces , and 308 powering mill machinery ; most of the engines generated from 5 to 10 hp ( 3.7 to 7.5 kW ) . Until about 1800 the most common pattern of steam engine was the beam engine , built as an integral part of a stone or brick engine - house , but soon various patterns of self - contained rotative engines ( readily removable , but not on wheels ) were developed , such as the table engine . Around the start of the 19th century , at which time the Boulton and Watt patent expired , the Cornish engineer Richard Trevithick and the American Oliver Evans began to construct higher - pressure non-condensing steam engines , exhausting against the atmosphere . High pressure yielded an engine and boiler compact enough to be used on mobile road and rail locomotives and steam boats . The development of machine tools , such as the engine lathe , planing , milling and shaping machines powered by these engines , enabled all the metal parts of the engines to be easily and accurately cut and in turn made it possible to build larger and more powerful engines . Small industrial power requirements continued to be provided by animal and human muscle until widespread electrification in the early 20th century . These included crank - powered , treadle - powered and horse - powered workshop and light industrial machinery . Machine tools Main article : Machine tool See also : Interchangeable parts Verbruggen 's horizontal boring machine at Woolwich in 1774 Maudslay 's famous early screw - cutting lathes of circa 1797 and 1800 The Middletown milling machine of circa 1818 , associated with Robert Johnson and Simeon North Pre-industrial machinery was built by various craftsmen -- millwrights built water and wind mills , carpenters made wooden framing , and smiths and turners made metal parts . Wooden components had the disadvantage of changing dimensions with temperature and humidity , and the various joints tended to rack ( work loose ) over time . As the Industrial Revolution progressed , machines with metal parts and frames became more common . Other important uses of metal parts were in firearms and threaded fasteners , such as machine screws , bolts and nuts . There was also the need for precision in making parts . Precision would allow better working machinery , interchangeability of parts and standardization of threaded fasteners . The demand for metal parts led to the development of several machine tools . They have their origins in the tools developed in the 18th century by makers of clocks and watches and scientific instrument makers to enable them to batch - produce small mechanisms . Before the advent of machine tools , metal was worked manually using the basic hand tools of hammers , files , scrapers , saws and chisels . Consequently , the use of metal was kept to a minimum . Hand methods of production were very laborious and costly and precision was difficult to achieve . The first large precision machine tool was the cylinder boring machine used for boring the large - diameter cylinders on early steam engines . The planing machine , the milling machine and the shaping machine were developed in the early decades of the 19th century . Although the milling machine was invented at this time , it was not developed as a serious workshop tool until somewhat later in the 19th century . Henry Maudslay , who trained a school of machine tool makers early in the 19th century , was a mechanic with superior ability who had been employed at the Royal Arsenal , Woolwich . He worked as an apprentice in the Royal Gun Foundry of Jan Verbruggen . In 1774 Jan Verbruggen had installed a horizontal boring machine in Woolwich which was the first industrial size Lathe in the UK . Maudslay was hired away by Joseph Bramah for the production of high security metal locks that required precision craftsmanship . Bramah patented a lathe that had similarities to the slide rest lathe . Maudslay perfected the slide rest lathe , which could cut machine screws of different thread pitches by using changeable gears between the spindle and the lead screw . Before its invention screws could not be cut to any precision using various earlier lathe designs , some of which copied from a template . The slide rest lathe was called one of history 's most important inventions , although not entirely Maudslay 's idea , he was the first person to build a functional lathe using a combination of known innovations of the lead screw , slide rest and change gears . Maudslay left Bramah 's employment and set up his own shop . He was engaged to build the machinery for making ships ' pulley blocks for the Royal Navy in the Portsmouth Block Mills . These machines were all - metal and were the first machines for mass production and making components with a degree of interchangeability . The lessons Maudslay learned about the need for stability and precision he adapted to the development of machine tools , and in his workshops he trained a generation of men to build on his work , such as Richard Roberts , Joseph Clement and Joseph Whitworth . James Fox of Derby had a healthy export trade in machine tools for the first third of the century , as did Matthew Murray of Leeds . Roberts was a maker of high - quality machine tools and a pioneer of the use of jigs and gauges for precision workshop measurement . The impact of machine tools during the Industrial Revolution was not that great because other than firearms , threaded fasteners and a few other industries there were few mass - produced metal parts . The techniques to make mass - produced metal parts made with sufficient precision to be interchangeable is largely attributed to a program of the U.S. Department of War which perfected interchangeable parts for firearms in the early 19th century . In the half century following the invention of the fundamental machine tools the machine industry became the largest industrial sector of the U.S. economy , by value added . Chemicals The large scale production of chemicals was an important development during the Industrial Revolution . The first of these was the production of sulphuric acid by the lead chamber process invented by the Englishman John Roebuck ( James Watt 's first partner ) in 1746 . He was able to greatly increase the scale of the manufacture by replacing the relatively expensive glass vessels formerly used with larger , less expensive chambers made of riveted sheets of lead . Instead of making a small amount each time , he was able to make around 100 pounds ( 50 kg ) in each of the chambers , at least a tenfold increase . The production of an alkali on a large scale became an important goal as well , and Nicolas Leblanc succeeded in 1791 in introducing a method for the production of sodium carbonate . The Leblanc process was a reaction of sulphuric acid with sodium chloride to give sodium sulphate and hydrochloric acid . The sodium sulphate was heated with limestone ( calcium carbonate ) and coal to give a mixture of sodium carbonate and calcium sulphide . Adding water separated the soluble sodium carbonate from the calcium sulphide . The process produced a large amount of pollution ( the hydrochloric acid was initially vented to the air , and calcium sulphide was a useless waste product ) . Nonetheless , this synthetic soda ash proved economical compared to that from burning specific plants ( barilla ) or from kelp , which were the previously dominant sources of soda ash , and also to potash ( potassium carbonate ) produced from hardwood ashes . These two chemicals were very important because they enabled the introduction of a host of other inventions , replacing many small - scale operations with more cost - effective and controllable processes . Sodium carbonate had many uses in the glass , textile , soap , and paper industries . Early uses for sulphuric acid included pickling ( removing rust ) iron and steel , and for bleaching cloth . The development of bleaching powder ( calcium hypochlorite ) by Scottish chemist Charles Tennant in about 1800 , based on the discoveries of French chemist Claude Louis Berthollet , revolutionised the bleaching processes in the textile industry by dramatically reducing the time required ( from months to days ) for the traditional process then in use , which required repeated exposure to the sun in bleach fields after soaking the textiles with alkali or sour milk . Tennant 's factory at St Rollox , North Glasgow , became the largest chemical plant in the world . After 1860 the focus on chemical innovation was in dyestuffs , and Germany took world leadership , building a strong chemical industry . Aspiring chemists flocked to German universities in the 1860 -- 1914 era to learn the latest techniques . British scientists by contrast , lacked research universities and did not train advanced students ; instead the practice was to hire German - trained chemists . Cement The Thames Tunnel ( opened 1843 ) . Cement was used in the world 's first underwater tunnel . In 1824 Joseph Aspdin , a British bricklayer turned builder , patented a chemical process for making portland cement which was an important advance in the building trades . This process involves sintering a mixture of clay and limestone to about 1,400 ° C ( 2,552 ° F ) , then grinding it into a fine powder which is then mixed with water , sand and gravel to produce concrete . Portland cement was used by the famous English engineer Marc Isambard Brunel several years later when constructing the Thames Tunnel . Cement was used on a large scale in the construction of the London sewerage system a generation later . Gas lighting Main article : Gas lighting Another major industry of the later Industrial Revolution was gas lighting . Though others made a similar innovation elsewhere , the large - scale introduction of this was the work of William Murdoch , an employee of Boulton & Watt , the Birmingham steam engine pioneers . The process consisted of the large - scale gasification of coal in furnaces , the purification of the gas ( removal of sulphur , ammonia , and heavy hydrocarbons ) , and its storage and distribution . The first gas lighting utilities were established in London between 1812 and 1820 . They soon became one of the major consumers of coal in the UK . Gas lighting affected social and industrial organisation because it allowed factories and stores to remain open longer than with tallow candles or oil . Its introduction allowed nightlife to flourish in cities and towns as interiors and streets could be lighted on a larger scale than before . Glass making Main article : Glass production The Crystal Palace held the Great Exhibition of 1851 A new method of producing glass , known as the cylinder process , was developed in Europe during the early 19th century . In 1832 this process was used by the Chance Brothers to create sheet glass . They became the leading producers of window and plate glass . This advancement allowed for larger panes of glass to be created without interruption , thus freeing up the space planning in interiors as well as the fenestration of buildings . The Crystal Palace is the supreme example of the use of sheet glass in a new and innovative structure . Paper machine Main article : Paper machine A machine for making a continuous sheet of paper on a loop of wire fabric was patented in 1798 by Nicholas Louis Robert who worked for Saint - Léger Didot family in France . The paper machine is known as a Fourdrinier after the financiers , brothers Sealy and Henry Fourdrinier , who were stationers in London . Although greatly improved and with many variations , the Fourdriner machine is the predominant means of paper production today . The method of continuous production demonstrated by the paper machine influenced the development of continuous rolling of iron and later steel and other continuous production processes . Agriculture Main article : British Agricultural Revolution The British Agricultural Revolution is considered one of the causes of the Industrial Revolution because improved agricultural productivity freed up workers to work in other sectors of the economy . However , per - capita food supply in Europe was stagnant or delining and did not improve in some parts of Europe until the late 18th century . Industrial technologies that affected farming included the seed drill , the Dutch plough , which contained iron parts , and the threshing machine . Jethro Tull invented an improved seed drill in 1701 . It was a mechanical seeder which distributed seeds evenly across a plot of land and planted them at the correct depth . This was important because the yield of seeds harvested to seeds planted at that time was around four or five . Tull 's seed drill was very expensive and not very reliable and therefore did not have much of an impact . Good quality seed drills were not produced until the mid 18th century . Joseph Foljambe 's Rotherham plough of 1730 was the first commercially successful iron plough . The threshing machine , invented by Andrew Meikle in 1784 , displaced hand threshing with a flail , a laborious job that took about one - quarter of agricultural labour . It took several decades to diffuse and was the final straw for many farm labourers , who faced near starvation , leading to the 1830 agricultural rebellion of the Swing Riots . Machine tools and metalworking techniques developed during the Industrial Revolution eventually resulted in precision manufacturing techniques in the late 19th century for mass - producing agricultural equipment , such as reapers , binders and combine harvesters . Mining Coal mining in Britain , particularly in South Wales , started early . Before the steam engine , pits were often shallow bell pits following a seam of coal along the surface , which were abandoned as the coal was extracted . In other cases , if the geology was favourable , the coal was mined by means of an adit or drift mine driven into the side of a hill . Shaft mining was done in some areas , but the limiting factor was the problem of removing water . It could be done by hauling buckets of water up the shaft or to a sough ( a tunnel driven into a hill to drain a mine ) . In either case , the water had to be discharged into a stream or ditch at a level where it could flow away by gravity . The introduction of the steam pump by Savery in 1698 and the Newcomen steam engine in 1712 greatly facilitated the removal of water and enabled shafts to be made deeper , enabling more coal to be extracted . These were developments that had begun before the Industrial Revolution , but the adoption of John Smeaton 's improvements to the Newcomen engine followed by James Watt 's more efficient steam engines from the 1770s reduced the fuel costs of engines , making mines more profitable . The Cornish engine , developed in the 1810s , was much more efficient than the Watt steam engine . Coal mining was very dangerous owing to the presence of firedamp in many coal seams . Some degree of safety was provided by the safety lamp which was invented in 1816 by Sir Humphry Davy and independently by George Stephenson . However , the lamps proved a false dawn because they became unsafe very quickly and provided a weak light . Firedamp explosions continued , often setting off coal dust explosions , so casualties grew during the entire 19th century . Conditions of work were very poor , with a high casualty rate from rock falls . Other developments Other developments included more efficient water wheels , based on experiments conducted by the British engineer John Smeaton the beginnings of a machine industry and the rediscovery of concrete ( based on hydraulic lime mortar ) by John Smeaton , which had been lost for 1300 years . Transportation Main article : Transport during the British Industrial Revolution See also : Productivity improving technologies ( economic history ) § Infrastructures At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution , inland transport was by navigable rivers and roads , with coastal vessels employed to move heavy goods by sea . Wagon ways were used for conveying coal to rivers for further shipment , but canals had not yet been widely constructed . Animals supplied all of the motive power on land , with sails providing the motive power on the sea . The first horse railways were introduced toward the end of the 18th century , with steam locomotives being introduced in the early decades of the 19th century . The Industrial Revolution improved Britain 's transport infrastructure with a turnpike road network , a canal and waterway network , and a railway network . Raw materials and finished products could be moved more quickly and cheaply than before . Improved transportation also allowed new ideas to spread quickly . Canals Main article : History of the British canal system The Bridgewater Canal , famous because of its commercial success , crossing the Manchester Ship Canal , one of the last canals to be built . Canals were the first technology to allow bulk materials to be economically transported long distances inland . This was because a horse could pull a barge with a load dozens of times larger than the load that could be drawn in a cart . Building of canals dates to ancient times . The Grand Canal in China , `` the world 's largest artificial waterway and oldest canal still in existence , '' parts of which were started between the 6th and 4th centuries BC , is 1,121 miles ( 1,804 km ) long and links Hangzhou with Beijing . In the UK , canals began to be built in the late 18th century to link the major manufacturing centres across the country . Known for its huge commercial success , the Bridgewater Canal in North West England , which opened in 1761 and was mostly funded by The 3rd Duke of Bridgewater . From Worsley to the rapidly growing town of Manchester its construction cost £ 168,000 ( £ 22,589,130 as of 2013 ) , but its advantages over land and river transport meant that within a year of its opening in 1761 , the price of coal in Manchester fell by about half . This success helped inspire a period of intense canal building , known as Canal Mania . New canals were hastily built in the aim of replicating the commercial success of the Bridgewater Canal , the most notable being the Leeds and Liverpool Canal and the Thames and Severn Canal which opened in 1774 and 1789 respectively . By the 1820s a national network was in existence . Canal construction served as a model for the organisation and methods later used to construct the railways . They were eventually largely superseded as profitable commercial enterprises by the spread of the railways from the 1840s on . The last major canal to be built in the United Kingdom was the Manchester Ship Canal , which upon opening in 1894 was the largest ship canal in the world , and opened Manchester as a port . However it never achieved the commercial success its sponsors had hoped for and signalled canals as a dying mode of transport in an age dominated by railways , which were quicker and often cheaper . Britain 's canal network , together with its surviving mill buildings , is one of the most enduring features of the early Industrial Revolution to be seen in Britain . Roads Construction of the first macadam road in the United States ( 1823 ) . In the foreground , workers are breaking stones `` so as not to exceed 6 ounces in weight or to pass a two - inch ring '' . Much of the original British road system was poorly maintained by thousands of local parishes , but from the 1720s ( and occasionally earlier ) turnpike trusts were set up to charge tolls and maintain some roads . Increasing numbers of main roads were turnpiked from the 1750s to the extent that almost every main road in England and Wales was the responsibility of a turnpike trust . New engineered roads were built by John Metcalf , Thomas Telford and most notably John McAdam , with the first ' macadamised ' stretch of road being Marsh Road at Ashton Gate , Bristol in 1816 . The major turnpikes radiated from London and were the means by which the Royal Mail was able to reach the rest of the country . Heavy goods transport on these roads was by means of slow , broad wheeled , carts hauled by teams of horses . Lighter goods were conveyed by smaller carts or by teams of pack horse . Stage coaches carried the rich , and the less wealthy could pay to ride on carriers carts . Railways Main article : History of rail transport in Great Britain Painting depicting the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway in 1830 , the first inter-city railway in the world and which spawned Railway Mania due to its success . Reducing friction was one of the major reasons for the success of railroads compared to wagons . This was demonstrated on an iron plate covered wooden tramway in 1805 at Croydon , England . `` A good horse on an ordinary turnpike road can draw two thousand pounds , or one ton . A party of gentlemen were invited to witness the experiment , that the superiority of the new road might be established by ocular demonstration . Twelve wagons were loaded with stones , till each wagon weighed three tons , and the wagons were fastened together . A horse was then attached , which drew the wagons with ease , six miles in two hours , having stopped four times , in order to show he had the power of starting , as well as drawing his great load . '' Railways were made practical by the widespread introduction of inexpensive puddled iron after 1800 , the rolling mill for making rails , and the development of the high pressure steam engine also around 1800 . Wagonways for moving coal in the mining areas had started in the 17th century and were often associated with canal or river systems for the further movement of coal . These were all horse drawn or relied on gravity , with a stationary steam engine to haul the wagons back to the top of the incline . The first applications of the steam locomotive were on wagon or plate ways ( as they were then often called from the cast - iron plates used ) . Horse - drawn public railways did not begin until the early years of the 19th century when improvements to pig and wrought iron production were lowering costs . See : Metallurgy Steam locomotives began being built after the introduction of high pressure steam engines after the expiration of the Boulton and Watt patent in 1800 . High pressure engines exhausted used steam to the atmosphere , doing away with the condenser and cooling water . They were also much lighter weight and smaller in size for a given horsepower than the stationary condensing engines . A few of these early locomotives were used in mines . Steam - hauled public railways began with the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825 . The rapid introduction of railways followed the 1829 Rainhill Trials , which demonstrated Robert Stephenson 's successful locomotive design and the 1828 development of Hot blast , which dramatically reduced the fuel consumption of making iron and increased the capacity the blast furnace . On 15 September 1830 , the Liverpool and Manchester Railway was opened , the first inter-city railway in the world and was attended by Prime Minister , the Duke of Wellington . The railway was engineered by Joseph Locke and George Stephenson , linked the rapidly expanding industrial town of Manchester with the port town of Liverpool . The opening was marred by problems , due to the primitive nature of the technology being employed , however problems were gradually ironed out and the railway became highly successful , transporting passengers and freight . The success of the inter-city railway , particularly in the transport of freight and commodities , led to Railway Mania . Construction of major railways connecting the larger cities and towns began in the 1830s but only gained momentum at the very end of the first Industrial Revolution . After many of the workers had completed the railways , they did not return to their rural lifestyles but instead remained in the cities , providing additional workers for the factories . Social effects Main article : Life in Great Britain during the Industrial Revolution Factory system Main article : Factory system Prior to the Industrial Revolution most of the workforce was employed in agriculture , either as self - employed farmers as land owners or tenants , or as landless agricultural labourers . It was common for families in various parts of the world to spin yarn , weave cloth and make their own clothing . Households also spun and wove for market production . At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution India , China and regions of Iraq and elsewhere in Asia and the Middle East produced most of the world 's cotton cloth while Europeans produced wool and linen goods . In Britain by the 16th century the putting - out system , by which farmers and townspeople produced goods for market in their homes , often described as cottage industry , was being practiced . Typical putting out system goods included spinning and weaving . Merchant capitalist typically provided the raw materials , paid workers by the piece , and were responsible for the sale of the goods . Embezzlement of supplies by workers and poor quality were common problems . The logistical effort in procuring and distributing raw materials and picking up finished goods were also limitations of the putting out system . Some early spinning and weaving machinery , such as a 40 spindle jenny for about six pounds in 1792 , was affordable for cottagers . Later machinery such as spinning frames , spinning mules and power looms were expensive ( especially if water powered ) , giving rise to capitalist ownership of factories . The majority of textile factory workers during the Industrial Revolution were unmarried women and children , including many orphans . They typically worked for 12 to 14 hours per day with only Sundays off . It was common for women take factory jobs seasonally during slack periods of farm work . Lack of adequate transportation , long hours and poor pay made it difficult to recruit and maintain workers . Many workers , such as displaced farmers and agricultural workers , who had nothing but their labour to sell , became factory workers out of necessity . ( See : British Agricultural Revolution , Threshing machine ) The change in the social relationship of the factory worker compared to farmers and cottagers was viewed unfavourably by Karl Marx , however , he recognized the increase in productivity made possible by technology . Impact on women and family life Women 's historians have debated the effect of the Industrial Revolution and capitalism generally on the status of women . Taking a pessimistic side , Alice Clark argued that when capitalism arrived in 17th century England , it lowered the status of women as they lost much of their economic importance . Clark argues that in 16th century England , women were engaged in many aspects of industry and agriculture . The home was a central unit of production and women played a vital role in running farms , and in some trades and landed estates . Their useful economic roles gave them a sort of equality with their husbands . However , Clark argues , as capitalism expanded in the 17th century , there was more and more division of labour with the husband taking paid labour jobs outside the home , and the wife reduced to unpaid household work . Middle - and upper - class women were confined to an idle domestic existence , supervising servants ; lower - class women were forced to take poorly paid jobs . Capitalism , therefore , had a negative effect on powerful women . In a more positive interpretation , Ivy Pinchbeck argues that capitalism created the conditions for women 's emancipation . Tilly and Scott have emphasised the continuity in the status of women , finding three stages in English history . In the pre-industrial era , production was mostly for home use and women produce much of the needs of the households . The second stage was the `` family wage economy '' of early industrialisation ; the entire family depended on the collective wages of its members , including husband , wife and older children . The third or modern stage is the `` family consumer economy , '' in which the family is the site of consumption , and women are employed in large numbers in retail and clerical jobs to support rising standards of consumption . Standards of living Some economists , such as Robert E. Lucas , Jr. , say that the real impact of the Industrial Revolution was that `` for the first time in history , the living standards of the masses of ordinary people have begun to undergo sustained growth ... Nothing remotely like this economic behaviour is mentioned by the classical economists , even as a theoretical possibility . '' Others , however , argue that while growth of the economy 's overall productive powers was unprecedented during the Industrial Revolution , living standards for the majority of the population did not grow meaningfully until the late 19th and 20th centuries , and that in many ways workers ' living standards declined under early capitalism : for instance , studies have shown that real wages in Britain only increased 15 % between the 1780s and 1850s , and that life expectancy in Britain did not begin to dramatically increase until the 1870s . The effects on living conditions the industrial revolution have been very controversial , and were hotly debated by economic and social historians from the 1950s to the 1980s . A series of 1950s essays by Henry Phelps Brown and Sheila V. Hopkins later set the academic consensus that the bulk of the population , that was at the bottom of the social ladder , suffered severe reductions in their living standards . During 1813 -- 1913 , there was a significant increase in worker wages . Food and nutrition Main article : British Agricultural Revolution Chronic hunger and malnutrition were the norm for the majority of the population of the world including Britain and France , until the late 19th century . Until about 1750 , in large part due to malnutrition , life expectancy in France was about 35 years and about 40 years in Britain . The United States population of the time was adequately fed , much taller on average and had life expectancy of 45 -- 50 years although U.S. life expectancy declined a few years by the mid 18th century . The initial technologies of the Industrial Revolution , such as mechanized textiles , iron and coal , did little , if anything , to lower food prices . In Britain and the Netherlands , food supply increased before the Industrial Revolution due to better agricultural practices ; however , population grew too , as noted by Thomas Malthus . This condition is called the Malthusian trap , and it finally started to overcome by transportation improvements , such as canals , improved roads and steamships . Railroads and steamships were introduced near the end of the Industrial Revolution . Housing The very rapid growth in population in the 19th century in the cities included the new industrial and manufacturing cities , as well as service centers such as Edinburgh and London . The critical factor was financing , which was handled by building societies that dealt directly with large contracting firms . Private renting from housing landlords was the dominant tenure . P. Kemp says this was usually of advantage to tenants . People moved in so rapidly that there was not enough capital to build adequate housing for everyone , so low income newcomers squeezed into increasingly overcrowded slums . Clean water , sanitation , and public health facilities were inadequate ; the death rate was high , especially infant mortality , and tuberculosis among young adults . Cholera from polluted water and typhoid were endemic . Unlike rural areas , there were no famines such as devastated Ireland in the 1840s . A large exposé literature grew up condemning the unhealthy conditions . By far the most famous publication was by one of the founders of the Socialist movement , The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 Friedrich Engels described backstreet sections of Manchester and other mill towns , where people lived in crude shanties and shacks , some not completely enclosed , some with dirt floors . These shanty towns had narrow walkways between irregularly shaped lots and dwellings . There were no sanitary facilities . Population density was extremely high . Not everyone lived in such poor conditions . The Industrial Revolution also created a middle class of businessmen , clerks , foremen and engineers who lived in much better conditions . Conditions improved over the course of the 19th century due to new public health acts regulating things such as sewage , hygiene and home construction . In the introduction of his 1892 edition , Engels notes that most of the conditions he wrote about in 1844 had been greatly improved . For example , the Public Health Act 1875 led to the more sanitary byelaw terraced house . Clothing and consumer goods Wedgwood tea and coffee service Consumers benefited from falling prices for clothing and household articles such as cast iron cooking utensils , and in the following decades , stoves for cooking and space heating . Meeting the demands of the consumer revolution and growth in wealth of the middle classes in Britain , potter and entrepreneur Josiah Wedgwood , founder of Wedgwood fine china and porcelain , created goods such as tableware , which was starting to become a common feature on dining tables . Population increase According to Robert Hughes in The Fatal Shore , the population of England and Wales , which had remained steady at six million from 1700 to 1740 , rose dramatically after 1740 . The population of England had more than doubled from 8.3 million in 1801 to 16.8 million in 1850 and , by 1901 , had nearly doubled again to 30.5 million . Improved conditions led to the population of Britain increasing from 10 million to 40 million in the 1800s . Europe 's population increased from about 100 million in 1700 to 400 million by 1900 . The Industrial Revolution was the first period in history during which there was a simultaneous increase in both population and per capita income . Labour conditions Social structure and working conditions In terms of social structure , the Industrial Revolution witnessed the triumph of a middle class of industrialists and businessmen over a landed class of nobility and gentry . Ordinary working people found increased opportunities for employment in the new mills and factories , but these were often under strict working conditions with long hours of labour dominated by a pace set by machines . As late as the year 1900 , most industrial workers in the United States still worked a 10 - hour day ( 12 hours in the steel industry ) , yet earned from 20 % to 40 % less than the minimum deemed necessary for a decent life ; however , most workers in textiles , which was by far the leading industry in terms of employment , were women and children . Also , harsh working conditions were prevalent long before the Industrial Revolution took place . Pre-industrial society was very static and often cruel -- child labour , dirty living conditions , and long working hours were just as prevalent before the Industrial Revolution . Factories and urbanisation Main article : Factory system Manchester , England ( `` Cottonopolis '' ) , pictured in 1840 , showing the mass of factory chimneys Industrialisation led to the creation of the factory . The factory system contributed to the growth of urban areas , as large numbers of workers migrated into the cities in search of work in the factories . Nowhere was this better illustrated than the mills and associated industries of Manchester , nicknamed `` Cottonopolis '' , and the world 's first industrial city . Manchester experienced a six - times increase in its population between 1771 and 1831 . Bradford grew by 50 % every ten years between 1811 and 1851 and by 1851 only 50 % of the population of Bradford was actually born there . For much of the 19th century , production was done in small mills , which were typically water - powered and built to serve local needs . Later , each factory would have its own steam engine and a chimney to give an efficient draft through its boiler . In other industries the transition to factory production was not so divisive . Some industrialists themselves tried to improve factory and living conditions for their workers . One of the earliest such reformers was Robert Owen , known for his pioneering efforts in improving conditions for workers at the New Lanark mills , and often regarded as one of the key thinkers of the early socialist movement . By 1746 an integrated brass mill was working at Warmley near Bristol . Raw material went in at one end , was smelted into brass and was turned into pans , pins , wire , and other goods . Housing was provided for workers on site . Josiah Wedgwood and Matthew Boulton ( whose Soho Manufactory was completed in 1766 ) were other prominent early industrialists , who employed the factory system . Child labour See also : Child labour § The Industrial Revolution A young `` drawer '' pulling a coal tub along a mine gallery . In Britain laws passed in 1842 and 1844 improved mine working conditions . The Industrial Revolution led to a population increase but the chances of surviving childhood did not improve throughout the Industrial Revolution , although infant mortality rates were reduced markedly . There was still limited opportunity for education and children were expected to work . Employers could pay a child less than an adult even though their productivity was comparable ; there was no need for strength to operate an industrial machine , and since the industrial system was completely new , there were no experienced adult labourers . This made child labour the labour of choice for manufacturing in the early phases of the Industrial Revolution between the 18th and 19th centuries . In England and Scotland in 1788 , two - thirds of the workers in 143 water - powered cotton mills were described as children . Child labour existed before the Industrial Revolution but with the increase in population and education it became more visible . Many children were forced to work in relatively bad conditions for much lower pay than their elders , 10 -- 20 % of an adult male 's wage . Children as young as four were employed . Beatings and long hours were common , with some child coal miners and hurriers working from 4 am until 5 pm . Conditions were dangerous , with some children killed when they dozed off and fell into the path of the carts , while others died from gas explosions . Many children developed lung cancer and other diseases and died before the age of 25 . Workhouses would sell orphans and abandoned children as `` pauper apprentices '' , working without wages for board and lodging . Those who ran away would be whipped and returned to their masters , with some masters shackling them to prevent escape . Children employed as mule scavengers by cotton mills would crawl under machinery to pick up cotton , working 14 hours a day , six days a week . Some lost hands or limbs , others were crushed under the machines , and some were decapitated . Young girls worked at match factories , where phosphorus fumes would cause many to develop phossy jaw . Children employed at glassworks were regularly burned and blinded , and those working at potteries were vulnerable to poisonous clay dust . Reports were written detailing some of the abuses , particularly in the coal mines and textile factories , and these helped to popularise the children 's plight . The public outcry , especially among the upper and middle classes , helped stir change in the young workers ' welfare . Politicians and the government tried to limit child labour by law but factory owners resisted ; some felt that they were aiding the poor by giving their children money to buy food to avoid starvation , and others simply welcomed the cheap labour . In 1833 and 1844 , the first general laws against child labour , the Factory Acts , were passed in Britain : Children younger than nine were not allowed to work , children were not permitted to work at night , and the work day of youth under the age of 18 was limited to twelve hours . Factory inspectors supervised the execution of the law , however , their scarcity made enforcement difficult . About ten years later , the employment of children and women in mining was forbidden . Although laws such as these decreased the number of child labourers , child labour remained significantly present in Europe and the United States until the 20th century . Organisation of labour See also : Trade union § History The Industrial Revolution concentrated labour into mills , factories and mines , thus facilitating the organisation of combinations or trade unions to help advance the interests of working people . The power of a union could demand better terms by withdrawing all labour and causing a consequent cessation of production . Employers had to decide between giving in to the union demands at a cost to themselves or suffering the cost of the lost production . Skilled workers were hard to replace , and these were the first groups to successfully advance their conditions through this kind of bargaining . The main method the unions used to effect change was strike action . Many strikes were painful events for both sides , the unions and the management . In Britain , the Combination Act 1799 forbade workers to form any kind of trade union until its repeal in 1824 . Even after this , unions were still severely restricted . In 1832 , the Reform Act extended the vote in Britain but did not grant universal suffrage . That year six men from Tolpuddle in Dorset founded the Friendly Society of Agricultural Labourers to protest against the gradual lowering of wages in the 1830s . They refused to work for less than ten shillings a week , although by this time wages had been reduced to seven shillings a week and were due to be further reduced to six . In 1834 James Frampton , a local landowner , wrote to the Prime Minister , Lord Melbourne , to complain about the union , invoking an obscure law from 1797 prohibiting people from swearing oaths to each other , which the members of the Friendly Society had done . James Brine , James Hammett , George Loveless , George 's brother James Loveless , George 's brother in - law Thomas Standfield , and Thomas 's son John Standfield were arrested , found guilty , and transported to Australia . They became known as the Tolpuddle Martyrs . In the 1830s and 1840s , the Chartist movement was the first large - scale organised working class political movement which campaigned for political equality and social justice . Its Charter of reforms received over three million signatures but was rejected by Parliament without consideration . Working people also formed friendly societies and co-operative societies as mutual support groups against times of economic hardship . Enlightened industrialists , such as Robert Owen also supported these organisations to improve the conditions of the working class . Unions slowly overcame the legal restrictions on the right to strike . In 1842 , a general strike involving cotton workers and colliers was organised through the Chartist movement which stopped production across Great Britain . Eventually , effective political organisation for working people was achieved through the trades unions who , after the extensions of the franchise in 1867 and 1885 , began to support socialist political parties that later merged to become the British Labour Party . Luddites Main article : Luddite Luddites smashing a power loom in 1812 The rapid industrialisation of the English economy cost many craft workers their jobs . The movement started first with lace and hosiery workers near Nottingham and spread to other areas of the textile industry owing to early industrialisation . Many weavers also found themselves suddenly unemployed since they could no longer compete with machines which only required relatively limited ( and unskilled ) labour to produce more cloth than a single weaver . Many such unemployed workers , weavers and others , turned their animosity towards the machines that had taken their jobs and began destroying factories and machinery . These attackers became known as Luddites , supposedly followers of Ned Ludd , a folklore figure . The first attacks of the Luddite movement began in 1811 . The Luddites rapidly gained popularity , and the British government took drastic measures , using the militia or army to protect industry . Those rioters who were caught were tried and hanged , or transported for life . Unrest continued in other sectors as they industrialised , such as with agricultural labourers in the 1830s when large parts of southern Britain were affected by the Captain Swing disturbances . Threshing machines were a particular target , and hayrick burning was a popular activity . However , the riots led to the first formation of trade unions , and further pressure for reform . Destruction of hand textile production in India , China , etc . The traditional centers of hand textile production such as India , parts of the Middle East and later China could not withstand the competition from machine made textiles , which over a period of decades destroyed the hand made textile industries and left millions of people without work , many of whom starved . Effect on cotton production and expansion of slavery Cheap cotton textiles increased the demand for raw cotton ; previously , it had primarily been consumed in regions where it was grown , with little raw cotton available for export . Consequently , prices of raw cotton rose . At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution , cotton was grown in small plots in the Old World -- the uncrowned Americas were far better able to recruit available land with the potential for new cotton production . Some cotton had been grown in the West Indies , particularly in Haiti , but Haitian cotton production was halted by the Haitian Revolution in 1791 . The invention of the cotton gin in 1793 allowed Georgia green seeded cotton to be profitable , leading to widespread growth of cotton plantations in the United States and Brazil . ( A strain of cotton seed brought to Natchez in 1806 , Gossypium hirsutum , would become the parent genetic material for over 90 % of world cotton production to come : it produced bolls that were three to four times faster to pick . ) The Americas , particularly the U.S. , had labor shortages and high priced labor , which made slavery attractive . America 's cotton plantations were highly efficient and profitable , and able to keep up with demand . The U.S. Civil war created a `` cotton famine '' that lead to increased production in other areas of the world , including new colonies in Africa . Impact on environment Levels of air pollution rose during the Industrial Revolution , sparking the first modern environmental laws to be passed in the mid-19th century . The origins of the environmental movement lay in the response to increasing levels of smoke pollution in the atmosphere during the Industrial Revolution . The emergence of great factories and the concomitant immense growth in coal consumption gave rise to an unprecedented level of air pollution in industrial centers ; after 1900 the large volume of industrial chemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated human waste . The first large - scale , modern environmental laws came in the form of Britain 's Alkali Acts , passed in 1863 , to regulate the deleterious air pollution ( gaseous hydrochloric acid ) given off by the Leblanc process , used to produce soda ash . An Alkali inspector and four sub-inspectors were appointed to curb this pollution . The responsibilities of the inspectorate were gradually expanded , culminating in the Alkali Order 1958 which placed all major heavy industries that emitted smoke , grit , dust and fumes under supervision . The manufactured gas industry began in British cities in 1812 -- 1820 . The technique used produced highly toxic effluent that was dumped into sewers and rivers . The gas companies were repeatedly sued in nuisance lawsuits . They usually lost and modified the worst practices . The City of London repeatedly indicted gas companies in the 1820s for polluting the Thames and poisoning its fish . Finally , Parliament wrote company charters to regulate toxicity . The industry reached the US around 1850 causing pollution and lawsuits . In industrial cities local experts and reformers , especially after 1890 , took the lead in identifying environmental degradation and pollution , and initiating grass - roots movements to demand and achieve reforms . Typically the highest priority went to water and air pollution . The Coal Smoke Abatement Society was formed in Britain in 1898 making it one of the oldest environmental NGOs . It was founded by artist Sir William Blake Richmond , frustrated with the pall cast by coal smoke . Although there were earlier pieces of legislation , the Public Health Act 1875 required all furnaces and fireplaces to consume their own smoke . It also provided for sanctions against factories that emitted large amounts of black smoke . The provisions of this law were extended in 1926 with the Smoke Abatement Act to include other emissions , such as soot , ash and gritty particles and to empower local authorities to impose their own regulations . Other effects The application of steam power to the industrial processes of printing supported a massive expansion of newspaper and popular book publishing , which reinforced rising literacy and demands for mass political participation . During the Industrial Revolution , the life expectancy of children increased dramatically . The percentage of the children born in London who died before the age of five decreased from 74.5 % in 1730 -- 1749 to 31.8 % in 1810 -- 1829 . The growth of modern industry since the late 18th century led to massive urbanisation and the rise of new great cities , first in Europe and then in other regions , as new opportunities brought huge numbers of migrants from rural communities into urban areas . In 1800 , only 3 % of the world 's population lived in cities , compared to nearly 50 % today ( the beginning of the 21st century ) . Manchester had a population of 10,000 in 1717 , but by 1911 it had burgeoned to 2.3 million . Industrialisation beyond the United Kingdom Continental Europe The Industrial Revolution on Continental Europe came a little later than in Great Britain . In many industries , this involved the application of technology developed in Britain in new places . Often the technology was purchased from Britain or British engineers and entrepreneurs moved abroad in search of new opportunities . By 1809 , part of the Ruhr Valley in Westphalia was called ' Miniature England ' because of its similarities to the industrial areas of England . The German , Russian and Belgian governments all provided state funding to the new industries . In some cases ( such as iron ) , the different availability of resources locally meant that only some aspects of the British technology were adopted . Belgium Belgium was the second country , after Britain , in which the Industrial Revolution took place and the first in continental Europe : Wallonia ( French speaking southern Belgium ) was the first region to follow the British model successfully . Starting in the middle of the 1820s , and especially after Belgium became an independent nation in 1830 , numerous works comprising coke blast furnaces as well as puddling and rolling mills were built in the coal mining areas around Liège and Charleroi . The leader was a transplanted Englishman John Cockerill . His factories at Seraing integrated all stages of production , from engineering to the supply of raw materials , as early as 1825 . Wallonia exemplified the radical evolution of industrial expansion . Thanks to coal ( the French word `` houille '' was coined in Wallonia ) , the region geared up to become the 2nd industrial power in the world after Britain . But it is also pointed out by many researchers , with its Sillon industriel , ' Especially in the Haine , Sambre and Meuse valleys , between the Borinage and Liège , ( ... ) there was a huge industrial development based on coal - mining and iron - making ... ' . Philippe Raxhon wrote about the period after 1830 : `` It was not propaganda but a reality the Walloon regions were becoming the second industrial power all over the world after Britain . '' `` The sole industrial centre outside the collieries and blast furnaces of Walloon was the old cloth making town of Ghent . '' Michel De Coster , Professor at the Université de Liège wrote also : `` The historians and the economists say that Belgium was the second industrial power of the world , in proportion to its population and its territory ( ... ) But this rank is the one of Wallonia where the coal - mines , the blast furnaces , the iron and zinc factories , the wool industry , the glass industry , the weapons industry ... were concentrated . '' Demographic effects Wallonia was also the birthplace of a strong Socialist party and strong trade - unions in a particular sociological landscape . At the left , the Sillon industriel , which runs from Mons in the west , to Verviers in the east ( except part of North Flanders , in another period of the industrial revolution , after 1920 ) . Even if Belgium is the second industrial country after Britain , the effect of the industrial revolution there was very different . In ' Breaking stereotypes ' , Muriel Neven and Isabelle Devious say : The industrial revolution changed a mainly rural society into an urban one , but with a strong contrast between northern and southern Belgium . During the Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period , Flanders was characterised by the presence of large urban centres ( ... ) at the beginning of the nineteenth century this region ( Flanders ) , with an urbanisation degree of more than 30 per cent , remained one of the most urbanised in the world . By comparison , this proportion reached only 17 per cent in Wallonia , barely 10 per cent in most West European countries , 16 per cent in France and 25 per cent in Britain . Nineteenth century industrialisation did not affect the traditional urban infrastructure , except in Ghent ( ... ) Also , in Wallonia the traditional urban network was largely unaffected by the industrialisation process , even though the proportion of city - dwellers rose from 17 to 45 per cent between 1831 and 1910 . Especially in the Haine , Sambre and Meuse valleys , between the Borinage and Liège , where there was a huge industrial development based on coal - mining and iron - making , urbanisation was fast . During these eighty years the number of municipalities with more than 5,000 inhabitants increased from only 21 to more than one hundred , concentrating nearly half of the Walloon population in this region . Nevertheless , industrialisation remained quite traditional in the sense that it did not lead to the growth of modern and large urban centres , but to a conurbation of industrial villages and towns developed around a coal - mine or a factory . Communication routes between these small centres only became populated later and created a much less dense urban morphology than , for instance , the area around Liège where the old town was there to direct migratory flows . France Main article : Economic history of France The industrial revolution in France followed a particular course as it did not correspond to the main model followed by other countries . Notably , most French historians argue France did not go through a clear take - off . Instead , France 's economic growth and industrialisation process was slow and steady through the 18th and 19th centuries . However , some stages were identified by Maurice Lévy - Leboyer : French Revolution and Napoleonic wars ( 1789 -- 1815 ) , industrialisation , along with Britain ( 1815 -- 1860 ) , economic slowdown ( 1860 -- 1905 ) , renewal of the growth after 1905 . Germany Main article : Economic history of Germany Based on its leadership in chemical research in the universities and industrial laboratories , Germany , which was unified in 1871 , became dominant in the world 's chemical industry in the late 19th century . At first the production of dyes based on aniline was critical . Germany 's political disunity -- with three dozen states -- and a pervasive conservatism made it difficult to build railways in the 1830s . However , by the 1840s , trunk lines linked the major cities ; each German state was responsible for the lines within its own borders . Lacking a technological base at first , the Germans imported their engineering and hardware from Britain , but quickly learned the skills needed to operate and expand the railways . In many cities , the new railway shops were the centres of technological awareness and training , so that by 1850 , Germany was self - sufficient in meeting the demands of railroad construction , and the railways were a major impetus for the growth of the new steel industry . Observers found that even as late as 1890 , their engineering was inferior to Britain 's . However , German unification in 1870 stimulated consolidation , nationalisation into state - owned companies , and further rapid growth . Unlike the situation in France , the goal was support of industrialisation , and so heavy lines crisscrossed the Ruhr and other industrial districts , and provided good connections to the major ports of Hamburg and Bremen . By 1880 , Germany had 9,400 locomotives pulling 43,000 passengers and 30,000 tons of freight , and pulled ahead of France Sweden This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( November 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Main article : Economic history of Sweden During the period 1790 -- 1815 Sweden experienced two parallel economic movements : an agricultural revolution with larger agricultural estates , new crops and farming tools and a commercialisation of farming , and a protoindustrialisation , with small industries being established in the countryside and with workers switching between agricultural work in summer and industrial production in winter . This led to economic growth benefiting large sections of the population and leading up to a consumption revolution starting in the 1820s . During 1815 -- 1850 the protoindustries developed into more specialised and larger industries . This period witnessed increasing regional specialisation with mining in Bergslagen , textile mills in Sjuhäradsbygden and forestry in Norrland . Several important institutional changes took place in this period , such as free and mandatory schooling introduced 1842 ( as first country in the world ) , the abolition of the national monopoly on trade in handicrafts in 1846 , and a stock company law in 1848 . During 1850 -- 1890 , Sweden experienced a veritable explosion in export , dominated by crops , wood and steel . Sweden abolished most tariffs and other barriers to free trade in the 1850s and joined the gold standard in 1873 . During 1890 -- 1930 , Sweden experienced the second industrial revolution . New industries developed with their focus on the domestic market : mechanical engineering , power utilities , papermaking and textile . Japan Main articles : Meiji Restoration and Economic history of Japan The industrial revolution began about 1870 as Meiji period leaders decided to catch up with the West . The government built railroads , improved roads , and inaugurated a land reform programme to prepare the country for further development . It inaugurated a new Western - based education system for all young people , sent thousands of students to the United States and Europe , and hired more than 3,000 Westerners to teach modern science , mathematics , technology , and foreign languages in Japan ( Foreign government advisors in Meiji Japan ) . In 1871 , a group of Japanese politicians known as the Iwakura Mission toured Europe and the United States to learn western ways . The result was a deliberate state - led industrialisation policy to enable Japan to quickly catch up . The Bank of Japan , founded in 1882 , used taxes to fund model steel and textile factories . Education was expanded and Japanese students were sent to study in the west . Modern industry first appeared in textiles , including cotton and especially silk , which was based in home workshops in rural areas . United States Main articles : American system of manufacturing , Interchangeable parts , Economic history of the United States , Technological and industrial history of the United States , and Industrial Revolution in the United States See also : History of Lowell , Massachusetts Slater 's Mill in Pawtucket , Rhode Island . During the late 18th an early 19th centuries when the UK and parts of Western Europe began to industrialise , the US was primarily an agricultural and natural resource producing and processing economy . The building of roads and canals , the introduction of steamboats and the building of railroads were important for handling agricultural and natural resource products in the large and sparsely populated country of the period . Important American technological contributions during the period of the Industrial Revolution were the cotton gin and the development of a system for making interchangeable parts , the latter aided by the development of the milling machine in the US . The development of machine tools and the system of interchangeable parts were the basis for the rise of the US as the world 's leading industrial nation in the late 19th century . Oliver Evans invented an automated flour mill in the mid 1780s that used control mechanisms and conveyors so that no labour was needed from the time grain was loaded into the elevator buckets until flour was discharged into a wagon . This is considered to be the first modern materials handling system an important advance in the progress toward mass production . The United States originally used horse - powered machinery for small scale applications such as grain milling , but eventually switched to water power after textile factories began being built in the 1790s . As a result , industrialisation was concentrated in New England and the Northeastern United States , which has fast - moving rivers . The newer water - powered production lines proved more economical than horse - drawn production . In the late 19th century steam - powered manufacturing overtook water - powered manufacturing , allowing the industry to spread to the Midwest . Thomas Somers and the Cabot Brothers founded the Beverly Cotton Manufactory in 1787 , the first cotton mill in America , the largest cotton mill of its era , and a significant milestone in the research and development of cotton mills in the future . This mill was designed to use horse power , but the operators quickly learned that the horse - drawn platform was economically unstable , and had economic losses for years . Despite the losses , the Manufactory served as a playground of innovation , both in turning a large amount of cotton , but also developing the water - powered milling structure used in Slater 's Mill . In 1793 , Samuel Slater ( 1768 -- 1835 ) founded the Slater Mill at Pawtucket , Rhode Island . He had learned of the new textile technologies as a boy apprentice in Derbyshire , England , and defied laws against the emigration of skilled workers by leaving for New York in 1789 , hoping to make money with his knowledge . After founding Slater 's Mill , he went on to own 13 textile mills . Daniel Day established a wool carding mill in the Blackstone Valley at Uxbridge , Massachusetts in 1809 , the third woollen mill established in the US ( The first was in Hartford , Connecticut , and the second at Watertown , Massachusetts . ) The John H. Chafee Blackstone River Valley National Heritage Corridor retraces the history of `` America 's Hardest - Working River ' , the Blackstone . The Blackstone River and its tributaries , which cover more than 45 miles ( 72 km ) from Worcester , Massachusetts to Providence , Rhode Island , was the birthplace of America 's Industrial Revolution . At its peak over 1100 mills operated in this valley , including Slater 's mill , and with it the earliest beginnings of America 's Industrial and Technological Development . Merchant Francis Cabot Lowell from Newburyport , Massachusetts memorised the design of textile machines on his tour of British factories in 1810 . Realising that the War of 1812 had ruined his import business but that a demand for domestic finished cloth was emerging in America , on his return to the United States , he set up the Boston Manufacturing Company . Lowell and his partners built America 's second cotton - to - cloth textile mill at Waltham , Massachusetts , second to the Beverly Cotton Manufactory . After his death in 1817 , his associates built America 's first planned factory town , which they named after him . This enterprise was capitalised in a public stock offering , one of the first uses of it in the United States . Lowell , Massachusetts , using 5.6 miles ( 9.0 km ) of canals and 10,000 horsepower delivered by the Merrimack River , is considered by some as a major contributor to the success of the American Industrial Revolution . The short - lived utopia - like Waltham - Lowell system was formed , as a direct response to the poor working conditions in Britain . However , by 1850 , especially following the Irish Potato Famine , the system had been replaced by poor immigrant labour . A major U.S. contribution to industrialization was the development of techniques to make interchangeable parts from metal . Precision metal machining techniques were developed by the U.S. Department of War to make interchangeable parts for small firearms . The development work took place at the Federal Arsenals at Springfield Armory and Harpers Ferry Armory . Techniques for precision machining using machine tools included using fixtures to hold the parts in proper position , jigs to guide the cutting tools and precision blocks and gauges to measure the accuracy . The milling machine , a fundamental machine tool , is believed to have been invented by Eli Whitney , who was a government contractor who built firearms as part of this program . Another important invention was the Blanchard lathe , invented by Thomas Blanchard . The Blanchard lathe , or pattern tracing lathe , was actually a shaper that could produce copies of wooden gun stocks . The use of machinery and the techniques for producing standardized and interchangeable parts became known as the American system of manufacturing . Precision manufacturing techniques made it possible to build machines that mechanized the shoe industry . and the watch industry . The industrialisation of the watch industry started 1854 also in Waltham , Massachusetts , at the Waltham Watch Company , with the development of machine tools , gauges and assembling methods adapted to the micro precision required for watches . Second Industrial Revolution Main article : Second Industrial Revolution Sächsische Maschinenfabrik in Chemnitz , Germany , 1868 Steel is often cited as the first of several new areas for industrial mass - production , which are said to characterise a `` Second Industrial Revolution '' , beginning around 1850 , although a method for mass manufacture of steel was not invented until the 1860s , when Sir Henry Bessemer invented a new furnace which could convert molten pig iron into steel in large quantities . However , it only became widely available in the 1870s after the process was modified to produce more uniform quality . Bessemer steel was being displaced by the open hearth furnace near the end of the 19th century . This Second Industrial Revolution gradually grew to include chemicals , mainly the chemical industries , petroleum ( refining and distribution ) , and , in the 20th century , the automotive industry , and was marked by a transition of technological leadership from Britain to the United States and Germany . The increasing availability of economical petroleum products also reduced the importance of coal and further widened the potential for industrialisation . A new revolution began with electricity and electrification in the electrical industries . The introduction of hydroelectric power generation in the Alps enabled the rapid industrialisation of coal - deprived northern Italy , beginning in the 1890s . By the 1890s , industrialisation in these areas had created the first giant industrial corporations with burgeoning global interests , as companies like U.S. Steel , General Electric , Standard Oil and Bayer AG joined the railroad and ship companies on the world 's stock markets . Causes Regional GDP per capita changed very little for most of human history before the Industrial Revolution . The causes of the Industrial Revolution were complicated and remain a topic for debate , with some historians believing the Revolution was an outgrowth of social and institutional changes brought by the end of feudalism in Britain after the English Civil War in the 17th century . The Enclosure movement and the British Agricultural Revolution made food production more efficient and less labour - intensive , forcing the farmers who could no longer be self - sufficient in agriculture into cottage industry , for example weaving , and in the longer term into the cities and the newly developed factories . The colonial expansion of the 17th century with the accompanying development of international trade , creation of financial markets and accumulation of capital are also cited as factors , as is the scientific revolution of the 17th century . A change in marrying patterns to getting married later made people able to accumulate more human capital during their youth , thereby encouraging economic development . Until the 1980s , it was universally believed by academic historians that technological innovation was the heart of the Industrial Revolution and the key enabling technology was the invention and improvement of the steam engine . However , recent research into the Marketing Era has challenged the traditional , supply - oriented interpretation of the Industrial Revolution . Lewis Mumford has proposed that the Industrial Revolution had its origins in the Early Middle Ages , much earlier than most estimates . He explains that the model for standardised mass production was the printing press and that `` the archetypal model for the industrial era was the clock '' . He also cites the monastic emphasis on order and time - keeping , as well as the fact that medieval cities had at their centre a church with bell ringing at regular intervals as being necessary precursors to a greater synchronisation necessary for later , more physical , manifestations such as the steam engine . The presence of a large domestic market should also be considered an important driver of the Industrial Revolution , particularly explaining why it occurred in Britain . In other nations , such as France , markets were split up by local regions , which often imposed tolls and tariffs on goods traded among them . Internal tariffs were abolished by Henry VIII of England , they survived in Russia till 1753 , 1789 in France and 1839 in Spain . Governments ' grant of limited monopolies to inventors under a developing patent system ( the Statute of Monopolies in 1623 ) is considered an influential factor . The effects of patents , both good and ill , on the development of industrialisation are clearly illustrated in the history of the steam engine , the key enabling technology . In return for publicly revealing the workings of an invention the patent system rewarded inventors such as James Watt by allowing them to monopolise the production of the first steam engines , thereby rewarding inventors and increasing the pace of technological development . However , monopolies bring with them their own inefficiencies which may counterbalance , or even overbalance , the beneficial effects of publicising ingenuity and rewarding inventors . Watt 's monopoly prevented other inventors , such as Richard Trevithick , William Murdoch , or Jonathan Hornblower , whom Boulton and Watt sued , from introducing improved steam engines , thereby retarding the spread of steam power . Causes in Europe Main article : Great Divergence Interior of the London Coal Exchange , c. 1808 . European 17th century colonial expansion , international trade , and creation of financial markets produced a new legal and financial environment , one which supported and enabled 18th century industrial growth . One question of active interest to historians is why the Industrial Revolution occurred in Europe and not in other parts of the world in the 18th century , particularly China , India , and the Middle East , or at other times like in Classical Antiquity or the Middle Ages . Numerous factors have been suggested , including education , technological changes ( see Scientific Revolution in Europe ) , `` modern '' government , `` modern '' work attitudes , ecology , and culture . China was the world 's most technological advanced country for many centuries ; however , China stagnated economically and technologically and was surpassed by Western Europe before the Age of Exploration , by which time China banned imports and denied entry to foreigners . China was also a totalitarian society . Modern estimates of per capita income on Western Europe in the late 18th century are of roughly 1,500 dollars in purchasing power parity ( and Britain had a per capita income of nearly 2,000 dollars ) whereas China , by comparison , had only 450 dollars . India was essentially feudal , politically fragmented and not as economically advanced as Western Europe . Historians such as David Landes and Max Weber credit the different belief systems in Asia and Europe with dictating where the revolution occurred . The religion and beliefs of Europe were largely products of Judaeo - Christianity and Greek thought . Conversely , Chinese society was founded on men like Confucius , Mencius , Han Feizi ( Legalism ) , Lao Tzu ( Taoism ) , and Buddha ( Buddhism ) , resulting in very different worldviews . Other factors include the considerable distance of China 's coal deposits , though large , from its cities as well as the then unnavigable Yellow River that connects these deposits to the sea . Regarding India , the Marxist historian Rajani Palme Dutt said : `` The capital to finance the Industrial Revolution in India instead went into financing the Industrial Revolution in Britain . '' In contrast to China , India was split up into many competing kingdoms after the decline of the Mughal Empire , with the major ones in its aftermath including the Marathas , Sikhs , Bengal Subah , and Kingdom of Mysore . In addition , the economy was highly dependent on two sectors -- agriculture of subsistence and cotton , and there appears to have been little technical innovation . It is believed that the vast amounts of wealth were largely stored away in palace treasuries by totalitarian monarchs prior to the British take over . Economic historian Joel Mokyr has argued that political fragmentation ( the presence of a large number of European states ) made it possible for heterodox ideas to thrive , as entrepreneurs , innovators , ideologues and heretics could easily flee to a neighboring state in the event that the one state would try to suppress their ideas and activities . This is what set Europe apart from the technologically advanced , large unitary empires such as China and India . China had both a printing press and movable type , and India had similar levels scientific and technological achievement as Europe in 1700 , yet the industrial revolution would occur in Europe , not China or India . In Europe , political fragmentation was coupled with an `` integrated market for ideas '' where Europe 's intellectuals used the lingua franca of Latin , had a shared intellectual basis in Europe 's classical heritage and the pan-European institution of the Republic of Letters . Causes in Britain As the Industrial Revolution developed British manufactured output surged ahead of other economies . Great Britain provided the legal and cultural foundations that enabled entrepreneurs to pioneer the industrial revolution . Key factors fostering this environment were : ( 1 ) The period of peace and stability which followed the unification of England and Scotland ; ( 2 ) no trade barriers between England and Scotland ; ( 3 ) the rule of law ( enforcing property rights and respecting the sanctity of contracts ) ; ( 4 ) a straightforward legal system that allowed the formation of joint - stock companies ( corporations ) ; ( 5 ) absence of tolls , which had largely disappeared from Britain by the 15th century , but were an extreme burden on goods elsewhere in the world , and ( 6 ) a free market ( capitalism ) . `` An unprecedented explosion of new ideas , and new technological inventions , transformed our use of energy , creating an increasingly industrial and urbanised country . Roads , railways and canals were built . Great cities appeared . Scores of factories and mills sprang up . Our landscape would never be the same again . It was a revolution that transformed not only the country , but the world itself . '' -- British historian Jeremy Black on the BBC 's Why the Industrial Revolution Happened Here . Geographical and natural resource advantages of Great Britain were the fact that it had extensive coast lines and many navigable rivers in an age where water was the easiest means of transportation and having the highest quality coal in Europe . There were two main values that really drove the Industrial Revolution in Britain . These values were self - interest and an entrepreneurial spirit . Because of these interests , many industrial advances were made that resulted in a huge increase in personal wealth and a consumer revolution . These advancements also greatly benefitted the British society as a whole . Countries around the world started to recognise the changes and advancements in Britain and use them as an example to begin their own Industrial Revolutions . The debate about the start of the Industrial Revolution also concerns the massive lead that Great Britain had over other countries . Some have stressed the importance of natural or financial resources that Britain received from its many overseas colonies or that profits from the British slave trade between Africa and the Caribbean helped fuel industrial investment . However , it has been pointed out that slave trade and West Indian plantations provided only 5 % of the British national income during the years of the Industrial Revolution . Even though slavery accounted for so little , Caribbean - based demand accounted for 12 % of Britain 's industrial output . William Bell Scott Iron and Coal , 1855 -- 60 Instead , the greater liberalisation of trade from a large merchant base may have allowed Britain to produce and use emerging scientific and technological developments more effectively than countries with stronger monarchies , particularly China and Russia . Britain emerged from the Napoleonic Wars as the only European nation not ravaged by financial plunder and economic collapse , and having the only merchant fleet of any useful size ( European merchant fleets were destroyed during the war by the Royal Navy ) . Britain 's extensive exporting cottage industries also ensured markets were already available for many early forms of manufactured goods . The conflict resulted in most British warfare being conducted overseas , reducing the devastating effects of territorial conquest that affected much of Europe . This was further aided by Britain 's geographical position -- an island separated from the rest of mainland Europe . William and Mary Presenting the Cap of Liberty to Europe , 1716 , Sir James Thornhill . Enthroned in heaven with the Virtues behind them are the royals William III and Mary II who had taken the throne after the Glorious Revolution and signed the English Bill of Rights of 1689 . William tramples on arbitrary power and hands the red cap of liberty to Europe where , unlike Britain , absolute monarchy stayed the normal form of power execution . Below William is the French king Louis XIV . Another theory is that Britain was able to succeed in the Industrial Revolution due to the availability of key resources it possessed . It had a dense population for its small geographical size . Enclosure of common land and the related agricultural revolution made a supply of this labour readily available . There was also a local coincidence of natural resources in the North of England , the English Midlands , South Wales and the Scottish Lowlands . Local supplies of coal , iron , lead , copper , tin , limestone and water power , resulted in excellent conditions for the development and expansion of industry . Also , the damp , mild weather conditions of the North West of England provided ideal conditions for the spinning of cotton , providing a natural starting point for the birth of the textiles industry . The stable political situation in Britain from around 1688 following the Glorious Revolution , and British society 's greater receptiveness to change ( compared with other European countries ) can also be said to be factors favouring the Industrial Revolution . Peasant resistance to industrialisation was largely eliminated by the Enclosure movement , and the landed upper classes developed commercial interests that made them pioneers in removing obstacles to the growth of capitalism . ( This point is also made in Hilaire Belloc 's The Servile State . ) The French philosopher Voltaire wrote about capitalism and religious tolerance in his book on English society , Letters on the English ( 1733 ) , noting why England at that time was more prosperous in comparison to the country 's less religiously tolerant European neighbours . `` Take a view of the Royal Exchange in London , a place more venerable than many courts of justice , where the representatives of all nations meet for the benefit of mankind . There the Jew , the Mahometan ( Muslim ) , and the Christian transact together , as though they all professed the same religion , and give the name of infidel to none but bankrupts . There the Presbyterian confides in the Anabaptist , and the Churchman depends on the Quaker 's word . If one religion only were allowed in England , the Government would very possibly become arbitrary ; if there were but two , the people would cut one another 's throats ; but as there are such a multitude , they all live happy and in peace . '' Britain 's population grew 280 % 1550 -- 1820 , while the rest of Western Europe grew 50 -- 80 % . Seventy percent of European urbanisation happened in Britain 1750 -- 1800 . By 1800 , only the Netherlands was more urbanised than Britain . This was only possible because coal , coke , imported cotton , brick and slate had replaced wood , charcoal , flax , peat and thatch . The latter compete with land grown to feed people while mined materials do not . Yet more land would be freed when chemical fertilisers replaced manure and horse 's work was mechanised . A workhorse needs 3 to 5 acres ( 1.21 to 2.02 ha ) for fodder while even early steam engines produced four times more mechanical energy . In 1700 , 5 / 6 of coal mined worldwide was in Britain , while the Netherlands had none ; so despite having Europe 's best transport , most urbanised , well paid , literate people and lowest taxes , it failed to industrialise . In the 18th century , it was the only European country whose cities and population shrank . Without coal , Britain would have run out of suitable river sites for mills by the 1830s . Economic historian Robert Allen has argued that high wages , cheap capital and very cheap energy in Britain made it the ideal place for the industrial revolution to occur . These factors made it vastly more profitable to invest in research and development , and to put technology to use in Britain than other societies . Transfer of knowledge A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery ( ca . 1766 ) . Informal philosophical societies spread scientific advances Knowledge of innovation was spread by several means . Workers who were trained in the technique might move to another employer or might be poached . A common method was for someone to make a study tour , gathering information where he could . During the whole of the Industrial Revolution and for the century before , all European countries and America engaged in study - touring ; some nations , like Sweden and France , even trained civil servants or technicians to undertake it as a matter of state policy . In other countries , notably Britain and America , this practice was carried out by individual manufacturers eager to improve their own methods . Study tours were common then , as now , as was the keeping of travel diaries . Records made by industrialists and technicians of the period are an incomparable source of information about their methods . Another means for the spread of innovation was by the network of informal philosophical societies , like the Lunar Society of Birmingham , in which members met to discuss ' natural philosophy ' ( i.e. science ) and often its application to manufacturing . The Lunar Society flourished from 1765 to 1809 , and it has been said of them , `` They were , if you like , the revolutionary committee of that most far reaching of all the eighteenth century revolutions , the Industrial Revolution '' . Other such societies published volumes of proceedings and transactions . For example , the London - based Royal Society of Arts published an illustrated volume of new inventions , as well as papers about them in its annual Transactions . There were publications describing technology . Encyclopaedias such as Harris 's Lexicon Technicum ( 1704 ) and Abraham Rees 's Cyclopaedia ( 1802 -- 1819 ) contain much of value . Cyclopaedia contains an enormous amount of information about the science and technology of the first half of the Industrial Revolution , very well illustrated by fine engravings . Foreign printed sources such as the Descriptions des Arts et Métiers and Diderot 's Encyclopédie explained foreign methods with fine engraved plates . Periodical publications about manufacturing and technology began to appear in the last decade of the 18th century , and many regularly included notice of the latest patents . Foreign periodicals , such as the Annales des Mines , published accounts of travels made by French engineers who observed British methods on study tours . Protestant work ethic Main article : Protestant work ethic Another theory is that the British advance was due to the presence of an entrepreneurial class which believed in progress , technology and hard work . The existence of this class is often linked to the Protestant work ethic ( see Max Weber ) and the particular status of the Baptists and the dissenting Protestant sects , such as the Quakers and Presbyterians that had flourished with the English Civil War . Reinforcement of confidence in the rule of law , which followed establishment of the prototype of constitutional monarchy in Britain in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 , and the emergence of a stable financial market there based on the management of the national debt by the Bank of England , contributed to the capacity for , and interest in , private financial investment in industrial ventures . Dissenters found themselves barred or discouraged from almost all public offices , as well as education at England 's only two universities at the time ( although dissenters were still free to study at Scotland 's four universities ) . When the restoration of the monarchy took place and membership in the official Anglican Church became mandatory due to the Test Act , they thereupon became active in banking , manufacturing and education . The Unitarians , in particular , were very involved in education , by running Dissenting Academies , where , in contrast to the universities of Oxford and Cambridge and schools such as Eton and Harrow , much attention was given to mathematics and the sciences -- areas of scholarship vital to the development of manufacturing technologies . Historians sometimes consider this social factor to be extremely important , along with the nature of the national economies involved . While members of these sects were excluded from certain circles of the government , they were considered fellow Protestants , to a limited extent , by many in the middle class , such as traditional financiers or other businessmen . Given this relative tolerance and the supply of capital , the natural outlet for the more enterprising members of these sects would be to seek new opportunities in the technologies created in the wake of the scientific revolution of the 17th century . Opposition from Romanticism Main article : Romanticism During the Industrial Revolution an intellectual and artistic hostility towards the new industrialisation developed , associated with the Romantic movement . Romanticism revered the traditionalism of rural life and recoiled against the upheavals caused by industrialization , urbanization and the wretchedness of the working classes . Its major exponents in English included the artist and poet William Blake and poets William Wordsworth , Samuel Taylor Coleridge , John Keats , Lord Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelley . The movement stressed the importance of `` nature '' in art and language , in contrast to `` monstrous '' machines and factories ; the `` Dark satanic mills '' of Blake 's poem `` And did those feet in ancient time '' . Mary Shelley 's novel Frankenstein reflected concerns that scientific progress might be two - edged . French Romanticism likewise was highly critical of industry . See also General Automation Capitalist mode of production Deindustrialization Division of labour Dual revolution Economic history of the United Kingdom Capitalism in the nineteenth century Human timeline Industrial Age Information revolution Law of the handicap of a head start -- Dialectics of progress Machine Age The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism Industrial society Digital Revolution Other Chinese industrialization Petroleum Revolution Science and invention in Birmingham References ^ Jump up to : David S. Landes ( 1969 ) . The Unbound Prometheus . 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Jump up ^ `` Technics & Civilization '' . Lewis Mumford . Retrieved 8 January 2009 . Jump up ^ Deane , Phyllis . The First Industrial Revolution , Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 29609 - 9 Read it Jump up ^ Eric Schiff , Industrialisation without national patents : the Netherlands , 1869 -- 1912 ; Switzerland , 1850 -- 1907 , Princeton University Press , 1971 . Jump up ^ Michele Boldrin and David K. Levine , Against Intellectual Monopoly , `` Chapter 1 , final online version January 2 , 2008 '' ( PDF ) . ( 55 KB ) , p. 15 . Cambridge University Press , 2008 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 87928 - 6 Jump up ^ Mott - Smith , Morton ( 1964 ) ( Unabridged and revised version of the book first published by D. Appleton - Century Company in 1934 under the former title : The Story of Energy ) . The Concept of Energy Simply Explained . New York : Dover Publications , Inc . pp. 13 -- 14 . ISBN 0 - 486 - 21071 - 5 . Jump up ^ Why No Industrial Revolution in Ancient Greece ? J. Bradford DeLong , Professor of Economics , University of California at Berkeley , 20 September 2002 . Retrieved January 2007 . Jump up ^ The Origins of the Industrial Revolution in England The History Guide , Steven Kreis , 11 October 2006 -- Accessed January 2007 Jump up ^ Jackson J. Spielvogel ( 2009 ) . `` Western Civilization : Since 1500 '' . p. 607 . Jump up ^ Eric Bond ; Sheena Gingerich ; Oliver Archer - Antonsen ; Liam Purcell ; Elizabeth Macklem ( 17 February 2003 ) . `` The Industrial Revolution -- Causes '' . Industrialrevolution.sea.ca . Retrieved 30 January 2011 . Jump up ^ Temple , Robert ( 1986 ) . The Genius of China : 3000 years of science , discovery and invention . New York : Simon and Schuster < Based on the works of Joseph Needham > Jump up ^ Merson , John ( 1990 ) . The Genius That Was China : East and West in the Making of the Modern World . Woodstock , New York : The Overlook Press . ISBN 0 - 87951 - 397 - 7 < A companion to the PBS Series `` The Genius That Was China '' > Jump up ^ `` Cobb - Douglas in pre-modern Europe1 -- Simulating early modern growth '' ( PDF ) . ( 254 KB ) Jan Luiten van Zanden , International Institute of Social History / University of Utrecht . May 2005 . Retrieved January 2007 . Jump up ^ Landes , David ( 1999 ) . The Wealth and Poverty of Nations . W.W. Norton & Company . ISBN 978 - 0393318883 . Jump up ^ David S. Landes ( 1969 ) . The Unbound Prometheus . Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge . pp. 20 -- 32 . ISBN 0 - 521 - 09418 - 6 . Jump up ^ Merson 1990 , pp. 34 -- 35 Jump up ^ How Earth Made Us : Fire by Professor Iain Stewart Jump up ^ South Asian History Archived 27 January 2007 at the Wayback Machine . -- Pages from the history of the Indian subcontinent : British rule and the legacy of colonisation . Rajni - Palme Dutt India Today ( Indian Edition published 1947 ) . Retrieved January 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Mokyr , J. : A Culture of Growth : The Origins of the Modern Economy . ( eBook and Hardcover ) '' . press.princeton.edu . Retrieved 9 March 2017 . Jump up ^ Julian Hoppit , `` The Nation , the State , and the First Industrial Revolution , '' Journal of British Studies ( April 2011 ) 50 # 2 pp. 307 -- 31 Jump up ^ Kiely , Ray ( November 2011 ) . `` Industrialization and Development : A Comparative Analysis '' . UGL Press Limited : 25 -- 26 . Jump up ^ Digital History ; Steven Mintz . `` Was slavery the engine of economic growth ? Digital History '' . Digitalhistory.uh.edu . Archived from the original on 19 February 2014 . Retrieved 30 January 2011 . Jump up ^ The Industrial Revolution by Pat Hudson , pg. 198 . Books.google.com. 1992 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7131 - 6531 - 9 . Retrieved 30 January 2011 . Jump up ^ The Royal Navy itself may have contributed to Britain 's industrial growth . Among the first complex industrial manufacturing processes to arise in Britain were those that produced material for British warships . For instance , the average warship of the period used roughly 1000 pulley fittings . With a fleet as large as the Royal Navy , and with these fittings needing to be replaced ever 4 to 5 years , this created a great demand which encouraged industrial expansion . The industrial manufacture of rope can also be see as a similar factor . Jump up ^ Old Naval College Archived 26 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Barrington Moore , Jr. , Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy : Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World , pp. 29 -- 30 , Boston , Beacon Press , 1966 . Jump up ^ Voltaire , François Marie Arouet de . ( 1909 -- 14 ) ( 1734 ) . `` Letter VI -- On the Presbyterians . Letters on the English '' . www.bartleby.com . The Harvard Classics . Retrieved 22 July 2017 . Jump up ^ EA Wrigley , Continuity chance and change . ^ Jump up to : Crafts , Nicholas ( 2011 - 04 - 01 ) . `` Explaining the first Industrial Revolution : two views '' . European Review of Economic History . 15 ( 1 ) : 153 -- 168 . doi : 10.1017 / S1361491610000201 . ISSN 1361 - 4916 . Jump up ^ `` The Lunar Society '' . Archived from the original on 7 February 2008 . Retrieved 7 February 2008 . CS1 maint : BOT : original - url status unknown ( link ) at Moreabout , the website of the Birmingham Jewellery Quarter guide , Bob Miles . Jump up ^ Foster , Charles ( 2004 ) . Capital and Innovation : How Britain Became the First Industrial Nation . Northwich : Arley Hall Press . ISBN 0 - 9518382 - 4 - 5 . Argues that capital accumulation and wealth concentration in an entrepreneurial culture following the commercial revolution made the industrial revolution possible , for example . Jump up ^ Michael Löwy and Robert Sayre , eds. , Romanticism against the Tide of Modernity ( Duke University Press , 2001 ) . Jump up ^ AJ George , The development of French romanticism : the impact of the industrial revolution on literature ( 1955 ) Sources Ashton , Thomas S. ( 1948 ) . `` The Industrial Revolution ( 1760 -- 1830 ) '' . Oxford University Press . Archived from the original on 12 March 2017 . Berlanstein , Lenard R. , ed. ( 1992 ) . The Industrial Revolution and work in nineteenth - century Europe . London and New York : Routledge . Clapham , J.H. ( 1926 ) . `` An Economic History of Modern Britain : The Early Railway Age , 1820 -- 1850 '' . Cambridge University Press . Clapham , J.H. The Economic Development of France and Germany : 1815 - 1914 ( 1921 ) online , a famous classic , filled with details . Clark , Gregory ( 2007 ) . A Farewell to Alms : A Brief Economic History of the World . Princeton University Press . ISBN 0 - 691 - 12135 - 4 . Daunton , M.J. ( 1995 ) . `` Progress and Poverty : An Economic and Social History of Britain , 1700 -- 1850 '' . Oxford University Press . Dunham , Arthur Louis ( 1955 ) . `` The Industrial Revolution in France , 1815 -- 1848 '' . New York : Exposition Press . Gatrell , Peter ( 2004 ) . `` Farm to factory : a reinterpretation of the Soviet industrial revolution '' . The Economic History Review . 57 ( 4 ) : 794 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1468 - 0289.2004. 00295_21. x . Griffin , Emma ( 2010 ) . Short History of the British Industrial Revolution . Palgrave . Haber , Ludwig Fritz ( 1958 ) . The Chemical Industry During the Nineteenth Century : A Study of the Economic Aspect of Applied Chemistry in Europe and North America . Haber , Ludwig Fritz ( 1971 ) . The Chemical Industry : 1900 -- 1930 : International Growth and Technological Change . Jacob , Margaret C. ( 1997 ) . `` Scientific Culture and the Making of the Industrial West '' . Oxford , UK : Oxford University Press . Kindleberger , Charles Poor ( 1993 ) . A Financial History of Western Europe . Oxford University Press US . ISBN 0 - 19 - 507738 - 5 . Kisch , Herbert ( 1989 ) . `` From Domestic Manufacture to Industrial Revolution The Case of the Rhineland Textile Districts '' . Oxford University Press . Kornblith , Gary . The Industrial Revolution in America ( 1997 ) Landes , David S. ( 1969 ) . The Unbound Prometheus : Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present . Cambridge , New York : Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge . ISBN 0 - 521 - 09418 - 6 . McNeil , Ian , ed. ( 1990 ) . An Encyclopedia of the History of Technology . London : Routledge . ISBN 0 - 415 - 14792 - 1 . Maddison , Angus ( 2003 ) . `` The World Economy : Historical Statistics '' . Paris : Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) . Mantoux , Paul ( 1961 ) ( 1928 ) . `` The Industrial Revolution in the Eighteenth Century '' ( First English translation 1928 ed . ) . McLaughlin Green , Constance ( 1939 ) . `` Holyoke , Massachusetts : A Case History of the Industrial Revolution in America '' . New Haven , CT : Yale University Press . Milward , Alan S. and S.B. Saul . The Development of the Economies of Continental Europe : 1850 -- 1914 ( 1977 ) Milward , Alan S. and S.B. Saul . The Economic Development of Continental Europe 1780 -- 1870 ( 1973 ) Mokyr , Joel ( 1999 ) . `` The British Industrial Revolution : An Economic Perspective '' . More , Charles ( 2000 ) . `` Understanding the Industrial Revolution '' . London : Routledge . Olson , James S. Encyclopedia of the Industrial Revolution in America ( 2001 ) Pollard , Sidney ( 1981 ) . `` Peaceful Conquest : The Industrialization of Europe , 1760 -- 1970 '' . Oxford University Press . Rider , Christine , ed . Encyclopedia of the Age of the Industrial Revolution , 1700 -- 1920 ( 2 vol. 2007 ) Roe , Joseph Wickham ( 1916 ) , English and American Tool Builders , New Haven , Connecticut : Yale University Press , LCCN 16011753 . Reprinted by McGraw - Hill , New York and London , 1926 ( LCCN 27 - 24075 ) ; and by Lindsay Publications , Inc. , Bradley , Illinois , ( ISBN 978 - 0 - 917914 - 73 - 7 ) . Smelser , Neil J. ( 1959 ) . `` Social Change in the Industrial Revolution : An Application of Theory to the British Cotton Industry '' . University of Chicago Press . Staley , David J. ed . Encyclopedia of the History of Invention and Technology ( 3 vol 2011 ) , 2000pp Stearns , Peter N. ( 1998 ) . `` The Industrial Revolution in World History '' . Westview Press . Smil , Vaclav ( 1994 ) . `` Energy in World History '' . Westview Press . Archived from the original on 18 July 2007 . Snooks , G.D. ( 2000 ) . `` Was the Industrial Revolution Necessary ? '' . London : Routledge . Szostak , Rick ( 1991 ) . `` The Role of Transportation in the Industrial Revolution : A Comparison of England and France '' . Montreal : McGill - Queen 's University Press . Timbs , John ( 1860 ) . Stories of Inventors and Discoverers in Science and the Useful Arts : A Book for Old and Young . Harper & Brothers . Toynbee , Arnold ( 1884 ) . Lectures on the Industrial Revolution of the Eighteenth Century in England . ISBN 1 - 4191 - 2952 - X . Retrieved 12 February 2016 . Uglow , Jenny ( 2002 ) . `` The Lunar Men : The Friends who made the Future 1730 -- 1810 '' . London : Faber and Faber . Usher , Abbott Payson ( 1920 ) . `` An Introduction to the Industrial History of England '' . University of Michigan Press . Chambliss , William J. ( editor ) , Problems of Industrial Society , Reading , Massachusetts : Addison - Wesley Publishing Co , December 1973 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 201 - 00958 - 3 Hawke , Gary . `` Reinterpretations of the Industrial Revolution '' in Patrick O'Brien and Roland Quinault , eds . The Industrial Revolution and British Society ( 1993 ) pp 54 -- 78 McCloskey , Deirdre ( 2004 ) . `` Review of The Cambridge Economic History of Britain ( edited by Roderick Floud and Paul Johnson ) '' . Times Higher Education Supplement. 15 ( January ) . Retrieved 12 February 2016 . External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Industrial revolution . 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who gained fame for her actions during the american civil war

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Ida_B._Wells&oldid=838202383

Ida B. Wells - wikipedia Ida B. Wells Jump to : navigation , search Ida B. Wells Wells , c. 1893 Ida Bell Wells ( 1862 - 07 - 16 ) July 16 , 1862 Holly Springs , Mississippi , C.S. March 25 , 1931 ( 1931 - 03 - 25 ) ( aged 68 ) Chicago , Illinois , U.S. Burial place Oak Woods Cemetery Education Freedman 's School Shaw University Rust College Fisk University Occupation Civil rights and women 's rights activist , teacher , local paper editor Political party Republican Spouse ( s ) Ferdinand L. Barnett Children 6 Parent ( s ) James Wells and Elizabeth `` Izzy Bell '' Warrenton Ida Bell Wells - Barnett ( July 16 , 1862 -- March 25 , 1931 ) , more commonly known as Ida B. Wells , was an African - American journalist , newspaper editor , suffragist , sociologist , feminist , Georgist , and an early leader in the Civil Rights Movement . She was one of the founders of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) in 1909 . She arguably became the most famous black woman in America , during a life that was centered on combating prejudice and violence . Wells was born into slavery in Holly Springs , Mississippi . Freed by the American Civil War , she lost both her parents and a sibling in the 1878 yellow fever epidemic , when she was 16 years - old . She went to work and kept the rest of the family intact with the help of her grandmother . She moved with some of her siblings to Memphis , Tennessee where she found better pay as a teacher . Soon she co-owned a newspaper , The Memphis Free Speech and Headlight . In the 1890s , Wells documented lynching in the United States . She showed that lynching was often used in the South as a way to control or punish black people who competed with whites , rather than being based on criminal acts by black people , as was usually claimed by whites . For her reporting , which was carried nationwide in black newspapers , her newspaper office was destroyed by a mob of white men . Subjected to continuing threats , she left Memphis for Chicago . In Chicago , she married and had a family but with the support of her husband still pursued her work writing , speaking and organizing for civil rights for the rest of her life . She was also active in women 's rights and the women 's suffrage movement , establishing several notable women 's organizations . Wells was a skilled and persuasive rhetorician and traveled internationally on lecture tours . Contents ( hide ) 1 Early life and education 2 Early career 3 Investigative journalism 4 Personal life 5 European tours 6 Willard controversy 7 Southern Horrors and The Red Record 8 Wells and W.E.B. Du Bois 9 Public career 10 Legacy and honors 11 Representation in other media 12 Influence on black feminist activism 13 See also 14 Selected publications 15 References 16 Bibliography 17 Further reading 18 External links Early life and Education ( edit ) Ida Bell Wells was born in Holly Springs , Mississippi , on July 16 , 1862 , several months before United States President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation freeing slaves in Confederate - held territory . Her parents James Wells and Elizabeth `` Lizzie '' ( Warrenton ) Wells , were both enslaved by Spires Bolling , an architect . She was one of eight children . The family resided at Bolling 's house , now named the Bolling - Gatewood House , where Lizzie Wells was a cook . Ida 's father was a master at carpentry ; after the Civil War and emancipation , he was known as a `` race man '' who worked for the advancement of black people . He was very interested in politics and became a member of the Loyal League . He attended Shaw University in Holly Springs ( now Rust College ) , but he dropped out to help his family . He also attended public speeches and campaigned for local black candidates but never ran for office himself . A religious woman , Elizabeth Wells was very strict with her children . Both of Ida 's parents were active in the Republican Party during Reconstruction . Ida attended Shaw like her father , but she was expelled for rebellious behavior after confronting the college president . While visiting her grandmother in the Mississippi Valley in 1878 , Ida , then aged 16 , received word that Holly Springs had suffered a yellow fever epidemic . Both of her parents and her infant brother ( Stanley ) died during that event , leaving her and her five other siblings orphaned . Wells would find a number of men who served as father figures later in her life , particularly Alfred Froman , Theodore W. Lott , and Josiah T. Settle ( with whom she boarded in 1886 and 1887 ) . Early career ( edit ) It is with no pleasure that I have dipped my hands in the corruption here exposed ... Somebody must show that the Afro - American race is more sinned against than sinning , and it seems to have fallen upon me to do so `` '' Ida B Wells ( 1892 ) Following the funerals of her parents and brother , friends and relatives decided that the six remaining Wells children should be split up and sent to various foster homes . Wells resisted this solution . To keep her younger siblings together as a family , she found work as a teacher in a black elementary school . Her paternal grandmother , Peggy Wells , along with other friends and relatives , stayed with her siblings and cared for them during the week while Wells was away teaching . Without this help , she would not have been able to keep her siblings together . Wells resented that in the segregated school system , white teachers were paid $80 a month and she was paid only $30 a month . This discrimination made her more interested in the politics of race and improving the education of black people . In 1883 , Wells took three of her younger siblings to Memphis , Tennessee , to live with her aunt and to be closer to other family members . She also learned that she could earn higher wages there as a teacher than in Mississippi . Soon after moving , she was hired in Woodstock for the Shelby County school system . During her summer vacations she attended summer sessions at Fisk University , a historically black college in Nashville . She also attended Lemoyne - Owen College , a historically black college in Memphis . She held strong political opinions and provoked many people with her views on women 's rights . At 24 , she wrote , `` I will not begin at this late day by doing what my soul abhors ; sugaring men , weak deceitful creatures , with flattery to retain them as escorts or to gratify a revenge . '' On May 4 , 1884 , a train conductor with the Memphis and Charleston Railroad ordered Wells to give up her seat in the first - class ladies car and move to the smoking car , which was already crowded with other passengers . The year before , the Supreme Court had ruled against the federal Civil Rights Act of 1875 ( which had banned racial discrimination in public accommodations ) . This verdict supported railroad companies that chose to racially segregate their passengers . When Wells refused to give up her seat , the conductor and two men dragged her out of the car . Wells gained publicity in Memphis when she wrote a newspaper article for The Living Way , a black church weekly , about her treatment on the train . In Memphis , she hired an African - American attorney to sue the railroad . When her lawyer was paid off by the railroad , she hired a white attorney . She won her case on December 24 , 1884 , when the local circuit court granted her a $500 award . The railroad company appealed to the Tennessee Supreme Court , which reversed the lower court 's ruling in 1887 . It concluded , `` We think it is evident that the purpose of the defendant in error was to harass with a view to this suit , and that her persistence was not in good faith to obtain a comfortable seat for the short ride . '' Wells was ordered to pay court costs . Wells ' reaction to the higher court 's decision expressed her strong convictions on civil rights and religious faith , as she responded : `` I felt so disappointed because I had hoped such great things from my suit for my people ... O God , is there no ... justice in this land for us ? '' While teaching elementary school , Wells was offered an editorial position for the Evening Star in Washington , DC . She also wrote weekly articles for The Living Way weekly newspaper under the pen name `` Iola , '' gaining a reputation for writing about the race issue . In 1889 , she became co-owner and editor of Free Speech and Headlight , an anti-segregation newspaper that was started by the Reverend Taylor Nightingale and was based at the Beale Street Baptist Church in Memphis . It published articles about racial injustice . In 1891 , Wells was dismissed from her teaching post by the Memphis Board of Education due to her articles that criticized conditions in the coloured schools of the region . Wells was devastated but undaunted , and concentrated her energy on writing articles for The Living Way and the Free Speech and Headlight . In 1889 Thomas Moss , a friend of Wells , opened the Peoples Grocery in the `` Curve , '' a black neighborhood just outside the Memphis city limits . Wells was close to Thomas Moss and his family , having stood as godmother to his first child . Moss ' store did well and competed with a white - owned grocery store across the street . In 1892 , while Wells was out of town in Natchez , Mississippi , a white mob invaded her friends ' store . During the altercation , three white men were shot and injured . Moss and two other black men , named McDowell and Stewart , were arrested and jailed pending trial . A large white lynch mob stormed the jail and killed the three men . After the lynching of her friends , Wells wrote in Free Speech and Headlight , urging blacks to leave Memphis altogether : There is , therefore , only one thing left to do ; save our money and leave a town which will neither protect our lives and property , nor give us a fair trial in the courts , but takes us out and murders us in cold blood when accused by white persons . Wells emphasized the public spectacle of the lynching . More than 6,000 black people did leave Memphis ; others organized boycotts of white - owned businesses . After being threatened with violence , she bought a pistol . She later wrote , `` They had made me an exile and threatened my life for hinting at the truth . '' Investigative Journalism ( edit ) Main articles : Anti-lynching movement and Lynching in the United States Dear Miss Wells : Let me give you thanks for your faithful paper on the lynch abomination now generally practiced against colored people in the South . There has been no word equal to it in convincing power . I have spoken , but my word is feeble in comparison ... Brave woman ! `` '' Frederick Douglass ( 1895 ) The murder of her friends drove Wells to research and document lynchings and their causes . She began investigative journalism by looking at the charges given for the murders , which officially started her anti-lynching campaign . She spoke on the issue at various black women 's clubs and raised more than $500 to investigate lynchings and publish her results . Wells found that black people were lynched for such social control reasons as failing to pay debts , not appearing to give way to whites , competing with whites economically , and being drunk in public . She found little basis for the frequent claim that black men were lynched because they had sexually abused or attacked white women . This alibi seemed to have partly accounted for white America 's collective acceptance or silence on lynching , as well as its acceptance by many in the educated African - American community . Before her friends were lynched and she conducted research , Wells had concluded that `` although lynching was ... contrary to law and order ... it was the terrible crime of rape ( that ) led to the lynching ; ( and ) that perhaps ... the mob was justified in taking his ( the rapist 's ) life '' . She published her findings in a pamphlet entitled `` Southern Horrors : Lynch Law in All Its Phases . '' She followed this with an editorial that suggested that unlike the myth that white women were sexually at risk of attacks by black men , most liaisons between black men and white women were consensual . After the editorial was published , Wells left Memphis for a short trip to New England , to cover another story for the newspaper . Her editorial enraged white men in Memphis . Their responses in two leading white newspapers , The Daily Commercial and The Evening Scimitar , were brimming with hatred ; `` the fact that a black scoundrel is allowed to live and utter such loathsome ... calumnies is a volume of evidence as to the wonderful patience of southern whites . But we have had enough of it '' . On May 27 , 1892 , while she was away in Philadelphia , a white mob destroyed the offices of the Free Speech and Headlight . Numerous other studies have supported Wells ' findings of lynching as a form of community control and analyzed variables that affect lynching . Beck and Tolnay 's influential 1990 study found that economics played a major role , with the rate of lynchings higher when marginal whites were under threat because of uncertain economic conditions . They concluded the following : ... ( L ) ynchings were more frequent in years when the `` constant dollar '' price of cotton was declining and inflationary pressure was increasing . The relative size of the black population was also positively related to lynching . We conclude that mob violence against southern black people responded to economic conditions affecting the financial fortunes of southern whites -- especially marginal white farmers . According to scholar Oliver C. Cox in his 1945 article `` Lynching and the Status Quo , '' the definition of lynching is `` an act of homicidal aggression committed by one people against another through mob action ... for the purpose of suppressing ... ( or ) subjugating them further '' . In an effort to raise awareness and opposition to lynching , Wells spoke to groups in New York City , where her audiences included many leading African - American women . On October 5 , 1892 , a testimonial dinner held at Lyric Hall , organized by political activists and clubwomen , Victoria Earle Matthews and Maritcha Remond Lyons , raised significant funds for Wells ' anti-lynching campaign . The Women 's Loyal Union of New York and Brooklyn was formed to organize black women as an interest group who could act politically . Because of the threats to her life , Wells left Memphis altogether and moved to Chicago . She continued to investigate lynching incidents and the ostensible causes in the cases , and to write columns attacking Southern injustices . Her articles were published in black newspapers , like the The New York Age . In 1893 , Wells began writing for the newspaper , The Chicago Conservator , which had ties to her future husband , Ferdinand Lee Barnett . She later purchased a partial ownership in the publication . Photo of Ferdinand Lee Barnett , Wells ' husband , from 1900 . Together with Frederick Douglass and other black leaders , she organized a black boycott of the 1893 World 's Columbian Exposition in Chicago , for its failure to collaborate with the black community on exhibits to represent African - American life . Wells , Douglass , Irvine Garland Penn , and Well 's future husband , Barnett , wrote sections of a pamphlet to be distributed there : `` Reasons Why the Colored American Is Not in the World 's Columbian Exposition . '' It detailed the progress of blacks since their arrival in America and also exposed the basis of Southern lynchings . Wells later reported to Albion W. Tourgée that copies of the pamphlet had been distributed to more than 20,000 people at the fair . After the World 's Fair in Chicago , Wells decided to stay in the city instead of returning to New York . That year she started work with the Chicago Conservator , the oldest African - American newspaper in the city . Also in 1893 , Wells contemplated a libel suit against two black Memphis attorneys . She turned to Tourgée , who had trained and practiced as a lawyer and judge , for possible free legal help . Deeply in debt , Tourgée could not afford to help but asked his friend Ferdinand Barnett for his aid . Born in Alabama , Barnett had become the editor of the Chicago Conservator in 1878 . He served as an assistant state attorney for 14 years . Barnett accepted the pro bono job . Personal life ( edit ) Ida B Wells with her four children , 1909 Wells kept track of her life through diaries ; in them , she writes few personal things . Before she was married , Wells said that she would date only those men with whom she had `` little romantic interest , '' because she did not want romance to be the centre of the relationship . She wanted it based on her and her partner 's mental and personal interaction , rather than physical attraction . Wells acknowledged such flaws as being very quick to criticize and use harsh words toward another . Because she recorded all of her purchases , her diaries revealed that she bought items which she really could not afford . In 1895 , Wells married attorney Ferdinand L. Barnett , a widower with two sons , Ferdinand and Albert . She was one of the first married American women to keep her own last name as well as taking her husband 's . The couple had four more children : Charles , Herman , Ida , and Alfreda . In the chapter of her Crusade For Justice autobiography , called A Divided Duty , Wells described the difficulty she had splitting her time between her family and her work . She continued to work after the birth of her first child , travelling and bringing the infant Charles with her . Although she tried to balance her world , she could not be as active in her work . Susan B. Anthony said she seemed `` distracted '' . After having her second child , Wells stepped out of her touring and public life for a time . European tours ( edit ) Wells took two tours to Europe in her campaign for justice , the first in 1893 and the second in 1894 . In 1893 , Wells went to Great Britain at the invitation of Catherine Impey , a British Quaker . An opponent of imperialism and proponent of racial equality , Impey wanted to ensure that the British public learned about the problem of lynching in the US . Wells toured England , Scotland and Wales for two months , addressing audiences of thousands , and rallying a moral crusade among the British . She accompanied her speeches with a photograph of a white mob and grinning white children posing near a hanged black man ; her talks created a sensation , but some in the audiences remained doubtful of her accounts . Wells intended to raise money and expose the US lynching violence , but received so little funds that she had difficulty covering her travel expenses . In 1894 before leaving the US for her second visit to Great Britain , Wells called on William Penn Nixon , the editor of Daily Inter-Ocean , a Republican newspaper in Chicago . It was the only major white paper that persistently denounced lynching . After she told Nixon about her planned tour , he asked her to write for the newspaper while in England . She was the first African - American woman to be a paid correspondent for a mainstream white newspaper . ( Tourgée had been writing a column for the same paper . ) Her article `` In Pembroke Chapel '' recounted the mental journey that an English minister had shared with her . C.F. Aked had invited Wells to speak . He told her he had found it difficult to accept the level of violence she recounted in her earlier accounts of lynching . He had traveled to the US for the 1893 Chicago World 's Fair , and while there , read in local papers about the Miller lynching in Bardwell , Kentucky . He realized that Wells ' accounts were accurate . Wells was highly effective in speaking to European audiences , who were shocked to learn about the rate of violence against black people in the U.S. Her two tours in Europe helped gain support for her cause . She called for the formation of groups to formally protest the lynchings . While in England , she founded the London Anti-Lynching Committee . Wells helped catalyze anti-lynching groups in Europe , which tried to press the U.S. government to guarantee the safety of blacks in the South . Willard controversy ( edit ) By the late 19th century , the Woman 's Christian Temperance Union ( WCTU ) , a predominantly white women 's organization , had branches in every state and a membership of more than 200,000 . Part of the progressive movement , it attracted some women to political activity who considered the suffrage movement as too radical . Other women were active in both movements . Frances Willard was president of the Temperance Union from 1879 to 1898 . Willard was touring England on behalf of temperance when Wells was conducting her anti-lynching campaign there . As Wells described American lynchings , British liberals were incredulous that white American leaders such as Willard , whom the English press had described as the `` Uncrowned Queen of American Democracy , '' would turn a blind eye to such violence . Wells accused Willard of being silent on the issue of lynchings , and of making racial comments that added to mob violence . Wells referred to an interview of Willard during her tour of the American South , in which she had blamed black behavior for the defeat of temperance legislation . `` The colored race multiplies like the locusts of Egypt , '' she had said , and `` the grog shop is its center of power ... The safety of women , of childhood , of the home is menaced in a thousand localities . '' In response , Willard and her supporter Lady Somerset attempted to use their influence to keep Wells ' comments at lectures out of the press . Wells said that , despite Willard 's having abolitionist forebears and black friends , she allowed southern branches of the WCTU to segregate and prevent black women from joining . The dispute between Wells and Willard in England intensified the campaign against Wells in the American press . Though The New York Times had reported on Wells ' visit to Britain without much commentary , the paper published an opinion piece in August 1894 that suggested that black men were prone to rape and described Wells as a `` slanderous and nasty - minded mulattress '' who was looking for more `` income '' than `` outcome . '' Such attacks in the US press swayed many Britons to support Wells ' cause . `` It is idle for men to say that the conditions which Miss Wells describes do not exist , '' a British editor wrote . `` Whites of America may not think so ; British Christianity does and all the scurrility of the American press wo n't alter the facts . '' Wells also dedicated a chapter of her 1895 pamphlet A Red Record to juxtapose the different positions that she and Willard held . The chapter was titled `` Miss Willard 's Attitude '' . It condemned Willard for using rhetoric that Wells thought promoted violence and other crimes against African Americans in America . Wells ' British tour ultimately led to the formation of the British Anti-Lynching Committee , which included prominent members such as the Duke of Argyll , the Archbishop of Canterbury , members of Parliament , and the editors of The Manchester Guardian . Southern Horrors and the Red Record ( edit ) Cover of Southern Horrors : Lynch Law in All Its Phases Wells published an editorial on her investigation on lynching in her Memphis paper , The Free Speech . When her office was destroyed by a mob , she wrote a more detailed account in the New York Age a black newspaper in New York City . On October 26 , 1892 , Wells published this research in a pamphlet titled Southern Horrors : Lynch Law in All Its Phases . Having examined many accounts of lynchings due to the alleged `` rape of white women , '' she concluded that Southerners cried rape as an excuse to hide their real reasons for lynchings : black economic progress , which threatened white Southerners with competition , and white ideas of enforcing black second - class status in the society . Black economic progress was a contemporary issue in the South , and in many states whites worked to suppress black progress . In this period at the turn of the century , Southern states , starting with Mississippi in 1890 , passed laws and / or new constitutions to disenfranchise most black people and many poor white people through use of poll taxes , literacy tests and other devices . Wells - Barnett recommended that black people use arms to defend against lynching . She followed - up with greater research and detail in The Red Record ( 1895 ) , a 100 - page pamphlet describing lynching in the United States since the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 . It also covered black peoples ' struggles in the South since the Civil War . The Red Record explored the alarmingly high rates of lynching in the United States ( which was at a peak from 1880 to 1930 ) . Wells - Barnett said that during Reconstruction , most Americans outside the South did not realize the growing rate of violence against black people in the South . She believed that during slavery , white people had not committed as many attacks because of the economic labour value of slaves . Wells noted that , since slavery time , `` ten thousand Negroes have been killed in cold blood , ( through lynching ) without the formality of judicial trial and legal execution . '' Frederick Douglass had written an article noting three eras of `` Southern barbarism , '' and the excuses that whites claimed in each period . Wells - Barnett explored these in detail in her The Red Record . During slavery time , she noted that whites worked to `` repress and stamp out alleged ' race riots . ' '' or suspected slave rebellions , usually killing black people in far higher proportions than any white casualties . Once the Civil War ended , white people feared black people , who were in the majority in many areas . White people acted to control them and suppress them by violence . During the Reconstruction Era white people lynched black people as part of mob efforts to suppress black political activity and re-establish white supremacy after the war . They feared `` Negro Domination '' through voting and taking office . Wells - Barnett urged black people in high - risk areas to move away to protect their families . She noted that whites frequently claimed that black men had `` to be killed to avenge their assaults upon women . '' She noted that white people assumed that any relationship between a white woman and a black man was a result of rape . But , given power relationships , it was much more common for white men to take sexual advantage of poor black women . She stated : `` Nobody in this section of the country believes the old threadbare lie that black men rape white women . '' Wells connected lynching to sexual violence showing how the myth of the black man 's lust for white women led to murder of African American men . Wells - Barnett gave 14 pages of statistics related to lynching cases committed from 1892 to 1895 ; she also included pages of graphic accounts detailing specific lynchings . She notes that her data was taken from articles by white correspondents , white press bureaus , and white newspapers . The Red Record was a huge pamphlet , and had far - reaching influence in the debate about lynching . Southern Horrors : Lynch Law in All Its Phases and The Red Record 's accounts of these lynchings grabbed the attention of Northerners who knew little about lynching or accepted the common explanation that black men deserved this fate . Generally southern states and white juries refused to indict any perpetrators for lynching , although they were frequently known and sometimes shown in the photographs being made more frequently of such events . Despite Wells - Barnett 's attempt to garner support among white Americans against lynching , she believed that her campaign could not overturn the economic interests whites had in using lynching as an instrument to maintain Southern order and discourage Black economic ventures . Ultimately , Wells - Barnett concluded that appealing to reason and compassion would not succeed in gaining criminalization of lynching by Southern whites . Wells - Barnett concluded that perhaps armed resistance was the only defense against lynching . Meanwhile , she extended her efforts to gain support of such powerful white nations as Britain to shame and sanction the racist practices of America . Wells and W.E.B. Du Bois ( edit ) Wells often encountered and sometimes collaborated with scholar and activist W.E.B. Du Bois . Both condemned lynching . They also competed for attention . They differed in accounts for why Wells ' name was excluded from the original list of founders of the NAACP . In his autobiography , Du Bois implied that Wells chose not to be included . But , in her autobiography , Wells stated that Du Bois deliberately excluded her from the list . Public career ( edit ) In 1893 , Wells began The Women 's Era Club , a first - of - its - kind civic club for African American women in Chicago ( it would later be renamed , the Ida B. Wells Club in her honor ) . In 1894 , Wells helped form a Republican Women 's Club in Illinois in response to women being granted the right to vote for a state elective office and the right to hold elective office as Trustee of the University of Illinois . The club organized to support the nomination by the Republican Party of Lucy L. Flower to that position , and Flower was eventually elected . Wells received much support from other social activists and her fellow club women . Frederick Douglass praised her work : `` You have done your people and mine a service ... What a revelation of existing conditions your writing has been for me . '' Wells took her anti-lynching campaign to Europe with the help of many supporters . Trying to organize African - American groups across the United States , in 1896 , Wells founded the National Association of Colored Women 's Clubs and the National Afro - American Council . In 1898 , Wells was struggling to manage her busy family life and career , but she was still a fierce campaigner in the anti-lynching circle . That year the National Association of Colored Women 's Clubs met in Chicago but did not invite Wells to take part . When she confronted Mary Church Terrell , the president of the club , Wells was told that the women of Chicago had said that , if Wells were to take part in the club , they would no longer aid the association . Wells later learned that Terrell 's own competitiveness played a part in excluding her . After settling in Chicago , Wells worked to improve conditions for its rapidly growing African - American population . They were leaving the rural South in the Great Migration to northern industrial cities . Competition for jobs and housing caused a rise in social tensions ; at the same time , there was increased immigration from Europe , and earlier ethnic whites , such as the Irish Americans , worked to defend their own power and territory in the city . Black American migrants had to compete for jobs and housing with millions of immigrants from rural eastern and southern Europe . Wells worked on urban reform in Chicago during the last 30 years of her life . She also raised her family . After her retirement , Wells began writing her autobiography , Crusade for Justice ( 1928 ) . She never finished it ; she died of uremia ( kidney failure ) in Chicago on March 25 , 1931 , at the age of 68 . She was buried in the Oak Woods Cemetery in Chicago . ( The cemetery was later integrated by the city . ) Legacy and honors ( edit ) Ida B. Wells - Barnett House is a Chicago landmark and National Historic Landmark . Since Wells ' death and with the rise of the mid-century civil rights activism , interest in her life and legacy has grown . Awards have been established in Wells ' name by the National Association of Black Journalists , the Medill School of Journalism at Northwestern University , the Coordinating Council for Women in History , the Investigative Fund , the University of Louisville , and the New York County Lawyers Association , among many others . In 2006 , the Harvard Kennedy School commissioned a portrait of Wells . The Ida B. Wells Memorial Foundation and the Ida B. Wells Museum has been established to protect , preserve and promote Wells 's legacy . In her hometown of Holly Springs , Mississippi , there is an Ida B. Wells - Barnett Museum in her honor that acts as a cultural center of African American history . In 1941 , the Public Works Administration ( PWA ) built a Chicago Housing Authority public housing project in the Bronzeville neighborhood on the south side in Chicago ; it was named the Ida B. Wells Homes in her honor . The buildings were demolished in August 2011 due to changing demographics and ideas about such housing . On February 1 , 1990 , the United States Postal Service issued a 25 - cent postage stamp in her honor . In 2011 , Wells was inducted into the Chicago Literary Hall of Fame for her writings In 2002 , Molefi Kete Asante listed Wells on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans . Wells was featured during the `` HerStory '' video tribute to notable women on U2 's tour in 2017 for the 30th anniversary of The Joshua Tree during a performance of `` Ultraviolet ( Light My Way ) '' from the band 's 1991 album Achtung Baby . In 2018 , the New York Times published a belated obituary for her . Representation in other media ( edit ) In 1995 , the play In Pursuit of Justice : A One - Woman Play About Ida B. Wells , written by Wendy Jones and starring Janice Jenkins , was produced . It is drawn from historical incidents and speeches from Ida B. Wells - Barnett 's autobiography , and features fictional letters to a friend . It won four awards from the AUDELCO ( Audience Development Committee Inc . ) , an organization that honors black theatre . Her life is the subject of Constant Star ( 2006 ) , a musical drama by Tazewell Thompson . It has been widely performed . The play explores her as `` a seminal figure in Post-Reconstruction America . '' In 2016 's Dinesh D'Souza 's Hillary 's America book and film , Carol Swain , a black law professor at Vanderbilt University , tells Wells ' story of fighting lynchings and challenging U.S. President Woodrow Wilson over his administration 's racial resegregation of the federal work force . Influence on black feminist activism ( edit ) Although not a feminist writer herself , Wells - Barnett tried to explain that the defense of white women 's honor allowed Southern white men to get away with murder by projecting their own dark history of sexual violence onto black men . Her call for all races and genders to be accountable for their actions showed African American women that they can speak out and fight for their rights . By portraying the horrors of lynching , she worked to show that racial and gender discrimination are linked , furthering the black feminist cause . See also ( edit ) African - American Civil Rights Movement ( 1865 -- 95 ) African - American Civil Rights Movement ( 1896 -- 1954 ) List of civil rights leaders List of suffragists and suffragettes List of women 's rights activists Timeline of the African - American Civil Rights Movement Timeline of women 's suffrage Selected publications ( edit ) Wells , Ida B. ( 1895 ) . The Red Record : Tabulated Statistics and Alleged Causes of Lynching in the United States . Wells , Ida B. ( 1892 ) . Southern Horrors : Lynch Law in All Its Phases . Biography portal Mississippi portal Chicago portal Illinois portal African Americans portal Journalism portal Politics portal References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Lengermann , Patricia Madoo ; Niebrugge , Gillian ( 2006 ) . `` 5 . Anna Julia Cooper ( 1858 -- 1964 ) and Ida B. Wells - Barnett ( 1862 -- 1931 ) -- The foundations of black feminist sociology '' . The Women Founders : Sociology and Social Theory 1830 -- 1930 , A Text / Reader . Waveland Press . pp. 149 -- 92 . ISBN 9781478609360 . Jump up ^ Candeloro , Dominic ( April 1979 ) . `` The Single Tax Movement and Progressivism , 1880 -- 1920 '' . American Journal of Economics and Sociology. 38 ( 2 ) : 125 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1536 - 7150.1979. tb02869. x . Archived from the original on July 17 , 2015 . Retrieved July 16 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Giddings , Paula J. `` Wells - Barnett , Ida B. 1862 -- 1931 '' , in Patrick L. Mason ( ed . ) , Encyclopedia of Race and Racism , 2nd edn , vol. 4 , Macmillan Reference USA , 2013 , pp. 265 - 267 . Gale Virtual Reference Library . Accessed March 8 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Dickerson , Caitlin ( 2018 - 03 - 08 ) . `` Ida B. Wells , Who Took on Racism in the Deep South With Powerful Reporting on Lynchings '' . The New York Times . ISSN 0362 - 4331 . Retrieved 2018 - 04 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` Ida B. Wells Speaks Out Against Lynching '' , in Susan Ware , ed . Modern American Women : a Documentary History Jump up ^ `` Guide to the Ida B. Wells Papers 1884 -- 1976 '' . University of Chicago Library . Retrieved March 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Ida B. Wells Barnett biography '' . Women in History . Women In History Ohio . Retrieved March 21 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : McBride , Jennifer , `` Ida B. Wells : Crusade for Justice '' , Webster University . Retrieved January 30 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Dorrien , Gary ( 2015 ) . The New Abolition : W.E.B. Du Bois and the Black Social Gospel . New Haven , Connecticut : Yale University Press . p. 85 . ^ Jump up to : Cleary , Tom . `` Ida B. Wells : 5 Fast Facts You Need to Know '' . Heavy.com . Retrieved April 5 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Gale - Enter Product Login '' . go.galegroup.com . Retrieved 2017 - 03 - 08 . ^ Jump up to : McMurry , Linda O. ( December 14 , 2000 ) . To Keep the Waters Troubled : The Life of Ida B. Wells . Oxford University Press . Retrieved July 16 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Schechter , Patricia A. , Ida B. Wells - Barnett and American Reform , 1880 -- 1930 Archived March 1 , 2015 , at the Wayback Machine ... Retrieved April 31 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Bay , p. 67 . Jump up ^ Fridan , D. , & J. Fridan ( 2000 ) . Ida B. Wells : Mother of the Civil Rights Movement . New York : Houghton Mifflin Harcourt , p. 21 . ISBN 0 - 395 - 89898 - 6 Jump up ^ Southwestern Reporter , Volume 4 , May 16 -- August 1 , 1887 . Jump up ^ The Southwestern reporter -- West Publishing Company -- Google Books . Books.google.com . Retrieved May 12 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Duster , Alfreda ( 1970 ) . Crusade for Justice . Chicago : The University of Chicago Press . p. xviii . ISBN 0 - 226 - 89344 - 8 . Jump up ^ Lee D. Baker , `` Ida B. Wells - Barnett and Her Passion for Justice '' , Faculty web page , Duke University . Retrieved April 31 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Wells , p. 63 . Jump up ^ Waldrep , Christopher ( January 1 , 2006 ) . Lynching in America : A History in Documents . NYU Press . p. 131 . Retrieved February 24 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Gabbidon , Shaun L. ; Greene , Helen Taylor ; Young , Vernetta D. ( 2002 ) . African American Classics in Criminology and Criminal Justice . SAGE . p. 25 . ISBN 9780761924333 . Jump up ^ Duster ( 1970 ) . Crusade for Justice . p. 64 . ^ Jump up to : Southern Horrors : Lynch Law in All Its Phases Jump up ^ Royster , ed. with an intro . by Jacqueline Jones ( 1997 ) . Southern horrors and other writings : the anti-lynching campaign of Ida B. Wells , 1892 -- 1900 . Boston : Bedford Books . p. 52 . ISBN 0 - 312 - 11695 - 0 . CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Pfeifer , Michael J. Rough Justice : Lynching and American Society , 1874 -- 1947 , Chicago : University of Illinois Press , 2004 , p. 30 . Jump up ^ Beck , E.M. , and S.E. Tolnay , `` The Killing Fields of the Deep South : The Market for Cotton and the Lynching of Blacks , 1882 -- 1930 '' , American Sociological Review , 1990 , p. 526 -- via JSTOR . Jump up ^ Cox , Oliver ( Autumn 1945 ) . `` Lynching and the Status Quo '' . Journal of Negro Education . 14 : 576 -- 588 . JSTOR 2966029 . Jump up ^ Peterson , Carla ( 2011 ) . Black Gotham : A Family History of African Americans in Nineteenth - Century New York City . New Haven : Yale University Press . pp. 354 -- 55 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 300 - 16255 - 4 . Jump up ^ Terborg - Penn , Rosalyn ( 1998 ) . African American Women in the struggle for the vote 1850 -- 1920 . Indiana University Press . p. 87 . ISBN 9780253333780 . Jump up ^ Donald A. Ritchie ( 2007 ) . American Journalists . Oxford University Press . p. 165 . ISBN 9780195328370 . Jump up ^ Elliott , pp. 239 -- 40 . Jump up ^ Elliott , p. 239 . Jump up ^ Foreman , Gabrielle . `` Review of The Memphis Diary of Ida B. Wells '' . African American Review . JSTOR 3042494 . Retrieved February 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Miss Ida B. Wells About to Marry '' . Washington Post . June 13 , 1895 . Retrieved May 9 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Tichi , Cecelia ( 2011 ) . Civic Passions : Seven Who Launched Progressive America . Chapel Hill : University of North Carolina Press . p. 340 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8078 - 7191 - 1 . Jump up ^ Busby , Margaret , ' `` Ida B. Wells ( Barnett ) '' ) , in Daughters of Africa , p. 150 . Jump up ^ Elliott , pp. 240 -- 41 . Jump up ^ `` Alexander Street Press Authorization '' . asp6new.alexanderstreet.com . Retrieved March 15 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Wells , p. 125 . Jump up ^ Elliott , p. 242 . Jump up ^ Wells , pp. 128 -- 29 . Jump up ^ Wells , p. 126 . Jump up ^ Wells , p. 129 . Jump up ^ `` Alexander Street Press Authorization '' . asp6new.alexanderstreet.com . Retrieved March 15 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Giddings , 1984 , p. 90 . ^ Jump up to : Giddings , 1984 , p. 91 . Jump up ^ `` British Anti-Lynchers '' . The New York Times . August 2 , 1894 . Retrieved May 23 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Giddings , 1984 , p. 92 . Jump up ^ Baker , Lee D. ( February 2012 ) . `` Ida B. Wells - Barnett : Fighting and Writing for Justice '' ( PDF ) . eJournal USA . U.S. Department of State . 16 ( 6 ) : 6 -- 8 . Retrieved March 1 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Wells , Ida ( 1892 ) . `` Southern Horrors : Lynch Law in All Its Phases - Preface '' . Digital History - University of Houston . Retrieved 2018 - 04 - 23 . ^ Jump up to : Curry , Tommy J. ( 2012 ) . `` The Fortune of Wells : Ida B. Wells - Barnett 's Use of T. Thomas Fortune 's Philosophy of Social Agitation as a Prolegomenon to Militant Civil Rights Activism '' . Transactions of the Charles S. Peirce Society . 48 ( 4 ) : 456 -- 82 . doi : 10.2979 / trancharpeirsoc. 48.4. 456 . Jump up ^ Du Bois , Dusk of Dawn ; an Essay toward an Autobiography of a Race Concept , p. 224 . Jump up ^ Wells - Barnett and Duster , Crusade for Justice : The Autobiography of Ida B. Wells , p. 322 . Jump up ^ Moore , Heidi ( 2004 ) . Ida B. Wells - Barnett . Capstone Classroom . ISBN 9781403457066 . Jump up ^ `` The Political Field , Republican Women Cordially Indorse Mrs. Flower '' . The Inter Ocean ( Chicago , Illinois ) , August 17 , 1864 . Retrieved July 23 , 2016 , via newspapers.com . Jump up ^ `` Wulff 's Big Majority '' , Alton Telegraph ( Alton , Illinois ) , November 8 , 1894 . Retrieved July 23 , 2016 , via newspapers.com . Jump up ^ Frederick Douglass , Free Speech Jump up ^ Knupfer , Anne Meis . `` Clubs '' . Northern Illinois University - Periodicals Online . Jump up ^ `` Protests Against Maysville Lynching '' ( 1899 , December 9 ) . The Washington Post , ( 1877 -- 1954 ) , p. 4 . Retrieved December 23 , 2008 , from ProQuest Historical Newspapers , The Washington Post ( 1877 -- 1992 ) database ( Document ID : 190136962 ) . Jump up ^ `` National Association of Black Journalists Award '' . Retrieved February 22 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Medill School of Journalism at Northwestern University Award '' . Retrieved February 22 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Coordinating Council for Women in History Award '' . Retrieved February 22 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Investigative Fund Award '' . Retrieved February 22 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` University of Louisville Award '' . Retrieved February 22 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` New York County Lawyers Association Award '' . Retrieved February 22 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Harvard Kennedy School portrait of Ida B. Wells '' . Retrieved February 22 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Ida B. Wells Memorial Foundation and Museum '' . Retrieved February 22 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Ida B. Wells - Barnett Museum '' . Retrieved February 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Ida B. Wells Homes Chicago , Illinois '' . Wikimapia.org . Retrieved May 12 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Women Subjects on United States Postage Stamps '' ( PDF ) . United States Postal Service . p. 3 . Retrieved August 30 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Ida B. Wells '' . Chicago Literary Hall of Fame . 2011 . Retrieved 2017 - 10 - 17 . Jump up ^ Asante , Molefi Kete ( 2002 ) . 100 Greatest African Americans : A Biographical Encyclopedia . Amherst , New York . Prometheus Books . ISBN 1 - 57392 - 963 - 8 . Jump up ^ `` The Women of Ultra Violet : Light My ( Mysterious ) Ways : Leg 1 '' , U2 Songs . Jump up ^ Viagas , Robert , `` Audelco Award Winners '' , Playbill , December 1 , 1995 . ^ Jump up to : Gates , Anita ( July 23 , 2006 ) . `` CONSTANT STAR - Review '' . The New York Times . Retrieved June 22 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Fund , John , `` Hillary 's America -- A Two - by - Four Bashing Democrats '' , National Review , July 18 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Stansell , Christine ( 2010 ) . The Feminist Promise . New York : Modern Library . p. 126 . Bibliography ( edit ) Bay , Mia ( 2009 ) . To Tell the Truth Freely : the life of Ida B. Wells . New York : Hill & Wang . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8090 - 9529 - 2 . Buechler , S.M. ( 1951 ) . Women 's Movements in The United States , New Brunswick : Rutgers University Press . Campbell , Karlyn Kohrs ( 1986 ) . `` Style and content in the rhetoric of early Afro ‐ American feminists '' . Quarterly Journal of Speech . Taylor and Francis . 72 ( 4 ) : 434 -- 45 . doi : 10.1080 / 00335638609383786 . Curry , Tommy J. ( Fall 2012 ) . `` The fortune of Wells : Ida B. Wells - Barnett 's use of T. Thomas Fortune 's philosophy of social agitation as a prolegomenon to militant civil rights activism '' . Transactions of the Charles S. Peirce Society . Indiana University Press via JSTOR. 48 ( 4 ) : 456 -- 82 . doi : 10.2979 / trancharpeirsoc. 48.4. 456 . JSTOR 10.2979 / trancharpeirsoc. 48.4. 456 . Davis , E.L. ( 1922 ) . The Story of the Illinois Federation of Colored Women 's Clubs , Chicago : Illinois Federation of Colored Women 's Clubs . Effinger - Crichlow , Marta ( 2014 ) . Staging Migrations Toward an American West : From Ida B. Wells to Rhodessa Jones . Boulder , CO : University Press of Colorado . Elliott , Mark ( 2006 ) . Color - Blind Justice : Albion Tourgée and the Quest for Racial Equality from the Civil War to Plessey v. Ferguson . New York : Oxford University Press . Gere , Anne R. ; Robbins , Sarah R. ( Spring 1996 ) . `` Gendered literacy in black and white : turn - of - the - century African - American and European - American club women 's printed texts '' . Signs . University of Chicago Press via JSTOR. 21 ( 3 ) : 643 -- 78 . doi : 10.1086 / 495101 . JSTOR 3175174 . Giddings , P.J. ( 2008 ) . Ida , A Sword Among Lions : Ida B. Wells and the Campaign Against Lynching ( New York : Amistad / HarperCollins , 2008 , ISBN 0060797363 ) . Hendricks , W.A. ( 1998 ) . Gender , Race , and Politics in the Midwest , Bloomington : Indiana University Press . McCammon , Holly J. ( 2003 ) . `` '' Out of the parlors and into the streets `` : the changing tactical repertoire of the U.S. women ' suffrage movements '' . Social Forces . Oxford Journals. 81 ( 3 ) : 787 -- 818 . doi : 10.1353 / sof. 2003.0037 . McMurray , L.O. ( 1998 ) . To Keep the Waters Troubled , New York : Oxford University Press . Parker , Maegan ( 2008 ) . `` Desiring citizenship : a rhetorical analysis of the Wells / Willard controversy '' . Women 's Studies in Communication . Taylor and Francis . 31 ( 1 ) : 56 -- 78 . doi : 10.1080 / 07491409.2008. 10162522 . Royster , J.J. ( 1997 ) . Southern Horrors and Other Writings , New York : Bedford . Wells , Ida B. ( 1970 ) . Alfreda M. Duster . ed . Crusade For Justice : The Autobiography of Ida B. Wells . Negro American Biographies and Autobiographies Series . John Hope Franklin , Series Editor . Chicago : University of Chicago Press . ISBN 0 - 226 - 89342 - 1 . http://lccn.loc.gov/73108837 . Retrieved December 23 , 2008 . Zackodnik , Teresa ( July -- August 2005 ) . `` Ida B. Wells and ' American Atrocities ' in Britain '' . Women 's Studies International Forum . ScienceDirect. 28 ( 4 ) : 259 -- 73 . doi : 10.1016 / j. wsif. 2005.04. 012 . Further reading ( edit ) Works by Ida B. Wells at Project Gutenberg The Memphis Diary of Ida B. Wells , memoirs , travel notes and selected articles ( Beacon Press , 1995 ) Ida B. Wells , `` Lynch Law '' ( 1893 ) , History Is a Weapon Website `` Ida B. Wells -- Illinois During the Gilded Age , 1866 -- 1896 '' . Northern Illinois University , Illinois Historical Digitization Projects at Northern Illinois University Libraries . Archived from the original on July 19 , 2008 . Retrieved March 28 , 2008 . Baker , Lee D. `` Ida B. Wells - Barnett ( 1862 -- 1931 ) and Her Passion for Justice , Black Women , African American Women , Sufferage , ( sic ) Women 's Movement , Civil Rights Leaders '' . Duke University . Retrieved December 9 , 2007 . Shay , Alison . `` Remembering Ida B. Wells - Barnett '' . University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill . Archived from the original on August 1 , 2013 . Retrieved September 29 , 2012 . Davidson , James West . ' They say ' : Ida B. Wells and the Reconstruction of Race . Oxford University Press , 2009 . Dickerson , Caitlyn , `` Ida B. Wells , 1862 - 1931 , '' New York Times , March 8 , 2018 . Lutes , Jean Marie . `` Front Page Girls : Women Journalists in American Culture and Fiction , 1880 -- 1930 '' . Cornell University Press , 2007 . Retrieved July 16 , 2015 . Royster , Jacqueline Jones , ed. , Southern horrors and other writings : The anti-lynching campaign of Ida B. Wells , 1892 -- 1900 Boston : Bedford Books , 1997 . Schechter , Patricia A. Ida B. Wells - Barnett and American Reform , 1880 -- 1930 . Chapel Hill , NC : University of North Carolina Press . Silkey , Sarah L. Black Woman Reformer : Ida B. Wells , Lynching , and Transatlantic Activism . Athens , GA : University of Georgia Press , 2015 . External links ( edit ) Library resources about Ida B. Wells Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries By Ida B. Wells Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Media related to Ida B. Wells at Wikimedia Commons Works related to Ida B. Wells at Wikisource Works by Ida B. Wells at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Ida B. Wells at Internet Archive Works by Ida B. Wells at LibriVox ( public domain audiobooks ) Interview with Linda McMurry on To Keep the Waters Troubled : The Life of Ida B. Wells , Booknotes , September 26 , 1999 Ida B. Wells at Find a Grave Norwood , Arlisha . `` Ida B. Wells - Barnett '' . National Women 's History Museum . 2017 . 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what is the largest biome in south africa

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Vredefort_crater&oldid=830266671

Vredefort crater - wikipedia Vredefort crater Jump to : navigation , search Vredefort Crater Vredefort Dome ( centre ) Vredefort Dome , seen from space by STS - 51 - I Impact crater / structure Confidence Confirmed Diameter 300 km ( 190 mi ) Age 2023 ± 4 Ma Paleoproterozoic Exposed Yes Drilled Yes Location Coordinates 27 ° 0 ′ 0 '' S 27 ° 30 ′ 0 '' E  /  27.00000 ° S 27.50000 ° E  / - 27.00000 ; 27.50000 Coordinates : 27 ° 0 ′ 0 '' S 27 ° 30 ′ 0 '' E  /  27.00000 ° S 27.50000 ° E  / - 27.00000 ; 27.50000 Country South Africa Province Free State Province Location of Vredefort crater Vredefort crater UNESCO World Heritage Site Location Free State , South Africa Coordinates 27 ° 00 ′ S 27 ° 30 ′ E  /  27 ° S 27.5 ° E  / - 27 ; 27.5 Criteria Natural : ( viii ) Reference 1162 Inscription 2005 ( 29th Session ) Location of Vredefort crater ( edit on Wikidata ) The Vredefort crater is the largest verified impact crater on Earth , more than 300 km ( 186 mi ) across when it was formed . What remains of it is located in the present - day Free State Province of South Africa and named after the town of Vredefort , which is situated near its center . Although the crater itself has long since eroded away , the remaining geological structures at its center are known as the Vredefort Dome or Vredefort impact structure . The crater is estimated to be 2.023 billion years old ( ± 4 million years ) , with impact being in the Paleoproterozoic Era . It is the second - oldest known crater on Earth . In 2005 , the Vredefort Dome was added to the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites for its geologic interest . Contents ( hide ) 1 Formation and structure 2 Conservation 3 Community 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Formation and structure ( edit ) Map of South Africa showing the location of the Vredefort Dome , the remains of a 2.020 billion year - old impact crater . The interrupted line circle , 300 km in diameter , marks the extent of the original crater . The asteroid that hit Vredefort is estimated to have been one of the largest ever to strike Earth ( at least since the Hadean Eon some four billion years ago ) , thought to have been approximately 10 -- 15 km ( 6.2 -- 9.3 mi ) in diameter . The bolide that created the Sudbury Basin could have been even larger . The original crater was estimated to have a diameter of roughly 300 km ( 190 mi ) , although this has been eroded away . It would have been larger than the 250 km ( 160 mi ) Sudbury Basin and the 180 km ( 110 mi ) Chicxulub Crater . The remaining structure , the `` Vredefort Dome '' , consists of a partial ring of hills 70 km in diameter , and are the remains of a dome created by the rebound of rock below the impact site after the collision . The crater 's age is estimated to be 2.023 billion years ( ± 4 million years ) , which places it in the Paleoproterozoic Era . It is the second - oldest known crater on Earth , a little less than 300 million years younger than the Suavjärvi Crater in Russia . In comparison , it is about 10 % older than the Sudbury Basin impact ( at 1.849 billion years ) . A timeline of the earth 's history indicating when the Vredefort crater was formed in relation to some of the other important South African geological events . W indicates when the Witwatersrand Supergroup was laid down , C the Cape Supergroup , and K the Karoo Supergroup . The graph also indicates the period during which banded ironstone formations were formed on earth , indicative of an oxygen - free atmosphere . The Earth 's crust was wholly or partially molten during the Hadean Eon . One of the first microcontinents to form was the Kaapvaal Craton , which is exposed at the center of the Vredefort Dome , and again north of Johannesburg . The dome in the center of the crater was originally thought to have been formed by a volcanic explosion , but in the mid-1990s , evidence revealed it was the site of a huge bolide impact , as telltale shatter cones were discovered in the bed of the nearby Vaal River . The crater site is one of the few multiple - ringed impact craters on Earth , although they are more common elsewhere in the Solar System . Perhaps the best - known example is Valhalla Crater on Jupiter 's moon Callisto , although Earth 's Moon has a number , as well . Geological processes , such as erosion and plate tectonics , have destroyed most multiple - ring craters on Earth . A schematic diagram of a NE ( left ) to SW ( right ) cross-section through the 2020 million year old Vredefort impact crater and how it distorted the contemporary geological structures . The present erosion level is shown . Johannesburg is located where the Witwatersrand Basin ( the yellow layer ) is exposed at the `` present surface '' line , just inside the crater rim , on the left . Not to scale . The impact distorted the Witwatersrand Basin which was laid down over a period of 250 million years between 950 and 700 million years before the Vredefort impact . The overlying Ventersdorp lavas and the Transvaal Supergroup which were laid down between 700 and 80 million years before the meteorite strike , were similarly distorted by the formation of the 300 km wide crater . These rocks form partial concentric rings round the crater center today , with the oldest , the Witwatersrand rocks , forming a semicircle 25 km from the center . Since the Witwatersrand rocks consist of several layers of very hard , erosion resistant sediments ( e.g. quartzites and banded ironstones ) , they form the prominent arc of hills that can be seen to the NW of the crater center in the satellite picture above . The Witwatersrand rocks are followed , in succession , by the Ventersdorp lavas at a distance of about 35 km from the center , and the Transvaal Supergroup , consisting of a narrow band of the Ghaap Dolomite rocks and the Pretoria Subgroup of rocks , which together form a 25 -- 30 km wide band beyond that . From about halfway through the Pretoria Subgroup of rocks around the crater center , the order of the rocks is reversed . Moving outwards towards where the crater rim used to be , the Ghaap Dolomite group resurfaces at 60 km from the center , followed by an arc of Ventersdorp lavas , beyond which , at between 80 and 120 km from the center , the Witwatersrand rocks re-emerge to form an interrupted arc of outcrops today , of which the Johannesburg group is the most famous , because it was here that gold was discovered in 1886 . It is thus possible that if it had not been for the Vredefort impact this gold would never have been discovered . The 40 km diameter center of the Vredefort crater consists of a granite dome ( where it is not covered by much younger rocks belonging to the Karoo Supergroup ) which is an exposed part of the Kaapvaal craton , one of the oldest microcontinents which formed on earth 3900 million years ago . This central peak uplift , or dome , is typical of a complex impact crater , where the liquefied rocks splashed up in the wake of the meteor as it penetrated the surface . Conservation ( edit ) Monochrome satellite view of the crater The Vredefort Dome World Heritage Site is currently subject to property development , and local owners have expressed concern regarding sewage dumping into the Vaal River and the crater site . The granting of prospecting rights around the edges of the crater has led environmental interests to express fear of destructive mining . Community ( edit ) The Vredefort Dome in the center of the crater is home to four towns , namely Parys , Vredefort , Koppies and Venterskroon . Parys is the largest and a tourist hub ; both Vredefort and Koppies mainly depend on an agricultural economy . On 19 December 2011 , a broadcasting license was granted by ICASA to a community radio station to broadcast for the Afrikaans - and English - speaking members of the communities within the crater . The Afrikaans name Koepel Stereo ( Dome Stereo ) refers to the dome and announces its broadcast as KSFM . The station broadcasts on 94.9 MHz FM . See also ( edit ) List of impact craters on Earth List of unconfirmed impact craters on Earth -- for unconfirmed craters similar to or larger than Vredfort References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Vredefort '' . Earth Impact Database . University of New Brunswick . Retrieved 2008 - 12 - 30 . ^ Jump up to : `` Deep Impact - The Vredefort Dome '' . Hartebeesthoek Radio Astronomy Observatory . 2006 - 08 - 01 . Retrieved 2007 - 09 - 19 . ^ Jump up to : McCarthy , T. , Rubridge , B. ( 2005 ) . ' ' The Story of Earth and Life . ' ' p. 89 - 90 , 102 - 107 , 134 - 136 . Struik Publishers , Cape Town Jump up ^ `` The Vredefort Dome : Centre of the World 's Largest Meteorite Impact Structure ! '' . Retrieved 31 December 2012 . Jump up ^ Norman , N. , Whitfield , G. ( 2006 ) ' ' Geological Journeys ' ' . p. 38 - 49 , 60 - 61 . Struik Publishers , Cape Town . Jump up ^ Truswell , J.F. ( 1977 ) . The Geological Evolution of South Africa . pp. 23 - 38 . Purnell , Cape Town ^ Jump up to : Geological map of South Africa , Lesotho and Swaziland ( 1970 ) . Council for Geoscience , Geological Survey of South Africa . Jump up ^ Momberg , Eleanor ( 23 August 2009 ) . `` River heading for the rocks '' . Retrieved 22 March 2011 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Vredefort Dome . Parys South Africa Impact Cratering Research Group -- University of the Witwatersrand Earth Impact Database Deep Impact -- The Vredefort Dome Satellite image of Vredefort crater from Google Maps Impact Cratering : an overview of Mineralogical and Geochemical aspects -- University of Vienna google earth 3d . KMZ of 25 largest craters ( requires google earth ) World Heritage Sites in South Africa For official site names , see each article or the List of World Heritage Sites in South Africa . 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name the viceroy at the time of quit india movement

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Quit_India_Movement&oldid=832941564

Quit India Movement - Wikipedia Quit India Movement Jump to : navigation , search The neutrality of this article is disputed . Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page . Please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met . ( June 2014 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This article possibly contains original research . Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations . Statements consisting only of original research should be removed . ( May 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Procession in Bangalore during the Quit India Movement Part of a series of articles on Indian people Motto : Jai Hind People Lists of people from India by state History Indian independence movement Quit India Movement Culture Architecture Art Cinema Cuisine Dance Festivals Literature Music Sports Languages Hindi English ( Indian ) Other regional languages Religion Hinduism ( Temples ) Islam Christianity Sikhism Jainism ( Temples ) Buddhism in India Zoroastrianism Bahá'í Faith The Quit India Movement or the India August Movement , was a movement launched at the Bombay session of the All - India Congress Committee by Mahatma Gandhi on 8 August 1942 , during World War II , demanding an end to British Rule of India . The Cripps Mission had failed , and on August 1942 , Gandhi made a call to Do or Die in his Quit India speech delivered in Bombay at the Gowalia Tank Maidan . The All - India Congress Committee launched a mass protest demanding what Gandhi called `` An Orderly British Withdrawal '' from India . Even though it was wartime , the British were prepared to act . Almost the entire leadership of the Indian National Congress was imprisoned without trial within hours of Gandhi 's speech . Most spent the rest of the war in prison and out of contact with the masses . The British had the support of the Viceroy 's Council ( which had a majority of Indians ) , of the All India Muslim League , the princely states , the Indian Imperial Police , the British Indian Army and the Indian Civil Service . Many Indian businessmen profiting from heavy wartime spending did not support the Quit India Movement . Many students paid more attention to Subhas Chandra Bose , who was in exile and supporting the Axis Powers . The only outside support came from the Americans , as President Franklin D. Roosevelt pressured Prime Minister Winston Churchill to give in to some of the Indian demands . The Quit India campaign was effectively crushed . The British refused to grant immediate independence , saying it could happen only after the war had ended . Sporadic small - scale violence took place around the country and the British arrested tens of thousands of leaders , keeping them imprisoned until 1945 . In terms of immediate objectives , Quit India failed because of heavy - handed suppression , weak co-ordination and the lack of a clear - cut programme of action . However , the British government realized that India was ungovernable in the long run due to the cost of World War II , and the question for postwar became how to exit gracefully and peacefully . In 1992 Reserve Bank of India issued a 1 rupee commemorative coin to mark the Golden Jubilee of the Quit India Movement . Contents ( hide ) 1 World War II and Indian involvement 1.1 Cripps ' Mission 1.2 Factors contributing to the movement 's launch 2 Resolution for immediate independence 3 Opposition to the Quit India Movement 3.1 Muslim League 3.2 Hindu Mahasabha 3.3 Communist Party of India 3.4 Princely States 4 No support to the Quit India Movement 4.1 Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh 5 Local violence 6 Suppression of the movement 7 See also 8 References 8.1 Works cited 9 Further reading 10 External links World war II and Indian involvement ( edit ) In 1939 , Indian nationalists were angry that British Governor - General of India , Lord Linlithgow , had brought India into the war without consultation with them . The Muslim League supported the war , but Congress was divided . Public lecture at Basavanagudi , Bengaluru with Charles Freer Andrews At the outbreak of war , the Congress Party had passed a resolution during the Wardha meeting of the working - committee in September 1939 , conditionally supporting the fight against fascism , but were rebuffed when they asked for independence in return . Gandhi had not supported this initiative , as he could not reconcile an endorsement for war ( he was a committed believer in non-violent resistance , used in the Indian Independence Movement and proposed even against Adolf Hitler , Benito Mussolini , and Hideki Tojo ) . However , at the height of the Battle of Britain , Gandhi had stated his support for the fight against racism and of the British war effort , stating he did not seek to raise an independent India from the ashes of Britain . However , opinions remained divided . The long - term British policy of limiting investment in India and using the country as a market and source of revenue had left the Indian Army relatively weak and poorly armed and trained and forced the British to become net contributors to India 's budget , while taxes were sharply increased and the general level of prices of doubled : although many Indian businesses benefitted from increased war production , in general business `` felt rebuffed by the government '' and in particular the refusal of the British Raj to give Indians a greater role in organising and mobilising the economy for war time production . After the onset of the war , only a group led by Subhas Chandra Bose took any decisive action . Bose organised the Indian Legion in Germany , reorganised the Indian National Army with Japanese assistance , and soliciting help from the Axis Powers , conducted a guerrilla war against the British authorities . Cripps ' mission ( edit ) In March 1942 , faced with an increasingly dissatisfied sub-continent only reluctantly participating in the war and deterioration in the war situation in Europe and with growing dissatisfaction among Indian troops -- especially in Africa -- and among the civilian population in the sub-continent , the British government sent a delegation to India under Stafford Cripps , the Leader of the House of Commons , in what came to be known as the Cripps mission . The purpose of the mission was to negotiate with the Indian National Congress a deal to obtain total co-operation during the war , in return for progressive devolution and distribution of power from the crown and the Viceroy to an elected Indian legislature . The talks failed , as they did not address the key demand of a timetable of self - government and of definition of the powers to be relinquished , essentially making an offer of limited dominion - status that was wholly unacceptable to the Indian movement . Factors contributing to the Movement 's launch ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( August 2013 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) In 1939 , with the outbreak of war between Germany and Britain , India became a party to the war by being a constituent component of the British Empire . Following this declaration , the Congress Working Committee at its meeting on 10 October 1939 , passed a resolution condemning the aggressive activities of the Germans . At the same time the resolution also stated that India could not associate herself with war unless it was consulted first . Responding to this declaration , the Viceroy issued a statement on 17 October wherein he claimed that Britain is waging a war driven with the intention of strengthening peace in the world . He also stated that after the war , the government would initiate modifications in the Act of 1935 , in accordance to the desires of the Indians . Gandhi 's reaction to this statement was ; `` the old policy of divide and rule is to continue . The Congress has asked for bread and it has got stone . '' According to the instructions issued by High Command , the Congress ministers were directed to resign immediately . Congress ministers from eight provinces resigned following the instructions . The resignation of the ministers was an occasion of great joy and rejoicing for leader of the Muslim League , Mohammad Ali Jinnah . He called the day of 22 December 1939 ' The Day of Deliverance ' . Gandhi urged Jinnah against the celebration of this day , however , it was futile . At the Muslim League Lahore Session held in March 1940 , Jinnah declared in his presidential address that the Muslims of the country wanted a separate homeland , Pakistan . In the meanwhile , crucial political events took place in England . Chamberlain was succeeded by Churchill as prime minister and the Conservatives , who assumed power in England , did not have a sympathetic stance towards the claims made by the Congress . In order to pacify the Indians in the circumstance of worsening war situation , the Conservatives were forced to concede some of the demands made by the Indians . On 8 August , the Viceroy issued a statement that has come to be referred as the `` August Offer '' . However , the Congress rejected the offer followed by the Muslim League . In the context of widespread dissatisfaction that prevailed over the rejection of the demands made by the Congress , at the meeting of the Congress Working Committee in Wardha , Gandhi revealed his plan to launch individual civil oisobedience . Once again , the weapon of satyagraha found popular acceptance as the best means to wage a crusade against the British . It was widely used as a mark of protest against the unwavering stance assumed by the British . Vinoba Bhave , a follower of Gandhi , was selected by him to initiate the movement . Anti war speeches ricocheted in all corners of the country , with the satyagrahis earnestly appealing to the people of the nation not to support the government in its war endeavors . The consequence of this satyagrahi campaign was the arrest of almost fourteen thousand satyagrahis . On 3 December 1941 , the Viceroy ordered the acquittal of all the satyagrahis . In Europe the war situation became more critical with the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and the Congress realised the necessity for appraising their program . Subsequently , the movement was withdrawn . The Cripps ' Mission and its failure also played an important role in Gandhi 's call for The Quit India Movement . In order to end the deadlock on 22 March 1942 , the British government sent Sir Stafford Cripps to talk terms with the Indian political parties and secure their support in Britain 's war efforts . A draft declaration of the British Government was presented , which included terms like establishment of Dominion , establishment of a Constituent Assembly and right of the provinces to make separate constitutions . However , these were to be only after the cessation of the Second World War . According to the Congress , this declaration offered India a only promise that was to be fulfilled in the future . Commenting on this Gandhi said , `` It is a post dated cheque on a crashing bank . '' Other factors that contributed were the threat of Japanese invasion of India and realisation of the national leaders of the incapacity of the British to defend India . Resolution for immediate independence ( edit ) The Congress Working Committee meeting at Wardha ( 14 July 1942 ) passed a resolution demanding complete independence from the British government . The draft proposed massive civil disobedience if the British did not accede to the demands . However , it proved to be controversial within the party . A prominent Congress national leader , Chakravarti Rajgopalachari , quit the Congress over this decision , and so did some local and regional level organisers . Jawaharlal Nehru and Maulana Azad were apprehensive and critical of the call , but backed it and stuck with Gandhi 's leadership until the end . Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel , Rajendra Prasad and Anugrah Narayan Sinha openly and enthusiastically supported such a disobedience movement , as did many veteran Gandhians and socialists like Asoka Mehta and Jayaprakash Narayan . Allama Mashriqi ( head of the Khaksar Tehrik ) was called by Jawaharlal Nehru to join the Quit India Movement . Mashriqi was apprehensive of its outcome and did not agree with the Congress Working Committee 's resolution . On 28 July 1942 , Allama Mashriqi sent the following telegram to Maulana Abul Kalam Azad , Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan , Mahatma Gandhi , C. Rajagopalachari , Jawaharlal Nehru , Rajendra Prasad and Pattabhi Sitaramayya . He also sent a copy to Bulusu Sambamurti ( former Speaker of the Madras Assembly ) . The telegram was published in the press , and stated : I am in receipt of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru 's letter of 8 July . My honest opinion is that Civil Disobedience Movement is a little pre-mature . The Congress should first concede openheartedly and with handshake to Muslim League the theoretical Pakistan , and thereafter all parties unitedly make demand of Quit India . If the British refuse , start total disobedience . The resolution said : The committee , therefore , resolves to sanction for the vindication of India 's inalienable right to freedom and independence , the starting of a mass struggle on non-violent lines on the widest possible scale , so that the country might utilise all the non-violent strength it has gathered during the last 22 years of peaceful struggle ... they ( the people ) must remember that non-violence is the basis of the movement . Opposition to the Quit India Movement ( edit ) Several political groups active during the Indian Independence Movement were opposed to the Quit India Movement . These included the Muslim League , the Hindu Mahasabha , the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh , the Communist Party of India and the princely states as below : Muslim League ( edit ) The Muslim League opposed the Quit India Movement as it was of the view that if the British left India in its current state , Muslims as a minority would be oppressed by the Hindu majority . Muhammad Ali Jinnah 's opposition to Gandhi 's call led to large numbers of Muslims cooperating with the British , and enlisting in the army . The Muslim League gained large numbers of new members . Congress members heeding Gandhi 's call resigned from provincial legislatures , enabling the Muslim League , in alliance with the Hindu Mahasabha , to take control in Sindh , Bengal and Northwest Frontier . Hindu Mahasabha ( edit ) Hindu nationalist parties like the Hindu Mahasabha openly opposed the call for the Quit India Movement and boycotted it officially . Vinayak Damodar Savarkar , the president of the Hindu Mahasabha at that time , even went to the extent of writing a letter titled `` Stick to your Posts '' , in which he instructed Hindu Sabhaites who happened to be `` members of municipalities , local bodies , legislatures or those serving in the army ... to stick to their posts '' across the country , and not to join the Quit India Movement at any cost . Following the Hindu Mahasabha 's official decision to boycott the Quit India movement , Syama Prasad Mukherjee , leader of the Hindu Mahasabha in Bengal , ( which was a part of the ruling coalition in Bengal led by Krishak Praja Party of Fazlul Haq ) , wrote a letter to the British Government as to how they should respond , if the Congress gave a call to the British rulers to quit India . In this letter , dated July 26 , 1942 he wrote : `` Let me now refer to the situation that may be created in the province as a result of any widespread movement launched by the Congress . Anybody , who during the war , plans to stir up mass feeling , resulting internal disturbances or insecurity , must be resisted by any Government that may function for the time being '' Mukherjee reiterated that the Fazlul Haq led Bengal Government , along with its alliance partner Hindu Mahasabha , would make every possible effort to defeat the Quit India Movement in the province of Bengal and made a concrete proposal as regards this : `` The question is how to combat this movement ( Quit India ) in Bengal ? The administration of the province should be carried on in such a manner that in spite of the best efforts of the Congress , this movement will fail to take root in the province . It should be possible for us , especially responsible Ministers , to be able to tell the public that the freedom for which the Congress has started the movement , already belongs to the representatives of the people . In some spheres it might be limited during the emergency . Indian have to trust the British , not for the sake for Britain , not for any advantage that the British might gain , but for the maintenance of the defense and freedom of the province itself . You , as Governor , will function as the constitutional head of the province and will be guided entirely on the advice of your Minister . Even the Indian historian R.C. Majumdar noted this fact and states : `` Shyam Prasad ended the letter with a discussion of the mass movement organised by the Congress . He expressed the apprehension that the movement would create internal disorder and will endanger internal security during the war by exciting popular feeling and he opined that any government in power has to suppress it , but that according to him could not be done only by persecution ... In that letter he mentioned item wise the steps to be taken for dealing with the situation ... '' Communist party of India ( edit ) The Communist Party of India was banned at that time by the British government . In order to get the ban lifted , as well as to assist the Soviet Union in its war against Nazi Germany , it supported the British war effort , despite support for Quit India by many industrial workers . In response the British lifted the ban on the party . Princely states ( edit ) The movement had less support in the princely states , as the princes were strongly opposed and funded the opposition . The Indian nationalists had very little international support . They knew that the United States strongly supported Indian independence , in principle , and believed the U.S. was an ally . However , after Churchill threatened to resign if pushed too hard , the U.S. quietly supported him while bombarding Indians with propaganda designed to strengthen public support of the war effort . The poorly run American operation annoyed both the British and the Indians . No support to the Quit India Movement ( edit ) Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh ( edit ) Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh ( RSS ) had kept aloof from the Congress - led anti-British Indian independence movement since its founding by K.B. Hedgewar in 1925 . In 1942 , under M.S. Golwalkar , it refused to join in the Quit India Movement . The Bombay government appreciated the RSS position by noting that , `` the Sangh has scrupulously kept itself within the law , and in particular , has refrained from taking part in the disturbances that broke out in August 1942 ''. `` . The British Government also asserted that at Sangh meetings organized during the times of anti-British movements started and fought by the Indian National Congress , `` speakers urged the Sangh members to keep aloof from the congress movement and these instructions were generally observed '' . The RSS head ( sarsanghchalak ) during that time , M.S. Golwalkar later stated that the RSS did not support the Quit India Movement . Such a non-committal attitude during the Indian freedom movement also led to the Sangh being viewed with distrust and anger , both by the general Indian public , as well as certain members of the organization itself . In Golwalkar 's words , `` In 1942 also , there was a strong sentiment in the hearts of many . At that time too , the routine work of the Sangh continued . Sangh decided not to do anything directly . ' Sangh is the organization of inactive people , their talks have no substance ' was the opinion uttered not only by outsiders but also our own swayamsevaks . ' '' The British Government stated that the RSS was not at all supporting any civil disobedience against them , and as such their other political activities could be overlooked. The Home Department was thereby of the opinion that the RSS did not constitute a menace to law and order in British India. The Bombay government reported that the RSS had not , in any way , infringed upon government orders and had always shown a willingness to comply with the law . The same Bombay Government report further noted that in December 1940 , orders had been issued to the provincial RSS leaders to desist from any activities that the British Government considered objectionable , and the RSS , in turn , had assured the British authorities that `` it had no intentions of offending against the orders of the Government '' . Local violence ( edit ) According to John F. Riddick , from 9 August 1942 to 21 September 1942 , the Quit India movement : attacked 550 post offices , 250 railway stations , damaged many rail lines , destroyed 70 police stations , and burned or damaged 85 other government buildings . There were about 2,500 instances of telegraph wires being cut . The greatest level of violence occurred in Bihar . The Government of India deployed 57 battalions of British troops to restore order . At the national level the lack of leadership meant the ability to galvanise rebellion was limited . The movement had a local impact in some areas . especially at Satara in Maharashtra , Talcher in Odisha , and Midnapore . In Tamluk and Contai subdivisions of Midnapore , the local populace were successful in establishing parallel governments , which continued to function , until Gandhi personally requested the leaders to disband in 1944 . A minor uprising took place in Ballia , now the easternmost district of Uttar Pradesh . People overthrew the district administration , broke open the jail , released the arrested Congress leaders and established their own independent rule . It took weeks before the British could reestablish their writ in the district . Of special importance in Saurashtra ( in western Gujarat ) was the role of the region 's ' baharvatiya ' tradition ( i.e. going outside the law ) which abetted the sabotage activities of the movement there . In rural west Bengal , the Quit India Movement was fueled by peasants ' resentment against the new war taxes and the forced rice exports . There was open resistance to the point of rebellion in 1942 until the great famine of 1943 suspended the movement . Suppression of the Movement ( edit ) Picketing in front of Medical School at Bengaluru One of the important achievements of the movement was keeping the Congress party united through all the trials and tribulations that followed . The British , already alarmed by the advance of the Japanese army to the India - Burma border , responded by imprisoning Gandhi . All the members of the Party 's Working Committee ( national leadership ) were imprisoned as well . Due to the arrest of major leaders , a young and until then relatively unknown Aruna Asaf Ali presided over the AICC session on 9 August and hoisted the flag ; later the Congress party was banned . These actions only created sympathy for the cause among the population . Despite lack of direct leadership , large protests and demonstrations were held all over the country . Workers remained absent en masse and strikes were called . Not all demonstrations were peaceful , at some places bombs exploded , government buildings were set on fire , electricity was cut and transport and communication lines were severed . Play media Video footage of the days during Quit India Movement The British swiftly responded with mass detentions . Over 100,000 arrests were made , mass fines were levied and demonstrators were subjected to public flogging . Hundreds of civilians were killed in violence many shot by the police army . Many national leaders went underground and continued their struggle by broadcasting messages over clandestine radio stations , distributing pamphlets and establishing parallel governments . The British sense of crisis was strong enough that a battleship was specifically set aside to take Gandhi and the Congress leaders out of India , possibly to South Africa or Yemen but ultimately did not take that step out of fear of intensifying the revolt . The Congress leadership was cut off from the rest of the world for over three years . Gandhi 's wife Kasturbai Gandhi and his personal secretary Mahadev Desai died in months and Gandhi 's health was failing , despite this Gandhi went on a 21 - day fast and maintained his resolve to continuous resistance . Although the British released Gandhi on account of his health in 1944 , he kept up the resistance , demanding the release of the Congress leadership . By early 1944 , India was mostly peaceful again , while the Congress leadership was still incarcerated . A sense that the movement had failed depressed many nationalists , while Jinnah and the Muslim League , as well as Congress opponents like the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh and the Hindu Mahasabha sought to gain political mileage , criticizing Gandhi and the Congress Party . See also ( edit ) British Raj Indian Independence Movement Non-Cooperation Movement Indian nationalism Government of Azad Hind Kallara - Pangode Struggle References ( edit ) Jump up ^ http://www.open.ac.uk/researchprojects/makingbritain/content/1942-quit-india-movement Jump up ^ Arthur Herman ( 2008 ) . Gandhi & Churchill : The Epic Rivalry That Destroyed an Empire and Forged Our Age . Random House Digital . pp. 494 -- 99 . ISBN 9780553804638 . Jump up ^ 1 Rupee Coin of 1992 - Quit India Movement Golden Jubilee , https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A2bWubXDYWU Jump up ^ Official Website of the Indian National Congress , sub-link to article titled The Second World War and the Congress . `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 5 October 2006 . Retrieved 28 August 2006 . URL accessed on 20 - Jul - 2006 Jump up ^ Raghavan , Srinath , India 's War - The Making of Modern South Asia 1939 - 1945 , Allen Lane , London , 2016 , ISBN 978 - 1 - 846 - 14541 - 4 , p. 320 Jump up ^ Barkawi , Tarak . Culture and Combat in the Colonies . The Indian Army in the Second World War . Journal of Contemporary History . 10000 ( 2 ) . pp. 325 -- 355 . Jump up ^ Nasim Yousaf Hidden facts behind British India 's freedom : a scholarly look into Allama Mashraqi and Quaid - e-Azam 's political conflict , p. 137 . Jump up ^ Wolpert , Jinnah of Pakistan ( 1984 ) pp. 209 , 215 . Jump up ^ Martin Sieff , Shifting superpowers : the new and emerging relationship between the United States , China , and India ( 2009 ) p 21 Jump up ^ Syed Nesar Ahmad , Origins of Muslim consciousness in India : a world - system perspective Greenwood Publishing Group , ( 1991 ) pp. 213 -- 15 . ^ Jump up to : Prabhu Bapu ( 2013 ) . Hindu Mahasabha in Colonial North India , 1915 -- 1930 : Constructing Nation and History . Routledge . pp. 103 -- . ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 67165 - 1 . Jump up ^ Mookherjee , Shyama Prasad . Leaves from a Dairy . Oxford University Press . p. 179 . ^ Jump up to : Abdul Gafoor Abdul Majeed Noorani ( 2000 ) , The RSS and the BJP : A Division of Labour , LeftWord Books , pp. 56 -- , ISBN 978 - 81 - 87496 - 13 - 7 Jump up ^ Majumdar , Ramesh Chandra ( 1978 ) . History of Modern Bengal . Oxford University Press . p. 179 . Jump up ^ K. Venugopal Reddy , `` Working Class in ' Quit India ' Movement , '' Indian Historical Review ( 2010 ) 37 # 2 pp. 275 - 289 . Jump up ^ Stanley Wolpert , Jinnah of Pakistan ( 1984 ) p 210 Jump up ^ Eric D. Pullin , `` ' Noise and Flutter ' : American Propaganda Strategy and Operation in India during World War II , '' Diplomatic History , ( April 2010 ) 34 # 2 pp. 275 -- 298 online at Academic Search Premier . Jump up ^ Andersen & Damle 1987 , p. 44 . Jump up ^ Śekhara Bandyopādhyāẏa ( 1 January 2004 ) . From Plassey to Partition : A History of Modern India . Orient Blackswan . pp. 422 -- . ISBN 978 - 81 - 250 - 2596 - 2 . Jump up ^ Bipan Chandra , Communalism 2008 , p. 141 . Jump up ^ Noorani , RSS and the BJP 2000 , p. 60 . Jump up ^ Bipan Chandra ( 2008 ) . Communalism in Modern India . Har - Anand . pp. 140 -- . ISBN 978 - 81 - 241 - 1416 - 2 . Jump up ^ M.S. Golwalkar ( 1974 ) . Shri Guruji Samagra Darshan , Volume 4 . Bharatiya Vichar Sadhana . Jump up ^ Ram Puniyani ( 21 July 2005 ) . Religion , Power and Violence : Expression of Politics in Contemporary Times . SAGE Publications . pp. 134 -- . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7619 - 3338 - 0 . Jump up ^ Shamsul Islam ( 2006 ) . Religious Dimensions of Indian Nationalism : A Study of RSS . Media House . pp. 187 -- . ISBN 978 - 81 - 7495 - 236 - 3 . Jump up ^ Bipan Chandra , Communalism 2008 , p. 140 . Jump up ^ Andersen & Damle 1987 . Jump up ^ Noorani , RSS and the BJP 2000 , p. 46 . Jump up ^ Sumit Sarkar ( 2005 ) . Beyond Nationalist Frames : Relocating Postmodernism , Hindutva , History . Permanent Black . pp. 258 -- . ISBN 978 - 81 - 7824 - 086 - 2 . Jump up ^ Partha Sarathi Gupta ( 1997 ) . Towards Freedom 1943 -- 44 , Part III . New Delhi : Oxford University Press . pp. 3058 -- 9 . ISBN 978 - 0195638684 . Jump up ^ John F. Riddick , The History of British India : A Chronology ( 2006 ) p. 115 . ^ Jump up to : Chakraborty , Bidyut Local Politics and Indian Nationalism : Midnapur ( 1919 -- 1944 ) . Manohar. 1997 . Jump up ^ Jaykumar R. Shukla , `` The Quit India Movement on Saurashtra , '' Quarterly Review of Historical Studies , 1981 , 21 # 1 pp. 3 -- 8 . Jump up ^ Sunil Sen , `` Popular Participation in the Quit India Movement : Midnapur , 1942 -- 44 , '' Indian Historical Review , ( Jan 1985 ) Vol. 12 Issue 1 / 2 , pp. 300 -- 316 . Jump up ^ D , Fisher D ; Read A ( 1998 ) . The Proudest Day : India 's Long Road to Independence . WW Norton . p. 330 . Jump up ^ D , Fisher D ; Read A ( 1998 ) . The Proudest Day : India 's Long Road to Independence . WW Norton . p. 329 . Works cited ( edit ) Chandra , Bipan ( 2008 ) , Communalism in Modern India , Har - Anand , ISBN 8124114161 Noorani , A.G. ( 2000 ) , The RSS and the BJP : A Division of Labour , LeftWord Books , ISBN 978 - 81 - 87496 - 13 - 7 Further reading ( edit ) Andersen , Walter K. ; Damle , Shridhar D. ( 1987 ) . The brotherhood in saffron : the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh and Hindu revivalism . Westview Press . Akbar , M.J. Nehru : The Making of India ( Viking , 1988 ) , popular biography Buchanan , Andrew N. `` The War Crisis and the Decolonization of India , December 1941 -- September 1942 : A Political and Military Dilemma . '' Global War Studies 8.2 ( 2011 ) : 5 - 31 . Chakrabarty , Bidyut . `` Political Mobilization in the Localities : The 1942 Quit India Movement in Midnapur , '' Modern Asian Studies ( 1992 ) 26 # 4 pp. 791 -- 814 in JSTOR Chakrabarty , Bidyut . `` Defiance and Confrontation : The 1942 Quit India Movement in Midnapur , '' Social Scientist ( 1992 ) Vol. 20 , No. 7 / 8 in JSTOR Chopra , P.N. `` ' Quit India ' Movement of 1942 , '' Journal of Indian History , ( 1971 ) Vol. 49 Issue 145 / 147 , pp 1 -- 56 Clymer , Kenton J. Quest for Freedom : The United States and India 's Independence ( Columbia University Press , 1995 ) online edition Greenough , Paul R. `` Political Mobilization and the Underground Literature of the Quit India Movement , 1942 -- 44 , '' Modern Asian Studies , ( 1983 ) 17 # 3 pp. 353 -- 386 in JSTOR Herman , Arthur ( 2008 ) . Gandhi & Churchill : The Epic Rivalry That Destroyed an Empire and Forged Our Age . Random House Digital . ISBN 9780553804638 . Hutchins , Francis G. India 's Revolution : Gandhi and the Quit India Movement ( 1973 ) Johnson , Robert . `` The Army in India and Responses to Low - Intensity Conflict , 1936 - 1946 . '' Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research 89.358 ( 2011 ) : 159 . Krishan , Shri . `` Crowd vigour and social identity : The Quit India Movement in western India . '' Indian Economic & Social History Review 33.4 ( 1996 ) : 459 - 479 . Panigrahi ; D.N. India 's Partition : The Story of Imperialism in Retreat ( Routledge , 2004 ) online edition Pati , Biswamoy . `` The climax of popular protest : The Quit India Movement in Orissa . '' Indian Economic & Social History Review 29.1 ( 1992 ) : 1 - 35 . Patil , V.I. Gandhiji , Nehruji and the Quit India Movement ( 1984 ) Read , Anthony , and David Fisher ; The Proudest Day : India 's Long Road to Independence ( W.W. Norton , 1999 ) online edition ; detailed scholarly history Venkataramani , M.S. ; Shrivastava , B.K. Quit India : The American Response to the 1942 Struggle ( 1979 ) Zaidi , A. Moin ( 1973 ) . The way out to freedom : an inquiry into the Quit India Movement conducted by participants . Orientalia ( India ) . p. 85 . Mansergh , Nicholas , and E.W.R. Lumby , eds . India : The Transfer of Power 1942 - 7 . Vol. II . ' Quit India ' 30 April - 21 September 1942 ( London : Her Majesty 's Stationery Office , 1971 ) , 1044pp Muni , S.D. `` The Quit India Movement : A Review Article , '' International Studies , ( Jan 1977 , ) 16 # 1 pp 157 -- 168 , Pran Nath Chopra ; Shri Ram Bakshi ( 1986 ) . Quit India Movement : British secret documents , Vol. 1 . Interprint . p. 17 . ISBN 81 - 85017 - 32 - 8 . Shourie , Arun ( 1991 ) . `` The Only fatherland '' : Communists , `` Quit India '' , and the Soviet Union . New Delhi : ASA Publications . ISBN 978 - 8185304359 External links ( edit ) Rejected ' Quit India ' resolution drafted by Mohandas K. Gandhi 27 April 1942 Indian Independence Movement History Colonisation Porto Grande de Bengala Dutch Bengal East India Company British Raj French India Portuguese India Battle of Plassey Battle of Buxar Anglo - Mysore Wars First Second Third Fourth Anglo - Maratha Wars First Second Third Polygar Wars Vellore Mutiny First Anglo - Sikh War Second Anglo - Sikh War Sannyasi Rebellion Rebellion of 1857 Radcliffe Line more Philosophies and ideologies Ambedkarism Gandhism Hindu nationalism Indian nationalism Khilafat Movement Muslim nationalism in South Asia Satyagraha Socialism Swadeshi movement Swaraj Events and movements Partition of Bengal ( 1905 ) Partition of Bengal ( 1947 ) Revolutionaries Direct Action Day Delhi - Lahore Conspiracy The Indian Sociologist Singapore Mutiny Hindu -- German Conspiracy Champaran Satyagraha Kheda Satyagraha Rowlatt Committee Rowlatt Bills Jallianwala Bagh massacre Noakhali riots Non-Cooperation Movement Christmas Day Plot Coolie - Begar Movement Chauri Chaura incident , 1922 Kakori conspiracy Qissa Khwani Bazaar massacre Flag Satyagraha Bardoli 1928 Protests Nehru Report Fourteen Points of Jinnah Purna Swaraj Salt March Dharasana Satyagraha Vedaranyam March Chittagong armoury raid Gandhi -- Irwin Pact Round table conferences Act of 1935 Aundh Experiment Indische Legion Cripps ' mission Quit India Bombay Mutiny Coup d'état of Yanaon Provisional Government of India Independence Day Praja Mandala movement Organisations All India Kisan Sabha All - India Muslim League Anushilan Samiti Arya Samaj Azad Hind Berlin Committee Ghadar Party Hindustan Socialist Republican Association Indian National Congress India House Indian Home Rule movement Indian Independence League Indian National Army Jugantar Khaksar Tehrik Khudai Khidmatgar Swaraj Party more Social reformers A. 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when does the next marvel's runaways come out

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Runaways_(TV_series)&oldid=838531201

Runaways ( TV series ) - wikipedia Runaways ( TV series ) Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the Marvel television series . For other series with similar names , see Runaway ( disambiguation ) § Television . Runaways Genre Adventure Superhero Teen drama Created by Josh Schwartz Stephanie Savage Based on Runaways by Brian K. Vaughan Adrian Alphona Starring Rhenzy Feliz Lyrica Okano Virginia Gardner Ariela Barer Gregg Sulkin Allegra Acosta Angel Parker Ryan Sands Annie Wersching Kip Pardue Ever Carradine James Marsters Brigid Brannagh Kevin Weisman Brittany Ishibashi James Yaegashi Composer ( s ) Siddhartha Khosla Country of origin United States Original language ( s ) English No. of seasons No. of episodes 10 ( list of episodes ) Production Executive producer ( s ) Brett Morgen ( 1x01 only ) Alan Fine Stan Lee Joe Quesada Karim Zreik Jim Chory Jeph Loeb Josh Schwartz Stephanie Savage Producer ( s ) Kelly Van Horn Emma Fleischer Location ( s ) Los Angeles Cinematography Ramsey Nickell David Stockton John C. Newby Editor ( s ) Jeff Granzow Lois Blumenthal Adrienne McNally Jesse Ellis Running time 46 -- 53 minutes Production company ( s ) ABC Signature Studios Marvel Television Fake Empire Productions Distributor Hulu Release Original network Hulu Original release November 21 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 21 ) -- present ( present ) Chronology Related shows Marvel Cinematic Universe television series External links Website Marvel 's Runaways , or simply Runaways , is an American web television series created for Hulu by Josh Schwartz and Stephanie Savage , based on the Marvel Comics superhero team of the same name . It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe ( MCU ) , sharing continuity with the films and other television series of the franchise . The series is produced by ABC Signature Studios , Marvel Television and Fake Empire Productions , with Schwartz and Savage serving as showrunners . Rhenzy Feliz , Lyrica Okano , Virginia Gardner , Ariela Barer , Gregg Sulkin , and Allegra Acosta star as the Runaways , six teenagers from different backgrounds who unite against their parents , the Pride , portrayed by Angel Parker , Ryan Sands , Annie Wersching , Kip Pardue , Ever Carradine , James Marsters , Brigid Brannagh , Kevin Weisman , Brittany Ishibashi , and James Yaegashi . A film from Marvel Studios based on the Runaways began development in May 2008 , before being shelved in 2013 due to the success of The Avengers . In August 2016 , Marvel Television announced that Runaways had received a pilot order from Hulu , after being developed and written by Schwartz and Savage . Casting for the Runaways and the Pride were revealed in February 2017 . Filming on the pilot began in Los Angeles in February 2017 . The series was officially ordered by Hulu in May 2017 . The first season was released from November 21 , 2017 , to January 9 , 2018 . In January 2018 , Runaways was renewed for a 13 - episode second season . Contents ( hide ) 1 Premise 2 Cast and characters 2.1 Main 2.2 Recurring 2.3 Guest 3 Episodes 4 Production 4.1 Development 4.2 Writing 4.3 Casting 4.4 Filming 4.5 Music 4.6 Marvel Cinematic Universe tie - ins 5 Release 5.1 Marketing 6 Reception 6.1 Critical response 6.2 Accolades 7 References 8 External links Premise ( edit ) Six teenagers from different backgrounds unite against a common enemy -- their criminal parents , collectively known as the Pride . Cast and characters ( edit ) Main ( edit ) Rhenzy Feliz as Alex Wilder : A nerd who longs to reunite with his childhood friends , with a high intellect and the leader of the Runaways . Lyrica Okano as Nico Minoru : A Wiccan who isolates herself with her gothic appearance and a member of the Runaways . Unlike the comics , Nico does not summon the Staff of One through self - harm . Okano said this was tweaked , `` for good reason '' as there would be `` a lot of young teenagers watching the show and we do n't want to promote anything like self - harm because that 's serious . '' She added that an element of drawing blood would still be involved . Virginia Gardner as Karolina Dean : An alien passing as a teenager , burdened by her religious upbringing , who wants to pursue her own desires and instead of following in her mother 's footsteps . She is a member of the Runaways . Karolina has the ability of flight , to glow with rainbow - colored light , and shoot beams of light . Ariela Barer as Gert Yorkes : A riot grrrl , social activist , and a member of the Runaways . She also has a telepathic link with her genetically engineered dinosaur , Old Lace . Gregg Sulkin as Chase Stein : A high school lacrosse player who is often dismissed as a dumb jock but displays brilliance in engineering and a member of the Runaways . Sulkin and the writers wanted the character to be `` more layered '' than the comics , and Sulkin felt that Chase was the most changed of the Runaways from the source material . The character is depicted as having the potential to be as much of a genius as his father is , and builds gadgets powerful weaponized gauntlets called `` Fistigons '' . Connor Falk portrays a young Chase . Allegra Acosta as Molly Hernandez : The youngest member of the Runaways who is characterized by her positive attitude . Molly discovers she has the ability of superhuman strength and invulnerability . Evelyn Angelos portrays a young Molly . Angel Parker as Catherine Wilder : Alex 's mother , a successful lawyer , and a member of Pride . Ryan Sands as Geoffrey Wilder : Alex 's father and a self - made business man who had a grueling path to his success who is a member of Pride . Annie Wersching as Leslie Dean : Karolina 's mother and one of the leaders of the cult - like religious group the Church of Gibborim who is a member of Pride . Kip Pardue as Frank Dean : Karolina 's father , a former teen star who is struggling in his professional acting career , who becomes one of the leaders of the Church of Gibborim . Ever Carradine as Janet Stein : Chase 's mother who has a brilliant mind , is `` a perfect PTA mom '' , and a member of Pride . Sorel Carradine portrays a young Janet . James Marsters as Victor Stein : Chase 's father , an engineering genius , and a member of Pride . Marsters was inspired by Vincent D'Onofrio 's portrayal of Wilson Fisk in Daredevil , saying it was `` exactly opposite of what I was expecting '' , and also looked for common ground with Victor , saying , `` I 'm not an abusive parent but I 'm not a perfect parent . I do n't think anyone is . '' He added that Victor just wants Chase to live up to his potential . Tim Pocock portrays a young Victor . Brigid Brannagh as Stacey Yorkes : Gert 's mother , a bioengineer , and a member of Pride . Kevin Weisman as Dale Yorkes : Gert 's father , a bioengineer , and a member of Pride . Brittany Ishibashi as Tina Minoru : Nico 's mother who is a brilliant innovator , ruthless CEO , and perfectionist `` tiger mom '' who is a member of Pride . The character previously appeared in the film Doctor Strange , in a minor role as a Master of the Mystic Arts , portrayed by Linda Louise Duan . The producers felt free to recast the role and create a different version of Tina Minoru since Duan was not named as the character in the film . James Yaegashi as Robert Minoru : Nico 's father and a member of Pride . Recurring ( edit ) Danielle Campbell as Eiffel : A girl who attends Atlas Academy and looks down on Karolina . Pat Lentz as Aura : A member of the Church of Gibborim who works for the Deans . Heather Olt as Frances : A member of the Church of Gibborim who works for the Deans . DeVaughn Nixon as Darius Davis : An old associate of Geoffrey 's who holds a grudge against him . Cody Mayo as Vaughn : Leslie Dean 's assistant at the Church of Gibborim . Julian McMahon as Jonah : The leader of Pride and Karolina 's biological father . McMahon described Jonah as `` the wealthy guy who 's pretty ego - driven and mission - driven ... who 's trying to accomplish certain things and if something were to get in his way he 'd plow through it '' , which he felt was similar to Victor von Doom , who he portrayed in Fantastic Four and its sequel . He also revealed that he did not appear in the earlier episodes as the character in his near - death state , as he had been cast after the first four episodes had been completed . Ric Sarabia portrayed the character in this state , which McMahon stated took five hours of make up application to achieve . Old Lace , a genetically engineered Deinonychus telepathically linked with Gert Yorkes , appears in the series . The character is portrayed by a puppet that was operated by six people , including one person pumping air through the puppet to show the dinosaur breathing . Barer called the puppet `` incredible ... You see her emotions . We do n't not make use of that . '' Guest ( edit ) Zayne Emory as Brandon : A member of Chase 's lacrosse team . Timothy Granaderos as Lucas : A member of Chase 's lacrosse team . Nicole Wolf as Destiny Gonzalez : A young woman who joins the Church of Gibborim and is sacrificed soon after by the Pride . Nathan Davis Jr. as Andre : An associate of Darius ' who is used as a sacrifice for the Pride . Alex Fernandez as Flores : An LAPD lieutenant who works under the Pride . Ryan Doom as Alphona : Chase 's lacrosse coach . Devan Chandler Long as Kincaid : A man hired by Tina Minoru for devious purposes . Kimmy Shields as a supporter of Gert 's club . Anjelika Washington as a supporter of Gert 's club . Cooper Mothersbaugh as a supporter of Gert 's club . Amanda Suk as Amy Minoru : Nico 's sister , Alex 's best friend and Tina and Robert 's daughter who died prior to the beginning of the series . Chandler Shen portrays a young Amy . Vladimir Caamaño as Gene Hernandez : Molly 's father and a former member of Pride who died in a fire . Carmen Serano as Alice Hernandez : Molly 's mother and a former member of Pride who died in a fire . Marlene Forte as Graciela Aguirre : A distant relative of Molly 's . Stan Lee makes a cameo appearance as a limo driver . Episodes ( edit ) No . Title Directed by Written by Original release date `` Reunion '' Brett Morgen Josh Schwartz & Stephanie Savage November 21 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 21 ) A girl named Destiny is `` rescued '' by the Church of Gibborim from two muggers , who were actually trying to save her . Six months later , friends Alex Wilder , Nico Minoru , Karolina Dean , Gert Yorkes , Chase Stein , and Molly Hernandez have grown apart since the death of Nico 's sister , Amy , two years earlier . Alex uses a meeting for their parents ' group the Pride to reach out to the others , but they turn him down . They later change their minds : Karolina removes her Church of Gibborim bracelet at a party , sees her hands glowing , and loses consciousness -- Chase rescues her from being raped ; because of this , Chase stands Gert up for a study session , and she picks up her adopted sister Molly who has discovered that she has super strength and that their parents have a creature in the basement ; and Nico arrives after failing to contact Amy 's spirit in a ritual . The gathering is awkward , but they soon discover a secret passage in the house that leads to their parents sacrificing Destiny in a ritual . Molly 's camera flash is seen by the parents . `` Rewind '' Roxann Dawson Josh Schwartz & Stephanie Savage November 21 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 21 ) Before the ritual , Geoffrey Wilder had confronted an old associate from his time as a criminal , threatening him against interfering with the Pride 's construction project ; Victor Stein was having issues testing the container used in the ritual ; Leslie Dean convinced Destiny not to leave the Church of Gibborim until she reaches the stage of `` Ultra '' , which involves the then upcoming secret ritual ; her husband Frank , an actor who is not a member of the Pride , lost his agent due to his role as the co-founder of the Church . The group are all reluctant to sacrifice someone the same age as their children , but go ahead anyway . When they see the flash , they race to investigate , but are convinced by the children that there was an electrical problem in the house . Geoffrey later finds Molly 's hairpin outside the entrance to the secret passage , while Victor realizes that his container malfunctioned and Destiny is still alive inside it . Meanwhile , Frank unsuccessfully attempts to enter Leslie 's private study , where a decrepit figure lies on another of Victor 's containers . `` Destiny '' Nina Lopez - Corrado Kalinda Vazquez November 21 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 21 ) Karolina is told that Destiny is officially in London for a Church trip . Nico investigates the Staff of One , but is unable to control its power and calls Alex for help . Chase and Gert use some of Victor 's inventions to search for Destiny in the Steins ' house , and then discover that the creature in the Yorkes ' house is a dinosaur genetically engineered by Gert 's parents . Tina and Robert Minoru attempt to deal with their deteriorating marriage , due to Amy 's death , but it ends with Robert continuing a secret affair with Janet Stein , and Tina returning home to find Nico and Alex ( pretending to be romantically involved to avoid suspicion ) . Catherine Wilder confronts Molly , but the latter lies that she had been sneaking around to steal alcohol for the other children . Catherine promises to tell Molly about her parents , who died in a fire when Molly was young ( members of the Pride blamed each other for doing this ) . The Yorkes plan to move with Gert , Molly , and their dinosaur to a remote ranch in Yucatan now that the Pride is over , but then Destiny 's body is found . `` Fifteen '' Ramsey Nickell Tamara Becher - Wilkinson November 28 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 28 ) The Pride holds an emergency meeting , though the Yorkes are out searching for their missing dinosaur . Victor accepts responsibility for the failed sacrifice ; he and Robert go to find a new one . They attempt to kidnap a homeless man , but they bungle the act and are arrested . Karolina is shunned at school as a slut , and Chase is told to apologize to his lacrosse teammates who he injured when he stopped them from raping her . He instead quits the team . Karolina reveals to Chase how her body glows without her bracelet . She and Gert also look for proof of their parents ' innocence , but with Alex 's help they realise that Leslie has been selecting people from her church to sacrifice for years . This does not include Amy , who appeared to commit suicide but Nico believes was murdered by the Pride . She goes to the police , but leaves when she sees Victor and Robert talking with a policeman apparently on their payroll . The Yorkes find the dinosaur , doing what Gert tells her to do , and are then threatened by Tina who knows about Yucatan . Alex is kidnapped . 5 `` Kingdom '' Jeffrey W. Byrd Rodney Barnes & Michael Vukadinovich December 5 , 2017 ( 2017 - 12 - 05 ) In flashback , Geoffrey makes a deal with the mysterious Jonah to buy up land and has to convince his cellmate Darius to take the blame for shooting someone to get out of prison . In the present , Darius has kidnapped Alex as ransom for Geoffrey to pay one million dollars . Nico gets Karolina , Gert , Molly and Chase to come to the rescue , using the staff to find Alex . Geoffrey shows up with LAPD to take out Darius and his men , Alex shoots Andre , one of Darius ' goons , but he gets taken again . Alex 's friends show up and using their newfound abilities cause Darius to run . Alex makes it back to Geoffrey who tells him to go home while he preps Andre for a sacrifice . The kids all barge into the secret room only to realize that the Pride has moved the sacrifice somewhere else . Tina reveals that she knows Nico used the staff , but allows her to use it and Victor 's time machine shows Los Angeles crumbling in the future . Frank fails going Ultra and the sacrifice works revealing that the man the Pride was reviving is Jonah who demands to see Karolina . 6 `` Metamorphosis '' Patrick Norris Kalinda Vazquez December 12 , 2017 ( 2017 - 12 - 12 ) Jonah has all the parents recorded during their first sacrifice so as to keep them in check and to prevent them from leaving the Pride . The Pride hosts their annual gala and the kids use the time to download footage of the previous sacrifices from the Minoru 's servers . Gert deduces that Karolina is lesbian , but she gets mad at her for not being honest with Chase . While drunk on the roof , Karolina discovers she can fly and Chase kisses her which she is placid to . Alex and Nico break into Tina 's office to get the footage causing Nico to become suspicious of him as he knew the password rather easily . During the Pride members speech , Victor reveals his knowledge of Robert and Janet 's tryst and collapses from his brain tumor . Jonah uses his experimental medicine to revive him , making him happily euphoric with his family . Frank appears to know about Leslie and Jonah 's secret relationship , but keeps this information to himself . Molly , in an effort to know more about her parents , accidentally lets slip to Catherine about her knowledge of the Pride . 7 `` Refraction '' Peter Hoar Quinton Peeples December 19 , 2017 ( 2017 - 12 - 19 ) Victor sees a message from Chase from the future telling him not to pick up the fistigons . Frank gets healing gloves from Jonah causing Leslie to become suspicious . Molly becomes distant from the others and tries joining the cheerleaders who disregard her and finds solace with Karolina . Dale and Stacy discover that Jonah 's cure makes people hyperactive and euphoric , but gives them a drawn hangover . At the open house , Leslie gets Janet to break up with Robert who agrees due to Victor 's changing behavior and has Tina take Robert back . Geoffrey and Catherine tell Dale and Stacy that they must do something about Molly as she knows about the Pride 's activities . They tell Molly she is going to be sent away which angers her and Gert comforts her . Frank discovers that Jonah has been living for a long time and finally confronts Leslie about what she and Jonah have been doing . Nico forces Alex to reveal how he knew Tina 's password . Victor suddenly becomes violent again and attacks his son with the fistigons only to get shot by Janet . 8 `` Tsunami '' Millicent Shelton Rodney Barnes & Michael Vukadinovich December 26 , 2017 ( 2017 - 12 - 26 ) Victor bleeds out as the Pride members arrive to try and patch him up , though this proves to be inefficient . Leslie has Frank arrive to use his healing gloves , but it sends Victor into a coma . Tina contacts Jonah who instructs them to have Janet be sacrificed for Victor causing the Pride to argue . Robert decides to sacrifice himself instead , but Tina destroys the pod reaffirming her devotion to him . Victor is carried away to be revived later . Karolina decides to tell Frank everything she knows about Pride , getting him to her side . Alex reveals to an angry Nico that he was aware of Amy 's snooping and was told to keep her information secret . Molly is living with her relative , Graciela , who gives Molly a letter containing a key . It leads her to a locker that holds a VHS tape . Nico finds Amy 's things and Alex successfully gets the footage of their parents , but his laptop is destroyed by a sympathetic Chase . In flashback , Amy learns from Alex that her laptop was hacked and confides her findings to Kincaid . Upon `` him '' finding out , Amy tries to run away from home , but is caught . 9 `` Doomsday '' Jeremy Webb Jiehae Park & Kendall Rogers January 2 , 2018 ( 2018 - 01 - 02 ) Ten years prior , Leslie murders Gene and Alice Hernandez with a bomb while Tina listens on the phone . Molly survives due to strange glowing rocks giving her powers . In the present , Janet covers for Victor 's absence to the public as Jonah tasks the remaining Pride members with his current plan ; to use Geoffrey 's drilling company to dig a hole underneath Los Angeles . Darius monitors the area and voices his suspicions to his wife . Molly returns to the group with the VHS tape which contains a video from her parents warning her about the Pride 's activities . The kids decide to use the school dance as a cover to infiltrate the drilling site . Before leaving , Gert and Chase have sex while Karolina kisses Nico , revealing her feelings to her . Frank reveals everything he knows to Jonah who relays the fact that the kids know everything to their parents . The kids arrive at the drilling site and manage to stop the drill . The Pride arrive to confront their kids who have all decided to finally take a stand . The kids reveal their powers and the Pride is shocked . 10 `` Hostile '' Marc Jobst Quinton Peeples January 9 , 2018 ( 2018 - 01 - 09 ) Karolina is kidnapped by Jonah while the rest of the Runaways hide . They make it to the woods outside L.A. and Gert is forced to let her dinosaur , now named Old Lace , go . Finding new disguises , Chase and Molly sneak into the Church of Gibborim to rescue Karolina while Alex waits outside and overhears his parents announcing their intent to find him by themselves . Leslie and the Yorkes discover that Jonah is digging for something that is `` alive '' . Leslie reveals that she was indirectly responsible for Amy 's death and that she is unsure of Frank 's loyalty . She manages to convince the Yorkes , the Minorus and Janet to join with her in killing Jonah . Alex makes a deal with Darius by telling him everything about the Pride . In return , Darius gives Alex hundreds of dollars for him and his friends and a gun . Jonah plans his next move with Frank over Victor 's body and reveals that he needs another sacrifice . The Runaways make it to a bus stop and are reunited with Old Lace , but are forced to run upon seeing that they have been framed for Destiny 's murder . Production ( edit ) Development ( edit ) Brian K. Vaughan was hired to write a screenplay for Marvel Studios in May 2008 , based on his Runaways . In April 2010 , Marvel hired Peter Sollett to direct the film , and a month later Drew Pearce signed on to write a new script . Development on the film was put on hold the following October , and Pearce explained in September 2013 that the Runaways film had been shelved due to the success of The Avengers ; the earliest the film could be made was for Phase Three of the Marvel Cinematic Universe . In October 2014 , after announcing Marvel 's Phase Three films without Runaways , Marvel Studios president Kevin Feige said the project was `` still an awesome script that exists in our script vault ... . In our television and future film discussions , it 's always one that we talk about , because we have a solid draft there . ( But ) we ca n't make them all . '' Marvel Television , based at ABC Studios , was waiting for the right showrunner before moving forward with a television take on the characters . Josh Schwartz and Stephanie Savage , whose company Fake Empire Productions had an overall deal with ABC , independently brought up the property during a general meeting with the studio , and , by August 2016 , the pair had spent a year conversing with Marvel about turning Runaways into a television series . That month , Marvel 's Runaways was announced from Marvel Television , ABC Signature Studios , and Fake Empire Productions , with the streaming service Hulu ordering a pilot episode and scripts for a full season . Hulu was believed to already have `` an eye toward a full - season greenlight . '' Executive producer Jeph Loeb felt `` it was an easy decision '' to have Hulu air the series over the other networks Marvel Television works with , because `` We were very excited about the possibility of joining a network that was young and growing in the same way that when we went to Netflix when it was young and growing on the original side . It really feels like we 're in the right place at the right time with the right show . '' Loeb and Marvel Television were also impressed by the success of Hulu 's The Handmaid 's Tale , which helped further justify the decision . Schwartz and Savage wrote the pilot , and serve as showrunners on the series , as well as executive producers alongside Loeb and Jim Chory . In May 2017 , Runaways received a 10 - episode series order from Hulu at their annual advertising upfront presentation . Fake Empire 's Lis Rowinski produces the series , and Vaughan serves as an executive consultant . On this , Vaughan noted he `` did a little consulting early in the process , '' but felt the series `` found the ideal ' foster parents ' in Josh Schwartz and Stephanie Savage ... ( who ) lovingly adapted ( the comics ) into a stylish drama that feels like contemporary Los Angeles . '' He also praised the cast , crew and writers working on the series , and felt the pilot looked `` like an Adrian Alphona comic '' , referring to the artist who worked with Vaughan when he created the characters . Loeb said that it had been Schwartz and Savage who had asked that Vaughan be involved , and said that this was something that `` a lot of showrunners do n't immediately gravitate towards . '' In discussions with Vaughan , Marvel found that he `` really wanted to be involved and make sure that it was done , not just properly , but in a way that it would last 100 episodes . '' On January 8 , 2018 , Hulu renewed the series for a 13 - episode second season . Writing ( edit ) Schwartz was a fan of the Runaways comic for some time , and introduced it to Savage , saying , `` When you 're a teenager , everything feels like life and death , and the stakes in this story -- really felt like that . '' Loeb described the series as The O.C. of the Marvel Cinematic Universe ( MCU ) , which Schwartz said meant `` treating the problems of teenagers as if they are adults '' and having the series `` feel true and authentic to the teenage experience , even in this heightened context '' . Loeb noted that it would deal with modern political issues by saying , `` This is a time when figures of authority are in question , and this is a story where teenagers are at that age where they see their parents as fallible and human . Just because someone is in charge , does n't mean that they 're here to do good . '' The producers did note that the series would explore the parents ' perspective as well , with the pilot telling the story from the Runaways ' perspective , and the second episode showing the same story from their parents ' -- the Pride 's -- perspective , with the two stories converging midway through the first season . Schwartz likened the tone of Runaways to that of the comics it was based on , calling it `` so distinct '' , saying much of the tone Vaughn used when writing the comics overlapped with the tones Schwartz and Savage like to work in . The pair were excited by the freedom given to them by Hulu over the usual broadcasters they were used to working with , such as allowing the children to swear in the show , not having set lengths for each episode , and being able to explore the parents ' story ; Hulu wanted `` something that felt broad and where we could push the envelope in places '' . Schwartz described the series as a coming - of - age story and a family drama , with focus on the characters that can lead to long stretches of the series not featuring super powers , so `` if you did n't see the show title , you would n't know that you were in a Marvel show for long stretches ... That was our aesthetic starting place , but there are episodes where there 's some good ( Marvel ) stuff . '' Casting ( edit ) Cast of Runaways at the 2017 New York Comic Con ( L-R : Rhenzy Feliz , Lyrica Okano , Gregg Sulkin , Virginia Gardner and Ariela Barer ) In February 2017 , Marvel announced the casting of the Runaways , with Rhenzy Feliz as Alex Wilder , Lyrica Okano as Nico Minoru , Virginia Gardner as Karolina Dean , Ariela Barer as Gert Yorkes , Gregg Sulkin as Chase Stein , and Allegra Acosta as Molly Hernandez . Shortly after , Marvel announced the casting of the Pride , with Ryan Sands as Geoffrey Wilder , Angel Parker as Catherine Wilder , Brittany Ishibashi as Tina Minoru , James Yaegashi as Robert Minoru , Kevin Weisman as Dale Yorkes , Brigid Brannagh as Stacey Yorkes , Annie Wersching as Leslie Dean , Kip Pardue as Frank Dean , James Marsters as Victor Stein , and Ever Carradine as Janet Stein . Loeb praised casting director Patrick Rush , explaining that all of the series regulars for Runaways were the producers ' first choice for the role . The majority of the children are portrayed by `` fresh faces '' , which was an intentional choice . By August 2017 , Julian McMahon had been cast in the recurring role of Jonah . Filming ( edit ) Filming on the pilot began by February 10 , 2017 , in Los Angeles , under the working title Rugrats , and concluded on March 3 . Director Brett Morgen was given free rein by Marvel and Hulu to establish the look of the series , and wanted to create a feel that was `` very grounded and authentic '' . He also looked to differentiate between the hand - held , gritty world of the Runaways and the more stylistic world of the Pride . He felt the latter could be explored more in the series moving forward , but was not available to direct any more episodes of the season . Following completion of the pilot and the show 's pick - up to series , there was concern among the cast and crew that the impending writers ' strike would prevent the series to move forward . However , the strike did not happen , and filming on the rest of the season began at the end of June , again in Los Angeles . Production on the season had concluded by October 21 . Music ( edit ) In May 2017 , Siddhartha Khosla was hired to compose the music for the series . Khosla said that , due to his history as a songwriter , his scoring process involves `` working on these song - stories and weaving them through different episodes '' . He described the Runaways score as being `` completely synthesized '' , utilizing analog synthesizers from the 1980s , specifically the Roland Juno - 60 and Oberheim Electronics ' synths . Khosla compared the `` alternative feel '' of his score to Depeche Mode , adding `` There is an element of rebellion , so sonically going for something that is a little bit outside the box , non-traditional , I felt was an appropriate approach . I feel like I 'm making art on this show . '' Alex Patsavas serves as music supervisor , having done so on all of Schwartz and Savage 's previous series . On January 12 , 2018 , a soundtrack from the first season consisting of 12 licensed tracks plus two by Khosla , was released digitally . Additionally , Khosla 's original score for the series was released digitally on January 26 . ( show ) Runaways ( Original Soundtrack ) No . Title Artist ( s ) Length 1 . `` Runaways Theme '' Siddhartha Khosla 1 : 13 2 . `` May I Have This Dance '' Francis and the Lights 2 : 53 3 . `` Cane Shuga '' Glass Animals 3 : 17 4 . `` King Charles '' Yungblud 2 : 41 5 . `` Drinkee '' Sofi Tukker 4 : 59 6 . `` Ocean Eyes ( Blackbear Remix ) '' Billie Eilish 3 : 14 7 . `` Beat Goes On '' Lizzy Land 3 : 40 8 . `` All My Heroes '' Bleachers 3 : 03 9 . `` Antidote ( Live Arrangement ) '' Emily Wells 5 : 43 10 . `` Fuerza ( feat . Nani Castle ) '' Tony Quattro 3 : 40 11 . `` Beyond a Mortal '' Austra 5 : 45 12 . `` Long Life '' Bombadil 2 : 38 13 . `` Blanket Me '' Hundred Waters 4 : 56 14 . `` Gert 's Lullaby '' Siddhartha Khosla & Ariela Barer 2 : 19 Marvel Cinematic Universe tie - ins ( edit ) Loeb confirmed in July 2017 that the series would be set in the MCU , but that the show 's characters would not be concerned with the actions of the Avengers , for example , saying , `` Would you be following Iron Man ( on social media ) or would you be following someone your own age ? The fact that they 've found each other and they 're going through this mystery together at the moment is what we 're concerned about , not what Captain America is doing . '' The showrunners considered the series ' connection to the MCU to be `` liberating '' , as it allowed them to set the series in a universe where superheroics and fantasy are already established and do not need to be explained to the audience . However , the series does not draw attention to `` the idea that maybe other people have powers too '' . Schwartz said , `` You could read it as because they live in California , and ( The Avengers ) took place in New York , or because it did n't take place in our world . Marvel 's position is everything is connected , but our show is trying to walk that line where the reality our kids are facing , they are facing for the first time . '' He also said they `` were very capable of telling the story that we wanted to tell independent of any of the other Marvel stories that are out there . '' Loeb added that there were no plans to crossover across networks with the similarly themed Marvel 's Cloak & Dagger on Freeform and Marvel 's New Warriors , as Marvel wanted the series to find its footing before further connecting with other elements of the universe , though `` You 'll see things that comment on each other ; we try to touch base wherever we can ... things that are happening in L.A. are not exactly going to be affecting what 's happening in New Orleans ( where Cloak & Dagger is set ) ... It 's being aware of it and trying to find a way ( to connect ) that makes sense . '' Release ( edit ) Runaways premiered its first three episodes on Hulu in the United States on November 21 , 2017 , with the first season consisting of 10 episodes , and concluding on January 9 , 2018 . The series aired on Showcase in Canada , premiering on November 22 , and will air on Syfy in the United Kingdom beginning on April 18 , 2018 . Marketing ( edit ) Cast members and Schwartz and Savage appeared at New York Comic Con 2017 to promote the series , where a trailer for the series was revealed , along with a screening of the first episode . The series had its red carpet premiere at the Regency Bruin Theatre in Westwood , Los Angeles on November 16 , 2017 . Reception ( edit ) Critical Response ( edit ) The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 82 % approval rating with an average rating of 7.63 / 10 based on 56 reviews . The website 's consensus reads , `` Earnest , fun , and more balanced than its source material , Runaways finds strong footing in an over-saturated genre . '' Metacritic , which uses a weighted average , assigned a score of 68 out of 100 based on 22 critics , indicating `` generally favorable reviews '' . Reviewing the first two episodes of the series , Joseph Schmidt of ComicBook.com praised the show for its faithfulness to the comics , but also for some of the changes it made , appreciating the increased focus on the parents . He thought the cast portraying the Runaways was `` pretty spot on '' , but `` many of the parents are scene stealers '' , highlighting the performances of Marsters , Wersching , and Pardue . Accolades ( edit ) Year Award Category Recipient Result Ref . 2018 Saturn Awards Best New Media Superhero Series Runaways Pending References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Andreeva , Nellie ( August 17 , 2016 ) . `` Hulu Orders ' Marvel 's Runaways ' Series From Josh Schwartz & Stephanie Savage '' . Deadline Hollywood . Archived from the original on August 17 , 2016 . Retrieved August 17 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Dinh , Christine ( February 9 , 2017 ) . `` ' Marvel 's Runaways ' Sets Remaining Cast For Television Project With Hulu '' . Marvel.com . 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Jump up ^ `` Marvel 's Runaways : Season 1 '' . Metacritic . Retrieved December 12 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Schmidt , Joseph ( August 29 , 2017 ) . `` First Look : First Two Episodes Of ' Marvel 's Runaways ' '' . ComicBook.com . Archived from the original on August 31 , 2017 . Retrieved August 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ McNary , Dave ( March 15 , 2018 ) . `` ' Black Panther , ' ' Walking Dead ' Rule Saturn Awards Nominations '' . Variety . Archived from the original on March 15 , 2018 . Retrieved March 15 , 2018 . External links ( edit ) Official website Runaways on IMDb Runaways Brian K. 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events leading up to the battle of tippecanoe

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Tippecanoe&oldid=827007202

Battle of Tippecanoe - wikipedia Battle of Tippecanoe Jump to : navigation , search Battle of Tippecanoe Part of American Indian Wars and Tecumseh 's War 19th - century depiction by Alonzo Chappel of the final charge that dispersed the Natives Date November 7 , 1811 Location Near present - day Battle Ground , Tippecanoe County , Indiana , US Result United States tactical victory Belligerents Tecumseh 's Confederacy United States Commanders and leaders Tenskwatawa William Henry Harrison Strength 500 -- 700 warriors 250 infantry , 90 cavalry , 700 militia Casualties and losses Unknown Estimated 50 -- 65 killed and 70 -- 80 wounded 63 killed , 126 wounded Old Northwest Tippecanoe River Canard Fort Mackinac ( 1812 ) Brownstown Maguaga Fort Dearborn Detroit Fort Harrison Fort Wayne Wild Cat Creek Mississinewa Frenchtown Africa Point Fort Meigs Fort Stephenson Lake Erie Thames Longwoods Prairie du Chien Campbell Island Mackinac Island ( 1814 ) Lake Huron Malcolm 's Mills The Battle of Tippecanoe ( / ˌtɪpikəˈnuː / TIP - ee - kə - NOO ) was fought on November 7 , 1811 , in what is now Battle Ground , Indiana , between American forces led by Governor William Henry Harrison of the Indiana Territory and Native American warriors associated with the Shawnee leader Tecumseh . Tecumseh and his brother Tenskwatawa ( commonly known as `` The Prophet '' ) were leaders of a confederacy of Native Americans from various tribes that opposed US expansion into Native territory . As tensions and violence increased , Governor Harrison marched with an army of about 1,000 men to disperse the confederacy 's headquarters at Prophetstown , near the confluence of the Tippecanoe and Wabash rivers . Tecumseh , not yet ready to oppose the United States by force , was away recruiting allies when Harrison 's army arrived . Tenskwatawa , a spiritual leader but not a military man , was in charge . Harrison camped near Prophetstown on November 6 and arranged to meet with Tenskwatawa the following day . Early the next morning , however , warriors from Prophetstown attacked Harrison 's army . Although the outnumbered attackers took Harrison 's army by surprise , Harrison and his men stood their ground for more than two hours . The Native Americans were ultimately repulsed when their ammunition ran low . After the battle , they abandoned Prophetstown and Harrison 's men burned it to the ground , destroying the food supplies stored for the winter . The soldiers returned to their homes . Harrison , having accomplished his goal of destroying Prophetstown , proclaimed he had won a decisive victory . He gained the nickname `` Tippecanoe '' , which was popularized in the campaign song `` Tippecanoe and Tyler too '' during the presidential election of 1840 , which Harrison won . The defeat was a setback for Tecumseh 's confederacy from which it never fully recovered . American public opinion blamed the violence on British interference in American affairs through financial and munitions support for the Indians . This led to a further deterioration of relations with Britain and was a catalyst of the War of 1812 , which began six months later . By the time the US declared war on the United Kingdom in June 1812 , Tecumseh 's confederacy was ready to launch its war against the United States in alliance with the British . In preparation , the Natives soon rebuilt Prophetstown . Frontier violence in the region would continue until well after the War of 1812 , although Tecumseh was killed in 1813 during the Battle of the Thames . Contents ( hide ) 1 Background 2 Battle 3 Aftermath 4 Memorial 5 See also 6 Notes 7 Footnotes 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Background ( edit ) Main article : Tecumseh 's War William Henry Harrison as painted by Rembrandt Peale in 1814 After being appointed governor of the newly formed Indiana Territory in 1800 , William Henry Harrison sought to secure title to Native American lands to open more land for settlers ; in particular , he hoped the Indiana Territory would attract enough settlers to qualify for statehood . Harrison negotiated numerous land cession treaties with American Indians , including the Treaty of Fort Wayne on September 30 , 1809 , in which Miami , Pottawatomie , Lenape , and other tribal leaders sold 3,000,000 acres ( approximately 12,000 km2 ) to the United States . Tecumseh , by Benson Lossing in 1848 based on 1808 drawing Tenskwatawa , by Charles Bird King , 1872 Tenskwatawa , known as the Prophet , had been leading a religious movement among the northwestern tribes , calling for a return to the ancestral ways . His brother , Tecumseh , was outraged by the Treaty of Fort Wayne , and thereafter emerged as a prominent leader . Tecumseh revived an idea advocated in previous years by the Shawnee leader Blue Jacket and the Mohawk leader Joseph Brant , which stated that Native American land was owned in common by all tribes , and land could not be sold without agreement by all the tribes . Not yet ready to confront the United States directly , Tecumseh found that he was opposed by those Native American leaders who had signed the treaty . He threatened to kill anyone and their followers who carried out the terms of the treaty . Tecumseh began to travel widely , urging warriors to abandon the accommodationist chiefs and to join his resistance at Prophetstown . Tecumseh insisted that the Fort Wayne treaty was illegitimate . In an 1810 meeting with Governor Harrison , he demanded that Harrison nullify the treaty and warned that settlers should not attempt to settle the lands sold in the treaty . Harrison rejected his demands and insisted that the tribes could have individual relations with the United States . In the meeting Tecumseh warned Harrison that he would seek an alliance with the British if hostilities broke out . Tensions between the United States and Britain had been high for several months as a result of British interference in U.S. commerce with France . As early as 1810 , British agents had sought to secure an alliance with Native Americans to assist in the defense of Canada should hostilities break out , but the Natives had been reluctant to accept their offer , fearing they had little to benefit from such an arrangement . In August 1811 , Tecumseh again met with Harrison at Vincennes . Tecumseh assured Harrison that the Shawnee brothers meant to remain at peace with the United States . Tecumseh traveled to the Southeast on a mission to recruit allies among the `` Five Civilized Tribes '' . Most of the southern nations rejected his appeals , but a faction of the Creek , who came to be known as the Red Sticks , answered his call to arms . They led the Creek War , an internal war among factions that were divided over adoption of some European - American ways . This became a part of the War of 1812 , as the Red Sticks opposed the United States . By contrast , the Creek of the Lower Towns were more integrated with American culture and supported the US against Britain . Harrison left the territory for business in Kentucky shortly after the meeting with Tecumseh , and secretary John Gibson was acting governor . Gibson , who had lived among the Miami tribe for many years , was quick to learn of Tecumseh 's plans for war ; he immediately called out the territory 's militia and sent emergency letters calling for the return of Harrison . By mid-September , most of the militia regiments had formed . By then , Harrison had returned , accompanied by a small force of army regulars , and had taken command of the militia . Harrison had already communicated with his superiors in Washington , D.C. , and he had been authorized to march against the confederacy in a show of force , in the hopes that its members would accept peace . Harrison gathered the scattered militia companies at Fort Knox near a settlement on Maria Creek , north of Vincennes . There he was joined by the sixty - man company called the Yellow Jackets , so named for their bright yellow coats , from Corydon , Indiana , as well as the Indiana Rangers . The entire force of about 1000 men set out northward towards Prophetstown . The force consisted of about 250 army regulars from the 4th US Infantry Regiment , 100 Kentucky volunteers , and near 600 Indiana militia , including two companies of the Indiana Rangers . The army reached the site of modern Terre Haute , Indiana , on October 3 , where they camped and built Fort Harrison while waiting for supplies to be delivered . A scouting party of Yellow Jackets was ambushed by Native Americans on October 10 , resulting in several casualties . The Americans stopped foraging , and supplies quickly began to run low . By October 19 , officers cut the rations , and the men survived on low rations until October 28 , when fresh supplies arrived via the Wabash River from Vincennes . With the army resupplied , Harrison resumed his advance to Prophetstown on October 29 . Battle ( edit ) Further information : Tippecanoe order of battle As Harrison 's forces approached Prophetstown late on November 6 , they were met by one of Tenskwatawa 's followers waving a white flag . He carried a message from Tenskwatawa , requesting a ceasefire until the next day when the two sides could hold a peaceful meeting . Harrison agreed to a meeting , but was wary of Tenskwatawa 's overture , believing that the negotiations would be futile . Harrison moved his army to a nearby hill near the confluence of the upper Wabash and Tippecanoe rivers . There he camped his men in battle array , and kept sentinels on duty during the night . A map showing the layout of the battlefield On the west side of the hill was a shallow creek ( Burnett Creek ) , and on the east side a very steep embankment . Because of the nature of the position , Harrison did not order temporary works to be created around the position , as was ordinarily done by encamped armies . The Yellow Jacket company , with Captain Spier Spencer in command , was posted on the southern end of the camp perimeter . The rest of the militia formed a rectangular formation along the edges of the bluff surrounding the camp . Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Bartholomew commanded the Indiana militia units guarding the steep bluff on the eastern side of the formation . The regulars , commanded by Major Floyd , and the dragoons , commanded by Maj . Joseph Daveiss and former congressman Capt . Benjamin Parke , were kept behind the main line in reserve . In an 1816 conversation with Lewis Cass , the Governor of Michigan , Tenskwatawa denied that he ordered his warriors to attack Harrison . He blamed the Ho - Chunk ( also known as Winnebago ) warriors in his camp for launching the attack . Other accounts also credit the Ho - Chunk for encouraging the attack and suggest that Tenskwatawa was unable to control his followers as panic set in . Tenskwatawa 's followers were worried by the nearby army and feared an imminent attack . They had begun to fortify the town , but not completed their defenses . During the evening , Tenskwatawa consulted with the spirits and decided that sending a party to murder Harrison in his tent was the best way to avoid a battle . He assured the warriors that he would cast spells that would prevent them from being harmed and confuse Harrison 's army so they would not resist . The warriors moved out and began to surround Harrison 's army , looking for a way to enter the camp undetected . Ben , an African - American wagon driver traveling with Harrison 's army , had deserted to the Shawnee during the expedition . He agreed to lead a small group of warriors through the line to Harrison 's tent . During the late night hours , he was captured by the camp sentries , taken back to the camp and bound . He was later convicted of treason but pardoned by Harrison . Although existing accounts are unclear about exactly how the battle began , Harrison 's sentinels encountered advancing warriors in the pre-dawn hours of November 7 . Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Bartholomew was appointed officer of the day and had ordered the troops to sleep with their weapons loaded . Around 4 : 30 a.m. , the soldiers awoke to scattered gunshots and found they were nearly encircled by Tenskwatawa 's forces . Contact was first made on the northern end of the perimeter , but the movement was probably intended as a diversion . Shortly after the first shots , fierce fighting broke out on the opposite end as the warriors charged Harrison 's line on the southern corner . The militia 's small - caliber rifles had little effect on the warriors as they rushed the defenders . Spencer was among the first to be killed , being shot in each thigh . Governor Harrison later recorded his death in a dispatch to Washington saying , ... Spencer was wounded in the head . He exhorted his men to fight valiantly . He was shot through both thighs and fell ; still continuing to encourage them , he was raised up , and received ( another ) ball through his body , which put an immediate end to his existence . Lieutenants Nuge and Klaus , the other two Yellow Jacket commanding officers , were also soon shot and killed . The Yellow Jackets began to fall back from the main line , retreating with the sentinels . The warriors followed the retreating unit and entered the camp . Colonel Bartholomew requested a detachment of 25 regular troops and led a bayonet charge that repulsed the warriors . During the charge Bartholomew was shot through the lower arm , breaking both bones . He was still clutching his sword when he was treated hours later . For his leadership during the Battle of Tippecanoe , Bartholomew was promoted to brigadier general. ( 7 ) The Indiana territorial legislature passed a resolution on December 4 , 1811 , which read , Resolved ... that the thanks of this house be presented to Col. Luke Decker and Col. Joseph Bartholomew , the officers , non-commissioned officers and men composing the militia corps under their command ... for the distinguished valor , heroism and bravery displayed by them in the brilliant battle fought with the Shawnee Prophet and his confederates on the morning of the 7th of Nov , 1811 by the Army under the command of His Excellency William Henry Harrison. ( 8 ) Bartholomew County , Indiana was named in his honor . The soldiers regrouped under the command of future United States Senator , ensign John Tipton , and with the help of two reserve companies under the command of Captain Robb and sealed the breach in the line . The second charge by the Native Americans was made against both the north and south ends of the camp , with the far southern end again being the hardest hit . Over half of Harrison 's casualties were suffered among the companies on the southern end , including Captain Spencer and five other men in his company , and seven other men in the adjoining company . With the regulars reinforcing that critical section of the line , and the surprise over , the men held their position as the attacks continued . On the northern end of the camp , Major Daveiss led the dragoons on a counter charge that punched through the Native Americans ' line before being repulsed . Most of Daveiss ' company retreated to Harrison 's main line , but Daveiss was killed . Throughout the next hour , Harrison 's troops fought off several more charges . When the warriors began to run low on ammunition and the sun rose , revealing the small size of Tenskwatawa 's forces , the warriors began to slowly withdraw . A second charge by the dragoons forced the remaining Native Americans to flee . Prophet 's Rock near the Tippecanoe battleground about 1902 . Tenskwatawa is believed to have sung or chanted from this rock to exhort his warriors against Harrison 's forces . The battle lasted about two hours and Harrison lost 62 men ( 37 killed in action and 25 mortally wounded ) ; about 126 were less seriously hurt . The Yellow Jackets suffered the highest casualties of the battle , with 30 % of their numbers killed or wounded . The number of Native American casualties is still the subject of debate , but it was certainly lower than that of the United States forces . Historians estimate that as many as 50 were killed and about 70 -- 80 were wounded . The warriors retreated to Prophetstown where , according to one chief 's account , the warriors confronted Tenskwatawa . They accused him of deceit because of the many deaths , which his spells were supposed to have prevented . He blamed his wife for desecrating his magic medicine and offered to cast a new spell ; he insisted that the warriors launch a second attack , but they refused . Fearing Tecumseh 's imminent return with reinforcements , Harrison ordered his men to fortify their camp with works for the rest of the day . As the sentries moved back out , they discovered and scalped the bodies of 36 warriors . The following day , November 8 , Harrison sent a small group of men to inspect the Shawnee town and found it was deserted except for one elderly woman too sick to flee . The remainder of the defeated Natives had evacuated the village during the night . Harrison ordered his troops to spare the woman , but to burn down Prophetstown and destroy the Native Americans ' cooking implements , without which the confederacy would be hard pressed to survive the winter . Everything of value was confiscated , including 5,000 bushels of corn and beans stored for winter . Some of Harrison 's soldiers dug up bodies from the graveyard in Prophetstown to scalp . Harrison 's troops buried their own dead on the site of their camp . They built large fires over the mass grave in an attempt to conceal it from the Native Americans . After Harrison 's troops departed the area , the Native Americans returned to the grave site , digging up many of the corpses in retaliation and scattering the bodies . Aftermath ( edit ) See also : Indiana in the War of 1812 Document released to the public featuring information on the `` hostile Indians '' of the Wabash after the battle The day after the battle the American wounded were loaded onto wagons and carried back to Fort Harrison for medical care . Most of the militia was released from duty on November 9 and returned home , but many of the long - time soldiers remained in the area a bit longer . In his initial report to Secretary William Eustis , Harrison informed him of a battle having occurred near the Tippecanoe River , giving the battle the river 's name ; he added that he feared an imminent reprisal . The first dispatch did not make clear which side had won the conflict , and the secretary interpreted it as a defeat . The follow - up dispatch made the United States victory clear , and the defeat of Tecumseh 's confederacy became more certain when no second attack occurred . Eustis replied with a lengthy note demanding to know why Harrison had not taken adequate precautions in fortifying his camp . Harrison replied that he had considered the position strong enough without fortification . This dispute was the catalyst of a disagreement between Harrison and the Department of War ; as a result , he resigned from the army in 1814 . At first , the newspapers carried little information about the battle , as they were focused on the highlights of the ongoing Napoleonic Wars in Europe . A Louisville newspaper printed a copy of Harrison 's first dispatch and characterized the battle as a defeat for the United States . But , by December , most of the major papers in the United States began to carry stories about the battle . Public outrage quickly grew and many citizens blamed the British for inciting the tribes to violence and supplying them with firearms . Andrew Jackson was at the forefront of those calling for war , saying that Tecumseh and his allies were `` excited by secret British agents '' . Other western governors called for action : Willie Blount of Tennessee called on the government to `` purge the camps of Indians of every Englishmen to be found ... '' Acting on popular sentiment , the War Hawks in Congress passed resolutions condemning the British for interfering in the United States ' domestic affairs . This popular connection between Tecumseh 's rise and British influence , sentiment which peaked following Tippecanoe , helped War Hawks such as Felix Grundy and Speaker of the House Henry Clay to justify the War of 1812 . They capitalized on the pathos generated by the death of Joseph Daveiss . Until recently historians have accepted an account of the time that Tecumseh was furious with Tenskwatawa for losing the battle , and that Tecumseh had threatened to kill his brother for making the attack . According to this story , the Prophet lost prestige after the battle and no longer served as a leader of the confederacy . In their subsequent meetings with Harrison , several Native leaders claimed that the Prophet 's influence was destroyed ; some accounts said that he was being persecuted by other leaders . Historians Alfred A. Cave and Robert Owens have argued that the Natives were probably trying to mislead Harrison , in an attempt to calm the situation , and that Tenskwatawa continued to play an important role in the confederacy . Having accomplished his goal of dispersing the Natives of Prophetstown , Harrison proclaimed that he had won a decisive victory . But some of Harrison 's contemporaries , as well as some subsequent historians , raised doubts about Harrison 's claimed success . `` In none of the contemporary reports from Indian agents , traders , and public officials on the aftermath of Tippecanoe can we find confirmation of the claim that Harrison had won a decisive victory '' , wrote historian Alfred Cave . The defeat was a setback for Tecumseh 's confederacy , but the Natives soon rebuilt Prophetstown . Frontier violence by Natives increased after the battle . Adam Jortner says the battle was a disaster for both sides , except in strengthening Tenskwatawa 's religious movement . On December 16 , 1811 , the first of the New Madrid earthquakes shook the South and the Midwest . Many Indians took the earthquake as a sign that Tenskwatawa 's predictions of doom were coming true , and they supported Tecumseh in greater number , including many of his former detractors . They increased their attacks against European - American settlers and isolated outposts in the Indiana and Illinois Territories , resulting in the deaths of many civilians . The Shawnee partially rebuilt Prophetstown over the next year , but it was destroyed by a second US campaign in 1812 . Tecumseh continued to play a major role in military operations on the frontier . By the time the U.S. declared war on Great Britain in the War of 1812 , Tecumseh 's confederacy was ready to launch its own war against the United States , this time with British allies . Tecumseh 's warriors made up nearly half of the British forces that captured Detroit from the United States in the War of 1812 . It was not until Tecumseh 's death at the 1813 Battle of the Thames in Ontario that his confederacy ceased to threaten the interests of the United States . When William Henry Harrison ran for President of the United States during the election of 1840 , he used the slogan `` Tippecanoe and Tyler Too '' to remind people of his heroism during the battle . Memorial ( edit ) It shall be the duty of the General Assembly , to provide for the permanent enclosure and preservation of the Tippecanoe Battle Ground . `` '' -- Indiana Constitution , Article 15 , Section 10 . The participants in the battle received the Thanks of Congress . The resolution originally included William Henry Harrison by name , but his name was removed from the resolution before passage . Harrison considered this to be an insult , thinking Congress implied he was the one person in the campaign not worthy of accolades , and he expressed the opinion that it held him up to obloquy and disrespect . He was later awarded the Thanks of Congress and a Congressional Gold Medal in 1818 for victory at the Battle of the Thames . William Henry Harrison returned to the battlefield in 1835 to give speeches during his first presidential campaign . He called for the creation of a memorial to preserve the battle site . John Tipton later purchased the land to preserve it . The Methodist Church purchased the mission school on the hill and used it as a seminary . Tipton left the battlefield to the seminary in his will , and they maintained it for many years , building a larger facility at the location in 1862 . The Battle and Harrison were memorialized by two Ohio towns being named Tippecanoe ; one changed its name to Tipp City in 1938 . Monument near the battle site In 1908 , the Indiana General Assembly commissioned the creation of an 80 - foot ( 24 m ) high obelisk memorial at the battleground . By the 1920s , the site was used primarily as a Methodist youth retreat . On October 9 , 1960 , the Tippecanoe Battlefield was named by the Department of Interior as a National Historic Landmark , in a program to recognize and preserve important sites to American history . In 1961 , a large commemoration of the 150th anniversary of the battle was held and attended by an estimated 10,000 people . In the following years , the battle site attracted fewer visitors and fell into disrepair . It was later taken over by the Tippecanoe County Historical Association , which now maintains the battleground and the seminary building , housing a museum about the battle . They added an amphitheater to the memorial in 1986 . In 1989 -- 90 , the amphitheater was used for performances of The Battle of Tippecanoe Outdoor Drama . See also ( edit ) Indiana portal Battle of Wild Cat Creek Curse of Tippecanoe List of battles fought in Indiana Category : People from Indiana in the War of 1812 USS Tippecanoe name of several United States Navy ships USNS Tippecanoe ( T - AO - 199 ) Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ The Indiana Rangers had been formed in the early days of the territory to protect the settlers from raids by Native Americans , but had seen little action in the previous five years . Jump up ^ Spencer County , Indiana was later named in honor of Capt . Spier Spencer . Jump up ^ Jacob Warrick , the captain of the adjoining company was also killed in the charge ; Warrick County , Indiana was named in his honor . Jump up ^ Daviess County , Indiana was later named in honor of Maj . Joseph Daveiss . Jump up ^ It is implied that Harrison feared the Native Americans would dig up his dead soldiers to avenge his men having desecrated the Prophetstown graveyard . ( See : Cave , p. 122 and Langguth , p. 169 ) Footnotes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Sugden , facing 211 . Jump up ^ Tunnell p. xvi Jump up ^ Blaine T. Brownell ; Robert C. Cottrell ( 2010 ) . Lives and Times : Individuals and Issues in American History : To 1877 . Rowman & Littlefield . p. 130 . ISBN 9781442205581 . Jump up ^ Spencer C. Tucker ( 2014 ) . Battles That Changed American History : 100 of the Greatest Victories and Defeats . ABC - CLIO . p. 83 . ISBN 9781440828621 . ^ Jump up to : Langguth , p. 164 Jump up ^ Owens , p. 210 Jump up ^ Owens , p. 211 Jump up ^ Langguth , pp. 164 -- 165 ^ Jump up to : Langguth , pp. 165 -- 166 Jump up ^ Langguth , p. 166 ^ Jump up to : Langguth , p. 167 Jump up ^ Owens , p. 212 ^ Jump up to : Langguth , p. 168 ^ Jump up to : Owens , p. 214 Jump up ^ `` Fort Knox II '' , not the better known Fort Knox in Kentucky ^ Jump up to : Funk , p. 27 Jump up ^ `` Fort Knox II '' . Indiana State Museum . 2009 . Archived from the original on 2011 - 08 - 18 . Retrieved 2011 - 05 - 07 . Jump up ^ Funk , p. 28 Jump up ^ Owens , p. 216 Jump up ^ Funk , p. 29 ^ Jump up to : Owens , p. 219 ^ Jump up to : Owen , p. 217 ^ Jump up to : Cave , p. 121 Jump up ^ Dillon , p. 471 ^ Jump up to : Funk , p. 30 ^ Jump up to : Owen , p. 218 ^ Jump up to : Langguth , p. 169 Jump up ^ Tucker , vol. 1 , p. 786 , col. 2 . Jump up ^ Funk , p. 31 Jump up ^ Owens , pp. 219 -- 220 Jump up ^ Owens , p. 220 Jump up ^ Owens , p. 221 ^ Jump up to : Owens , p. 222 Jump up ^ Annals of Congress . pp. 12th Congress , 1st session , pt. 1 , pp. 425 -- 6 , 446 ( Grundy ) ; 602 , 914 ( Clay ) -- via https://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llac&fileName=023/llac023.db&recNum=161 . Jump up ^ Cave , p. 122 Jump up ^ Cave , p. 127 Jump up ^ Sugden , pp. 260 -- 61 Jump up ^ Jortner , 196 . Jump up ^ Sugden , p. 249 Jump up ^ Sugden , p. 275 Jump up ^ Langguth , p. 214 Jump up ^ Carnes , p. 41 Jump up ^ Burr , Samuel Jones ( 1840 ) The life and times of William Henry Harrison , p. 237 . Jump up ^ Stathis , Stephen . `` Congressional Gold Medals , 1776 - 2008 '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2015 - 04 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Tippecanoe Battlefield '' . National Historic Landmarks program . National Park Service . Archived from the original on 2015 - 04 - 02 . Retrieved 2009 - 06 - 05 . ^ Jump up to : `` Tippecanoe Battlefield History '' . Tippecanoe County Historical Association . Archived from the original on 2009 - 04 - 17 . Retrieved 2009 - 03 - 27 . Jump up ^ Welcome Page , The Battle of Tippecanoe Outdoor Drama 1990 Souvenir Program , Summer 1990 . References ( edit ) Carnes , Mark C. ; Mieczkowski , Yanek ( 2001 ) . The Routledge Historical Atlas of Presidential Campaigns . New York , NY : Routledge . ISBN 0 - 415 - 92139 - 2 . Cave , Alfred A ( 2006 ) . Prophets of the Great Spirit . Lincoln : University of Nebraska Press . ISBN 0 - 8032 - 1555 - X . Dillon , John Brown ( 1859 ) . `` Letters of William Henry Harrison '' . A History of Indiana . Bingham & Doughty . ISBN 0 - 253 - 20305 - 8 . Funk , Arville ( 1983 ) ( 1969 ) . A Sketchbook of Indiana History ( revised ed . ) . Rochester , Indiana : Christian Book Press . Jortner , Adam . ( 2011 ) . The Gods of Prophetstown : The Battle of Tippecanoe and the Holy War for the American Frontier . Oxford University Press . ISBN 9780199765294 Langguth , A.J. ( 2006 ) . Union 1812 : The Americans Who Fought the Second War of Independence . New York : Simon & Schuster . ISBN 0 - 7432 - 2618 - 6 . Owens , Robert M. ( 2007 ) . Mr. Jefferson 's Hammer : William Henry Harrison and the Origins of American Indian Policy . Norman , Oklahoma : University of Oklahoma Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8061 - 3842 - 8 . Sugden , John ( 1999 ) . Tecumseh : A Life . New York : Macmillan . ISBN 0 - 8050 - 6121 - 5 . Tucker , Spencer C. , ed. ( 2011 ) . The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars , 1607 -- 1890 : A Political , Social , and Military History . Santa Barbara : ABC - CLIO . ISBN 1 - 8510 - 9603 - 5 . Tunnell , IV , H.D. ( 1998 ) . To Compel with Armed Force : A Staff Ride Handbook for the Battle of Tippecanoe . Fort Leavenworth , KS : Combat Studies Institute , U.S. Army Command and General Staff College . Archived from the original on 2003 - 11 - 05 . Further reading ( edit ) Edmunds , David R ( 1983 ) . The Shawnee Prophet . Lincoln , Nebraska : University of Nebraska Press . ISBN 0 - 8032 - 1850 - 8 . Feldman , Jay ( 2005 ) . When the Mississippi Ran Backwards . Simon & Schuster . ISBN 0 - 7432 - 4278 - 5 . Pirtle , Alfred . ( 1900 ) . The Battle of Tippecanoe . Louisville : John P. Morton & Co. / Library Reprints . p. 158 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7222 - 6509 - 3 . as read to the Filson Club . J. Wesley Whickar , `` Shabonee 's Account of Tippecanoe , '' Indiana Magazine of History , vol. 17 , no . 4 ( Dec. 1921 ) , pp. 353 -- 363 . In JSTOR External links ( edit ) `` Battlefield History '' . Tippecanoe County Historical Association . Archived from the original on 2009 - 02 - 24 . Retrieved 2009 - 02 - 24 . Conflicts of the War of 1812 Battles of the War of 1812 United States Washington , D.C. 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what does the song gimme shelter mean

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Gimme_Shelter&oldid=837149071

Gimme Shelter - wikipedia Gimme Shelter Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the song by the Rolling Stones . For other uses , see Gimme Shelter ( disambiguation ) . `` Gimme Shelter '' Song by The Rolling Stones from the album Let It Bleed Released 5 December 1969 ( 1969 - 12 - 05 ) Recorded 23 February & 2 November 1969 Genre Hard rock blues rock Length 4 : 37 Label Decca Records / ABKCO Songwriter ( s ) Jagger / Richards Producer ( s ) Jimmy Miller Audio sample file help `` Gimme Shelter '' is the opening track to the 1969 album Let It Bleed by the Rolling Stones . Although the first word was spelled `` Gimmie '' on that album , subsequent recordings by the band and other musicians have made `` Gimme '' the customary spelling . Greil Marcus , writing in Rolling Stone magazine at the time of its release , praised the song , stating that the band has `` never done anything better . '' The recording features Richards playing in an open tuning on electric guitar . The recording also features vocals by Merry Clayton . Lisa Fischer was later recruited to perform the song during concerts . Contents ( hide ) 1 Inspiration and recording 2 Releases on compilation albums and live recordings 2.1 Music video 3 Personnel 4 Accolades 5 In popular culture 6 Certifications 7 Cover versions 7.1 `` Putting Our House in Order '' project 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 External links Inspiration and recording ( edit ) `` Gimme Shelter '' was written by the Rolling Stones ' lead vocalist Mick Jagger and guitarist Keith Richards , the band 's primary songwriting team . Richards began working on the song 's signature opening riff in London whilst Jagger was away filming Performance . As released , the song begins with Richards performing a guitar intro , soon joined by Jagger 's lead vocal . Of Let It Bleed 's bleak world view , Jagger said in a 1995 interview with Rolling Stone magazine : Well , it 's a very rough , very violent era . The Vietnam War . Violence on the screens , pillage and burning . And Vietnam was not war as we knew it in the conventional sense . The thing about Vietnam was that it was n't like World War II , and it was n't like Korea , and it was n't like the Gulf War . It was a real nasty war , and people did n't like it . People objected , and people did n't want to fight it ... That 's a kind of end - of - the - world song , really . It 's apocalypse ; the whole record 's like that . Similarly , on NPR in 2012 : It was a very moody piece about the world closing in on you a bit ... When it was recorded , early ' 69 or something , it was a time of war and tension , so that 's reflected in this tune . It 's still wheeled out when big storms happen , as they did the other week ( during Hurricane Sandy ) . It 's been used a lot to evoke natural disaster . However , the song 's inspiration was not Vietnam or social unrest , but Keith Richards seeing people scurrying for shelter from a sudden rain storm . According to him : I had been sitting by the window of my friend Robert Fraser 's apartment on Mount Street in London with an acoustic guitar when suddenly the sky went completely black and an incredible monsoon came down . It was just people running about looking for shelter -- that was the germ of the idea . We went further into it until it became , you know , rape and murder are ' just a shot away ' . The recording features guest vocals by Merry Clayton , recorded at a last - minute late - night recording session during the mixing phase , arranged by her friend and record producer Jack Nitzsche . After the first verse is sung by Jagger , Merry Clayton enters and they share the next three verses . A harmonica solo by Jagger and guitar solo by Richards follow . Then , with great energy , Clayton repeatedly sings `` Rape , murder ! It 's just a shot away ! It 's just a shot away ! '' , almost screaming the final stanza . She and Jagger then repeat the line `` It 's just a shot away '' and finish with repeats of `` It 's just a kiss away . '' When speaking of her inclusion in the recording , Jagger stated in the 2003 book According to the Rolling Stones : `` The use of the female voice was the producer 's idea . It would be one of those moments along the lines of ' I hear a girl on this track - get one on the phone . ' '' Summoned - pregnant - from bed around midnight by producer Jack Nitzsche , Clayton made her recording with just a few takes then returned home to bed . It remains the most prominent contribution to a Rolling Stones track by a female vocalist . At about 2 : 59 into the song , Clayton 's voice cracks under the strain ; once during the second refrain on the word `` shot '' , then on the word `` murder '' during the third refrain , after which Jagger is faintly heard exclaiming `` Woo ! '' in response to Clayton 's powerful delivery . Upon returning home Clayton suffered a miscarriage , attributed by some sources to her exertions during the recording . Merry Clayton 's name was erroneously written on the original release , appearing as ' Mary ' . Her name is also listed as ' Mary ' on the 2002 Let It Bleed remastered CD . The song was first recorded in London at Olympic Studios in February and March 1969 ; the version with Clayton was recorded in Los Angeles at Sunset Sound Recorders and Elektra Studios in October and November that same year . Nicky Hopkins played piano , the Rolling Stones ' producer Jimmy Miller played percussion , Charlie Watts played drums , Bill Wyman played bass , Jagger played harmonica and sang backup vocals with Richards and Clayton . Guitarist Brian Jones was present during the early sessions but did not contribute , Richards being credited with both rhythm and lead guitars on the album sleeve . For the recording , Richards used an Australian - made Maton SE777 , a large single - cutaway hollowbody guitar , which he had previously used on `` Midnight Rambler '' . The guitar barely survived the recording before literally falling apart . `` ( O ) n the very last note of ' Gimmie Shelter , ' '' Richards told Guitar World in 2002 , `` the whole neck fell off . You can hear it on the original take . '' Releases on compilation albums and Live recordings ( edit ) `` Gimme Shelter '' quickly became a staple of the Rolling Stones ' live shows . It was first performed sporadically during their 1969 American Tour and became a regular addition to their setlist during the 1972 American Tour . Concert versions appear on the Stones ' albums No Security ( recorded 1997 , released 1998 ) , Live Licks ( recorded 2003 , released 2004 ) , Brussels Affair ( recorded 1973 , released 2011 ) , and Sweet Summer Sun : Hyde Park Live ( 2013 ) . A May 1995 performance recorded at Paradiso ( Amsterdam ) was released as audio on the 1996 Saint of Me single , included in The Singles Collection 1971 - 2006 ( 45CD Box Set , 2011 ) , and as video , on Totally Stripped Blu - Ray and DVD ( 2016 ) . The song appears in the 2010 official DVD release of the 1972 Rolling Stones tour film , Ladies and Gentlemen : The Rolling Stones . It is also featured on Bridges to Babylon Tour ' 97 -- 98 ( 1998 ) , Four Flicks ( 2003 ) , The Biggest Bang ( 2007 ) , Sweet Summer Sun : Hyde Park Live ( 2013 ) , and The Rolling Stones : Havana Moon ( 2016 ) . The female contributor to the song live is Lisa Fischer , the only woman to appear in all their tours since 1989 . In their 2012 50th anniversary tour , the Rolling Stones sang this song with Mary J. Blige , Florence Welch , and Lady Gaga . `` Gimme Shelter '' was never released as a single . Nevertheless , it has been included on many compilation releases , including Gimme Shelter , Hot Rocks 1964 -- 1971 , Forty Licks and GRRR ! . Music video ( edit ) Michel Gondry , an Academy Award - winning French filmmaker , directed a music video for the song , which was released in 1998 . The video features a sixteen - year old Brad Renfro , playing a young man escaping with his brother from a dysfunctional home and the abuse they suffered at the hands of their abusive alcoholic father , and then from society as a whole . Personnel ( edit ) The Rolling Stones Mick Jagger -- lead vocals , harmonica Keith Richards -- guitars , backing vocals Bill Wyman -- bass Charlie Watts -- drums Additional personnel Nicky Hopkins -- piano Jimmy Miller -- percussion Merry Clayton -- co-lead vocals ( credited as `` Mary Clayton '' ) Accolades ( edit ) Greil Marcus , writing for Rolling Stone magazine at the time of the `` Gimme Shelter '' 's release stated that `` ( t ) he Stones have never done anything better . '' `` Gimme Shelter '' was placed at number 38 on Rolling Stone 's list of `` The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time '' in 2004 . Pitchfork Media placed it at number 12 on its list of `` The 200 Greatest Songs of the 1960s '' . Ultimate Classic Rock put the song at number one on their Top 100 Rolling Stones songs and number three on their Top 100 Classic Rock Songs In popular Culture ( edit ) `` Gimme Shelter '' has been played in a variety of movies and television shows / commercials . The 1970 documentary film Gimme Shelter , directed by Albert and David Maysles and Charlotte Zwerin , chronicling the last weeks of the Stones ' 1969 US tour and culminating in the disastrous Altamont Free Concert , took its name from the song . A live version of the song played over the documentary 's credits . Appearance Additional info Reference American Red Cross `` Play Your Part '' public service advertising campaign in 1989 Gimme Shelter ( 2013 ) Goodfellas ( 1990 ) Casino ( 1995 ) The Departed ( 2006 ) Air America ( 1990 ) Wild Palms ( 1993 ) Layer Cake ( 2004 ) Flight ( 2012 ) Call of Duty : Black Ops Trailer for the video game The Simpsons Episode `` Marge vs. Singles , Seniors , Childless Couples and Teens , and Gays '' , in a scene parodying Woodstock Nip / Tuck Season 4 / episode 5 ( `` Dawn Budge '' ) of the FX television series Life ( NBC TV series ) Episode 10 , season 1 ( season finale ) in 2007 Heineken beer commercial Featuring Brad Pitt ( 2008 ) Person of Interest Season 2 , episode 10 ( 2012 ) The Daily Show ( 2013 ) Hockey Night in Canada ( 2013 ) 20 Feet from Stardom Law & Order : Special Victims Unit ( 2014 ) Covert Affairs Episode 10 , season 2 ABC 's coverage of the 2014 Indianapolis 500 The Gambler ( 2014 ) Supernatural Episode `` Do n't Call Me Shurley '' Monday Mornings ( 2013 ) Season 1 , episode 1 , Pilot ( 2013 ) , end of episode Dexter Season 2 , episode 5 , The Dark Defender ( 2007 ) Certifications ( edit ) Region Certification Certified units / Sales Italy ( FIMI ) Gold 25,000 United Kingdom ( BPI ) Gold 500,000 sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone Cover versions ( edit ) This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia 's quality standards . The specific problem is : May not meet WP : SONGCOVER . Please help improve this section if you can . ( June 2014 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Ruth Copeland on her first album Self Portrait , performed with George Clinton 's Parliament , in 1969 ( reissued on The Invictus Sessions in 2002 ) The original backing singer , Merry Clayton , recorded her own version in 1970 which entered the Billboard Hot 100 Grand Funk Railroad on the album Survival in 1971 ; a number 61 US single Josefus for their album Dead Man Puddle of Mudd on the 2011 album Re : ( disc ) overed The Sisters of Mercy in 1983 , on the B - side of their single `` Temple of Love '' ( released on the album Some Girls Wander by Mistake in 1992 ) . In this version the words `` shot '' and `` kiss '' were interchanged . The London Symphony Orchestra on the album Symphonic Music of The Rolling Stones . This version of the song is heard in the Children of Men ( 2006 ) trailer . Patti Smith released the song as a single from her April 2007 covers album Twelve . Paul Brady & the Forest Rangers covered the song for the final episode of season 2 of Sons of Anarchy . This version is available on the 5 - song EP Sons of Anarchy : Shelter . Tom Jones recorded the song with New Model Army . It was released on his album The Definitive Tom Jones 1964 - 2002 . U2 covered the song at the Rock And Roll Hall Of Fame benefit concert on 30 October 2009 , with Mick Jagger sharing lead vocals with Bono and featuring the Black Eyed Peas members Fergie , singing Merry Clayton 's vocal part , and will.i.am , playing piano and synthesizer . The Underachievers used the introduction of `` Gimme Shelter '' for the production of their 2013 single `` The Proclamation '' Stone Sour covered the song on their EP Straight Outta Burbank ... with female vocals performed by Lzzy Hale of Halestorm Jazz vibist Cal Tjader covered the song on his 1971 album Agua Dulce . `` Putting Our House in Order '' project ( edit ) In 1993 , a Food Records project collected various versions of the track by the following bands and collaborations , the proceeds of which went to the Shelter charity 's `` Putting Our House in Order '' homeless initiative . The versions were issued across various formats , and had a live version of the song by the Rolling Stones as a common lead track to ensure chart eligibility . `` Gimme Shelter '' ( pop version -- cassette single ) Voice of the Beehive and Jimmy Somerville `` Gimme Shelter '' ( alternative version -- CD single ) New Model Army and Tom Jones Cud and Sandie Shaw Kingmaker `` Gimme Shelter '' ( rock version -- CD single ) Thunder Little Angels Hawkwind and Samantha Fox `` Gimme Shelter '' ( dance version -- 12 '' single ) 808 State and Robert Owens Pop Will Eat Itself vs Gary Clail vs Ranking Roger vs the Mighty Diamonds vs the On U Sound System Blue Pearl ( produced and mixed by Utah Saints ) See also ( edit ) List of anti-war songs Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ The Mick Jagger and Keith Richards writing team is commonly referred to as the `` Glimmer Twins '' and has occasionally been credited as such on releases , see Jagger / Richards . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ v.d. Luft , Eric ( 21 September 2009 ) . Die at the Right Time ! : A Subjective Cultural History of the American Sixties . Gegensatz Press . p. 410 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 933237 - 39 - 8 . Jump up ^ Wenner , Jann . `` '' Jagger Remembers `` '' . Archived from the original on 18 May 2007 . Retrieved 12 June 2007 . CS1 maint : BOT : original - url status unknown ( link ) , Rolling Stone ( 14 December 1995 ) . Accessed 20 May 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Mick Jagger On The Apocalyptic ' Gimme Shelter ' '' . November 16 , 2012 . Retrieved 27 October 2017 . Jump up ^ Giles , Jeff ( 27 October 2017 ) . `` Keith Richards Recalls Making the Rolling Stones ' ' Gimme Shelter ' '' . Ultimate Classic Rock . ^ Jump up to : Springer , Mike . `` Mick Jagger Tells the Story Behind ' Gimme Shelter ' and Merry Clayton 's Haunting Background Vocals Open Culture '' . Openculture.com . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 03 . Jump up ^ Jagger , Mick ; Richards , Keith ; Wood , Ronnie ; Watts , Charlie ( 2003 ) . According to the Rolling Stones . California : Chronicle Books . p. 117 . ISBN 0811869679 . Jump up ^ Unterberger , Richie . `` Gimme Shelter '' . allmusic.com ( 2007 ) . Accessed 20 May 2007 . Jump up ^ 20 Feet From Stardom - Gimme Shelter , 2016 - 02 - 12 , retrieved 2017 - 09 - 03 Jump up ^ Snowden , Don ( 13 March 1986 ) . `` For Clayton , The Gloom Is Gone '' . Los Angeles Times . Jump up ^ Jagger , M. , Richards , K. , `` Let It Bleed . '' Album credits . 2002 . CD . Jump up ^ `` From the Archive : The Rolling Stones ' Keith Richards Looks Back on 40 Years of Making Music '' . Guitar World . 6 January 2012 . Jump up ^ `` No Security The Rolling Stones '' . www.rollingstones.com . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Live Licks - The Rolling Stones Songs , Reviews , Credits AllMusic '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 03 . Jump up ^ Harris , John ( 2011 - 11 - 22 ) . `` Why a Rolling Stones bootleg is one of my albums of the year '' . The Guardian . ISSN 0261 - 3077 . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Brussels Affair ( Live 1973 ) - The Rolling Stones Songs , Reviews , Credits AllMusic '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Sweet Summer Sun : Hyde Park Live - The Rolling Stones Songs , Reviews , Credits AllMusic '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 03 . Jump up ^ Spitz , Marc . `` Ladies and Gentlemen , the Rolling Stones Finally Gets the DVD Treatment '' . Vanity Fair . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Reviewed ! The Rolling Stones - Havana Moon - Uncut '' . Uncut. 2016 - 09 - 20 . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 03 . Jump up ^ Ellis - Petersen , Hannah ( 2016 - 06 - 07 ) . `` Lisa Fischer on life in the shadows of the Stones and Tina Turner : ' I got used to keeping quiet ' '' . The Guardian . ISSN 0261 - 3077 . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 03 . ^ Jump up to : `` Rolling Stones ' ' Gimme Shelter ' : Did Gaga , Mary J. or Florence Sing It Best ? '' . Billboard . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Lady Gaga sings ' Gimme Shelter ' with The Rolling Stones at New Jersey gig '' . NME. 2012 - 12 - 16 . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Gimme Shelter ( Live ) - The Rolling Stones Songs , Reviews , Credits '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Hot Rocks : 1964 - 1971 - The Rolling Stones Songs , Reviews , Credits '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Forty Licks - The Rolling Stones Songs , Reviews , Credits '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Buy GRRR ! The Rolling Stones '' . www.rollingstones.com . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` The Rolling Stones -- Gimme Shelter ( 1998 ) '' ( Requires IE7 or newer to display with scrollbar ; Gecko - based browsers ( Firefox et al ) do not show the scrollbar , although the page is scrollable with navigation keys ) . Michel Gondry : Pleasure of the Unknown . realeyz.tv. 31 December 2012 . Retrieved 2 March 2013 . Jump up ^ Marcus , Greil ( 27 December 1969 ) . `` Let It Bleed The Rolling Stones : Let It Bleed '' . Rolling Stone . Retrieved 17 November 2012 . Jump up ^ `` The 200 Greatest Songs of the 1960s '' . Pitchfork. 2006 - 08 - 18 . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` No. 1 : ' Gimme Shelter ' -- Top 100 Rolling Stones Songs '' . Ultimateclassicrock.com. 2012 - 07 - 12 . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` No. 3 : Rolling Stones , ' Gimme Shelter ' -- Top 100 Classic Rock Songs '' . Ultimateclassicrock.com. 2012 - 04 - 30 . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` GIMME SHELTER - Festival de Cannes '' . Festival de Cannes . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 03 . Jump up ^ Awesome , Network ( 2013 - 02 - 21 ) . `` Just a Shot Away : The Rolling Stones ' Gimme Shelter '' . Huffington Post . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` The Rolling Stones : Gimme Shelter '' . Telegraph.co.uk . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 03 . Jump up ^ Canby , Vincent . `` Movie Review - Gimme Shelter '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Gimme Shelter ( Video ) - The Rolling Stones Songs , Reviews , Credits AllMusic '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` The Paley Center for Media '' . Paleycenter.org . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Vanessa Hudgens : ' I had to work on loving myself again ' '' . USA TODAY . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 06 . ^ Jump up to : Ross , Charlotte ( 2014 - 10 - 13 ) . `` Clip joint : the Rolling Stones ' Gimme Shelter '' . The Guardian . ISSN 0261 - 3077 . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 06 . Jump up ^ Ardell , Jena ( 2013 - 02 - 28 ) . `` Quit Using `` Gimme Shelter '' In Every Damn Movie `` . L.A. Weekly . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Wild Palms '' . EW.com. 1993 - 05 - 14 . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Michael Phelps and Danny McBride Go to Outer Space for Call of Duty : Infinite Warfare '' . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 06 . Jump up ^ Times , Music ( 2014 - 11 - 06 ) . `` ' Call of Duty ' Trailer Soundtracks : From Frank Sinatra to Eminem , AC / DC and More ( WATCH ) '' . Music Times . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 06 . Jump up ^ TV.com . `` The Simpsons : Marge vs. Singles , Seniors , Childless Couples and Teens , and Gays '' . TV.com . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Music on Nip / Tuck : The best money can buy '' . MTV News . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` The Canadian Maple Syrup Syndicate - The Daily Show with Jon Stewart - Video Clip Comedy Central '' . Thedailyshow.cc.com . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Video : Hockey Night In Canada 's Closing Montage '' . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 07 . Jump up ^ 20 Feet From Stardom - Gimme Shelter , 2016 - 02 - 12 , retrieved 2017 - 08 - 06 Jump up ^ `` The Gambler Official Trailer # 1 ( 2014 ) - Mark Wahlberg , Jessica Lange Movie HD '' . YouTube . 2014 - 11 - 05 . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Monday Mornings Soundtrack - S1E1 : Pilot '' . Tunefind. 2013 - 02 - 04 . Retrieved 2018 - 03 - 04 . Jump up ^ TV.com . `` Dexter : The Dark Defender '' . TV.com . Retrieved 2018 - 03 - 21 . Jump up ^ `` Italian single certifications -- The Rolling Stones -- Gimme Shelter '' ( in Italian ) . Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana . Retrieved 12 January 2018 . Jump up ^ `` British single certifications -- The Rolling Stones -- Gimme Shelter '' . British Phonographic Industry . Retrieved 23 February 2017 . Enter Gimme Shelter in the search field and then press Enter . Jump up ^ `` Gimme Shelter : The Invictus Sessions - Ruth Copeland Songs , Reviews , Credits AllMusic '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` ' Gimme Shelter ' Singer Merry Clayton : Just a Shot Away '' . Rolling Stone . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Survival - Grand Funk Railroad Songs , Reviews , Credits AllMusic '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 06 . Jump up ^ Koda , Cub . `` Dead Man '' . allmusic.com . Retrieved 24 January 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Puddle of Mudd Reworks Rolling Stones , Neil Young Hits for Covers Album '' . Billboard . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Gimme Shelter - The Sisters of Mercy Song - BBC Music '' . BBC . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 07 . Jump up ^ Noble , Barnes & . `` Symphonic Music of the Rolling Stones '' . Barnes & Noble . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Patti Smith : Gimme Shelter '' . Rolling Stone . Retrieved 4 March 2008 . Jump up ^ Times , Music ( 2014 - 12 - 09 ) . `` ' Sons of Anarchy ' Finale : 6 Best Musical Moments by The Forest Rangers , Curtis Stigers and Paul Brady ( LISTEN ) '' . Music Times . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` The Definitive Tom Jones 1964 - 2002 ( Box Set ) - Tom Jones Songs , Reviews , Credits AllMusic '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 2017 - 01 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` Rock & Roll Hall of Fame captivates the senses with debut of Connor Theater ( video ) '' . cleveland.com . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Fergie 's Night Out With Mick Jagger ! '' . Us Weekly . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 06 . Jump up ^ Rock & Roll Hall of Fame ( 2010 - 12 - 14 ) , U2 , Mick Jagger , Fergie - `` Gimme Shelter '' at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 25th Anniversary Shows , retrieved 2017 - 08 - 06 Jump up ^ `` The Rolling Stones ' ' Gimme Shelter ' Sampled in New Song '' . Ultimate Classic Rock . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Hear Stone Sour and Lzzy Hale 's Reverent Stones Cover '' . Rolling Stone . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Gimme Shelter - Cal Tjader Song Info AllMusic '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 07 . Jump up ^ Gimme Shelter , 2010 - 01 - 01 , retrieved 2017 - 08 - 07 Jump up ^ `` Gimme Shelter -- Voice of the Beehive and Jimmy , a playlist by Wade W Wellard on Spotify '' . Spotify . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Gimme Shelter - Tom Jones & New Model Army Song - BBC Music '' . BBC . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 07 . Jump up ^ Gimme Shelter , 1995 - 09 - 25 , retrieved 2017 - 08 - 07 External links ( edit ) Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics Let It Bleed Side one `` Gimme Shelter '' `` Love in Vain '' `` Country Honk '' `` Live with Me '' `` Let It Bleed '' Side two `` Midnight Rambler '' `` You Got the Silver '' `` Monkey Man '' `` You Ca n't Always Get What You Want '' The Rolling Stones Mick Jagger Keith Richards Charlie Watts Ronnie Wood Brian Jones Ian Stewart Mick Taylor Bill Wyman Tony Chapman Ricky Fenson Colin Golding Carlo Little Dick Taylor Video releases Let 's Spend the Night Together ( 1983 ) Stones at the Max ( 1992 ) The Rolling Stones : Voodoo Lounge Live ( 1995 ) The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus ( 1996 ) Bridges to Babylon Tour ' 97 -- 98 ( 1998 ) Four Flicks ( 2003 ) The Biggest Bang ( 2007 ) Ladies and Gentlemen : The Rolling Stones ( 2010 ) Some Girls : Live in Texas ' 78 ( 2011 ) Sweet Summer Sun : Live in Hyde Park ( 2013 ) The Rolling Stones : Havana Moon ( 2016 ) Documentaries The Stones in the Park ( 1969 ) Gimme Shelter ( 1970 ) Cocksucker Blues ( 1972 ) Video Rewind ( 1984 ) 25 × 5 : the Continuing Adventures of the Rolling Stones ( 1989 ) Shine a Light ( 2008 ) Stones in Exile ( 2010 ) Crossfire Hurricane ( 2012 ) Olé Olé Olé ! : A Trip Across Latin America ( 2017 ) Tours British Tour 1963 1964 tours 1965 tours 1966 tours European Tour 1967 American Tour 1969 European Tour 1970 UK Tour 1971 American Tour 1972 Pacific Tour 1973 European Tour 1973 Tour of the Americas ' 75 Tour of Europe ' 76 US Tour 1978 American Tour 1981 European Tour 1982 Steel Wheels / Urban Jungle Tour Voodoo Lounge Tour Bridges to Babylon Tour No Security Tour Licks Tour A Bigger Bang 50 & Counting 14 On Fire Zip Code Tour América Latina Olé Tour 2016 Fall 2016 US Tour No Filter Tour Associated places Redlands Stargroves Nellcôte The Wick Downe House The Mick Jagger Centre Related Discography Songs The Rolling Stones concerts Jagger / Richards Nanker Phelge Rolling Stones Records Promotone The Stones in the Park Altamont Free Concert Rolling Stones Mobile Studio The Rolling Stones : An Illustrated Record The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus Andrew Loog Oldham Allen Klein Peter Meaden John Pasche Instruments played Book Category Portal The Rolling Stones singles discography Decca ( UK ) and London ( US ) singles `` Come On '' `` I Wanna Be Your Man '' / `` Stoned '' `` Not Fade Away '' / `` Little by Little '' `` It 's All Over Now '' `` Tell Me '' / `` I Just Want to Make Love to You '' `` Time Is on My Side '' `` Little Red Rooster '' `` Heart of Stone '' `` The Last Time '' / `` Play with Fire '' `` ( I Ca n't Get No ) Satisfaction '' / `` The Spider and the Fly '' `` Get Off of My Cloud '' / `` I 'm Free '' `` As Tears Go By '' `` 19th Nervous Breakdown '' / `` As Tears Go By '' `` Paint It Black '' / `` Stupid Girl '' `` Mother 's Little Helper '' / `` Lady Jane '' `` Have You Seen Your Mother , Baby , Standing in the Shadow ? '' `` Let 's Spend the Night Together '' / `` Ruby Tuesday '' `` We Love You '' / `` Dandelion '' `` In Another Land '' `` She 's a Rainbow '' / `` 2000 Light Years from Home '' `` Jumpin ' Jack Flash '' `` Street Fighting Man '' / `` No Expectations '' `` Honky Tonk Women '' / `` You Ca n't Always Get What You Want '' Rolling Stones / Atlantic singles `` Brown Sugar '' / `` Bitch '' / `` Let It Rock '' `` Wild Horses '' / `` Sway '' `` Tumbling Dice '' / `` Sweet Black Angel '' `` Happy '' / `` All Down the Line '' `` Angie '' / `` Silver Train '' `` Doo Doo Doo Doo Doo ( Heartbreaker ) '' / `` Dancing with Mr. D '' `` It 's Only Rock ' n Roll ( But I Like It ) '' `` Ai n't Too Proud to Beg '' / `` Dance Little Sister '' `` Fool to Cry '' `` Hot Stuff '' Rolling Stones `` Miss You '' / `` Far Away Eyes '' `` Beast of Burden '' / `` When the Whip Comes Down '' `` Respectable '' / `` When the Whip Comes Down '' `` Shattered '' `` Emotional Rescue '' `` She 's So Cold '' / `` Send It to Me '' `` Start Me Up '' `` Waiting on a Friend '' / `` Little T&A '' `` Hang Fire '' / `` Neighbours '' `` Going to a Go - Go '' ( live ) / `` Beast of Burden '' ( live ) `` Time Is on My Side '' ( live ) / `` Twenty Flight Rock '' ( live ) `` Undercover of the Night '' `` She Was Hot '' `` Too Much Blood '' `` Harlem Shuffle '' `` One Hit ( To the Body ) '' `` Mixed Emotions '' `` Rock and a Hard Place '' `` Almost Hear You Sigh '' `` Highwire '' / `` 2000 Light Years from Home '' ( live ) `` Ruby Tuesday '' ( live ) / `` Play with Fire '' ( live ) `` Jumpin ' Jack Flash '' ( live ) / `` Tumbling Dice '' ( live ) Virgin singles `` Love Is Strong '' `` You Got Me Rocking '' `` Out of Tears '' `` I Go Wild '' `` Like a Rolling Stone '' ( live ) / `` Black Limousine '' / `` All Down the Line '' `` Wild Horses '' ( live ) / `` Live with Me '' ( live ) / `` Tumbling Dice '' ( live ) `` Anybody Seen My Baby ? '' `` Saint of Me '' / `` Gimme Shelter '' ( live ) `` Out of Control '' `` Do n't Stop '' / `` Miss You '' ( remix ) `` Streets of Love '' / `` Rough Justice '' `` Rain Fall Down '' `` Biggest Mistake '' / `` Before They Make Me Run '' ( live ) Universal singles `` Plundered My Soul '' / `` All Down the Line '' `` No Spare Parts '' / `` Before They Make Me Run '' `` Doom and Gloom '' `` One More Shot '' Other countries `` Let It Bleed '' / `` You Got the Silver '' ( London Japan ) `` Rocks Off '' / `` Sweet Virginia '' ( Japan ) `` Star Star '' / `` Doo Doo Doo Doo Doo ( Heartbreaker ) '' ( France , Germany ) Grand Funk Railroad Don Brewer Mel Schacher Max Carl Tim Cashion Bruce Kulick Mark Farner Craig Frost Dennis Bellinger Howard Eddy Jr . Studio albums On Time Grand Funk Closer to Home Survival E Pluribus Funk Phoenix We 're an American Band Shinin ' On All the Girls in the World Beware ! ! ! Born to Die Good Singin ' , Good Playin ' Grand Funk Lives What 's Funk ? Unofficial albums Monumental Funk Live albums Live Album Caught in the Act Bosnia Live : The 1971 Tour Compilations Mark , Don & Mel : 1969 -- 71 Grand Funk Hits Capitol Collectors Series Thirty Years of Funk : 1969 -- 1999 Classic Masters Greatest Hits Singles `` Inside Looking Out '' `` I 'm Your Captain ( Closer to Home ) '' `` Feelin ' Alright ? '' `` Gimme Shelter '' `` We 're an American Band '' `` Walk Like a Man '' `` The Loco - Motion '' `` Some Kind of Wonderful '' `` Bad Time '' Related Discography Terry Knight Terry Knight and the Pack Patti Smith Studio albums Horses Radio Ethiopia Easter Wave Dream of Life Gone Again Peace and Noise Gung Ho Trampin ' Twelve Banga Live albums Horses / Horses The Coral Sea Compilations The Patti Smith Masters Land ( 1975 -- 2002 ) iTunes Originals Outside Society EPs Hey Joe / Radio Ethiopia Set Free Singles `` Hey Joe '' `` Gloria '' `` Pissing in a River '' `` Pumping ( My Heart ) '' `` Ask the Angels '' `` Because the Night '' `` Privilege ( Set Me Free ) '' `` Frederick '' `` Dancing Barefoot '' `` So You Want to Be a Rock ' n ' Roll Star '' `` People Have the Power '' `` Up There Down There '' `` Summer Cannibals '' `` E-Bow the Letter '' `` Gimme Shelter '' Promotional singles `` 1959 '' `` Glitter in Their Eyes '' `` When Doves Cry '' Other songs `` Piss Factory '' `` Redondo Beach '' `` Free Money '' `` Rock N Roll Nigger '' Books Seventh Heaven Witt Ha ! Ha ! Houdini ! Babel Woolgathering Early Work The Coral Sea Patti Smith Complete Strange Messenger Auguries of Innocence Just Kids M Train Early Morning Dream Band members Lenny Kaye Jay Dee Daugherty Ivan Král Richard Sohl Related articles Discography Patti Smith : Dream of Life Cowboy Mouth Fred `` Sonic '' Smith 50 Photographs Jimmy Somerville Discography Studio albums Read My Lips Dare to Love Manage the Damage Home Again Compilations The Singles Collection 1984 / 1990 The Very Best of Jimmy Somerville , Bronski Beat and The Communards For a Friend : The Best of Bronski Beat , The Communards & Jimmy Somerville Singles `` Suspicious Minds '' `` Comment te dire adieu '' `` You Make Me Feel ( Mighty Real ) '' `` Read My Lips ( Enough Is Enough ) '' `` To Love Somebody '' `` Smalltown Boy ( ' 91 Remix ) '' `` Gimme Shelter '' `` Heartbeat '' `` Hurt So Good '' `` By Your Side '' `` The Number One Song in Heaven '' `` Why ? ( Almighty Mix ) '' `` Ca n't Take My Eyes Off You '' `` Ai n't No Mountain High Enough '' Other songs `` Love to Love You Baby '' `` Johnny Remember Me '' `` Lover Man '' `` Do They Know It 's Christmas ? '' `` From This Moment On '' `` Someday We 'll Be Together '' `` But Not Tonight '' `` I Was Born This Way '' `` Tell Me Why '' Related articles Bronski Beat The Communards Category Book Tom Jones Discography Studio albums Along Came Jones ( It 's Not Unusual ) What 's New Pussycat ? A-tom - ic Jones From the Heart Green , Green Grass of Home Delilah Help Yourself Reload Mr. Jones Praise & Blame Spirit in the Room Long Lost Suitcase Live albums John Farnham & Tom Jones -- Together in Concert Tom Jones Live in Las Vegas Songs `` All You Need Is Love '' `` Baby , It 's Cold Outside '' `` Black Betty '' `` Burning Down the House '' `` Carrying a Torch '' `` Darlin ' '' `` Daughter of Darkness '' `` Delilah '' `` Detroit City '' `` Gimme Shelter '' `` Green , Green Grass of Home '' `` Help Yourself '' `` I ( Who Have Nothing ) '' `` Islands in the Stream '' `` It 's Four in the Morning '' `` It 's Not Unusual '' `` I 'll Never Fall in Love Again '' `` Kiss '' `` Lady Lay Down '' `` Mama Told Me Not to Come '' `` Move Closer '' `` Say You 'll Stay Until Tomorrow '' `` Sex Bomb '' `` Sixteen Tons '' `` She 's a Lady '' `` Stoned in Love '' `` Till '' `` What 's New Pussycat ? '' `` Without Love '' `` The Young New Mexican Puppeteer '' `` Thunderball '' Related articles This Is Tom Jones Tom Jones Tom Jones : The Right Time The Wexford Carols Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gimme_Shelter&oldid=837149071 '' Categories : 1969 songs 1971 singles 2007 singles Grand Funk Railroad songs Joss Stone songs Patti Smith songs Songs written by Jagger / Richards Songs of the Vietnam War The Rolling Stones songs Samantha Fox songs Song recordings produced by Jimmy Miller Capitol Records singles Columbia Records singles Music videos directed by Michel Gondry Hidden categories : CS1 maint : BOT : original - url status unknown CS1 Italian - language sources ( it ) Use dmy dates from November 2014 Articles with hAudio microformats All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2017 Certification Table Entry usages for Italy Certification Table Entry usages for United Kingdom Articles needing cleanup from June 2014 All pages needing cleanup Cleanup tagged articles with a reason field from June 2014 Wikipedia pages needing cleanup from June 2014 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Dansk Deutsch Español Euskara Français 한국어 Italiano ქართული Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 10 more Edit links This page was last edited on 19 April 2018 , at 01 : 14 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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who played charlotte lucas in pride and prejudice

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Charlotte_Lucas&oldid=801247021

Charlotte Lucas - Wikipedia Charlotte Lucas Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the actress and painter . For the fictional character , see Pride and Prejudice . This biographical article needs additional citations for verification , as it includes attribution to IMDb . IMDb may not be a reliable source for biographical information . Please help by adding additional , reliable sources for verification . Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately , especially if potentially libelous or harmful . ( January 2012 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Charlotte Lucas ( born 29 May 1979 ) is an English actress and painter . Contents ( hide ) 1 Early life 2 Career 2.1 Art 2.2 Coaching and training 3 References 4 External links Early life ( edit ) Born into an acting family , Lucas is the granddaughter of Linden Travers , who appeared in Alfred Hitchcock 's The Lady Vanishes and Guy Leon . Charlotte is the great niece of Bill Travers who appeared in Born Free . Charlotte 's mother is Susan Travers who starred in Peeping Tom . Lucas is the second cousin of actresses Penelope Wilton , Bill Travers ' son Will , Richard Morant and Anna Massey . Her first cousin is BBC newsreader , Alice Bhandhukravi . Career ( edit ) She is best known for her role as Selena Geeson in Bad Girls . She also starred in the 2003 film Oh Marbella ! , as well as a number of other TV roles including EastEnders , Midsomer Murders , Doctors , Not Going Out , and an episode of Adventure Inc. when filming transferred to the UK for four episodes . Lucas played the role of Mrs Bassat in BBC One 's recent adaptation of Daphne du Maurier 's , Jamaica Inn . Lucas attended Drama and Theatre Studies at Birmingham University , before concluding her studies at Royal Academy of Dramatic Art ( RADA ) in London . Lucas ' theatre credits include Red Velvet ( Tricycle ) , Posh ( West End and Royal Court Theatre ) , The Changeling ( Young Vic ) , Yes , Prime Minister ( West End ) , Fast Labour ( West Yorkshire Playhouse and Hampstead ) , World 's End ( Trafalgar Studios ) , Called to Account , Darfur -- How Long is Never ? and Fabulation ( Tricycle ) , Habeas Corpus ( Royal Theatre Northampton ) , A Thought in Three Parts ( BAC ) and Sharp Relief and Fen ( Salisbury Playhouse ) . She starred as Ellen Tree in Indhu Rubasingham 's critically acclaimed production of Red Velvet at St Ann 's Warehouse , New York , following a transfer from the Tricycle Theatre , London in March 2014 , and then David Hare 's , The Absence of War in February 2015 . She went on to star in The Distance at The Orange Tree Theatre in Richmond , London . Then she joined Kenneth Branagh 's Company to reprise her role as Ellen Tree at the Garrick theatre in 2016 . She went on to film the third series of BroadChurch and in 2017 starred as the lead at the Hampstead Studio theatre 's premier of Dave Florez 's play Experience , and in the London premiere of the hit American comedy play Speech and Debate by Stephen Karam at the Trafalgar Studios . Art ( edit ) She paints and her work in held in a number of private collections in the U.K. And Europe . She is currently represented by a London - based art gallery , GV Art , where recent work showcased portraiture . Coaching and training ( edit ) Lucas recently launched a new venture working with businesses to assist with training and communications , called Red Alert Speech . The company is a joint venture with actress , Celia Adams . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Red Alert Speech '' . External links ( edit ) Charlotte Lucas on IMDb Charlotte Lucas at RADA This article about an English actor or actress is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charlotte_Lucas&oldid=801247021 '' Categories : Alumni of the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art Living people English television actresses 1976 births English actor stubs Hidden categories : Articles lacking reliable references from January 2012 All articles lacking reliable references BLP articles lacking sources from January 2012 All articles sourced by IMDb Articles sourced by IMDb from January 2012 All stub articles Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 18 September 2017 , at 15 : 43 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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how many episodes of er was george clooney in

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Doug_Ross&oldid=830265792

Doug Ross - Wikipedia Doug Ross Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the ER character . For the Gene Wilder character , see Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Sex * ( * But Were Afraid to Ask ) ( film ) . For other people named Douglas Ross , see Douglas Ross ( disambiguation ) . hide This article has multiple issues . Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages ) This article 's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed . Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise . ( October 2007 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This article possibly contains original research . Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations . Statements consisting only of original research should be removed . ( January 2008 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Doug Ross George Clooney as Doug Ross First appearance September 19 , 1994 ( 1x01 , `` 24 Hours '' ) Last appearance March 12 , 2009 ( 15x19 , `` Old Times '' ) Portrayed by George Clooney Duration 1994 -- 99 , 2000 , 2009 Information Full name Douglas Ross Nickname ( s ) Doug , Dougie Gender Male Occupation Physician Title Pediatric Fellow ( 1994 - 1998 ) Pediatric Attending ( 1998 - 1999 ) Family Ray Ross ( father ; deceased ) Sarah Ross ( mother ) Spouse ( s ) Carol Hathaway ( wife ) Children Unnamed child ( son , with unnamed woman ) Kate Ross ( daughter , with Carol ) Tess Ross ( daughter , with Carol ) 1962 Dr. Douglas `` Doug '' Ross is a fictional character from the television series ER , portrayed by George Clooney . George Clooney 's removal from the main cast opening credits was in the 16th episode of season 5 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot 1.1 Career 2 Development 2.1 Casting and creation 2.2 Characterization 3 Reception 4 References 5 External links Plot ( edit ) Doug Ross was raised by his mother , Sarah , after his father , Ray , abandoned their family . In Season 1 , Ross revealed to a patient that he had a son , and he tells nurse Wendy Goldman that he does n't know his son 's name as he 's never seen him . Not much else is known about Doug 's past . Despite his jumbled personal life , Ross is a dedicated ER pediatrician . He has always been committed to medicine and children and to helping no matter the rules or the consequences . During Season 2 , Doug rescued a boy trapped in a flooding storm drain during a rainstorm . His heroic efforts were filmed on local television , making him a media star . This event helped him earn back his job at County , because his supervisor in pediatrics originally was n't going to renew his fellowship due to his disrespect for authority . During Season 2 , Ray tries to reconcile with Doug , who has difficulty reconnecting with the man who abandoned him and his mother . Ray owns a ritzy hotel in Chicago , and Doug lets his guard down a little but is disappointed when his father offers to take him to a Chicago Bulls game and then stands him up . Ross later reveals that he and his mother were abused by his father . Doug later has an affair with Ray 's girlfriend , a woman from whom Ray stole money , but ends the relationship when it becomes clear that she has a lot of problems . Ross is a womanizer who dates and leaves many women throughout the course of the show . His womanizing days abruptly end after a one - night stand with an epileptic woman who hides her condition and dies in the ER . Ross learns her name only after she dies , after which he stops dating for a while until he gets back together with Carol Hathaway , the head nurse of the ER at County . Warner Bros. Television , the studio which produces ER for NBC , kept secret from NBC Dr. Ross ' cameo in `` Such Sweet Sorrow '' , which promoted the episode as Carol Hathaway 's goodbye , with no mention of Ross ' appearance . The original version of `` Such Sweet Sorrow '' that Warner Bros. sent to NBC ended after the scene where we see Hathaway on the plane to Seattle . At the eleventh hour , Warner Bros. messengered an `` edited '' version of the episode to NBC headquarters in New York for broadcast . NBC was miffed that it was kept in the dark as it could have generated valuable ad revenue if it had aired promos that the episode marked the return of George Clooney . Clooney cited the fans of the show for his reason for making the cameo ( he wanted Hathaway 's and Ross 's characters to get back together , which many fans hoped for ) . Clooney reportedly only asked to be paid scale for the cameo . In the season 15 episode `` Old Times , '' Ross is working as an attending physician at the University of Washington Medical Center . He is helping a grieving grandmother ( Susan Sarandon ) whose grandson was gravely injured in a bicycle accident . He talks to Sam and Neela after finding out that they are from County , asking them whether any of his old colleagues still work there . Doug and Carol are responsible for getting the kidney for Carter and a heart for another County patient , but they never discover who receives the organs . Career ( edit ) In the pilot episode , which takes place on St. Patrick 's Day 1994 , Ross is brought into the ER not long before his shift , to be `` treated '' for drunkenness by his longtime friend , Dr. Mark Greene . Throughout the next few seasons , Ross is shown to be compassionate , though not always using the best judgment . His love of children is best seen during darker situations , such as when a child is in danger . When Peter Benton talks about how surgeons deal with emotionally charged cases and ER doctors have it easy , Ross leaves him stunned into silence when describing cases that include a young girl who beat her mother to death , a kid who is going to lose his leg to cancer and another kid who is dying from a life of homelessness . His lack of judgment leads him to assault abusive parents in the ER , but his counseling in that case just consists of the shrink telling him not to do that again . He is a passionate doctor who puts the welfare of his patients , especially children , above his medical career . In one episode , Dr. Ross saves a young boy who is drowning and is flown in to County General using a news helicopter . This garners him much attention , earns him an award , and saves his job . Ross does n't handle authority well , even when Mark is his boss . He is a pediatrician , but in several episodes performs medical procedures on adults , usually when the other doctors are busy . In another episode , he tries to do an ultra-rapid detox on a drug - addicted baby without the mother 's consent . Hathaway assists , but , when Greene and Weaver discover that the procedure being done in violation of hospital policy and the law , Doug is punished . He is left on probation for 30 days and is supervised by Dr. Kerry Weaver and Dr. Greene , who have to co-sign his charts . Doug 's attitude toward patient treatment often has consequences for his coworkers and supervisors , who have received reprimands from their superiors for Doug 's actions . He vies to be an attending physician for emergency pediatrics . He eventually gets the job , even though doctors Greene and Weaver oppose his promotion because the position is n't necessary and the funds are needed elsewhere . Greene is ultimately happy for Ross , but Weaver is aghast and campaigns against his new position . He resigns in the aftermath of a scandal in which he shows a mother how to bypass the lockouts on a Dilaudid PCA , enabling her to give a lethal dose of medication to her terminally ill son . Ross had earlier stolen Dilaudid from a pain - medication study and given it to the mother , only to be discovered by Weaver and Greene , who reprimand him but kept the incident private . The incident prompts the closure of Hathaway 's free clinic in the hospital , since it supplied the PCA to this mother , and Ross faces suspension from work and possible criminal charges . A friend of Ross stands up for him and the charges against him are dropped , but Ross resigns from the hospital and moves to Seattle . When Ross leaves , he and Hathaway are on poor terms until she discovers that she 's pregnant with his twin girls . Her clinic is later re-opened , but she has to report to her former assistant there . Ross was written out of the series because Clooney wished to focus on his expanding film career . He also said that there was n't any strong story in place for his character after Season 5 . He appeared at the end of the penultimate episode of season 6 , when Carol leaves Cook County to reunite with Ross in Seattle . He was reportedly asked to return briefly in season 8 , to make an appearance in Anthony Edwards 's last episode during Greene 's funeral , but Clooney declined because he did not want his cameo appearance to overshadow the departure of a beloved character on the show . Clooney returned to ER for its 15th and final season in 2009 in a story arc beginning with Episode 328 , titled `` Old Times '' , with Julianna Margulies also returning as Hathaway . Development ( edit ) Casting and creation ( edit ) George Clooney did not receive a casting call for the television series . He received a draft of the script from a friend ; he read it and became interested in the part . He said : `` I like the flaws in this guy . I can play him . '' Neal Baer who worked on ER was inspired by his personal experiences to write storylines for the character of Doug Ross . He did his residency while he was on ER and became a pediatrician , which helped to `` draw on really complicated ethical dilemmas . '' Characterization ( edit ) The character was described as `` a complicated children 's doctor who could be self - centered quick - tempered and giving , hitting the bottle to avoid dealing with consequences of his actions . '' Reception ( edit ) In 2004 , Ross was listed in Bravo 's 100 Greatest TV Characters . Entertainment Weekly placed Ross in its list of the `` 30 Great TV Doctors and Nurses '' . The character was included in Fox News ' list of `` The Best TV Doctors For Surgeon General '' and in Philadelphia Magazine 's 10 Best Doctors on Television . Ross was also listed in Wetpaint 's `` 10 Hottest Male Doctors on TV '' and in BuzzFeed 's `` 16 Hottest Doctors On Television '' . His relationship with Carol Hathaway was included in AOL TV 's list of the `` Best TV Couples of All Time '' and in the same list by TV Guide . For his work on the series , Clooney received two Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Lead Actor In A Drama Series in 1995 and 1996 . He was also nominated for three Golden Globe Awards for Best Actor -- Television Series Drama in 1995 , 1996 , and 1997 ( losing to co-star Anthony Edwards ) . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Mimi Leder ( director ) , John Wells ( writer ) ( 1996 - 02 - 22 ) . `` The Healers '' . ER . Season 2 . Episode 16 . NBC . Jump up ^ Keenleyside , Sam ( April 1998 ) . Bedside Manners : George Clooney and ER . ECW Press . p. 51 . ISBN 1 - 5502 - 2336 - 4 . Jump up ^ Tate , Nick ( January 11 , 2015 ) . `` ' ER ' Producer Dr. Neal Baer Turns Lens on Poverty , Education Reform '' . Newsmax Media . Retrieved August 15 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Potts , Kimberly ( September 1 , 2011 ) . George Clooney : The Last Great Movie Star Revised and Updated Edition . Applause . p. 51 . ISBN 1 - 5578 - 3785 - 6 . Jump up ^ `` Bravo > 100 Greatest TV Characters '' . Bravo . Archived from the original on July 17 , 2007 . Retrieved November 11 , 2006 . Jump up ^ Wilkinson , Amy ( June 15 , 2009 ) . `` George Clooney -- Paging Dr. Feelgood : 30 Great TV Doctors and Nurses -- Photo 12 of 28 '' . Entertainment Weekly . Time Inc . Retrieved January 24 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The Best TV Doctors For Surgeon General '' . Fox News . Retrieved January 24 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Palan , Erica ( October 11 , 2011 ) . `` 10 Best Doctors on Television '' . Philadelphia Magazine . Retrieved January 24 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Martin , Rebecca ( December 21 , 2012 ) . `` The 10 Hottest Male Doctors on TV '' . Wetpaint . The Cambio Network . Retrieved January 24 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The 16 Hottest Doctors On Television '' . BuzzFeed . September 28 , 2012 . Retrieved January 24 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Potts , Kimberly ( February 11 , 2008 ) . `` Best TV Couples of All Time '' . AOL TV . Aol , Inc . Retrieved September 24 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Couples Pictures , ER Photos - Photo Gallery : The Best TV Couples of All Time '' . TV Guide . Retrieved June 25 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Primetime Emmy nominations for 1995 - Outstanding Lead Actor In A Drama Series '' . Emmys.com . Retrieved January 24 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Primetime Emmy nominations for 1996 - Outstanding Lead Actor In A Drama Series '' . Emmys.com . Retrieved January 24 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The 53rd Annual Golden Globe Awards ( 1996 ) '' . Hollywood Foreign Press Association . Retrieved January 24 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The 54th Annual Golden Globe Awards ( 1997 ) '' . Hollywood Foreign Press Association . Archived from the original on May 21 , 2013 . Retrieved January 24 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The 54th Annual Golden Globe Awards ( 1998 ) '' . Hollywood Foreign Press Association . Retrieved January 24 , 2013 . External links ( edit ) Bio at TNT.com Official ER website at NBC.com ( hide ) ER Characters Main John Carter Kerry Weaver Abby Lockhart Luka Kovač Mark Greene Peter Benton Robert Romano Elizabeth Corday Susan Lewis Greg Pratt Carol Hathaway Neela Rasgotra Samantha Taggart Jing - Mei Chen Archie Morris Doug Ross Jeanie Boulet Tony Gates Cleo Finch Dave Malucci Lucy Knight Anna Del Amico Catherine Banfield Supporting Doctors Nurses Non-medical staff Family members and friends Seasons 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Episodes `` Love 's Labor Lost '' `` On the Beach '' `` The Show Must Go On '' `` Strange Bedfellows '' `` No Place to Hide '' `` There Are No Angels Here '' `` The Gallant Hero and the Tragic Victor '' `` Twenty - One Guns '' `` And in the End ... '' Related Cast Awards and nominations Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doug_Ross&oldid=830265792 '' Categories : ER ( TV series ) characters Fictional physicians Fictional pediatricians Fictional characters introduced in 1994 Hidden categories : Wikipedia articles with plot summary needing attention from October 2007 All Wikipedia articles with plot summary needing attention Articles that may contain original research from January 2008 All articles that may contain original research Articles with multiple maintenance issues Articles with unsourced quotes Talk Contents About Wikipedia Español Français Italiano Magyar Português Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 13 March 2018 , at 19 : 41 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . 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who sings let my love open the door

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Let_My_Love_Open_the_Door&oldid=838422442

Let My Love Open the Door - wikipedia Let My Love Open the Door Jump to : navigation , search `` Let My Love Open the Door '' Single by Pete Townshend from the album Empty Glass B - side `` Greyhound Girl '' Released June 4 , 1980 ( US ) Format 7 '' Recorded March 1980 Genre Art rock , new wave Length 2 : 44 Label Atco Records Songwriter ( s ) Pete Townshend Producer ( s ) Pete Townshend , Chris Thomas Pete Townshend UK singles chronology `` Rough Boys '' ( 1980 ) `` Let My Love Open the Door '' ( 1980 ) `` Keep on Working '' ( 1980 ) `` Rough Boys '' ( 1980 ) `` Let My Love Open the Door '' ( 1980 ) `` Keep on Working '' ( 1980 ) Pete Townshend US singles chronology `` Keep Me Turning '' ( 1977 ) ( with Ronnie Lane ) Keep Me Turning1977 `` Let My Love Open the Door '' ( 1980 ) Let My Love Open the Door1980 `` A Little Is Enough '' ( 1980 ) A Little Is Enough 1980 `` Let My Love Open the Door '' is a song written and performed by Pete Townshend from his 1980 album Empty Glass . It reached the top ten in the United States in that same year , reaching number nine . It reached number five in Canada . Contents ( hide ) 1 Background 2 Chart performance 2.1 Weekly charts 2.2 Year - end charts 3 Personnel 4 Covers 5 List of Films , TV Shows , and Other Media featuring the track 6 References 7 External links Background ( edit ) Although Townshend is a devotee to the religious guru Meher Baba , he claimed in the liner notes of his Anthology CD that `` Jesus sings '' on the track . `` Let My Love Open the Door '' was released as the second single from Empty Glass in Britain , where it was backed with the non-album tracks `` Classified '' and `` Greyhound Girl . '' The song was a minor British hit , reaching # 46 . The song saw more success when it was released as the debut single from Empty Glass in America , where the song reached # 9 . It was Pete Townshend 's only solo top 10 hit on the Billboard Hot 100 , but The Who 's song `` I Can See For Miles , '' which was written by Townshend , reached the same position on the chart 13 years earlier . Initially , Townshend 's manager despised the track due to it `` not sounding like Townshend , '' and wanted it to be removed from Empty Glass . However , upon the song 's chart success , his manager called to apologize . Despite the song 's critical and commercial success , Pete Townshend did not consider it one of his best songs . He told Rolling Stone in an interview that `` Let My Love Open the Door '' was `` just a ditty , '' also claiming that he preferred his minor US hit `` A Little Is Enough '' from the same album . In 1996 , Townshend released a new version of the song , called `` the E. Cola mix '' , turning the song into a ballad . This version appeared in different television shows and film soundtracks . Chart performance ( edit ) Weekly charts ( edit ) Chart ( 1980 ) Peak position Canada RPM 100 5 UK Singles Chart 46 U.S. Billboard Hot 100 9 U.S. Cash Box Top 100 11 Year - end charts ( edit ) Chart ( 1980 ) Rank Canada 35 U.S. Billboard Hot 100 59 U.S. Cashbox 92 Personnel ( edit ) Pete Townshend : vocals , guitars , synths John `` Rabbit '' Bundrick : `` straight '' keyboards Simon Phillips : drums Tony Butler : bass guitar Ted Jensen - mastering engineer Covers ( edit ) A version of this song by Luminate appears on The Covers EP . It was also covered by M. Ward ( for the 2005 Starbucks compilation album , Sweetheart 2005 : Love Songs ) Christian rock group Audio Adrenaline covered this song on their 1999 album Underdog . Natalie Imbruglia covered the song on her album Male released in 2015 . Great Big Sea covered the song on their 2012 album XX . Roger Daltrey covered the song in 2015 for a campaign involving Teen Cancer America and First Citizens Bank . A full version was released in February 2016 , with all proceeds going to Teen Cancer America . The group Rogue Wave also covered it in `` Cover me '' released in 2017 . List of films , TV shows , and other media featuring the track ( edit ) The song has been used frequently in film , most notably the comedy genre , often as trailer music for movies such as Jerry Maguire and How Do You Know , and then as end credit song for Mr. Deeds in 2002 ; Jersey Girl and Along Came Polly , both in 2004 . It was featured in the following films and TV series : Look Who 's Talking ( 1989 ) Grosse Pointe Blank as `` E. Cola Mix '' ( 1997 ) Mr. Deeds ( 2002 ) Jersey Girl as `` E. Cola Mix '' ( 2004 ) Along Came Polly ( 2004 ) Click ( in trailers ) ( 2006 ) Dan in Real Life ( 2007 ) Doctors ( soap opera ) , season 11 , episode 106 ( 2009 ) Old Dogs ( 2009 ) How Do You Know ( in trailers ) ( 2010 ) Take Me Home Tonight as `` E. Cola Mix '' ( 2011 ) Red Dog ( 2011 ) Hit and Run ( 2012 ) The Newsroom ( 2012 ) - cover by Luminate used in the second season finale , `` Election Night , Part II '' ( September 15 , 2013 ) Californication , season 7 , episode 1 ( April 13 , 2014 ) The Goldbergs , season 1 `` Why 're You Hitting Yourself ? '' ( 2013 ) the `` E. Cola Mix '' played at end before credits . Also played in Season 4 , Episode 15 `` So Swayze It 's Crazy '' ( 2017 ) . A cover of the song by Stacey Markus is used at the end of episode nine ( `` The Invitation '' ) of the 2015 Netflix original series Grace and Frankie , starring Jane Fonda and Lily Tomlin . The song is featured in a Walmart Christmas holiday television commercial which started airing in early December 2017 . Lethal Weapon ( TV series ) , season 2 , episode 9 `` Fools Rush In '' play the song performed by `` Rogue wave '' ( 2017 ) . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Unterberger , Richie ( 2012 - 06 - 14 ) . `` Let My Love Open the Door '' . Rolling Stone . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 16 . Jump up ^ `` Pete Townshend , ' Empty Glass ' 100 Best Albums of the Eighties '' . Rolling Stone . 1989 - 11 - 16 . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 16 . ^ Jump up to : Bac-lac.gc.ca ^ Jump up to : `` Let My Love Open the Door '' . Songfacts.com . Jump up ^ `` Pete Townshend UK charts '' . Official Charts . Jump up ^ `` Pete Townshend US charts '' . Billboard . Jump up ^ Joel Whitburn 's Top Pop Singles 1955 - 1990 - ISBN 0 - 89820 - 089 - X Jump up ^ Collectionscanada.gc.ca Archived 2016 - 04 - 25 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Musicoutfitters.com Jump up ^ `` The Covers EP : Various artists : MP3 Downloads '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 16 . Jump up ^ `` Help us open the door to better cancer care # LetMyLoveOpenTheDoor '' . Firstcitizens.com . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 16 . Jump up ^ `` Walmart TV Commercial , ' Christmas Like a Rock Star ' Song by Pete Townshend '' . Ispot.tv . Retrieved December 6 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Leathal Weapon ( TV series ) `` Fools Rush '' Soundtracks ( 2017 ) `` . Imdb.com. 2017 - 05 - 12 . Retrieved 2018 - 03 - 30 . External links ( edit ) Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics ( hide ) Pete Townshend Discography Studio albums Who Came First Rough Mix ( w / Ronnie Lane ) Empty Glass All the Best Cowboys Have Chinese Eyes White City : A Novel The Iron Man : A Musical Psychoderelict Classic Quadrophenia Meher Baba tribute albums ( w / Ronnie Lane et al . ) Happy Birthday I Am With Love O ' Parvardigar Live albums Deep End Live ! ( w / Deep End ) A Benefit for Maryville Academy Live : The Empire Live : Sadler 's Wells Live : The Fillmore The Oceanic Concerts ( w / Raphael Rudd ) Live : La Jolla Playhouse 2001 Pete Townshend Live BAM 1993 Live : Brixton Academy ' 85 Compilations Scoop Another Scoop The Best of Pete Townshend Scoop 3 Scooped Lifehouse Chronicles Lifehouse Elements Anthology Truancy : The Very Best of Pete Townshend Singles `` Let My Love Open the Door '' `` Rough Boys '' `` A Little Is Enough '' `` Keep on Working '' `` Face Dances , Pt. 2 '' `` Face the Face '' `` Give Blood '' `` English Boy '' Other Songs `` Parvardigar '' `` Somebody Saved Me '' `` Slit Skirts '' `` White City Fighting '' `` Fire '' DVDs Lifehouse ( video ) Live In New York Feat . Psychoderelict O Parvardigar Related articles Songs Songs Written Albums Peter Meaden The Who Deep End Tommy ( film ) The Who 's Tommy Tommy ( EP ) Tommy ( soundtrack ) The Boy Who Heard Music Quadrophenia ( musical ) Quadrophenia ( film ) Quadrophenia ( soundtrack ) The Lifehouse Method Horse 's Neck Who I Am Eel Pie Publishing Eel Pie Studios Double O Cliff Townshend Emma Townshend Simon Townshend The Wick Ashdown House , Oxfordshire The Boathouse , Twickenham Chapel House , Twickenham Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Let_My_Love_Open_the_Door&oldid=838422442 '' Categories : 1980 singles Debut singles Pete Townshend songs Songs written by Pete Townshend 1980 songs Atco Records singles Song recordings produced by Pete Townshend British new wave songs Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Music infoboxes with deprecated parameters Articles with hAudio microformats Talk Contents About Wikipedia Čeština Español Euskara Edit links This page was last edited on 26 April 2018 , at 22 : 30 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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who contributed more to the design of skyscrapers

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Early_skyscrapers&oldid=816944886

Early skyscrapers - wikipedia Early skyscrapers Jump to : navigation , search The iconic Flatiron Building , New York City , shortly after its construction in 1903 The early skyscrapers were a range of tall , commercial buildings built between 1884 and 1939 , predominantly in the American cities of New York City and Chicago . Cities in the United States were traditionally made up of low - rise buildings , but significant economic growth after the Civil War and increasingly intensive use of urban land encouraged the development of taller buildings beginning in the 1870s . Technological improvements enabled the construction of fireproofed iron - framed structures with deep foundations , equipped with new inventions such as the elevator and electric lighting . These made it both technically and commercially viable to build a new class of taller buildings , the first of which , Chicago 's 138 - foot ( 42 m ) tall Home Insurance Building , opened in 1885 . Their numbers grew rapidly , and by 1888 they were being labelled skyscrapers . Chicago initially led the way in skyscraper design , with many constructed in the center of the financial district during the late 1880s and early 1890s . Sometimes termed the products of the Chicago school of architecture , these skyscrapers attempted to balance aesthetic concerns with practical commercial design , producing large , square palazzo - styled buildings hosting shops and restaurants on the ground level and containing rentable offices on the upper floors . In contrast , New York 's skyscrapers were frequently narrower towers which , more eclectic in style , were often criticized for their lack of elegance . In 1892 , Chicago banned the construction of new skyscrapers taller than 150 feet ( 46 m ) , leaving the development of taller buildings to New York . A new wave of skyscraper construction emerged in the first decade of the 20th century . The demand for new office space to hold America 's expanding workforce of white - collar staff continued to grow . Engineering developments made it easier to build and live in yet taller buildings . Chicago built new skyscrapers in its existing style , while New York experimented further with tower design . Iconic buildings such as the Flatiron were followed by the 612 - foot ( 187 m ) tall Singer Tower , the 700 - foot ( 210 m ) Metropolitan Life Insurance Company Tower and the 792 - foot ( 241 m ) Woolworth Building . Though these skyscrapers were commercial successes , criticism mounted as they broke up the ordered city skyline and plunged neighboring streets and buildings into perpetual shadow . Combined with an economic downturn , this led to the introduction of zoning restraints in New York in 1916 . In the interwar years , skyscrapers spread to nearly all major U.S. cities , while a handful were built in other Western countries . The economic boom of the 1920s and extensive real estate speculation encouraged a wave of new skyscraper projects in New York and Chicago . New York City 's 1916 Zoning Resolution helped shape the Art Deco or `` set - back '' style of skyscrapers , leading to structures that focused on volume and striking silhouettes , often richly decorated . Skyscraper heights continued to grow , with the Chrysler and the Empire State Building each claiming new records , reaching 1,046 feet ( 319 m ) and 1,250 feet ( 380 m ) respectively . With the onset of the Great Depression , the real estate market collapsed , and new builds stuttered to a halt . Popular and academic culture embraced the skyscraper through films , photography , literature and ballet , seeing the buildings as either positive symbols of modernity and science , or alternatively examples of the ills of modern life and society . Skyscraper projects after World War II typically rejected the designs of the early skyscrapers , instead embracing the international style ; many older skyscrapers were redesigned to suit contemporary tastes or even demolished -- such as the Singer Tower , once the world 's tallest skyscraper . Contents ( hide ) 1 Background : 1850 -- 79 1.1 Commercial and social drivers 1.2 Technological developments 2 Emergence of the skyscraper : 1880 -- 99 2.1 The first skyscraper 2.2 Architectural challenges 2.3 Life in early skyscrapers 2.4 Criticism and reform in Chicago 3 The `` First Great Age '' : 1900 -- 19 3.1 Pre-war boom 3.2 Improvements in construction 3.3 Life in the skyscrapers 3.4 Criticism 3.5 Reform in New York 4 Inter-war period , boom and depression : 1920 -- 39 4.1 Post-war boom 4.2 Art Deco skyscrapers and New York 's set - back style 4.3 Chicago 's towers 4.4 Great Depression 4.5 Skyscraper mania and social commentary 5 Legacy 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links Background : 1850 -- 79 ( edit ) Commercial and social drivers ( edit ) Early skyscrapers emerged in the U.S. as a result of economic growth , the financial organization of American businesses , and the intensive use of land . New York was one of the centers of early skyscraper construction and had a history as a key seaport located on the small island of Manhattan , on the east coast of the U.S. As a consequence of its colonial history and city planning , New York real estate was broken up into many small parcels of land , with few large sites . During the first half of the 19th century it became the national center of American finance , and the banks in the financial district of Wall Street competed fiercely with English institutions for international dominance . The Great Fire of 1835 destroyed most of the old financial buildings , and in their place a wide variety of new buildings were erected and demolished in quick succession during the 1840s and 1850s ; traveler Philip Hone suggested that the entire city was being rebuilt every decade . Most buildings adopted the Italian Renaissance inspired palazzo - style of architecture popular in England , and rose no more than five or six stories . New York did not have any restrictions on the height of buildings , but in practice low - rise buildings were the norm , at least until 1865 , with the tallest buildings being the city 's churches . New York 's population tripled between 1840 and 1870 , and property values soared , increasing by more than 90 percent between 1860 and 1875 . Currier and Ives ' 1874 map of Chicago shows low - rise buildings constructed after the fire of 1871 Further west , the city of Chicago became the other major site in the development of early skyscrapers . In contrast to New York , Chicago emerged as a major metropolis only in the mid-19th century , growing from a village of around fifty inhabitants in 1830 , to a city of 30,000 in 1850 and nearly 300,000 by 1870 . Chicago became the railroad hub for the American West and the primary trading city for the emerging territories , famous for its commercial culture . It saw itself as different from the cities on the east coast and was immensely proud of its status as a growing , vibrant center . By the 1870s , Chicago had become the main financial center for the West , but in October 1871 the Great Chicago Fire destroyed the majority of the wooden structures within city . The city was rebuilt on large plots of land in a new grid network and followed new city ordinances that prohibited construction in wood . These factors encouraged the building of taller properties in new innovative designs , which , like New York , saw a range of businesses and services being packed into single buildings . The construction of taller buildings during the 1870s was hindered by the financial Panic of 1873 and the ensuing economic depression , which lasted until around 1879 . Construction slowed , and property values slumped . By 1880 , however , the recovery was well underway , with new construction in New York returning to the pace of 1871 , and the economic upturn making the construction of taller buildings an attractive financial option again , establishing many of the preconditions for the development of the skyscraper . Technological developments ( edit ) Main article : Skyscraper design and construction The Produce Exchange of 1884 made structural advances in metal frame design . The emergence of skyscrapers was made possible by technological improvements during the middle of the 19th century . One of these developments was the iron framed building . Masonry buildings supported their internal floors through their walls , but the taller the building , the thicker the walls had to become , particularly at the base . In the 1860s , French engineers experimented with using built - up plate girders made of wrought iron to construct buildings supported by internal metal frames . These frames were stronger than traditional masonry and permitted much thinner walls . The methodology was extensively described in engineering journals and was initially used to build warehouses . Using these metal frames for taller buildings , however , meant exposing them to increased wind pressure . As a consequence , protective wind bracing had to be introduced , enabled by the work of Augustin - Jean Fresnel who produced equations for calculating the loads and moments on larger buildings . Metal - framed buildings were also vulnerable to fire and required special fireproofing . French engineers had made advances in this area in the early 19th century , and major breakthroughs came with the work of architect Peter Wight in the 1860s . Spurred on by the catastrophic fires in Chicago in 1871 and Boston in 1872 , his findings were turned into a wide variety of patented fireproofing products during the 1870s . Taller , heavier buildings such as skyscrapers also required stronger foundations than smaller buildings . Earlier buildings had typically rested their foundations on rubble , which was in turn laid down on the soft top layer of the ground called the overburden . As buildings became taller and heavier , the overburden could not support their weight , and foundations increasingly needed to rest directly on the bedrock below . In both New York and Chicago this required digging down a considerable distance through soft soil and often below the water table , risking the hole filling up with water before the foundations were complete . The deeper the foundations needed to be , the greater the challenge . Special water - tight boxes called caissons were invented to deal with this problem in England in 1830 and adopted in the U.S. during the 1850s and 1860s . Early skyscraper caisson foundations , 1898 The development of the elevator was also essential to the emergence of the early skyscrapers , as office buildings taller than around six stories would have been impractical without them . Powered elevators were first installed in England during the 1830s and spread to U.S. factories and hotels by the 1840s . Elevators using hoist ropes , however , could only function effectively in low - rise buildings , and this limitation encouraged the introduction of the hydraulic elevator in 1870 , even though early models contained dangerous design flaws . By 1876 these problems had been resolved , providing a solution for servicing the early skyscrapers . New environmental technologies in heating , lighting , ventilation and sanitation were also critical to creating taller buildings that were attractive to work in . Central heating could not be easily extended to serve larger buildings ; in the 1850s , a system using low - pressure steam and steam - operated fans became adopted in the construction of the later skyscrapers . Many U.S. buildings were lit by gas , but this carried safety risks and was difficult to install in taller buildings . As an alternative , electric lights were installed from 1878 onwards , powered by basement generators . Ventilation was also a challenge , as smoke drifting into offices from the streets and the fumes from the gas lighting made air quality a major health issue . A steam - driven , forced - draft ventilation system was invented in 1860 and became widely used in taller buildings by the 1870s , overcoming much of the problem . Improvements in iron piping permitted running hot and cold water and sanitation facilities to be installed throughout taller buildings for the first time . Emergence of the skyscraper : 1880 -- 99 ( edit ) The first skyscraper ( edit ) Chicago 's Home Insurance Building in 1884 , often considered the world 's first skyscraper There is academic disagreement over which building should be considered the first skyscraper . The term was first used in the 1780s to describe a particularly tall horse , before later being applied to the sail at the top of a ship 's mast , tall hats and bonnets , tall men , and a ball that was hit high into the air . In the 1880s it began to be applied to buildings , first in 1883 to describe large public monuments and then in 1889 as a label for tall office blocks , coming into widespread use over the next decade . Identifying the first `` true skyscraper '' is not straightforward , and various candidates exist depending on the criteria applied . George Post 's New York Equitable Life Building of 1870 , for example , was the first tall office building to use the elevator , while his Produce Exchange building of 1884 made substantial structural advances in metal frame design . The Home Insurance Building in Chicago , opened in 1885 , is , however , most often labelled the first skyscraper because of its innovative use of structural steel in a metal frame design . The Home Insurance Building was a 138 - foot ( 42 m ) tall , 10 - story skyscraper designed by William Le Baron Jenney , who had been trained as an engineer in France and was a leading architect in Chicago . Jenney 's design was unusual in that it incorporated structural steel into the building 's internal metal frame alongside the traditional wrought iron . This frame took the weight of the floors of the building and helped to support the weight of the external walls as well , proving an important step towards creating the genuine non-structural curtain walls that became a feature of later skyscrapers . The design was not perfect -- some of the weight was still carried by masonry walls , and the metal frame was bolted , rather than riveted , together -- but it was clearly a significant advance in tall building construction . The approach quickly caught on in Chicago . In 1889 the Tacoma Building replaced the bolted metal design with a stronger riveted approach , and Chicago 's Chamber of Commerce Building introduced interior light courts to the structural design of skyscrapers . The 1890 Rand McNally Building became in the first entirely self - supporting , steel - framed skyscraper . Some buildings , such as The Rookery and the Monadnock Building , combined elements of both the newer and older styles , but generally Chicago rapidly adopted steel structures as a flexible and effective way to produce a range of tall buildings . Structural engineers specializing in the steel frame design began to establish practices in Chicago . Park Row in New York had several early skyscrapers built for newspaper companies clustered around the City Hall There was a boom in skyscraper construction in Chicago from 1888 onwards . By 1893 , Chicago had built 12 skyscrapers between 16 and 20 stories tall , tightly clustered in the center of the financial district . Chicago 's skyscrapers , however , were constrained by the contemporary limits of steel - frame design and the muddy sub-soil in the city , which together limited most of their skyscrapers to around 16 or 17 stories . Chicago 's skyscrapers rapidly became tourist destinations for the views of the wider city they provided from their upper floors and as attractive sites in their own right . Tourists were advised to hire cabs for street tours of the skyscrapers -- by lying back in the cab , they would be able to safely take in the tops of the tall buildings . The Masonic Temple was the most prominent of these skyscrapers . Built by the Freemasons of Chicago in 1892 , at a time when the Masons was a fast - growing social community , the lavish 302 - foot ( 92 m ) tall skyscraper had 19 stories , the bottom ten holding shops and the higher levels containing the Masons ' private suites and meeting halls , some able to hold up to 1,300 people . At the top was a roof garden and observation gallery . The Freemasons were competing with their local rivals the Odd Fellows , who intended to build a much higher skyscraper , 556 feet ( 169 m ) tall , that they announced would be the tallest building in the world . Newspapers picked up the story , circulating facts about the size of the Temple and making comparison to historical buildings such as the Capitol or the Statue of Liberty . The Odd Fellows project failed , but the Masonic Temple capitalized on the publicity , being declared the `` tallest commercial building in the world '' . In comparison , New York trailed behind Chicago , having only four buildings over 16 stories tall by 1893 . Part of the delay was caused by the slowness of the city authorities to authorize metal - frame construction techniques ; it was not until 1889 that they relented and allowed Bradford Gilbert to construct the Tower Building , an 11 - story iron - framed skyscraper . This encouraged the building of more skyscrapers in New York , although the city remained cautious about the technology for some years . Finally , in 1895 a breakthrough was made with the construction of the American Surety Building , a twenty - story , 303 - foot ( 92 m ) high - steel development that broke Chicago 's height record . From then on , New York thoroughly embraced skeleton frame construction . In particular , New York newspaper companies adopted the skyscraper , building several along Park Row , sometimes termed `` Newspaper Row '' , in the 1880s and 1890s . A few early skyscrapers were also constructed in Baltimore , Boston , Pittsburgh , St. Louis , Rochester , and Buffalo , such as the Wainwright Building , Wilder Building , and Guaranty Building . Early examples on the West Coast include the Old Chronicle Building and the Call Building in San Francisco , as well as the Luzon Building in Tacoma , Washington . Architectural challenges ( edit ) Main articles : Chicago School of Architecture and Architecture of New York City Chicago 's Masonic Temple Building depicted in 1909 , showing the tripartite division of the building 's exterior and the typical Chicago window bays The architects of early skyscrapers faced a number of challenges . The most fashionable architectural style in the late 19th century was the French Beaux - Arts movement , sometimes termed the Italian Renaissance style , which applied Classical aesthetic principles to modern buildings . American architects trained in the Beaux - Arts style at the Parisian Académie des Beaux - Arts began to return home in the 1880s , bringing these ideals and standards with them . Applying contemporary Beaux - Arts standards to early skyscrapers , however , was not straightforward . The buildings that the Beaux - Arts movement influenced were typically much shorter and broader than any skyscraper , and it was difficult to accurately reproduce the style in a tall , narrow building . Skyscrapers were also primarily commercial buildings , and economics as well as aesthetics had to play an important part in their design . The architectural writer Barr Ferree noted in 1893 that `` current American architecture is not a matter of art , but of business . A building must pay , or there will be no investor ready with the money to meet its cost . This is at once the curse and the glory of American architecture . '' George Hill echoed the theme , condemning unnecessary features on the basis that `` every cubic foot that is used for purely ornamental purposes beyond that needed to express its use and to make it harmonize with others of its class , is a waste '' . By the 1890s , Chicago architects were producing a solution to this problem , creating a new architectural style , often termed the `` Chicago school of architecture '' . The school included architects such as Louis Sullivan , William Le Baron Jenney and John Root , whose designs combined architectural aesthetic theory with practical commercial sense . They favoured placing rich , ornate designs on the outside of skyscrapers at the ground level and simpler , plainer ornamentation on the upper levels , with strong vertical lines . The roofs of their skyscrapers typically formed a comprehensible outline and structure when seen at a distance as part of the city skyline . The intent was to draw the observer 's eye upwards , celebrating what Sullivan termed the `` lofty '' nature of the skyscraper , but not wasting resources on intricate detailing unlikely to appeal to a busy businessman . At the same time , the more lavish ground floor designs would make the building stand out to passers - by and pull in the necessary business for a successful commercial building . The New York Times Building in 2012 , showing the multitude of different styles on a single façade typical of the city 's early skyscrapers This community also saw close collaboration between architects , specialist structural engineers , and building contractors emerge on the new skyscraper projects . Historically the industry had been dominated by individuals and small firms who combined the roles of architect and engineer , but this broke down in Chicago during the period , being replaced by a partnership between specialist architects who focused on the appearance of the skyscraper , and specialist engineers who focused on the structures that enabled it to be built . Chicago architectural firms grew to be large , hierarchical and with numerous specialist staff ; the D.H. Burnham & Company , for example , felt like a small factory to visitors , and ultimately expanded to employ 180 staff . The resulting Chicago school produced large , solid - looking skyscrapers , built with a common appearance and to a common height . The result was usually a box - like palazzo , illuminated with a large light court , ideally , if space allowed , in the center . The outside of the building was commonly divided into three parts : a base , middle section and the roof line . This tripartite design was intended both to emulate classical columns , and reflect the functions of the different parts of the skyscraper . The central court could form a simple courtyard , but many companies preferred to roof over the courtyard with glass to produce an atrium for shops and restaurants . Rents for these shops were up to five or six times that for office space , and made an important difference to the income from a property . Chicago skyscraper windows were also a feature of the style ; these were large , fixed windows flanked by smaller sash windows on either side , which provided access to sunlight and adequate ventilation . Sometimes these protruded from the building to form a slight bay . Although the exterior of the Chicago skyscrapers buildings were relatively plain , the entrance ways and lobbies were fitted out in a grand style . The Unity Building , for example , was reported as including `` Numidian , Alps , Green and Sienna marbles ... an artistic screen of glass and bronze ... a marble balcony '' alongside `` Corinthian columns with finely carved capitals , gold - leaf and silver chandeliers , and silver - plated latticework '' on the elevators . The aim was to project a sense of prosperity and solid financial credentials , which in turn would attract tenants willing to pay high rents . For the tenants , such surroundings were good for their own business credibility and affirmed their own social status as professionals . New York faced similar architectural challenges , but in comparison to Chicago , skyscraper architects worked less closely with engineers and other specialists , and instead held strong backgrounds in the Beaux Arts movement and perceived their role to be primarily artistic rather than a partnership with the mechanical arts . Their practices tended to be smaller , resembling atelier style workshops . Structural engineers in New York took longer to build up a strong professional role there , a trend reflected in the lower engineering quality of many early skyscrapers in the city . The New York style emphasized stunning height and a somewhat eclectic use of architectural features from other periods , creating an energetic , flamboyant appearance . Towers were common , making best use of the relatively small plots of land in New York . Some New York skyscrapers emulated the tripartite style of Chicago , but others broke their exterior down into many different layers , each with its own style . Proponents argued that this reintroduced a sense of human proportion to these tall buildings ; critics felt that the results were confusing and ungainly . Life in early skyscrapers ( edit ) Plan of a typical level of the Chicago Stock Exchange Building , 1893 ; A -- court ; B -- hall ; C -- toilet ; D -- barbershop ; E -- vents ; F -- flue ; G -- office , 12 feet ( 3.7 m ) by 19 feet ( 5.8 m ) Early skyscrapers were mainly made up of small office cubicles , commonly only 12 feet ( 3.7 m ) across , which were placed adjacent to one another along long corridors , following a pattern first invented in the Oriel Chambers building in England in 1864 . This allowed the average small company to rent a small amount of space using one or two offices , but held out the option for future expansion by renting additional office cubicles if required at a later date . A skyscraper office relied on natural sunlight from the windows but if necessary was dimly lit from electric desk - top lamps . By the standards of the day , these offices were very modern , with radiators , air vents , and the latest fixtures and fittings , and modern communication systems , including telephone and pneumatic tubes were often installed . As a result , many businesses chose to move out of their older , low - rise offices in Chicago to take up tenancy in the new skyscrapers , which were felt to be more convenient and healthier . The first skyscrapers were mainly occupied by male workers , but this changed during the 1890s , with female employees becoming more common . The percentage of female clerical workers in Chicago , for example , increased from 11 percent in 1880 to 21 percent by 1890 , reaching 30 percent by 1900 . Various moral concerns were raised about men and women mixing in such offices , which were characterized as being masculine spaces , full of tobacco smoke and profanity and therefore unsuitable for women . The new female workers typically worked as typists or stenographers , using the recently invented typewriter , which grew in number in U.S. offices from 146 in 1879 to 65,000 by 1890 . Skyscrapers provided a wide range of in - house services for their tenants , including shops , restaurants , barbers , tobacconists , newsagents , tailors , professional specialists and libraries . Skyscrapers also employed a substantial number of service staff to maintain and support them ; a building such as the Chicago Board of Trade spent 20 percent of its rental revenue on service staff , employing 41 people , including janitors , elevator operators , engineers , and an electrician . With this collection of services and facilities , skyscrapers of the period were often referred to as small cities in their own right . Criticism and reform in Chicago ( edit ) Opposition to Chicago 's skyscrapers began to grow during the late 1880s and early 1890s . Even before the development of the skyscraper , some criticized large buildings in Chicago for dominating churches and private houses , and this sentiment strengthened . Critics complained that the concentration of tall buildings in the center of the city was causing huge congestion , and each new skyscraper was also burning additional coal to power its facilities , together consuming a total of over one million tons each year , leaving smoke and stagnant air hanging over Chicago . Many were concerned over the risk of a major fire breaking out and spreading , uncontrolled , from building to building . Chicago was not alone in having concerns over the growth of the skyscraper . In Boston , the Fiske and the Ames Buildings were built in the late 1880s , 183 ft ( 56 m ) and 190 feet ( 58 m ) tall respectively , but protests by local civic campaigners and the real estate industry resulted in the city passing a law to limit new buildings to a maximum of 123 feet ( 37 m ) , effectively banning the construction of skyscrapers . The cities of Philadelphia , Los Angeles and Washington D.C. similarly introduced height controls to limit skyscraper construction . The decisive factor in favour of change in Chicago , however , was the economic slowdown in the early 1890s , which gave way to the financial panic of 1893 . The recession , combined with the frantic building of the previous few years , meant that Chicago suddenly had a significant surplus of office space , threatening occupancy levels and rents . Regulation was introduced by the city council to control the problem in 1892 , with support from the real estate industry who hoped to slow the construction of additional office space and shore up their diminishing profit margins . The height of new buildings was limited to 150 feet ( 46 m ) , with lower height levels on narrower streets , effectively curtailing the construction of any taller skyscrapers . The `` first Great age '' : 1900 -- 19 ( edit ) Pre-war boom ( edit ) The early years of the 20th century saw a range of technically sophisticated , architecturally confident skyscrapers built in New York ; academics Sarah Landau and Carl Condit term this `` the first great age '' of skyscraper building . Some were relatively conservative buildings in a classical style , such as the Mutual Life , Atlantic Mutual , and Broad Exchange Buildings , all designed by Clinton and Russell . Others broke new ground , including the Flatiron Building which opened in 1903 near Madison Square . The Chicago firm of Daniel Hudsdon Burnham designed the 307 feet ( 94 m ) high , 21 story structure ; the unusually shaped , narrow building needed particularly strong wind bracing , while the facade was richly textured and incorporated stylistic features more common in Chicago . A critical and popular success , the Flatiron was likened to the Parthenon of Ancient Greece and became a New York icon . The construction of the Singer Tower was announced by the company in 1906 , who intended to produce the tallest skyscraper in the world . The company already had several low - rise buildings in New York that the tower would be incorporated into and planned to rent out the bottom half of the tower to tenants to subsidize their use of the upper half . The skyscraper was designed by Ernest Flagg , a Beaux - Arts advocate and noted critic of existing skyscrapers , who justified taking on the project as a way of generating support for skyscraper reform . The design was technically challenging : the tall , narrow tower needed special wind bracing , and the deep bedrock on the site required particularly deep foundations . The tower was faced in dark brick and followed the Beaux - Arts style used by the rest of the complex , with a galleried lobby fitted out in Italian marble . When it opened in 1908 , it had 47 stories and was 612 feet ( 187 m ) tall ; visitors paid $0.50 ( $12 in 2010 terms ) each to use the observation area at the top of the building to see the views . Color postcard of `` The Woolworth Building and City Hall Park , New York City '' around 1913 , when it was the world 's - tallest building The Metropolitan Life Insurance Company Tower was opened in 1909 , the culmination of a long building project by N. LeBrun and Sons to hold Metropolitan Life 's growing headquarters staff , 2,800 strong by 1909 . At 700 feet ( 210 m ) high and with 50 stories , it became the world 's new tallest building . Metropolitan Life intended the skyscraper to promote the company 's image , and the building was surrounded by publicity . The tower featured on the front of prominent magazines such as Scientific American , as well as on the sides of corn flake boxes , coffee packets , and cars . The tower was loosely modeled on the Venician St Mark 's Campanile , and featured extensive Early Renaissance - style detailing , with the more modern additions of huge clock faces , electric floodlights for night - time illumination , and an observation deck at the top . Contemporary architects Everett Waid and Harvey Corbett described how the building had `` the latest ideas in ventilation , air conditioning , sound deadening , artificial lighting , intercommunicating pneumatic tubes , telephones , call bells , unit operating clock systems ( and ) special elevator and escalator installations '' . The design won critical acclaim within the American architectural profession . The construction of the Woolworth Building was announced in 1910 by Frank Woolworth , who wanted to create the largest income - producing property in the U.S. The project grew , and Woolworth finally opted for a 55 - story , 792 - foot ( 241 m ) high skyscraper , the latest tallest building in the world , at a cost of $13.5 million ( $5.1 billion in 2010 terms ) . Architect Cass Gilbert designs included a very high proportion of usable -- and thus rentable -- floor space , with a great deal of light and a flexible floor plan that could be subdivided for different tenants . Up - to - date fittings were installed to encourage a high - class of tenants , including the world 's fastest elevators , safety features , and a swimming pool . Gilbert adopted the Beaux - Arts style , using accented terracotta and glass to emphasis vertical lines , elegantly echoing the structural frame underneath and incorporating 15th and 16th century Flamboyant Gothic - styled features . It was capped by a gilded tower that blended into the sky behind it to produce an illusion of even greater height . The building was illuminated with floodlights at night , topped with red and white flashing lights . It was famously dubbed the `` Cathedral of Commerce '' , rather to Gilbert 's displeasure as he had attempted to avoid copying ecclesiastical architecture . Meanwhile , Chicago 's skyscraper industry also boomed during the decade before World War I . The city 's elevated train network was operating by 1910 , allowing more workers to come into the centre . In 1910 alone 1,500,000 square feet ( 140,000 m ) of new offices were opened and by the end of the decade , Chicago had the second largest number of headquarters offices in the U.S. Chicago architectural firms such as Daniel H. Burnham and then Graham , Anderson , Probst & White continued to design skyscrapers in the palazzo style made popular in the previous decade . Chicago had hosted the World 's Columbian Exposition in 1893 , a massive international event which had excited interest in the themes of classical architecture and well - designed city landscapes . Chicago also had extensive discussions in 1909 about the potential for designing large parts of the city , the Burnham Plan of Chicago . The resulting skyscrapers reflected these debates : the Railway Exchange , the Peoples Gas and the Illinois Continental and Commercial Bank Buildings were each substantial , quarter - block wide palazzo cubes of common height , their facades divided into a classical tripartite design , and sporting classical columns and other features . Despite the apparent uniformity of design , individual buildings varied considerably in the detail of their designs in effort to express their particular identities , the Peoples Gas Building using texture and the Railway Exchange Building white terracotta , for example . Improvements in construction ( edit ) Typical floor of the Flatiron Building The process of building skyscrapers became more sophisticated , starting with the acquisition of the real estate needed for the site . Brokers working on commission would secretly acquire the individual lots of land required for a project , operating under a variety of names to avoid having the price increase once a planned build became known . The properties at the front of the site would typically be bought first , so if news broke of the skyscraper then those owning property at the back of the plot would have little choice but to sell anyway . The funding for skyscraper developments was normally lent by banks , insurance companies , or raised through bonds sold through a specialised bond house , with the latter becoming increasingly popular after World War I . Efforts were made to improve the processes for erecting skyscrapers , largely through the work of general contractors such as Louis Horowitz and Frank Gilbreth , who in turn drew on recent work by efficiency specialist Frederick Taylor . Time schedules were devised for all the work to be undertaken , with costs carefully monitored and reports produced each day . The results were demonstrated on the Woolworth Building construction project , where 1,153 tonnes ( 1,153,000 kg ) of steel were assembled in only six days , a record for the period . Improved windbracing techniques were introduced . The use of pneumatic caissons in skyscraper foundations grew more advanced ; in the construction of the 1908 Manhattan Municipal Building they were successfully sunk 144 feet ( 44 m ) below the surface , with specially conditioned workers operating in shifts with constant medical support . New technologies were also introduced within the buildings . Fast Otis elevators , powered by electricity rather than steam - driven hydraulics , began to be installed in skyscrapers , with Ellithorpe safety air cushions protecting the passengers in the case of failure . Lighting improved , with the recommended levels in 1916 being around twice the level of the 1890s . Nonetheless , skyscrapers still relied primarily on natural sunlight , which required installing large windows and having tall ceilings to allow the sunlight to penetrate the back of the offices ; an office deeper than 28 feet ( 8.5 m ) was not considered a practical design . Life in the skyscrapers ( edit ) Working conditions in the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company Tower , 1910 One of the reasons for the increase in the numbers of skyscrapers during the period was the growth in demand for office workers . In part this demand was fuelled by many U.S firms becoming larger and more complex , and white - collar sectors such as insurance and banking grew in scale . It was also driven by changing technology . The typewriter was joined in the office by the adding machine , the telephone and filing cabinets , all adding to the demand for office space and requiring increasingly specialised workers . Tenants and rental income were essential to the financial success of any skyscraper , as even the largest skyscrapers and those founded by prominent companies rented out much of their office space . Owners could charge significantly more for office space close to the main windows , making it most efficient to build skyscrapers with as much premium office space as possible , even if this cost slightly more to construct in the first instance . As a result , a standard pattern for office units in both New York and Chicago emerged , with either a single rectangular office adjoining an exterior wall , or a `` T '' shaped design , with a reception room giving way to two windowed offices , separated by glass partitions . Skyscrapers usually took on large numbers of relatively small companies as their tenants . A skyscraper such as the Woolworth Tower had around 600 different tenants in 1913 , for example , while a typical tenant might rent four or five office units in a skyscraper . Criticism ( edit ) Alfred Stieglitz 's 1910 work Old and New New York , showing the Vanderbilt Hotel under construction Skyscrapers , particularly those in New York , attracted considerable comment , much of it negative . On his return to New York , writer Henry James condemned the buildings in The American Scene as simply `` giants of the mere market '' , `` mercenary monsters '' doomed to be torn down in turn as other , even larger , buildings took their place . In Chicago the combination of the environmental pollution and skyscrapers meant that , as Charles Warner complained , `` one can scarcely see across the streets on a damp day , and the huge buildings loom up in the black sky in ghostly dimness '' . Wider artistic sentiments varied . Many , like , Alfred Stieglitz harboured mixed feelings over New York 's skyscrapers , reflected in his famous 1903 portrait of the Gridiron building , and his 1910 work Old and New New York that contrasts the growing steel frame of the emerging Vanderbilt Hotel with the old low - rise blocks of the street below . Poets also wrote about the issues , the early Modernist Sadakichi Hartmann describing how `` from the city 's stir and madd'ning roar '' the Flatiron 's `` monstrous shape soars in massive flight '' . Artists such as Alvin Coburn and John Marin experimented with producing portraits of New York 's skyscrapers , capturing the positive and negative aspects of the modern structures . In 1908 artist Harry Pettit produced a romantic interpretation of a future New York , filled with giant skyscrapers supporting aerial bridges and receiving dirigibles from around the globe . Amongst the architectural community , the Exposition in Chicago inspired many in America to champion designing cities that had a unified design , in which each building had unique features but elegantly complemented its neighbours , typically by being built to a common height : `` horizontal visual unity '' . In the aftermath of the Exposition , many of these advocates joined with the Beaux - Arts movement to form the City Beautiful movement , proposing low - rise cities with wide boulevards , built in a classical style . These critics condemned New York 's skyscrapers , Montgomery Schuyler describing how they had produced a `` horribly jagged sierra '' of a city skyline and complaining that no modern skyscraper had turned out to be an architectural success . Charles Lamb argued that the skyscraper impinged on the rights of the rest of the city by destroying the collective appearance of an urban area . Some architects , such as Charles McKim and Stanford White refused to work on such projects altogether . Reform in New York ( edit ) Calls were made in New York for legislation to prevent the growth of skyscrapers , citing their effect on the city skylines , but these attempts faced legal obstacles . The United States Constitution did not give local government authority to prevent the buildings on the grounds of aesthetics alone , and any such law in New York was considered likely to face judicial challenge . Others argued that legal reform of skyscraper construction was needed for public health and safety reasons , an area in which U.S. law was normally more supportive of state intervention . The risk of fire was one concern ; while skyscrapers might be relatively fireproof , their height made conventional fire - fighting difficult . Architect Charles Bragdon considered a large scale , devastating high - rise fire to be inevitable if regulation was not forthcoming . The Baltimore fire of 1904 was widely cited as an example of this risk and , although Baltimore had few high rise buildings , city lawyers argued that the taller buildings had caused the flames to spread through the city during the blaze . Baltimore subsequently passed a law in 1904 , banning buildings higher than 70 feet ( 21 m ) . Other campaigners argued that skyscrapers were compromising access to light and air , noting that when tall buildings rose straight up from the sidewalk , they cast long shadows across the street , preventing healthy sunlight from reaching smaller buildings below . The Equitable Building in 2011 , showing the effect of pre-zoning skyscrapers when seen from the sidewalk Early attempts by Ernest Flagg to limit the height of New York 's skyscrapers in 1896 failed ; further unsuccessful attempts followed between 1906 and 1908 , and legislation was turned down again in 1909 , partially because of pressure from the real estate industry . After 1913 , however , the property market in New York entered a recession , and vacancy levels in buildings began to rise . The campaign for change was helped by the construction of the Equitable Building in 1915 at the estimated cost of $29 million ( $10.9 billion in 2010 terms ) , which rapidly became infamous as its vast height and bulk blocked views and cast neighbours into permanent shade . The real estate industry finally ceased its objections to new legislation , and the 1916 Zoning Resolution was passed . The details of the legislation were largely the work of architect George Ford . Ford had sympathies with the City Beautiful movement , disliked the unimaginative form of many New York skyscrapers , and had concerns over urban public health , but he also found tall buildings exciting and believed that horizontal visual unity produced boring architecture . As a consequence of Ford 's influence , New York 's laws were relatively complex and divided up the city into different zones ; in each zone , a particular zoning envelope applied , controlling the height to which buildings could be built . Typically a building could only rise up from the sidewalk vertically by around 100 feet ( 30 m ) , after which the building had to be set back at a set angle to allow sunlight to reach the street below . On a quarter of the site , however , the owner could build as high as they wished , without any further restrictions . Inter-war period , boom and Depression : 1920 -- 39 ( edit ) Post-war boom ( edit ) The Kavanagh Building , Buenos Aires , in 2009 A real estate boom occurred in the U.S. after the end of the First World War , with a particular surge in the construction of new skyscrapers between 1925 and 1931 . In New York , a quarter of the financial district was rebuilt between 1928 and 1931 , with 17,000,000 square feet ( 1,600,000 m ) of new office space added between 1925 and 1929 alone . In Chicago , limited wartime construction created supply shortages , and rent levels rose in response by around 100 percent between 1919 and 1924 . This level of potential profits encouraged an explosion of new building projects in the city . The boom inflated prices in the real estate market , leading to speculative financing and building projects , including the introduction of 100 percent mortgages for new builds . An early edition of the Fortune magazine commented wryly that `` all a man needs to own a skyscraper is the money and the land . And he may be able to get along without the money . '' Skyscrapers continued to grow in height throughout the 1920s . In part this was the result of improvements in technology : steel - frame structures had become increasingly efficient , while improvements in elevator design made taller buildings easier to ascend . Commercial factors were at work too , as growing commercial demand pushed up rents , enabling taller projects , while the higher offices attracted more sunlight , permitting the charging of premium rents . The tallest buildings could also acquire publicity for their owners , in turn making it easier to find and keep the best tenants . Furthermore , the higher the cost of the underlying real estate , the taller a building needed to be to generate a suitable return on the investment , and the minimum sensible commercial height for a skyscraper project grew to between 40 and 45 stories . 70 story skyscrapers became relatively common , although an influential 1930 study demonstrated that the best rate of return on a skyscraper was to build it 63 stories high , returning an annual profit of 10.25 percent . Main entrance to Cleveland 's Terminal Tower in 2012 Skyscrapers continued to spread both across the U.S. and internationally . New York and Chicago remained the center of skyscraper development , but most major cities in the U.S. had built skyscrapers by 1929 , frequently as a result of competition between rival cities for status and investment . Cincinnati built the Cincinnati Towers in 1914 , followed by the Carew Tower Complex in 1930 . In Detroit , the General Motors Building opened in 1920 and the Fisher Building in 1928 . Cleveland acquired the Union Trust Building in 1923 and the Terminal Tower in 1929 ; the latter , built by the Van Sweringen brothers , was , for a short period , the second tallest building in the world . Seattle had built Smith Tower in 1914 , and the Los Angeles local government granted itself an exemption from city planning restrictions in order to build the Los Angeles City Hall in 1928 . In 1928 , the Industrial Trust Tower was built in Providence . Skyscrapers were also built in other developed countries , although reaching nowhere near the level of construction seen in the U.S. This was partially the result of a lack of funding but also because of local architectural preferences . European cities including London and Paris had laws to ban tall buildings , but elsewhere skyscrapers began to appear , including Toronto 's Imperial Bank of Commerce Building , Antwerp 's Boerentoren and Buenos Aires ' Kavanagh Building . Many other European skyscrapers were proposed in a frenzy of excited planning , although few materialised . Soviet Russia began the construction of the 1,365 - foot ( 416 m ) Palace of the Soviets in the late 1930s , in the Socialist Classicism style , which would have become the tallest building in the world , but war intervened and the skyscraper was never completed . In the post-war years , this style resulted in the monumental Seven Sisters of Moscow building . The technology used in constructing skyscrapers continued to develop . Time was increasingly a factor in the projects , and architects and their specialist teams developed faster ways to design and construct the buildings to minimise the interest payments during construction and hasten the arrival of rental income . By 1930 , skyscrapers were being erected in just 12 months by teams of workers totalling 5,000 men , with four floors being assembled in a typical week . Building skyscraper towers involved some adaption of engineering techniques , as effectively two different buildings were being designed -- the base and the tower -- which needed to be efficiently linked using elevators and other service facilities . Most new offices settled around a standard size , 9 feet ( 2.7 m ) wide by 20 to 30 ft ( 6.1 to 9.1 m ) deep , depending on the height of the ceiling , with multiple small windows considered better than a few larger ones . The output of electric lighting continued to improve , although this began to give off excessive heat within the offices . Air conditioning was first installed in a few skyscrapers during the 1930s . Art Deco skyscrapers and New York 's set - back style ( edit ) The Bank of Manhattan Trust Building in 2010 , showing the setback style During the 1920s and 1930s many skyscrapers were designed in an Art Deco style . This architectural approach typically combined what Carol Willis terms an `` aesthetic of simple , sculptural mass '' with the use of rich colour and ornamentation on the surfaces of the buildings . The aim was to call attention to the increasingly complex three - dimensional shape of the skyscraper , in contrast to earlier styles which could be critiqued , as historian Larry Ford suggests , as being merely `` short buildings made taller with additional stories '' . Windows were de-emphasised in favour of creating a strong sense of shape and mass , the surrounding walls treated as textured fabric , dressing the building underneath . Skyscrapers of this period typically lost their ornamental horizontal divisions , being broken up by physical changes in their shape as one looked up the building , the whole forming a striking silhouette . In New York , the 1916 act to allow light and air to reach the streets encouraged a stepped or ziggurat approach to skyscraper design ; this `` set - back '' style often made unrestricted use of the 25 percent of the site allowed by law to complete with a very tall tower . This encouraged a diversity of buildings , while maintaining an element of harmony and consistency of style . The Paramount Building and 120 Wall Street , for example , were constructed in the set - back style without towers , partially because the limited size of the sites would have made the towers relatively narrow and -- when packed with the necessary elevators and service facilities -- economically unviable . Many other skyscrapers built on larger or more expensive plots opted for the tallest towers possible , including the $24 million ( $3.8 billion in 2010 terms ) Bank of Manhattan Trust Building and the City Bank - Farmers Trust Company Building . New York continued its lead in tall skyscrapers throughout the period ; in 1920 it had ten times the number of tall buildings than its nearest rival Chicago . Some New York skyscrapers complemented traditional , cubicle offices linked by corridors , with larger , more open - plan spaces called `` general offices '' . These maximised the number of workers that could fitted into a given space and provided for greater flexibility . Expensive corporate suites were also created during the 1930s , especially on Wall Street , typically on the highest levels of the buildings . These were used by the corporate executives and were usually lavishly outfitted in a range of traditional and exotic styles . The lobbies of these skyscrapers remained grand affairs , although some banks now eschewed renting out space to shops and restaurants in favour of a more exclusive atmosphere . The largest skyscrapers held up to 16,000 workers , although between 5,000 and 10,000 was more common , and the buildings held a wide range of services to support them , including beauty salons , private luncheon clubs , chiropodists and gymnasiums . A skyscraper such as the Cities Service Building directly employed over 200 staff to manage and protect the property . The technology within the offices also grew still more sophisticated , with dictating , automatic typing and tabulating machines being used by teams of ever more specialised office workers . Chicago 's towers ( edit ) The Tribune Tower was one of the most famous buildings of the 1920s . Chicago altered its laws in the 1920s to allow towers to be built as part of its skyscrapers . In 1920 , the maximum building height in Chicago was increased to 260 feet ( 79 m ) , and unoccupied structures on a building , such as ornamental towers , were allowed to extend up to 400 feet ( 120 m ) high . Additional changes came in 1923 , with taller occupied towers being permitted for the first time , but subject to controls on overall volumes . The main building of a skyscraper could be up to 264 feet ( 80 m ) tall , and a tower could be built on up to 25 percent of the lot , but the tower could not have a volume of more than a sixth of the main block . In practice , this meant that a tower could not be built more than around 20 stories tall in a typical Chicago skyscraper development . Initially , Chicago still preferred palazzo - styled buildings with large light courts in the centre , because they remained the most profitable designs . The Wrigley Building , built under the 1920 law , demonstrated the effect of two ornamental towers on top of a skyscraper . Under the revised law , the Straus Building and the Pittsfield Building took the palazzo design and added somewhat stunted towers on top in the early 1920s , producing profitable buildings . One of the period 's most famous buildings , the Tribune Tower , emerged from a competition held by the Tribune Company in 1922 to celebrate its 75th anniversary . The newspaper was one of the largest in the world and used the competition , in which members of the public were invited to influence the design of the skyscraper , to build a loyal following amongst its readership and generate free publicity . The final design was determined by a competition panel largely made up of the company 's appointees , who chose John Howells and Raymond Hood 's tower design . The resulting tower was a conservative , Gothic design and controversy about the decision broke out almost immediately : Louis Sullivan and many others criticized Howells and Hood 's design as being derivative of the Woolworth Tower . Regardless of its critics , the Tribune received as many as 20,000 visitors to its observation gallery when it opened in 1925 . The unbuilt second - place entry in the competition , a more simplified stepped - back design by Eliel Saarinen , also proved highly influential . The popularity of the older style then began to wane in favor of a greater emphasis on towers . One common way of building these within Chicago 's laws was to build a square main block with a central service core , and then simply place a tower on the top ; the more massive the main block , the taller the tower could be . The Trustees System Service Building and the Foreman State National Bank Building form good examples of this approach . Alternatively , the front of the main block could be recessed , as at the Chicago Civic Opera Building or the LaSalle - Wacker Building , sacrificing volume but producing the visual effect of two high wings flanking a very tall tower . The distinctive New York `` setback '' style was not adopted in Chicago , the only example of the style being the Palmolive Building on North Michigan Avenue . Great Depression ( edit ) The Empire State Building in 2007 The boom in skyscraper construction began to falter following the Wall Street Crash of 1929 , with fast economic growth giving way to the slump years of the Great Depression : construction of all sorts slowed considerably . The real estate market that lay behind new skyscraper builds collapsed , and the value of many properties dropped dramatically : the American Insurance Union tower cost $8 million ( $1.2 billion in 2010 terms ) to build in 1927 , but was valued at only $3.5 million ( $900 million ) by 1933 ; the Bank of Manhattan Trust Building defaulted on its debts in 1935 and was put on sale for just $1.2 million ( $240 m ) . The major bond house of S.W. Straus , behind many successful developments , defaulted on the $214 million ( $47 billion ) in bonds held by 60,000 investors ; the Van Swerigan developer brothers went bankrupt . Vacancy rates began to increase as the recession bit , increasing from only one percent in central New York in early 1920 to 17 percent in 1931 and 25 percent by 1934 . In the face of the recession , some skyscrapers projects were canceled or scaled back . Plans by the Metropolitan Life company to build a 100 - story skyscraper alongside their existing tower had been put forward in 1929 , but were shelved in the face of the recession and public criticism of such expenditure in the economic climate . Instead the first phase of the project , known as the North Building ended up only 32 stories high in 1932 and the building , even at this height , was only fully completed in 1950 . In many other cases , projects which had already been commissioned continued through to completion . This resulted in 26,000,000 square feet ( 2,400,000 m ) of new office space being added to New York between 1931 -- 34 even after the start of the recession , adding to the problem of underoccupancy . Some of these buildings , however , became iconic structures , pushing the limits of skyscraper height sharply upwards . The Chrysler Building was completed in 1930 , just after the Depression began to affect the industry . Architect William Van Alen competed with the designers of the Bank of Manhattan Trust Building to produce the tallest building in the world and famously erected the Chrysler spire in a last - minute , secret move in order to acquire the title for his own 69 - story , 1,046 - foot ( 319 m ) tall building . The exterior was built of white and grey brick , but metal was used extensively to ornament it further , including gargoyles , nickel - chrome eagles ' heads , and a winged helmet of Mercury . The entrance used black granite to contrast with the nickel - chrome windows , and the foyer gave way to red marble and a mural ceiling . The design of each part of the building was individualist and distinct , with even each elevator different in design . A Chrysler showroom was placed on the first floor of the building and an observation deck and the exclusive `` Cloud Club '' on the upper levels . The Rockefeller Center at night , 1933 The Empire State Building originated from a 1928 project to redevelop the Waldorf - Astoria Hotel into a 50 - story mixed - use development ; the purchase of the site for $14 million ( $2.1 billion ) set a record in New York for the year . John Raskob and Pierre du Pont entered into the project as financial backers , and concluded that the project would be more profitable if the site was used to build an extremely tall 80 - story skyscraper instead . Although revised financial estimates suggested that the height should be cut back , the caché of having the world 's tallest building was considerable , and instead an additional five stories were added to ensure the building , at 1,050 feet ( 320 m ) , would be slightly taller than the Chrysler building . An observation deck was built to attract tourists , which proved to be a valuable source of revenue . The limestone , granite , and aluminium skyscraper was specially designed to be easily erected , with standardized paneling and structural fittings , and was completed in only 18 months , opening in 1931 . Due to the recession , however , it was only 25 percent occupied throughout the 1930s and ran at a loss ; critics dubbed it the `` Empty State Building '' . The Rockefeller Center had originally been intended by John D. Rockefeller , Jr. to be a new location for the Metropolitan Opera House , but the Stock Market Crash brought an end to the scheme . Rockefeller decided to develop a large office center instead , taking advantage of the low construction costs during the recession . At the center of the development was the RCA Building , heavily influenced by architect Raymond Hood . The long , slab - like RCA had two distinct axes -- from one side , it appeared to be a narrow tower , from the other it rose like a sheer wall . Not only was the structure highly distinctive , but it was also economically very effective . The design maximized the available light to the offices and eliminated any darker internal rooms , as the core of the building was entirely taken up with elevators and other engineering services . It took until 1940 before all of the building had been filled by tenants . In Chicago , the final pre-war skyscraper was built in 1934 . The Field Building was commissioned during the final boom years of the inter-war economy , and the Home Insurance Building -- the first skyscraper , built in 1884 -- was demolished to make way for the `` wing and tower '' - style development . Skyscraper mania and social commentary ( edit ) Berenice Abbott 's depiction of changing Manhattan , 1936 ; Cunard Building ( r ) Public interest in skyscrapers increased during the 1920s , particularly after the Tribune competition . The competition drawings were circulated on display , with 25,000 people coming to see them in Chicago in just one month . In the aftermath , images of skyscrapers flourished across American culture , commencing what historian Merrill Schleier dubbed a `` skyscraper mania '' . The `` Titan City '' exhibition in 1925 celebrated existing skyscraper and featured futuristic murals by Harvey Corbett and Hugh Ferriss , depicting the skyscraper at the heart of the `` City of the Future '' . Charles Sheeler and Paul Strand 's 1921 short film Manhatta explored the form , ending with a sunset shot from the top of a skyscraper . Authors such as Janet Flanner , John Dos Passos and Mary Borden wrote novels with skyscrapers as important motifs or settings . John Carpenter produced a ballet on the theme . Paul Frankl designed a range of popular `` skyscraper furniture '' . Much of this commentary was positive , reflecting an optimism about technology and the direction of urban life in general . Skyscrapers were seen as an expression of rational engineering , the perfect buildings for mankind to live in , as celebrated in artist Louis Lozowick 's lithographs . Some other proponents of skyscrapers likened them to medieval cathedrals , symbols of the modern age . Poems depicted skyscrapers as objects of sublime , rational beauty , Ferris describing them as `` buildings like crystals , walls of translucent glass , sheer glass blocks sheathing a steel grill '' . At Chicago 's Century of Progress exposition in 1933 , skyscrapers and technology were portrayed as a solution for America 's current and future problems . The French - Swiss architect Le Corbusier acclaimed New York in 1935 as being `` overwhelming , amazing , exciting , violently alive '' , but went on to complain that there were still too few skyscrapers , and those that had been built were not yet tall enough . Lewis Hine , employed to record the building of the Empire State Building , portrayed the skyscraper construction teams as courageous heroes , creating a genre of photography that continued up until 1941 . A worker constructing the Empire State Building in 1930 , overlooking the Chrysler Building in the background ( r ) , by Lewis Hine Their critics expressed concerns about the effect of modern technology and urban living on the human condition , arguing that skyscrapers generated pollution and noise , and imposed a regimented and dehumanising lifestyle on the people that worked in them . Social commentator Lewis Mumford reflected the concerns of many in his critiques entitled Is the Skyscraper Tolerable ? and The Intolerable City . Political theorist Stefan Hirsch condemned the buildings as `` bandages covering the sky , stifling our breath '' . Inventor Thomas Edison expressed fears that an uncontrolled expansion of skyscrapers would result in overcrowding and disaster . Artist Howard Cook 's engravings critiqued the oppressive character of the new skyscrapers as they loomed over the traditional city . Berenice Abbott 's photographic studies of New York in the 1930s explored the complex theme of urban change and the effect of skyscrapers on the older ways of life in the city , echoing Steigler 's work in the first decade of the century . Hollywood used skyscrapers extensively in popular films . The Skyscrapers of New York in 1906 became the first of many , and in the 1920s Harold Lloyd produced his five `` skyscraper films '' , most prominently Safety Last ! , in which the hero dangles from a clock on the side of a Los Angeles building . In these early silent movies , skyscrapers were closely associated with masculine identity ; Lloyd 's climbing of skyscrapers closely associated with his characters ' transformation from young men into mature adults , and the winning of the heroine . The 1933 film King Kong included another iconic use of the early skyscraper in its final scenes , as the giant ape scaled the Empire State Building shortly before his death ; the scene can be interpreted as contrasting natural instinct with the insensitive rationality of the modern building and wider New York . Legacy ( edit ) The West Street Building in 1988 , overshadowed by the modernist World Trade Center Skyscraper development paused during the years of the Second World War . Once development began again in the 1950s and 1960s , the skyscraper entered a different phase of development , usually called the international or modern period . Some experimental designs in this style had been built in the U.S. using European architectural concepts in the early 1930s , most notably the Philadelphia Savings Fund Society and McGraw - Hill Buildings . Post-war , their modernist themes were used in a new generation of skyscrapers . These stood alone on individual plots in the fashion of the Rockefeller Centre 's RCA building , rather than as part of a row of buildings , forming huge slabs and towers featuring huge glass façades , breaking with earlier skyscraper traditions . Inside , new technologies such as fluorescent lighting and widespread air - conditioning meant that many older architectural features such as light courts and operable windows were unnecessary . The trend had substantial implications for many early skyscrapers . Some were redesigned to fit new tastes . Much of the ornate detail was removed from the Metropolitan Life Tower in the 1960s , for example , to fit contemporary , plainer fashions . Many older skyscrapers could not be adapted , however , as they lacked the physical depth to build larger modern offices or the space for new service facilities . Some were demolished to make way for new , larger structures . Amongst these was the Singer Tower , demolished in 1968 and replaced by the international style United States Steel Building . In the 21st century , buildings such as 90 West Street have been renovated as upmarket housing , partially because of their extensive windows and access to sunlight . Critical discussion of early skyscrapers began from the 1880s onwards in the architectural community and continued across a growing cultural and academic community in the inter-war period . In 1930 , the terms the Chicago `` school '' and `` movement '' began to be used for the first time , popularised by the 1940s academics Sigfried Giedion and Carl Condit as a label for the early Chicago architects . They regarded skyscrapers as the early forerunners of modernism and as marking a clear break with earlier architectural forms in the U.S. This interpretation of Chicago 's skyscrapers was later challenged by Robert Bruegmann and Daniel Bluestone , who argued that it underplayed the links of the movement to pre-existing Chicago culture . During the 1980s and 1990s , analysis of the early skyscrapers increasingly shifted away from the architects and architecture of the individual buildings to considerations of skyscrapers ' roles in the wider urban context . Histories stressing the social , economic , and cultural dimension of skyscrapers began to be produced , with New York 's skyscrapers receiving greater attention than before . The Skyscraper Museum -- the first to address the theme -- was founded in New York in 1997 by historian Carol Willis to preserve the history of the skyscraper . See also ( edit ) List of early skyscrapers History of the tallest buildings in the world Architecture of the United States Skyscrapers Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Despite this work on wind pressure , up until the late 1890s it was still , incorrectly , believed that wide skyscrapers did not need wind bracing . Jump up ^ Sources during the period covered by this article often vary in their calculation of how many stories an early skyscraper had , depending on how they were counted and what material the writer drew on . Jump up ^ Despite the positive publicity at the time , the stores in the Masonic Temple had mostly failed by 1897 . Jump up ^ Although often being referred to as the `` Chicago school of architecture '' it is unclear if there was an organised body of architectural thought in Chicago during the period and the views of individual architects varied on many issues . Jump up ^ Metropolitan Life valued the free publicity surrounding its skyscraper building at over $440,000 ( $198 million in 2010 terms ) . Jump up ^ Prices in this article are given in US dollars throughout . Equivalent modern prices have been given in 2010 US dollars to two significant figures . The equivalent prices of modern goods and services -- such as entry costs to skyscrapers -- have been calculated using the Consumer Price Index ( CPI ) . The CPI is not reliable for comparing the value of capital investment projects -- such as the cost or value of early skyscrapers -- over time , and these have been calculated using the relative share of GDP index . Jump up ^ The definition of architectural styles is usually imprecise . `` Art Deco '' was often termed `` moderne '' during the 1920s , and historians such as Daniel Abramson draw further contrast between styles during the period that stressed traditional , often Gothic features ; classic Art Deco styles ; and more minimalist versions towards the end of the period . Jump up ^ In 1895 , there were 15 well - defined roles in U.S. offices , with generalised labels such as clerks , office boys and bookkeepers ; by 1922 increased specialisation meant that this had risen to 22 , and by 1940 over a hundred distinct roles existed , including accountants , auditors , payroll clerks , stenographers , receptionists , machine operators and file clerks . Jump up ^ Put on sale for $1.2 million , the Bank of Manhattan Trust Building was valued at less than the original cost of its elevators . Skyscraper values during the Depression years should be seen against a context of deflation and a shrinking economy . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Condit 1968 , p. 114 Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , p. 135 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 36 Jump up ^ Severini 1983 , p. 55 Jump up ^ Severini 1983 , pp. 39 -- 40 , 79 ; Schleier 1986 , p. 24 Jump up ^ Severini 1983 , p. 57 ; Abramson 2001 , p. 10 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 34 ; Goldberger 1985 , p. 4 ; Ford 2005 , p. 20 Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , pp. 1 -- 2 Jump up ^ Bluestone 1991 , p. 3 Jump up ^ Cronon 1992 , p. 68 ; Bluestone 1991 , p. 1 Jump up ^ Condit 1968 , p. 121 Jump up ^ Cronon 1992 , p. 345 ; Schleier 1986 , p. 5 ; Bluestone 1991 , p. 112 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 36 ; Cronon 1992 , p. 346 Jump up ^ Cronon 1992 , p. 346 ; Bluestone 1991 , p. 114 Jump up ^ Cronon 1992 , p. 346 ; Landau & Condit 1996 , p. 35 Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , p. 18 Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , pp. 18 , 109 Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , p. 109 Jump up ^ Condit 1968 , pp. 114 -- 115 ; Landau & Condit 1996 , p. 18 Jump up ^ Schleier 1986 , p. 5 Jump up ^ Condit 1968 , pp. 116 -- 117 ^ Jump up to : Landau & Condit 1996 , pp. 21 -- 22 ^ Jump up to : Landau & Condit 1996 , p. 23 ^ Jump up to : Condit 1968 , p. 125 Jump up ^ Condit 1968 , pp. 116 ^ Jump up to : Landau & Condit 1996 , p. 24 Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , pp. 27 -- 30 ^ Jump up to : Landau & Condit 1996 , pp. 23 -- 24 ^ Jump up to : Landau & Condit 1996 , p. 35 ; Abramson 2001 , p. 84 Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , p. 36 Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , pp. 36 -- 37 ; Ford 2005 , p. 21 Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , pp. 30 -- 31 Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , p. 30 ^ Jump up to : Landau & Condit 1996 , p. 38 ^ Jump up to : Landau & Condit 1996 , p. 32 Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , pp. 33 -- 34 Jump up ^ Schleier 1986 , p. 5 ; Condit 1968 , p. 114 Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , p. ix Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , pp. ix -- x ; Condit 1968 , p. 115 Jump up ^ Goldberger 1985 , p. 23 Jump up ^ Condit 1968 , pp. 116 -- 117 ; Goldberger 1985 , p. 23 Jump up ^ Schleier 1986 , p. 5 ; Condit 1968 , p. 115 ; Ford 2005 , p. 22 Jump up ^ Condit 1968 , pp. 123 -- 124 ; Goldberger 1985 , p. 22 Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , pp. xiv -- xv Jump up ^ Condit 1968 , pp. 124 -- 125 ^ Jump up to : Condit 1968 , p. 126 Jump up ^ Condit 1968 , p. 127 Jump up ^ Fenske 2005 , p. 20 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 5 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 50 ; Bluestone 1991 , p. 112 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 52 Jump up ^ Bluestone 1991 , pp. 114 -- 115 ^ Jump up to : Bluestone 1991 , p. 145 Jump up ^ Wolner 2005 , p. 101 Jump up ^ Wolner 2005 , pp. 108 , 113 Jump up ^ Wolner 2005 , pp. 103 -- 104 , 106 Jump up ^ Wolner 2005 , pp. 108 , 110 Jump up ^ Wolner 2005 , p. 114 Jump up ^ Wolner 2005 , p. 112 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 50 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 9 ; Condit 1968 , p. 118 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 9 ; Condit 1968 , p. 119 ^ Jump up to : Condit 1968 , p. 119 Jump up ^ Gray 2005 , pp. 95 -- 96 Jump up ^ Ford 2005 , p. 25 ; Revell 2005 , p. 43 ; refs for buildings needed . Jump up ^ Tobriner 2006 , pp. 86 -- 90 Jump up ^ Gallacci & Karabaich 2009 , p. 42 ^ Jump up to : Landau & Condit 1996 , p. 185 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , pp. 14 -- 15 Jump up ^ Ferree 1893 , p. 231 cited Willis 1995 , p. 15 Jump up ^ Hill 1904 , p. 313 cited Willis 1995 , p. 15 ^ Jump up to : Willis 1995 , p. 11 Jump up ^ Bluestone 1991 , pp. 105 -- 106 ; Willis 1995 , p. 11 ; Goldberger 1985 , p. 21 Jump up ^ Bluestone 1991 , pp. 143 -- 144 ; Bragdon 2003 , p. 158 Jump up ^ Bluestone 1991 , pp. 143 -- 144 ; Bragdon 2003 , p. 158 ; Root , p. 71 , cited Bluestone 1991 , p. 115 Jump up ^ Bluestone 1991 , pp. 144 -- 145 ^ Jump up to : Fenske 2005 , p. 21 Jump up ^ Fenske 2005 , pp. 26 -- 27 Jump up ^ Fenske 2005 , p. 24 ^ Jump up to : Willis 1995 , p. 23 Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , pp. 185 -- 186 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 57 ^ Jump up to : Willis 1995 , p. 58 Jump up ^ Bluestone 1991 , p. 135 Jump up ^ Bluestone 1991 , p. 119 Jump up ^ Flinn 1893 , p. 197 cited Bluestone 1991 , p. 119 ; Bluestone 1991 , p. 119 Jump up ^ Bluestone 1991 , p. 123 Jump up ^ Bluestone 1991 , pp. 123 -- 138 Jump up ^ Fenske 2005 , p. 25 Jump up ^ Fenske 2005 , p. 27 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , pp. 11 -- 12 ; Goldberger 1985 , p. 26 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , pp. 23 , 40 Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , p. 186 Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , pp. 184 -- 186 ^ Jump up to : Ford 2005 , p. 24 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 24 ^ Jump up to : Bluestone 1991 , pp. 128 , 132 Jump up ^ Fine 2005 , pp. 64 -- 65 , 69 Jump up ^ Fine 2005 , pp. 68 -- 70 Jump up ^ Fine 2005 , p. 73 ^ Jump up to : Bluestone 1991 , p. 141 ^ Jump up to : Bluestone 1991 , p. 150 Jump up ^ Bluestone 1991 , pp. 5 , 150 ^ Jump up to : Revell 2005 , p. 43 Jump up ^ Ford 2005 , p. 31 ^ Jump up to : Bluestone 1991 , p. 150 ; Willis 1995 , p. 9 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 9 Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , pp. 298 , 395 Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , pp. 288 -- 399 Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , p. 301 Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , pp. 302 -- 304 Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , pp. 302 -- 304 ; Goldberger 1985 , p. 38 Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , pp. 354 -- 355 Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , p. 355 ^ Jump up to : Fenske 2005 , p. 22 ^ Jump up to : Landau & Condit 1996 , p. 357 Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , pp. 359 -- 361 Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , p. 354 Jump up ^ Moudry 2005b , pp. 120 -- 125 ; Landau & Condit 1996 , p. 361 Jump up ^ Moudry 2005b , pp. 123 -- 125 Jump up ^ Moudry 2005b , pp. 125 -- 126 ^ Jump up to : Moudry 2005b , pp. 126 -- 127 Jump up ^ Moudry 2005b , p. 125 ; Landau & Condit 1996 , pp. 361 , 364 -- 366 Jump up ^ Waid & Corbett 2003 , p. 277 Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , pp. 366 -- 367 Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , pp. 381 -- 382 Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , pp. 381 -- 382 ; Goldberger 1985 , p. 42 Jump up ^ `` Seven Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a US Dollar Amount -- 1774 to Present '' . MeasuringWorth. 2012 . Retrieved September 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , pp. 383 -- 384 ^ Jump up to : Landau & Condit 1996 , p. 386 Jump up ^ Fenske 2005 , pp. 20 . 29 ; Landau & Condit 1996 , pp. 384 , 387 ; Goldberger 1985 , p. 44 Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , p. 390 Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , pp. 382 , 387 ^ Jump up to : Fine 2005 , p. 66 ^ Jump up to : Willis 1995 , p. 59 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , pp. 58 -- 60 Jump up ^ Bruegmann 1997 , p. 141 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , pp. 160 -- 162 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , pp. 160 -- 161 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 161 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 162 Jump up ^ Fenske 2005 , pp. 32 -- 33 ^ Jump up to : Fenske 2005 , p. 33 Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , pp. 373 -- 374 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , pp. 24 -- 25 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , pp. 25 -- 26 Jump up ^ Goldin & Katz 2008 , p. 172 Jump up ^ Goldin & Katz 2008 , pp. 172 -- 173 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , pp. 147 -- 148 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , pp. 26 -- 27 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , pp. 27 -- 28 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , pp. 28 -- 29 , 148 Jump up ^ Schleier 1986 , p. 8 ; Bragdon 2003 , p. 155 Jump up ^ Cronon 1992 , p. 12 Jump up ^ Schleier 1986 , pp. 42 -- 44 Jump up ^ Schleier 1986 , p. 46 Jump up ^ Schleier 1986 , pp. 46 -- 55 Jump up ^ Goldberger 1985 , pp. 9 -- 10 Jump up ^ Revell 2005 , pp. 38 -- 39 Jump up ^ Revell 2005 , p. 30 Jump up ^ Schuyler 1961 , p. 443 cited Revell 2005 , p. 39 ; Revell 2005 , pp. 39 -- 40 Jump up ^ Lamb 1898 , p. 57 cited Revell 2005 , pp. 41 -- 42 Jump up ^ Revell 2005 , pp. 42 -- 43 Jump up ^ Bragdon 2003 , pp. 155 -- 156 Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , pp. 393 -- 395 ^ Jump up to : Willis 1995 , p. 68 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 69 ; American Art Publishing 1918 , p. 11 Jump up ^ Revell 2005 , pp. 47 -- 48 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 67 ; Revell 2005 , pp. 48 -- 49 ^ Jump up to : Willis 1995 , p. 67 ^ Jump up to : Schleier 1986 , p. 69 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 165 ; Abramson 2001 , p. xi Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 109 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , pp. 109 -- 110 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , pp. 109 -- 110 , 165 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , pp. 41 , 85 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , pp. 41 -- 42 ; Abramson 2001 , p. 84 ^ Jump up to : Willis 1995 , pp. 42 -- 43 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 85 ; Clark & Kingston 1930 , cited Abramson 2001 , p. 55 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , pp. 86 -- 88 Jump up ^ Schleier 1986 , p. 69 ; Ford 2005 , p. 53 ; Willis 1995 , p. 9 ^ Jump up to : Ford 2005 , pp. 36 -- 37 , 39 ^ Jump up to : Douglas 1996 , p. 85 Jump up ^ Douglas 1996 , p. 85 ; Ford 2005 , p. 38 Jump up ^ `` Industrial Trust Company , Providence '' . RI Currency . Retrieved 11 April 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Goldberger 1985 , p. 51 Jump up ^ Clark 1991 , p. 157 ; Binder 2006 , p. 64 ; Ford 2005 , p. 25 ; Walter 1993 , p. 205 Jump up ^ Solomonson 2001 , pp. 72 -- 73 Jump up ^ Binder 2006 , p. 10 Jump up ^ Paperny 2002 Jump up ^ Abramson 2001 , pp. 44 -- 45 , 79 Jump up ^ Abramson 2001 , p. 74 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , pp. 83 -- 85 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 81 ; Abramson 2001 , p. 69 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 25 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 26 . Jump up ^ Watkin 2005 , p. 580 Jump up ^ Abramson 2001 , pp. 96 -- 119 Jump up ^ Schleier 1986 , p. 114 ; Willis 1995 , pp. 77 -- 79 Jump up ^ Ford 2005 , p. 37 ; Goldberger 1985 , p. 19 Jump up ^ Shepherd 2003 , p. 259 ; Abramson 2001 , p. 49 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 102 ; Shepherd 2003 , p. 259 Jump up ^ Revell 2005 , p. 51 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , pp. 72 -- 73 , 76 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , pp. 72 -- 73 ; Abramson 2001 , p. 29 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , pp. 9 -- 10 ^ Jump up to : Abramson 2001 , p. 122 Jump up ^ Abramson 2001 , p. 123 Jump up ^ Abramson 2001 , pp. 123 -- 125 Jump up ^ Abramson 2001 , pp. 140 -- 145 Jump up ^ Abramson 2001 , pp. 155 -- 156 Jump up ^ Abramson 2001 , pp. 157 -- 158 Jump up ^ Goldin & Katz 2008 , pp. 173 -- 14 Jump up ^ Goldin & Katz 2008 , p. 174 ; Abramson 2001 , pp. 160 -- 161 ^ Jump up to : Willis 1995 , p. 111 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , pp. 49 , 111 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , pp. 112 -- 113 , 117 ^ Jump up to : Solomonson 2005 , p. 147 Jump up ^ Solomonson 2005 , pp. 148 -- 150 Jump up ^ Solomonson 2005 , p. 156 Jump up ^ Schleier 1986 , p. 112 ; Solomonson 2005 , p. 158 ; Goldberger 1985 , p. 51 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 117 ^ Jump up to : Willis 1995 , pp. 118 -- 119 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , pp. 120 -- 121 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 125 ^ Jump up to : Shepherd 2003 , p. 226 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 164 ; Ford 2005 , p. 41 ; Abramson 2001 , p. 29 Jump up ^ Abramson 2001 , p. 29 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 164 ; Ford 2005 , p. 41 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 165 Jump up ^ Moudry 2005b , pp. 137 -- 138 Jump up ^ Moudry 2005b , p. 138 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 88 Jump up ^ Goldberger 1985 , p. 77 Jump up ^ Goldberger 1985 , p. 79 Jump up ^ Goldberger 1985 , pp. 82 -- 83 ; Douglas 1996 , p. 96 Jump up ^ Douglas 1996 , p. 96 ; Goldberger 1985 , p. 80 Jump up ^ Douglas 1996 , p. 97 Jump up ^ Douglas 1996 , pp. 97 -- 97 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 90 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , pp. 90 -- 95 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , pp. 98 -- 99 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 100 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , pp. 100 -- 101 ; Goldberger 1985 , p. 85 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 90 ; Schleier 1986 , p. 120 Jump up ^ Krinsky 2005 , pp. 203 -- 204 Jump up ^ Krinsky 2005 , pp. 202 -- 204 , 208 ; Ford 2005 , p. 43 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 103 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 105 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 106 Jump up ^ Krinsky 2005 , p. 208 ^ Jump up to : Willis 1995 , pp. 128 -- 129 ^ Jump up to : Schleier 1986 , p. 70 ^ Jump up to : Schleier 1986 , p. 71 Jump up ^ Schleier 1986 , p. 79 Jump up ^ Schleier 1986 , p. 11 Jump up ^ Schleier 1986 , pp. 72 -- 73 Jump up ^ Schleier 1986 , pp. 76 -- 77 ; Abramson 2001 , p. 177 Jump up ^ Schleier 1986 , p. 77 Jump up ^ Schleier 1986 , p. 88 Jump up ^ Le Corbusier 1947 , p. 45 cited Page 2005 , p. 181 Jump up ^ Schleier 1986 , p. 121 Jump up ^ Schleier 1986 , pp. 72 , 94 -- 95 Jump up ^ Schleier 1986 , p. 93 Jump up ^ Schleier 1986 , p. 103 Jump up ^ Goldberger 1985 , p. 88 Jump up ^ Abramson 2001 , p. 172 Jump up ^ Page 2005 , pp. 165 -- 167 Jump up ^ Schleier 2009 , pp. 2 -- 4 Jump up ^ Schleier 2009 , pp. 3 -- 4 , 13 Jump up ^ Ramirez 2004 , p. 175 Jump up ^ Watkin 2005 , p. 581 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 134 ; Goldberger 1985 , p. 101 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , pp. 132 -- 134 Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , p. 361 Jump up ^ Willis 1995 , p. 136 Jump up ^ Landau & Condit 1996 , p. 366 Jump up ^ Glenn Collins ( 2004 ) . `` 9 / 11 's Miracle Survivor Sheds Bandages : a 1907 Landmark Will be Restored for Residential Use '' . 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Bragdon , Charles ( 2003 ) ( First published 1909 ) . `` Architecture in the United States III : The Skyscraper '' . In Shepherd , Roger . Skyscraper : the Search for an American Style , 1891 -- 1941 . New York , US : McGraw - Hill . ISBN 0071369708 . Bruegmann , Robert ( 1997 ) . The Architects and the City : Holabird and Roche of Chicago , 1880 -- 1918 . Chicago , US : University of Chicago Press . ISBN 9780226076959 . Clark , W.C. ; Kingston , John Lyndhurst ( 1930 ) . The Skyscraper : a Study in the Economic Height of Modern Office Buildings . New York , US : American Institute of Steel Construction . OCLC 1032783 . Clark , Lyndhurst ( 1991 ) . `` Canadian Cities : Recent Developments and the Changing Image '' . In Robinson , Guy M. A Social Geography of Canada ( Revised ed . ) . Toronto , Canada : Dundurn Press . ISBN 9781550020922 . Condit , Carl W. ( 1968 ) . American Building : Materials and Techniques from the Beginning of the Colonial Settlements to the Present . Chicago , US and London , UK : University of Chicago Press . OCLC 600614625 . Cronon , William ( 1992 ) . Nature 's Metropolis : Chicago and the Great West . New York , US : Norton . ISBN 9780393308730 . Douglas , George H. ( 1996 ) . Skyscrapers : a Social History of the Very Tall Building in America . Jefferson , US : McFarland . ISBN 9780786420308 . Fenske , Gail ( 2005 ) . `` The Beaux - Arts Architect and the Skyscraper : Cass Gilbert , the Professional Engineer , and the Rationalization of Construction in Chicago and New York '' . In Moudry , Roberta . The American Skyscraper : Cultural Histories . Cambridge , UK : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 9780521624213 . Ferree , Barr ( 1893 ) . `` Economic Conditions of Architecture in America '' . In Stone , Alfred . Proceedings of the Twenty - Seventh Annual Convention of the American Institute of Architects . Chicago , US : Inland Architect Press . OCLC 793133310 . Fine , Lisa M. ( 2005 ) . `` The Female ' Souls of the Skyscraper ' '' . In Moudry , Roberta . The American Skyscraper : Cultural Histories . Cambridge , UK : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 9780521624213 . Flinn , John J. ( 1893 ) . The Standard Guide of Chicago . Chicago , US : Standard Guide Company . OCLC 665222676 . Ford , Larry R. ( 2005 ) . Cities and Buildings : Skyscrapers , Skid Rows and Suburbs . Baltimore , US and London , UK : The Johns Hopkins University Press . ISBN 9780801846472 . Gallacci , Caroline Denyer ; Karabaich , Ron ( 2009 ) . Downtown Tacoma . Charleston , South Carolina : Arcadia . ISBN 9780738570020 . Goldberger , Paul ( 1985 ) . The Skyscraper . New York , US : Alfred A. Knopf . ISBN 0394715861 . Goldin , Claudia ; Katz , Lawrence F. ( 2008 ) . The Race Between Education and Technology . Cambridge , US : Harvard University Press . ISBN 9780674035300 . Gray , Lee E. ( 2005 ) . `` Type and Building Type : Newspaper / Office Buildings in Nineteenth - Century New York '' . In Moudry , Roberta . The American Skyscraper : Cultural Histories . Cambridge , UK : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 9780521624213 . Hill , George ( 1904 ) . `` The Economy of the Office Building '' . Architectural Record . 15 : 313 -- 327 . Krinsky , Carol Herselle ( 2005 ) . `` The Skyscraper Ensemble in Its Urban Context : Rockefeller Center '' . In Moudry , Roberta . The American Skyscraper : Cultural Histories . Cambridge , UK : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 9780521624213 . Lamb , Charles Rollinson ( 1898 ) . `` Civic Architecture from Its Constructive Side '' . Municipal Affairs . 2 : 42 -- 72 . Landau , Sarah Bedford ; Condit , Carl W. ( 1996 ) . Rise of the New York Skyscraper , 1865 -- 1913 . New Haven , US and London , UK : Yale University Press . ISBN 9780300077391 . Le Corbusier ( 1947 ) . When the Cathedrals Were White . New York , US : Reynal and Hitchcock . OCLC 557745249 . Moudry , Roberta ( 2005a ) . `` Introduction '' . In Moudry , Roberta . The American Skyscraper : Cultural Histories . Cambridge , UK : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 9780521624213 . Moudry , Roberta ( 2005b ) . `` The Corporate and the Civic : Metropolitan Life 's Home Office Building '' . In Moudry , Roberta . The American Skyscraper : Cultural Histories . Cambridge , UK : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 9780521624213 . Page , Max ( 2005 ) . `` The Heights and Depths of Urbanism : Fifth Avenue and the Creative Destruction of Manhattan '' . In Moudry , Roberta . The American Skyscraper : Cultural Histories . Cambridge , UK : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 9780521624213 . Paperny , Vladimir ( 2002 ) . Architecture in the Age of Stalin : Culture Two . Translated by Roann Barris . Cambridge , UK : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 45119 - 2 . Ramirez , Juan ( 2004 ) . Architecture for the Screen : a Critical Study of Set Design in Hollywood 's Golden Age . Jefferson , US : MacFarland . ISBN 9780786417810 . Revell , Keith D. ( 2005 ) . `` Law Makes Order : The Search for Ensemble in the Skyscraper City , 1890 -- 1930 '' . In Moudry , Roberta . The American Skyscraper : Cultural Histories . Cambridge , UK : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 9780521624213 . Root , John W. ( 1890 ) . `` A Great Architectural Problem '' . Inland Architect and News Record . 15 ( 5 ) : 67 -- 71 . Severini , Lois ( 1983 ) . The Architecture of Finance : Early Wall Street . Ann Arbor , US : UMI Research Press . ISBN 0835714586 . Schleier , Merill ( 1986 ) . The Skyscraper in American Art , 1890 -- 1931 . New York , US : Da Capo Press . ISBN 0306803852 . Schleier , Merill ( 2009 ) . Skyscraper Cinema : Architecture and Gender in American Film . Minneapolis , US : University of Minnesota Press . ISBN 9780816642816 . Schuyler , Montgomery ( 1961 ) . American Architecture and Other Writings. 2 . Cambridge , US : Belknap Press of Harvard University Press . OCLC 312509850 . Shepherd , Roger , ed. ( 2003 ) . Skyscraper : the Search for an American Style , 1891 -- 1941 . New York , US : McGraw - Hill . ISBN 0071369708 . Solomonson , Katherine ( 2005 ) . `` The Chicago Tribune Tower Competition : Publicity Imagines Community '' . In Moudry , Roberta . The American Skyscraper : Cultural Histories . Cambridge , UK : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 9780521624213 . Solomonson , Katherine ( 2001 ) . The Chicago Tribune Tower Competition : Skyscraper Design and Cultural Changes in the 1920s . Chicago , US : University of Chicago Press . ISBN 9780226768007 . Waid , D. Everett ; Corbett , Harvey Wiley ( 2003 ) ( First published 1933 ) . `` Metropolitan Life Insurance Company : New Home Office Building in New York '' . In Shepherd , Roger . Skyscraper : the Search for an American Style , 1891 -- 1941 . New York , US : McGraw - Hill . ISBN 0071369708 . Tobriner , Stephen ( 2006 ) . Bracing for disaster : earthquake - resistant architecture and engineering in San Francisco , 1838 -- 1933 . Berkeley , California : Heyday . ISBN 1597140252 . Walter , Richard J. ( 1993 ) . Politics and Urban Growth in Buenos Aires , 1910 -- 1942 . Cambridge , UK : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 9780521530651 . Watkin , David ( 2005 ) . A History of Western Architecture ( 4th ed . ) . London , UK : Lawrence King Publishing . ISBN 9781856694599 . Willis , Carol ( 1995 ) . Form Follows Finance : Skyscrapers and Skylines in New York and Chicago . New York , UK : Princeton Architectural Press . ISBN 9781568980447 . Wolner , Edward W. ( 2005 ) . `` Chicago 's Fraternity Temples : the Origins of Skyscraper Rhetoric and the First of the World 's Tallest Office Buildings '' . In Moudry , Roberta . The American Skyscraper : Cultural Histories . Cambridge , UK : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 9780521624213 . External links ( edit ) The Skyscraper Museum , holding digital archives of material on early skyscraper design and construction Traditional Skyscrapers Photo Group at flickr ( hide ) Tallest buildings and structures Buildings Overview History Skyscraper Storey By region Africa Asia South Europe Balkans Baltic states Scandinavia Oceania South America Latin America By country Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Azerbaijan Bangladesh Bosnia and Herzegovina Brazil Bulgaria Cambodia Canada Chile China Colombia Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Ecuador Egypt Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hong Kong Iceland India Indonesia Israel Italy Japan Kazakhstan Kuwait Latvia Lebanon Lithuania Macau Macedonia , Republic of Malaysia Malta Mexico Mongolia Morocco Netherlands Nigeria North Korea Norway Pakistan Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Romania Russia Saudi Arabia Singapore Slovenia South Africa South Korea Spain Sweden Taiwan ( Republic of China ) Tanzania Thailand Turkey Ukraine United Arab Emirates United Kingdom United States Uruguay Vietnam Zimbabwe By other British Empire and Commonwealth European Union Lists 100 + floors Architects Buildings by height to roof Cities with most high - rise buildings Cities with most skyscrapers Churches Orthodox Early skyscrapers Educational Future Hospitals Hotels Most expensive Residential Supertall Twin buildings Voluntarily demolished Structures ( of any type ) By region Africa Europe Middle East South America former Soviet Union former Yugoslavia By country Albania Algeria Australia Austria Bahrain Belgium Bulgaria Canada China Czech Republic Denmark Egypt Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland India Indonesia Iran Ireland Italy Japan Luxembourg Netherlands New Zealand Norway Poland Portugal Romania Saudi Arabia Serbia Slovakia South Africa Spain Sri Lanka Sweden Switzerland Tunisia Turkey Turkmenistan United Kingdom United States By other Commonwealth of Nations Lists 300 to 400 metres 400 to 500 metres Before the 20th century Bridges Chimneys Dams Freestanding Lighthouses Statues Towers Twin structures Related topics Additionally guyed tower Air traffic obstacle All buildings and structures Antenna height considerations Architectural engineering Construction Early skyscrapers Height restriction laws Oil platform Partially guyed tower Tower block Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Early_skyscrapers&oldid=816944886 '' Categories : Architectural history Commercial buildings in the United States History of construction History of structural engineering Skyscrapers Hidden categories : Good articles Talk Contents About Wikipedia Español Français עברית Edit links This page was last edited on 24 December 2017 , at 22 : 01 . 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who framed and suggested the plan of balkan to transfer power from england to india

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=1946_Cabinet_Mission_to_India&oldid=834488496

1946 Cabinet Mission to India - wikipedia 1946 Cabinet Mission to India Jump to : navigation , search hide This article has multiple issues . Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages ) This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( March 2011 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This article includes a list of references , but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations . Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations . ( January 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The United Kingdom Cabinet Mission of 1946 to India aimed to discuss the transfer of power from the British government to the Indian leadership , with the aim of preserving India 's unity and granting it independence . Formulated at the initiative of Clement Attlee , the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , the mission had Lord Pethick - Lawrence , the Secretary of State for India , Sir Stafford Cripps , President of the Board of Trade , and A.V. Alexander , the First Lord of the Admiralty . Lord Wavell , the Viceroy of India , did not participate in every step but was present . Contents ( hide ) 1 Purposes and proposals 1.1 Plan of 16 May 1.2 Plan of 16 June 1.2. 1 Reactions 2 Coalition and breakdown 3 References 4 Bibliography 5 Further reading Purposes and proposals ( edit ) The British wanted to keep India and its Army united so as to keep it in their system of ' imperial defence ' even after granting it independence . To preserve India 's unity the British formulated the Cabinet Mission Plan . The Cabinet Mission 's role was to hold preparatory discussions with the elected representatives of British India and the Indian states so as to secure agreement to the method of framing the constitution , to set up a constitution body and to set up an Executive Council with the support of the main Indian parties . The Mission held talks with the representatives of the Indian National Congress and the All - India Muslim League , the two largest political parties in the Constituent Assembly of India . The two parties planned to determine a power - sharing arrangement between Hindus and Muslims to prevent a communal dispute . The Congress , under Gandhi and Nehru , wanted to obtain a strong central government , with more powers than state governments . The All India Muslim League , under Jinnah , initially wanted to keep India united but with political safeguards provided to Muslims like parity in the legislatures because of the wide belief of Muslims that the British Raj was simply going to be turned into a Hindu Raj once the British departed , and since the Muslim League regarded itself as the sole spokesman party of Indian Muslims , it was incumbent upon it to take the matter up with the Crown . However , in the 1940 Lahore session of the Muslim League , Jinnah endorsed partition via the two nation theory of a West and East Pakistan , painting recent developments ( 1937 provincial election , refusal of Congress to recognise the League as the sole mouthpiece of Muslims in India , etc . ) as a sign of assured enmity from Hindus , culminating in the Lahore Resolution , also known as the Pakistan Resolution . After initial dialogue , the Mission proposed its plan over the composition of the new government on 16 May 1946 . In its proposals , the creation of a separate Muslim Pakistan was rejected . Plan of 16 May ( edit ) A united Dominion of India would be given independence . The Muslim - majority provinces would be grouped , with Sind , Punjab , Baluchistan and North - West Frontier Province forming one group , and Bengal and Assam would form another . The Hindu - majority provinces in central and southern India would form another group . The central government , stationed in Delhi , would be empowered to handle nationwide affairs , such as defence , currency , and diplomacy , and the rest of powers and responsibility would belong to the provinces , coordinated by groups . An interim Government at the Centre representing all communities would be installed on the basis of parity between the representatives of the Hindus and the Muslims Plan of 16 June ( edit ) The plan of 16 May 1946 had a united India , in line with Congress and Muslim League aspirations , but that was where the consensus between the two parties ended since Congress abhorred the idea of having the groupings of Muslim - majority provinces and that of Hindu - majority provinces with the intention of balancing one another at the central legislature . The Muslim League could not accept any changes to this plan since they wanted to keep the safeguards of British Indian laws to prevent absolute rule of Hindus over Muslims . Reaching an impasse , the British proposed a second plan on 16 June 1946 to arrange for India to be divided into Hindu - majority India and a Muslim - majority India that would later be renamed Pakistan since Congress had vehemently rejected ' parity ' at the centre . A list of princely states of India , which would be permitted to accede to the dominion or attain independence , was also drawn up . The Cabinet Mission arrived in India on 23 March 1946 and in Delhi on 2 April 1946 . The announcement of the Plan on 16 May 1946 had been preceded by the Simla Conference in the first week of May . Reactions ( edit ) The approval of the plans determined the composition of the new government . The Congress Working Committee officially did not accept either plan . The resolution of the committee dated 24 May 1946 concluded that The Working Committee consider that the connected problems involved in the establishment of a Provisional Government and a Constituent Assembly should be viewed together ... In absence of a full picture , the Committee are unable to give a final opinion at this stage . And the resolution of 25 June 1946 , in response to the June plan concluded In the formation of a Provisional or other governance , Congressmen can never give up the national character of Congress , or accept an artificial and unjust parity , or agree to a veto of a communal group . The Committee are unable to accept the proposals for formation of an Interim Government as contained in the statement of June 16 . The Committee have , however , decided that the Congress should join the proposed Constituent Assembly with a view to framing the Constitution of a free , united and democratic India . Coalition and breakdown ( edit ) The Viceroy began organising the transfer of power to a Congress - League coalition . But in a `` provocative speech '' on 10 July 1946 Nehru was quoted in the press as saying `` We are not bound by a single thing except that we have decided to go into the Constituent Assembly '' . By this Nehru effectively `` torpedoed '' any hope for a united India . Having been `` duped in such a way '' , Jinnah withdrew the Muslim League 's acceptance of the Cabinet Mission Plan on 17 July . Thus Congress leaders entered the Viceroy 's Executive Council or the Interim Government of India . Nehru became the head , vice-president in title , but possessing the executive authority . Patel became the home member , responsible for internal security and government agencies . Congress - led governments were formed in most provinces , including the NWFP , in Punjab ( a coalition with the Shiromani Akali Dal and the Unionist Muslim League ) . The League led governments in Bengal and Sind . The Constituent Assembly was instructed to begin work to write a new constitution for India . Jinnah and the League condemned the new government , and vowed to agitate for Pakistan by any means possible . Disorder arose in Punjab and Bengal , including the cities of Delhi , Bombay and Calcutta . On the League - organized Direct Action Day , over 5,000 people were killed across India , and Hindu , Sikh and Muslim mobs began clashing routinely . Wavell stalled the Central government 's efforts to stop the disorder , and the provinces were instructed to leave this to the governors , who did not undertake any major action . To end the disorder and rising bloodshed , Wavell encouraged Nehru to ask the League to enter the government . While Patel and most Congress leaders were opposed to conceding to a party that was organising disorder , Nehru conceded in hope of preserving communal peace . League leaders entered the council under the leadership of Liaquat Ali Khan , the future first Prime Minister of Pakistan who became the finance minister , but the council did not function in harmony , as separate meetings were not held by League ministers , and both parties vetoed the major initiatives proposed by the other , highlighting their ideological differences and political antagonism . At the arrival of the new ( and proclaimed as the last ) viceroy , Lord Mountbatten of Burma in early 1947 , Congress leaders expressed the view that the coalition was unworkable . That led to the eventual proposal , and acceptance of the partition of India . The rejection of cabinet mission plan led to a resurgence of confrontational politics beginning with the Muslim League 's Direct action day and the subsequent killings in Noakhali and Bihar . The portioning of responsibility of the League , the Congress and the British Colonial Administration for the breakdown continues to be a topic of fierce disagreement . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Jeffery J. Roberts ( 2003 ) . The Origins of Conflict in Afghanistan . Greenwood Publishing Group . pp. 85 -- . ISBN 978 - 0 - 275 - 97878 - 5 . Virtually every Briton wanted to keep India united . Many expressed moral or sentimental obligations to leave India intact , either for the inhabitants ' sake or simply as a lasting testament to the Empire . The Cabinet Defense Committee and the Chiefs of Staff , however , stressed the maintenance of a united India as vital to the defense ( and economy ) of the region . A unified India , an orderly transfer of power , and a bilateral alliance would , they argued , leave Britain 's strategic position undamaged . India 's military assets , including its seemingly limitless manpower , naval and air bases , and expanding production capabilities , would remain accessible to London . India would thus remain of crucial importance as a base , training ground , and staging area for operations from Egypt to the Far East . Jump up ^ Darwin , John ( 2011 - 03 - 03 ) . `` Britain , the Commonwealth and the End of Empire '' . BBC . Retrieved Apr 10 , 2017 . But the British still hoped that a self - governing India would remain part of their system of ' imperial defence ' . For this reason , Britain was desperate to keep India ( and its army ) united . Jump up ^ Michael Mann ( 24 October 2014 ) . South Asia 's Modern History : Thematic Perspectives . Taylor & Francis . pp. 118 -- . ISBN 978 - 1 - 317 - 62445 - 5 . The Mission 's aim was to ensure the unity of British India . Jump up ^ Barbara D. Metcalf ; Thomas R. Metcalf ( 2002 ) . A Concise History of India . Cambridge University Press . pp. 212 -- . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 63974 - 3 . By this scheme , the British hoped they could at once preserve the united India desired by the Congress , and by themselves , and at the same time , through the groups , secure the essence of Jinnah 's demand for a ' Pakistan ' . Jump up ^ Seervai , H.M. : Partition of India : Legend and Reality , 2005 . Intro : xxvi . ISBN 0 - 19 - 597719 - X Jump up ^ `` Cabinet Mission Plan 1946 '' . GKToday. 30 October 2011 . Retrieved 26 March 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Cabinet Mission Plan : May and June Congress Resolutions '' . Retrieved 2013 - 05 - 28 . Jump up ^ Barbara D. Metcalf ; Thomas R. Metcalf ( 2002 ) . A Concise History of India . Cambridge University Press . pp. 213 -- . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 63974 - 3 . Jump up ^ Michael Mann ( 24 October 2014 ) . South Asia 's Modern History : Thematic Perspectives . Taylor & Francis . pp. 80 -- . ISBN 978 - 1 - 317 - 62445 - 5 . Jump up ^ Ayesha Jalal ( 1994 ) . The Sole Spokesman : Jinnah , the Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan . Cambridge University Press . p. 218 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 45850 - 4 . Jump up ^ Ayesha Jalal ( 1994 ) . The Sole Spokesman : Jinnah , the Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan . Cambridge University Press . p. 225 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 45850 - 4 . Bibliography ( edit ) Kanji Dwarkadas , Ten years to freedom Rajmohan Gandhi , Patel : A Life Nicholas Mansergh , The Transfer of Power 1942 - 7 ( 12 volumes ) V.P. Menon , Transfer of no Power Robin James Moore , Escape from Empire H.M. Seervai , Partition of India : Legend and Reality ( ed. 2005 ) Jaswant Singh , Jinnah : India - Partition - Independence Stanley Wolpert , Jinnah Philip Zeigler , Mountbatten Further reading ( edit ) India 's Constitutional Question -- The Cabinet Mission Plan 1946 Indian Independence Movement History Colonisation Porto Grande de Bengala Dutch Bengal East India Company British Raj French India Portuguese India Battle of Plassey Battle of Buxar Anglo - Mysore Wars First Second Third Fourth Anglo - Maratha Wars First Second Third Polygar Wars Vellore Mutiny First Anglo - Sikh War Second Anglo - Sikh War Sannyasi Rebellion Rebellion of 1857 Radcliffe Line more Philosophies and ideologies Ambedkarism Gandhism Hindu nationalism Indian nationalism Khilafat Movement Muslim nationalism in South Asia Satyagraha Socialism Swadeshi movement Swaraj Events and movements Partition of Bengal ( 1905 ) Partition of Bengal ( 1947 ) Revolutionaries Direct Action Day Delhi - Lahore Conspiracy The Indian Sociologist Singapore Mutiny Hindu -- German Conspiracy Champaran Satyagraha Kheda Satyagraha Rowlatt Committee Rowlatt Bills Jallianwala Bagh massacre Noakhali riots Non-Cooperation Movement Christmas Day Plot Coolie - Begar Movement Chauri Chaura incident , 1922 Kakori conspiracy Qissa Khwani Bazaar massacre Flag Satyagraha Bardoli 1928 Protests Nehru Report Fourteen Points of Jinnah Purna Swaraj Salt March Dharasana Satyagraha Vedaranyam March Chittagong armoury raid Gandhi -- Irwin Pact Round table conferences Act of 1935 Aundh Experiment Indische Legion Cripps ' mission Quit India Bombay Mutiny Coup d'état of Yanaon Provisional Government of India Independence Day Praja Mandala movement Organisations All India Kisan Sabha All - India Muslim League Anushilan Samiti Arya Samaj Azad Hind Berlin Committee Ghadar Party Hindustan Socialist Republican Association Indian National Congress India House Indian Home Rule movement Indian Independence League Indian National Army Jugantar Khaksar Tehrik Khudai Khidmatgar Swaraj Party more Social reformers A. Vaidyanatha Iyer Ayya Vaikundar Ayyankali B.R. Ambedkar Baba Amte Bal Gangadhar Tilak Dayananda Saraswati Dhondo Keshav Karve G. Subramania Iyer Gazulu Lakshminarasu Chetty Gopal Ganesh Agarkar Gopal Hari Deshmukh Gopaldas Ambaidas Desai Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar J.B. Kripalani Jyotirao Phule Kandukuri Veeresalingam Mahadev Govind Ranade Mahatma Gandhi Muthulakshmi Reddi Narayana Guru Niralamba Swami Pandita Ramabai Periyar E.V. Ramasamy Ram Mohan Roy Rettamalai Srinivasan Sahajanand Saraswati Savitribai Phule Shahu Sister Nivedita Sri Aurobindo Syed Ahmad Khan Vakkom Moulavi Vinayak Damodar Savarkar Vinoba Bhave Vitthal Ramji Shinde Vivekananda Independence activists Abul Kalam Azad Accamma Cherian Achyut Patwardhan A.K. Fazlul Huq Alluri Sitarama Raju Annapurna Maharana Annie Besant Ashfaqulla Khan Babu Kunwar Singh Bagha Jatin Bahadur Shah II Bakht Khan Bal Gangadhar Tilak Basawon Singh Begum Hazrat Mahal Bhagat Singh Bharathidasan Bhavabhushan Mitra Bhikaiji Cama Bhupendra Kumar Datta Bidhan Chandra Roy Bipin Chandra Pal C. Rajagopalachari Chandra Shekhar Azad Chetram Jatav Chittaranjan Das Dadabhai Naoroji Dayananda Saraswati Dhan Singh Dukkipati Nageswara Rao Gopal Krishna Gokhale Govind Ballabh Pant Har Dayal Hemu Kalani Inayatullah Khan Mashriqi Jatindra Mohan Sengupta Jatindra Nath Das Jawaharlal Nehru K. Kamaraj Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan Khudiram Bose Shri Krishna Singh Lala Lajpat Rai M. Bhaktavatsalam M.N. Roy Mahadaji Shinde Mahatma Gandhi Mangal Pandey Mir Qasim Mithuben Petit ‎ Muhammad Ali Jauhar Muhammad Ali Jinnah Muhammad Mian Mansoor Ansari Nagnath Naikwadi Nana Fadnavis Nana Sahib P. Kakkan Prafulla Chaki Pritilata Waddedar Pritilata Waddedar Purushottam Das Tandon R. Venkataraman Rahul Sankrityayan Rajendra Prasad Ram Prasad Bismil Rani Lakshmibai Rash Behari Bose Sahajanand Saraswati Sangolli Rayanna Sarojini Naidu Satyapal Dang Shuja - ud - Daula Shyamji Krishna Varma Sibghatullah Shah Rashidi Siraj ud - Daulah Subhas Chandra Bose Subramania Bharati Subramaniya Siva Surya Sen Syama Prasad Mukherjee Tara Rani Srivastava Tarak Nath Das Tatya Tope Tiruppur Kumaran Ubaidullah Sindhi VO Chidamabaram V.K. Krishna Menon Vallabhbhai Patel Vanchinathan Veeran Sundaralingam Vinayak Damodar Savarkar Virendranath Chattopadhyaya Yashwantrao Holkar Yogendra Shukla more British leaders Wavell Canning Cornwallis Irwin Chelmsford Curzon Ripon Minto Dalhousie Bentinck Mountbatten Wellesley Lytton Clive Outram Cripps Linlithgow Hastings Independence Cabinet Mission Annexation of French colonies in India Constitution Republic of India Indian annexation of Goa Indian Independence Act Partition of India Political integration Simla Conference Pakistan Movement History of Pakistan ( timeline : 1947 -- present ) History East India Company Indian Rebellion of 1857 Aligarh Movement Urdu movement Partition of Bengal Lucknow Pact Khilafat Movement Shuddhi Movement Nehru Report Fourteen Points of Jinnah Allahabad Address Now or Never pamphlet World War II Two nation theory Round Table Conferences Lahore Resolution Direct Action Day Muslim nationalism in South Asia Cabinet Mission Indian Independence Act Partition of India Radcliffe Line Durand Line Pakistan Osmanistan Enlightened Moderation Objectives Resolution Independence Republic Day Kashmir conflict National symbols Constitution of Pakistan British heritage Organisations Muslim League Punjab Branch Bengal Branch Unionist Student Federations Khaksars Renaissance Society Philosophical Congress Dawn Daily War Leaders Sir Syed Ahmad Khan Allama Muhammad Iqbal Aga Khan III Nawab Salimullah Mian Muhammad Shafi Syed Ameer Ali Muhammad Ali Jinnah Fatima Jinnah Liaquat Ali Khan Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman Muhammad Zafarullah Khan Bahadur Yar Jung Nawab Waqar - ul - Mulk Kamboh Mohsin - ul - Mulk Hasrat Mohani Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani Baba - e-Urdu Maulvi Abdul Haq G.M. Syed Abdur Rab Nishtar Qazi Muhammad Essa Choudhary Rahmat Ali Muhammad Ali Jouhar Maulana Shaukat Ali A.K. Fazlul Huq K.H. Khurshid Sikandar Hayat Khan Raja Ghazanfar Ali Khan Maulana Zafar Ali Khan Khawaja Nazimuddin Khan Abdul Qayyum Khan Ghulam Bhik Nairang Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy Ra'ana Liaquat Ali Khan Jogendra Nath Mandal more Activists Hameed Nizami Abdullah Haroon Yusuf Haroon Altaf Husain ( journalist ) Adamjee Haji Dawood Mufti Muhammad Shafi Maulana Ahmed Ali Lahori Malik Barkat Ali Yusuf Khattak Mian Iftikharuddin Iftikhar Hussain Khan Mamdot Shaukat Hayat Khan Muhammad Asad Ziauddin Ahmad A.B.A. Haleem Maulana Ghulam Rasool Mehr Hakeem Mohammad Saeed Chaudhry Ghulam Abbas Sardar Muhammad Abdul Qayyum Khan Sardar Muhammad Ibrahim Khan Fida Mohammad Khan Sheikh Sir Abdul Qadir Professor M.M. Sharif J.A. Rahim of PPP Z.A. Suleri G. Allana Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi more Literature Idea of Pakistan Jinnah : India , Partition , Independence Notes on Afghanistan and Baluchistan A Short History of Pakistan Pakistan : A Personal History The Myth of Independence Pakistan : A Hard Country Now or Never ; Are We to Live or Perish Forever ? Causes of Indian Mutiny of 1857 Architecture Minar - e-Pakistan Bab - e-Pakistan The Monument Mazar - e-Quaid Ziarat Residency Iqbal 's Tomb Wazir Mansion National Library Deena Public Hall Bab - e-Khyber Jinnah Terminal In Memory Youm - e-Pakistan ( 23 March ) Youm - e-Dastur ( 10 April ) Youm - e-Takbir ( 28 May ) Youm - e-Azadi ( 14 August ) Youm - e-Difah ( 6 September ) Youm - e-Tasees ( 24 October ) Youm - e-Iqbal ( 9 November ) Youm - e-Viladat ( 25 December ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1946_Cabinet_Mission_to_India&oldid=834488496 '' Categories : Indian independence movement Pakistan Movement Partition of India 1946 in India 1946 in Pakistan 1946 in British India Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from March 2011 All articles needing additional references Articles lacking in - text citations from January 2017 All articles lacking in - text citations Articles with multiple maintenance issues EngvarB from March 2017 Use dmy dates from March 2017 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2017 Talk Contents About Wikipedia বাংলা हिन्दी Русский தமிழ் اردو Edit links This page was last edited on 6 April 2018 , at 00 : 27 . 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who was the coach of the cleveland browns when they moved to baltimore

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=List_of_Cleveland_Browns_head_coaches&oldid=832958436

List of Cleveland Browns head coaches - wikipedia List of Cleveland Browns head coaches Jump to : navigation , search Hue Jackson has coached the Browns since 2016 . Bill Belichick coached the Browns from 1991 to 1995 . The Cleveland Browns are a professional American football franchise based in Cleveland , Ohio . They are a member of the North Division of the American Football Conference ( AFC ) in the National Football League ( NFL ) . The team began playing in 1946 as a charter member of the All - America Football Conference ( AAFC ) , and joined the NFL as part of the AAFC -- NFL merger in 1950 . The team played their home games at Cleveland Stadium from 1946 to 1995 before moving to FirstEnergy Stadium , where they have played since 1999 . The Browns did not play from 1996 to 1998 when the team 's owner , Art Modell , moved the team to Baltimore , Maryland and formed the Baltimore Ravens . The team was re-activated under new ownership in Cleveland in 1999 . The team is currently owned by Jimmy Haslam III , and Joe Banner is their Chief Executive Officer . Tom Heckert was their general manager until the end of the 2012 season , when he was fired along with the team 's incumbent head coach Pat Shurmur . There have been 15 non-interim head coaches for the Browns franchise . Their first head coach was Paul Brown , who coached for 17 complete seasons . Brown is also the franchise 's all - time leader for the most regular season games coached ( 214 ) , the most regular season game wins ( 158 ) , the most playoffs games coached ( 14 ) , and the most playoff game wins ( 9 ) . Brown is the only Browns head coach to win an AAFC championship with four , the NFL championship with three , the Sporting News NFL Coach of the Year three times , the United Press International ( UPI ) NFL Coach of the Year once , and to have been elected into the Pro Football Hall of Fame as a coach . Blanton Collier , Dick Modzelewski , Sam Rutigliano , Bud Carson , Jim Shofner , Chris Palmer , Butch Davis , Pat Shurmur , and Rob Chudzinski have spent their entire NFL head coaching careers with the Browns . Eric Mangini had been the head coach of the Browns since the firing of Romeo Crennel , but was himself fired on January 3 , 2011 . Shurmur replaced Mangini as head coach , but was fired after posting a 9 -- 23 record over two seasons in charge . On January 11 , 2013 , the Cleveland Browns officially named Rob Chudzinski as the replacement for Pat Shurmur . Chudzinski compiled a 4 -- 12 record during the 2013 season , but he was fired on December 29 . On January 23 , 2014 , the Browns hired Mike Pettine as their head coach . Pettine was fired on January 3 , 2016 , hours after the Browns lost their 2015 season finale . On January 13 , 2016 , Hue Jackson was named the Browns ' new head coach . Contents ( hide ) 1 Key 2 Coaches 3 Footnotes 4 Notes 5 References Key ( edit ) The Browns have played their home games in FirstEnergy Stadium since 1999 . # Number of coaches GC Games coached Wins Losses Ties Win % Winning percentage 00 † Elected into the Pro Football Hall of Fame as a coach 00 ‡ Elected into the Pro Football Hall of Fame as a player 00 * Spent entire NFL head coaching career with the Browns Coaches ( edit ) Note : Statistics are updated through the 2017 NFL season . # Name Term Regular season Playoffs Achievements Ref . GC Win % GC Win % Paul Brown † 1946 -- 1962 214 158 48 8 . 767 14 9 5 . 643 Four AAFC championships ( 1946 , 1947 , 1948 , 1949 ) Three NFL championships ( 1950 , 1954 , 1955 ) Seven NFL Conference championships ( 1950 -- 55 , 1957 ) 1949 , 1951 , and 1953 Sporting News NFL Coach of the Year 1957 UPI NFL Coach of the Year Blanton Collier * 1963 -- 1970 112 76 34 . 691 7 . 429 NFL Champion in 1964 Four Eastern conference champions ( 1964 , 1965 , 1968 , 1969 ) Three Century Division Champions ( 1967 , 1968 , 1969 ) Nick Skorich 1971 -- 1975 56 30 24 . 556 0 . 000 AFC Central Division Champions 1971 Forrest Gregg ‡ 1975 -- 1977 41 18 23 0 . 439 -- -- -- -- 1976 Associated Press ( AP ) NFL Coach of the Year 5 Dick Modzelewski * 1977 0 0 . 000 -- -- -- -- 6 Sam Rutigliano * 1978 -- 1984 97 47 50 0 . 485 0 . 000 1979 and 1980 UPI NFL Coach of the Year , AFC Central Division Champions 1980 7 Marty Schottenheimer 1984 -- 1988 71 44 27 0 . 620 6 . 333 1986 UPI NFL Coach of the Year Three AFC Central Division Champions ( 1985 , 1986 and 1987 ) 8 Bud Carson * 1989 -- 1990 25 11 13 . 458 . 500 AFC Central Division Champions 1989 9 Jim Shofner * 1990 7 6 0 . 143 -- -- -- -- 10 Bill Belichick 1991 -- 1995 80 36 44 0 . 450 . 500 -- 1996 -- 1998 11 Chris Palmer * 1999 -- 2000 32 5 27 0 . 156 -- -- -- -- 12 Butch Davis * 2001 -- 2004 58 24 34 0 . 414 0 . 000 13 Terry Robiskie 6 5 0 . 167 -- -- -- -- 14 Romeo Crennel 2005 -- 2008 64 24 40 0 . 375 -- -- -- -- 15 Eric Mangini 2009 -- 2010 32 10 22 0 . 313 -- -- -- -- 16 Pat Shurmur 2011 -- 2012 32 9 23 0 . 281 -- -- -- -- 17 Rob Chudzinski * 2013 16 12 0 . 250 -- -- -- -- 18 Mike Pettine * 2014 -- 2015 32 10 22 0 . 313 -- -- -- -- 19 Hue Jackson 2016 -- present 32 31 0 . 031 -- -- -- -- Footnotes ( edit ) Jump up ^ A running total of the number of coaches of the Browns . Thus , any coach who has two or more separate terms as head coach is only counted once . Jump up ^ Each year is linked to an article about that NFL season . Jump up ^ The Browns did not play from 1996 to 1998 due to events in the Cleveland Browns relocation controversy . Notes ( edit ) General `` History : All - Time Head Coaches '' . Cleveland Browns . NFL Enterprises LLC . Retrieved January 22 , 2013 . `` Cleveland Browns Franchise Encyclopedia '' . Pro Football Reference . Sports Reference LLC . Retrieved January 22 , 2013 . Specific Jump up ^ `` Year By Year Season Results '' . Cleveland Browns . NFL Enterprises LLC . Archived from the original on 2010 - 04 - 02 . Retrieved January 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Cleveland Browns Stadium '' . Cleveland Browns . NFL Enterprises LLC . Retrieved January 22 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Henkel 2005 , p. 111 Jump up ^ `` Cleveland Browns -- Front Office '' . January 20 , 2013 . Retrieved January 22 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Rosenthal , Gregg ( December 31 , 2012 ) . `` Pat Shurmur , Tom Heckert fired by Cleveland Browns '' . NFL.com . NFL Enterprises LLC . Retrieved December 31 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Paul Brown '' . Pro Football Reference . Sports Reference LLC . Retrieved January 22 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Hickok , Ralph ( 2008 - 04 - 17 ) . `` NFL Coach of the Year Award '' . Hick OK Sports . Archived from the original on December 5 , 2012 . Retrieved January 22 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Paul Brown '' . Pro Football Hall of Fame . Retrieved January 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Cleveland Browns Franchise Encyclopedia '' . Pro Football Reference . Sports Reference LLC . Retrieved January 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Sessler , Marc ( December 29 , 2013 ) . `` Rob Chudzinski fired by Cleveland Browns '' . National Football League . NFL Enterprises LLC . Retrieved December 29 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Cleveland Browns '' . Pro Football Hall of Fame . Retrieved January 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` History : NFL Champions '' . Pro Football Hall of Fame . Retrieved January 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` NFL Coach of the Year '' . Sporting News . Archived from the original on 2009 - 02 - 17 . Retrieved January 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Blanton Collier '' . Pro Football Reference . Sports Reference LLC . Retrieved January 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Nick Skorich '' . Pro Football Reference . Sports Reference LLC . Retrieved January 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` AP NFL Coach of the Year Winners '' . The Washington Post . 2005 - 01 - 08 . Retrieved January 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Forrest Gregg '' . Pro Football Reference . Sports Reference LLC . Retrieved January 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Dick Modzelewski '' . Pro Football Reference . Sports Reference LLC . Retrieved January 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Sam Rutigliano '' . Pro Football Reference . Sports Reference LLC . Retrieved January 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Marty Schottenheimer '' . Pro Football Reference . Sports Reference LLC . Retrieved January 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Bud Carson '' . Pro Football Reference . Sports Reference LLC . Retrieved January 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Jim Shofner '' . Pro Football Reference . Sports Reference LLC . Retrieved January 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Bill Belichick '' . Pro Football Reference . Sports Reference LLC . Retrieved January 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Chris Palmer '' . Pro Football Reference . Sports Reference LLC . Retrieved January 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Butch Davis '' . Pro Football Reference . Sports Reference LLC . Retrieved January 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Terry Robiskie '' . Pro Football Reference . Sports Reference LLC . Retrieved January 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Romeo Crennel '' . Pro Football Reference . Sports Reference LLC . Retrieved January 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Eric Mangini '' . Pro Football Reference . Sports Reference LLC . Retrieved January 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Pat Shurmur 's Coaching Record '' . Pro-Football-Reference.com . Sports Reference LLC . Retrieved January 2 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` AP Source : Browns Hire Rob Chudzinski as New Coach '' . abcnews.go.com . AP . Retrieved January 11 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Mike Pettine Record , Statistics , and Category Ranks '' . Pro Football Reference . Sports Reference LLC . Retrieved January 4 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Cabot , Mary Kay ( January 13 , 2016 ) . `` Hue Jackson hired as Cleveland Browns ' 8th head coach since 1999 '' . The Plain Dealer . Cleveland.com . Retrieved January 13 , 2016 . References ( edit ) Henkel , Frank M. ( 2005 ) . Cleveland Browns History . Arcadia Publishing . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7385 - 3428 - 2 . Cleveland Browns Founded in 1946 Based in Cleveland , Ohio Headquartered in Berea , Ohio Franchise History Players Head coaches Seasons Logos and uniforms First - round draft picks 1999 expansion draft Starting quarterbacks Pro Bowlers Stadiums Cleveland Stadium FirstEnergy Stadium Key personnel Owners : Jimmy Haslam Dee Haslam President ( de facto ) : Paul DePodesta General manager : John Dorsey Head coach : Hue Jackson Culture and lore Art Modell Cleveland sports curse Dawg Pound Draft Day Hot Tub Time Machine Kardiac Kids Marty Ball Miracle at the Met Paul Brown Red Right 88 Relocation controversy `` The Best Man '' The Drive The Express The Fortune Cookie The Fumble Rivalries Cincinnati Bengals Pittsburgh Steelers Playoff appearances ( 28 ) 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1957 1958 1964 1965 1967 1968 1969 1971 1972 1980 1982 1985 1986 1988 1989 1994 2002 Division championships ( 12 ) 1946 1947 1948 1967 1968 1969 1971 1980 1985 1986 1989 Conference championships ( 11 ) 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1957 1964 1965 1968 1969 League championships ( 8 ) 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1954 1955 1964 Retired numbers 14 32 45 46 76 Hall of Fame inductees Players : Brown DeLamielleure Ford Gatski Graham Groza Hickerson Kelly Lavelli McCormack Mitchell Motley Newsome Warfield Willis Coach : Brown Media Broadcasters Radio network Flagships : WKNR WKRK - FM WNCX Television : WEWS - TV SportsTime Ohio Current league affiliations League : National Football League ( 1950 -- present ) Conference : American Football Conference Division : North Division Former league affiliation League : All - America Football Conference ( 1946 -- 1949 ) Seasons ( 69 ) 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1984 1985 1986 1988 1989 1990 1991 1994 1995 2001 2017 Championship seasons in bold Cleveland Browns head coaches Paul Brown ( 1946 -- 1962 ) Blanton Collier ( 1963 -- 1970 ) Nick Skorich ( 1971 -- 1974 ) Forrest Gregg ( 1975 -- 1977 ) Dick Modzelewski # ( 1977 ) Sam Rutigliano ( 1978 -- 1984 ) Marty Schottenheimer ( 1984 -- 1988 ) Bud Carson ( 1989 -- 1990 ) Jim Shofner # ( 1990 ) Bill Belichick ( 1991 -- 1995 ) Inactive ( 1996 -- 1998 ) Chris Palmer ( 1999 -- 2000 ) Butch Davis ( 2001 -- 2004 ) Terry Robiskie # ( 2004 ) Romeo Crennel ( 2005 -- 2008 ) Eric Mangini ( 2009 -- 2010 ) Pat Shurmur ( 2011 -- 2012 ) Rob Chudzinski ( 2013 ) Mike Pettine ( 2014 -- 2015 ) Hue Jackson ( 2016 -- ) Pound sign ( # ) denotes interim head coach Current head coaches of the National Football League American Football Conference AFC East AFC North AFC South AFC West Sean McDermott ( Buffalo Bills ) Adam Gase ( Miami Dolphins ) Bill Belichick ( New England Patriots ) Todd Bowles ( New York Jets ) John Harbaugh ( Baltimore Ravens ) Marvin Lewis ( Cincinnati Bengals ) Hue Jackson ( Cleveland Browns ) Mike Tomlin ( Pittsburgh Steelers ) Bill O'Brien ( Houston Texans ) Frank Reich ( Indianapolis Colts ) Doug Marrone ( Jacksonville Jaguars ) Mike Vrabel ( Tennessee Titans ) Vance Joseph ( Denver Broncos ) Andy Reid ( Kansas City Chiefs ) Anthony Lynn ( Los Angeles Chargers ) Jon Gruden ( Oakland Raiders ) National Football Conference NFC East NFC North NFC South NFC West Jason Garrett ( Dallas Cowboys ) Pat Shurmur ( New York Giants ) Doug Pederson ( Philadelphia Eagles ) Jay Gruden ( Washington Redskins ) Matt Nagy ( Chicago Bears ) Matt Patricia ( Detroit Lions ) Mike McCarthy ( Green Bay Packers ) Mike Zimmer ( Minnesota Vikings ) Dan Quinn ( Atlanta Falcons ) Ron Rivera ( Carolina Panthers ) Sean Payton ( New Orleans Saints ) Dirk Koetter ( Tampa Bay Buccaneers ) Steve Wilks ( Arizona Cardinals ) Sean McVay ( Los Angeles Rams ) Kyle Shanahan ( San Francisco 49ers ) Pete Carroll ( Seattle Seahawks ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Cleveland_Browns_head_coaches&oldid=832958436 '' Categories : Cleveland Browns head coaches Lists of National Football League head coaches by team Cleveland Browns lists Hidden categories : Featured lists Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 28 March 2018 , at 22 : 04 . 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Philadelphia Eagles - wikipedia Philadelphia Eagles Jump to : navigation , search Philadelphia Eagles Current season Established July 8 , 1933 ; 84 years ago ( July 8 , 1933 ) First season : 1933 Play in Lincoln Financial Field Philadelphia , Pennsylvania Headquartered in the NovaCare Complex Philadelphia , Pennsylvania Logo Wordmark League / conference affiliations National Football League ( 1933 -- present ) Eastern Division ( 1933 -- 1949 ) American Conference ( 1950 -- 1952 ) Eastern Conference ( 1953 -- 1969 ) Capitol Division ( 1967 -- 1969 ) National Football Conference ( 1970 -- present ) NFC East ( 1970 -- present ) Current uniform Team colors Midnight Green , Silver , Black , White Fight song Fly , Eagles Fly Mascot Swoop Personnel Owner ( s ) Jeffrey Lurie Christina Weiss Lurie Chairman Jeffrey Lurie CEO Jeffrey Lurie President Don Smolenski General manager Howie Roseman Head coach Doug Pederson Team history Philadelphia Eagles ( 1933 -- 1942 ; 1944 -- present ) Phil - Pitt `` Steagles '' ( 1943 ) Team nicknames The Birds Gang Green Championships League championships ( 3 ) Conference championships ( 3 ) NFL Eastern : 1960 NFC : 1980 , 2004 Division championships ( 13 NFL championships ( 3 ) 1948 , 1949 , 1960 ) NFL East : 1947 , 1948 , 1949 , 1960 NFC East : 1980 , 1988 , 2001 , 2002 , 2003 , 2004 , 2006 , 2010 , 2013 Playoff appearances ( 24 ) NFL : 1947 , 1948 , 1949 , 1960 , 1978 , 1979 , 1980 , 1981 , 1988 , 1989 , 1990 , 1992 , 1995 , 1996 , 2000 , 2001 , 2002 , 2003 , 2004 , 2006 , 2008 , 2009 , 2010 , 2013 Home fields Baker Bowl ( 1933 -- 1935 ) Philadelphia Municipal Stadium ( 1936 -- 1939 , 1941 ) Connie Mack Stadium ( 1940 , 1942 -- 1957 ) Franklin Field ( 1958 -- 1970 ) Veterans Stadium ( 1971 -- 2002 ) Lincoln Financial Field ( 2003 -- present ) The Philadelphia Eagles are a professional American football franchise based in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . The Eagles compete in the National Football League ( NFL ) as a member club of the league 's National Football Conference ( NFC ) East division and are the only team in the NFC East who have never won a Super Bowl . The franchise was established in 1933 as a replacement for the bankrupt Frankford Yellow Jackets , when a group led by Bert Bell secured the rights to an NFL franchise in Philadelphia . Bell , Chuck Bednarik , Bob Brown , Reggie White , Steve Van Buren , Tommy McDonald , Greasy Neale , Pete Pihos , Sonny Jurgensen , and Norm Van Brocklin have been inducted to the Pro Football Hall of Fame . The team has an intense rivalry with the New York Giants . This rivalry is the oldest in the NFC East and is among the oldest in the NFL . It was ranked by NFL Network as the number one rivalry of all - time and Sports Illustrated ranks it amongst the Top 10 NFL rivalries of all - time at number four , and according to ESPN , it is one of the fiercest and most well - known rivalries in the American football community . They also have a bitter rivalry with the Dallas Cowboys , which has become more high - profile since the 1960s , as well as a historic rivalry with the Washington Redskins . Their rivalry with the Steelers is another bitter rivalry , roughly dating back to 1933 , that mostly arises from the two teams ' statuses as being from opposite ends of the same state . The team consistently ranks in the top three in attendance and has sold out every game since the 1999 season . In a Sports Illustrated poll of 321 NFL players , Eagles fans were selected the most intimidating fans in the NFL . Contents ( hide ) 1 Franchise history 1.1 1931 -- 1960 1.2 1961 -- 1975 1.3 1976 -- 1984 1.4 1985 -- 1993 1.5 Lurie era ( 1994 -- present ) 1.5. 1 Andy Reid era ( 1999 -- 2012 ) 1.5. 2 Chip Kelly era ( 2013 -- 2015 ) 1.5. 3 Doug Pederson era ( 2016 -- present ) 2 Season records 3 Rivalries 3.1 New York Giants 3.2 Dallas Cowboys 3.3 Washington Redskins 3.4 Pittsburgh Steelers 4 Logo and uniforms 5 Training camp 6 Fight song 7 Fans 7.1 Devotion 7.2 Bad behavior 8 Eagles cheerleaders 9 Current roster 10 List of Philadelphia Eagles players ( past and present ) 11 Awards and honors 11.1 Retired numbers 11.2 Pro Football Hall of Famers 11.3 Eagles Hall of Fame 11.4 75th anniversary team 11.5 John Wanamaker Athletic Award ( Philadelphia Sports Congress ) 11.6 Philadelphia Sports Hall of Fame 11.7 Pennsylvania Sports Hall of Fame 12 Franchise records 12.1 Passing 12.2 Rushing 12.3 Receiving 12.4 Other 12.5 Returning 12.6 Defense 12.7 Exceptional performances 13 Coaches of note 13.1 Current staff 14 Radio and television 14.1 Eagles radio affiliates 15 Media and cultural reference 16 See also 17 Notes and references 18 Sources 19 External links Franchise history ( edit ) Main article : History of the Philadelphia Eagles 1931 -- 1960 ( edit ) `` Concrete Charlie '' Midway through the 1931 season , the Frankford Yellow Jackets went bankrupt and ceased operations . After more than a year of searching for a suitable replacement , the NFL granted an expansion franchise to a syndicate headed by Bert Bell and Lud Wray and awarded them the franchise rights of the failed Yellow Jackets organization . The Bell - Wray group had to pay an entry fee of $3,500 ( equal to $39,371 today ) and assumed a total debt of $11,000 that was owed to three other NFL franchises . Drawing inspiration from the Blue Eagle insignia of the National Recovery Administration -- the centerpiece of President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's New Deal -- Bell and Wray named the new franchise the Philadelphia Eagles . Neither the Eagles nor the NFL officially regard the two franchises as the same , citing the aforementioned period of dormancy . Furthermore , almost no Yellow Jackets players were on the Eagles ' first roster . The Eagles , along with the Pittsburgh Steelers and the now - defunct Cincinnati Reds , joined the NFL as expansion teams . In 1937 , the Eagles moved to Shibe Park ( renamed Connie Mack Stadium in 1954 ) and played their home games at the stadium through 1957 , except for the 1941 season , which was played at Municipal Stadium , where they had played from 1936 to 1939 . To accommodate football at Shibe Park during the winter , management set up stands in right field , parallel to 20th Street . Some 20 feet high , these `` east stands '' had 22 rows of seats . The goalposts stood along the first base line and in left field . The uncovered east stands enlarged capacity of Shibe Park to over 39,000 , but the Eagles rarely drew more than 25 to 30,000 . The Eagles struggled over the course of their first decade , enduring repeated losing seasons . In December 1940 , Pittsburgh Steelers owner Art Rooney sold his franchise to Alexis Thompson for $160,000 and then used half of the proceeds to buy a half interest in the Eagles from his friend Bert Bell . Soon after , Bell and Rooney traded the Eagles franchise to Thompson and moved it to Pittsburgh ( as the `` Steelers '' ) , while Thompson moved the Steelers franchise to Philadelphia ( as the `` Eagles '' ) . In 1943 , when manpower shortages stemming from World War II made it impossible to fill the roster , the team merged with the Pittsburgh Steelers forming the `` Phil - Pitt Eagles '' and were known as the `` Steagles . '' ( The merger , never intended as a permanent arrangement , was dissolved at the end of the 1943 season . ) By the late 1940s , head coach Earle `` Greasy '' Neale and running back Steve Van Buren led the team to three consecutive NFL Championship Games , winning two of them in 1948 and 1949 . Those two championships mark the Eagles as the only NFL team ever to win back - to - back championships by shutouts , defeating the Chicago Cardinals , 7 -- 0 , in 1948 -- in a blizzard -- and the Los Angeles Rams , 14 -- 0 , in 1949 . After the 1957 season , the Eagles moved from Connie Mack Stadium to Franklin Field at the University of Pennsylvania . Franklin Field would seat over 60,000 for the Eagles , whereas Connie Mack had a capacity of 39,000 . The stadium switched from grass to AstroTurf in 1969 . It was the first NFL stadium to use artificial turf . In 1960 , the Eagles won their third NFL championship , under the leadership of future Pro Football Hall of Famers Norm Van Brocklin and Chuck Bednarik ; the head coach was Buck Shaw . The 1960 Eagles , by a score of 17 -- 13 , became the only team to defeat Vince Lombardi and his Green Bay Packers in the playoffs . Dick Vermeil , Eagles head coach from 1976 to 1982 1961 -- 1975 ( edit ) The Eagles had a good 1961 season and then fell on hard times in 1962 . Jerry Wolman , after consulting his longtime friend Brandon Sturrock , bought the franchise in 1963 from the `` Happy Hundred '' , a group of investors who owned the team from 1949 -- 1963 , for $5,505,000 ( equal to $43,064,658 today ) . In 1969 , Leonard Tose bought the Philadelphia Eagles from Wolman for $16,155,000 ( equal to $105,505,930 today ) , then a record for a professional sports franchise . Tose 's first official act was to fire Coach Joe Kuharich after a disappointing 24 -- 41 -- 1 record during his five - year reign . He followed this by naming former Eagles receiving great Pete Retzlaff as General Manager and Jerry Williams as coach . The Eagles defeated the Cowboys in the 1980 NFC Championship Game and earned their first Super Bowl appearance . With the merger of the NFL and AFL in 1970 , the Eagles were placed in the NFC East Division with their archrivals the New York Giants , the Washington Redskins , and the Dallas Cowboys . Their heated rivalry with the Giants is the oldest of the NFC East rivalries , dating all the way back to 1933 and has been considered by writers in Philadelphia as one of the best rivalries in the NFL in the 21st century . 1976 -- 1984 ( edit ) In 1976 , Dick Vermeil was hired from UCLA to coach the Eagles , who had only one winning season from 1962 -- 1975 . Starting in 1978 , head coach Dick Vermeil and quarterback Ron Jaworski led the team to four consecutive playoff appearances . Vermeil 's 1980 team won their first NFC East title . They were matched up against their hated rival the Dallas Cowboys in the NFC Championship game , which they won 20 -- 7 . However , the Eagles lost to the Oakland Raiders in Super Bowl XV in 1981 . The following year , the Eagles were eliminated in the wildcard round at home against the New York Giants . In the aftermath of the disappointing and strike - shortened season of 1982 , head coach Dick Vermeil resigned , claiming that he was `` burned out '' . Vermeil was replaced by defensive coordinator Marion Campbell . In January 1983 , Tose announced that his daughter , Susan Fletcher , the Eagles ' vice president and legal counsel , would eventually succeed him as primary owner of the Eagles . Then in 1984 , rumors were circulating that Leonard Tose was thinking about moving the team to Phoenix , Arizona due to financial reasons . 1985 -- 1993 ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( December 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) In 1985 , Tose was forced to sell the Eagles to Norman Braman and Ed Leibowitz , highly successful automobile dealers from Florida , for a reported $65 million ( equal to $144,741,646 today ) to pay off his more than $25 million ( equal to $55,669,864 today ) in gambling debts at Atlantic City casinos . Philadelphia football struggled through the Marion Campbell years of the mid-1980s and was marked by a malaise in fan participation . However , in the 1985 Supplemental draft , the Eagles acquired the rights to Memphis Showboats ' elite pass rusher Reggie White . In 1986 , the arrival of head coach Buddy Ryan and his fiery attitude rejuvenated team performance and ignited the fan base , but the Eagles failed to win a playoff game during Ryan 's tenure . Possibly the worst of these losses was the so - called Fog Bowl in 1988 against the Chicago Bears , which happened to be Ryan 's former team that he helped lead to a Super Bowl XX victory as defensive coordinator . Ryan was fired on January 7 , 1991 , after an upset home playoff loss to the Redskins . Offensive coordinator Rich Kotite was promoted to head coach three days later . After All Pro defensive tackle Jerome Brown was killed in an automobile accident , the team and fanbase became dedicated to `` bring it home for Jerome '' in the 1992 season . Kotite did lead the Eagles to a playoff victory against the New Orleans Saints during the 1992 season , but they lost all - time sacks leader Reggie White to free agency in the offseason . Kotie 's contract was not renewed after a disappointing 1994 season in which the Eagles went 7 -- 9 , losing their last seven games after starting the season 7 -- 2 . From 1988 to 1996 , the Eagles qualified for the playoffs during six out of those nine seasons , but they won the NFC East only once , in 1988 . Among the team 's offensive stars during that period were quarterback Randall Cunningham , tight end Keith Jackson , and running back Herschel Walker . But the `` Gang Green '' defense is possibly what defined the team , led by Reggie White , Jerome Brown , Clyde Simmons , Seth Joyner , Wes Hopkins , Mike Golic , Byron Evans , Eric Allen , Andre Waters and Mark McMillian . Lurie era ( 1994 -- present ) ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( December 2010 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Andy Reid speaks with Jeff Garcia in a game against the Redskins . Jeffrey Lurie bought the Eagles on May 6 , 1994 from then - owner Norman Braman for an estimated $185 million . The club is now estimated to be the 17th most valuable sports team , worth $1.314 billion , as valuated in 2014 by Forbes . In Lurie 's first season as owner , the team only had 7 wins , but that was followed by a 10 win season in 1995 . Besides the 10 wins and a playoff berth , 1996 was an eventful year . The uniforms changed from the classic shade of Kelly Green to a darker midnight green , quarterback Randall Cunningham left after 11 seasons , and future fan favorite 13 - year starter Brian Dawkins was drafted in the 2nd round . After slipping to 6 -- 9 -- 1 , and then to 3 -- 13 , head coach Ray Rhodes was fired after four seasons . Andy Reid era ( 1999 -- 2012 ) ( edit ) Jeffrey Lurie has been owner since 1994 . In 1999 , the Eagles hired head coach Andy Reid and drafted quarterback Donovan McNabb . From 1999 until 2004 , the team continually improved , going from 5 -- 11 in 1999 , returning to the playoffs in with an 11 -- 5 record in 2000 , surpassing the Buccaneers in the Wild Card round before losing in the divisional . Moreover , the Eagles played in four straight NFC Championship Games between 2001 and 2004 . In 2001 , the Eagles stayed at 11 -- 5 , beating the Buccaneers and Bears to advance to the NFC championship , where they lost to the St. Louis Rams . In 2002 , the Eagles drafted running back Brian Westbrook , got the 1st round bye with the 2nd seed in the NFC with a 12 -- 4 record , but the Tampa Bay Buccaneers got their revenge in the Championship and eliminated the Eagles . In 2003 , they won the NFC first seed , but Westbrook went down in Week 17 , culminating in a loss to the Carolina Panthers in their 3rd straight NFC Championship . In 2004 , the Philadelphia Eagles had their best season since 1960 , going 13 -- 1 before resting their starters and losing their next 2 , clinching the 1st seed for the second year in a row . McNabb set career highs , completing 64 % of his passes for 3,875 yards , though he did n't play all 16 games . McNabb became the first quarterback ever to throw more than 30 touchdowns and fewer than 10 interceptions in a season . His success could be attributed to the fact that he had a reliable receiver , Terrell Owens , who got 1,200 yards and 14 touchdowns in 14 games . After beating the Vikings and Falcons the Eagles advanced to Super Bowl XXXIX , where they dueled the New England Patriots . Although McNabb threw 3 touchdown passes and 357 yards in the game , and the score was tied 14 -- 14 going into the fourth quarter , the Patriots outscored the Eagles and scored ten straight points . McNabb completed a 30 - yard touchdown pass , and the Eagles defense held the Patriots to a 3 and out , but a crucial interception with 46 seconds left on the clock secured their fate . The Eagles have never appeared in a Super Bowl since , but this was their closest one at winning . Brian Dawkins was one of the premier safeties in the NFL , and earned him the role of Eagles ' defensive captain , and a mainstay on the Eagles . The team took a step back in 2005 with a 6 -- 10 record . McNabb had played with a sports hernia and a broken thumb , starting 4 -- 2 but losing three in a row , before McNabb finally succumbs to injury and is out for the rest of the season . For obnoxious behavior and a feud with McNabb , Owens was suspended after 7 games , eventually being cut . In 2006 , the team lost McNabb 10 games in and went into turmoil , but Westbrook stepped up , and the Eagles earned their fifth NFC East title under Coach Reid , with a 10 -- 6 record and a win in the wild card round , but they had an 8 -- 8 2007 season . In 2008 , the team won their 500th game , and they also drafted DeSean Jackson , a receiving threat when paired with McNabb . On January 11 , 2009 , the team defeated the defending Super Bowl champion and 1st seed New York Giants 23 -- 11 en route to their 5th NFC Championship Game in 8 years and 5th in the 10 years the Eagles have been coached by Andy Reid . In the 2008 NFC Championship Game , the Eagles made a rally , going from 24 -- 6 at halftime to 25 -- 24 with three minutes left in the 4th , but they lost to the Arizona Cardinals by a score of 32 -- 25 after quarterback Kurt Warner scored a last minute touchdown . As of the conclusion of the 2016 season , during the Lurie era , the Eagles are 1 -- 4 in conference championship games and 0 -- 1 in Super Bowls . On August 13 , 2009 , the Eagles signed quarterback Michael Vick . On December 6 , 2009 , Andy Reid became only the 5th coach in NFL history to win 100 or more games with a single team in a single decade . The other four are Tom Landry , Don Shula , Tony Dungy , and Bill Belichick , all Super Bowl winners . McNabb finally had a complete receiving corps , between first round draft pick Jeremy Maclin , DeSean Jackson 's 1,000 yard season , and Brent Celek ranking among the top 5 tight ends in the league . Without Brian Dawkins , defensive end Trent Cole stepped up and became the dominant force on defense with 12 sacks , earning him his second trip to the Pro Bowl and All - Pro honors . In 2009 , the Eagles started 5 -- 4 , but moved up to 11 -- 4 , and could clinch the NFC 2nd seed if they won their next game . After a shutout at the hands of the Dallas Cowboys in week 17 , the Eagles missed the 1st round bye. but with a record of 11 -- 5 , but they were the NFC 6th seed and they narrowly made the playoffs . In the 2009 NFC Wild Card Game , the Eagles played against the Cowboys for the second consecutive week and lost 34 -- 14 . Despite many errors from many players , and a great season before the breakdown in Dallas , McNabb took the brunt of the blow and was heavily criticized . Coach Andy Reid said up until April 1 , 2010 , that McNabb would remain the starter . On March 5 , 2010 , Brian Westbrook was cut from the Eagles after eight seasons with the team . On April 4 , 2010 , the team traded long - time starting quarterback Donovan McNabb to the Washington Redskins in exchange for a second round draft pick . Kevin Kolb was immediately named the starter , but after suffering a concussion in week 1 against the Packers , Vick took over as the starter . Vick led the Eagles to its sixth NFC East division title in ten seasons . With a record of 10 -- 6 the Eagles clinched the 3rd seed and had to play a Wild Card Playoff Game . During the 2010 NFC Wild Card Game , the Eagles faced off against the eventual Super Bowl champion Green Bay Packers and lost 21 -- 16 . The 2011 season for the Eagles was a major disappointment , as they only managed to finish 8 -- 8 and did not qualify for the playoffs , although they did win the last 4 games of the season . Because of several free agent acquisitions , Vince Young , a back up quarterback , stated that the Eagles were a Dream Team . The Philadelphia fan base and faithful never did concur with the comment as some national outlets may comment . Many Eagles fans believe that Vince Young saying that the Eagles were a ' Dream Team ' is the reason that the Eagles had such a horrible season . Eagles fans had high expectations going into the 2012 season . The Eagles started off winning three out of their four first games , but that changed when they lost the next eight games , and were eliminated from the playoff hunt . They only won one out of their last four games . After a loss to the New York Giants on December 30 , 2012 , longtime head coach Andy Reid was fired after fourteen seasons with the team . Chip Kelly era ( 2013 -- 2015 ) ( edit ) On January 16 , 2013 , the Eagles brought in University of Oregon head coach Chip Kelly to succeed Reid as head coach after a 4 -- 12 season . The Philadelphia Eagles named Michael Vick starting quarterback going into the 2013 season with much promise running Chip Kelly 's fast - paced spread offense . Sonny Round was expected to be the lead running back heading into the season , but was traded to the Canadian Football League shortly before the start of the year . The 2013 season proved to be more successful for the Eagles . A hamstring injury took Michael Vick out after a 1 -- 3 start , but his backup , Nick Foles , led the team to a 10 -- 6 regular season record , and its seventh NFC East title in 13 seasons . Before throwing his first interception in Week 14 , Foles threw 19 touchdowns , which was just one shy of the all - time NFL record of consecutive touchdowns without an interception to start a season , set earlier in the season by Peyton Manning . Foles also tied Manning for most touchdown passes in a single - game with seven against the Oakland Raiders which also made him the youngest player in NFL history to throw that many touchdowns in a game . Foles finished the regular season with 27 touchdown passes and only 2 interceptions , giving him the then - best TD - INT ratio in NFL history . ( That record was later broken by Tom Brady , in the 2016 season . ) He also finished with a 119.0 passer rating , third highest in league history behind only Aaron Rodgers in 2011 and Peyton Manning in 2004 . He was also only the second quarterback in NFL history to have a game in which he topped 400 passing yards and a perfect passer rating . LeSean McCoy finished his Pro Bowl season as the league 's top rusher with 1,607 rushing yards ( also a franchise record ) and 2,146 total yards from scrimmage , also best in the NFL . As a whole , the Eagles offense scored 51 touchdowns , most in franchise history passing the previous season high set back in 1948 . The Eagles opened the 2014 season winning their first three games and making NFL history as the only team ever to trail by ten or more points in their first three games and come back to win . Nick Foles struggled with turnovers , but ultimately did well and led the Eagles to a 6 -- 2 record , before breaking his collarbone , resulting in his job getting taken over by Mark Sanchez , who outplayed Foles despite facing more playoff teams . The Eagles held the divisional title from week one to week 15 against the Cowboys . After going 9 -- 3 with their crucial win over the Cowboys , the Eagles lost their next 3 , and a week after losing the NFC East title , they lost an upset against the 3 -- 11 Redskins and were eliminated from playoff contention with the Cowboys ' win over the Colts . Following the 2014 season , Chip Kelly was given total control and made some controversial moves . He traded LeSean McCoy , who had become the team 's all - time leading rusher after the 2014 season , for linebacker Kiko Alonso , a player Kelly coached at Oregon who had missed the entire 2014 season . He also cut ten - year veteran and starter , Trent Cole , who was still a consistent threat on defense and was second only to legend Reggie White on the Eagles all - time sack list . He also made a trade where the highly successful Nick Foles was traded for Sam Bradford , who had missed the entire 2014 season with an ACL tear . Kelly tried to re-sign Jeremy Maclin , who had stepped up as the team 's leading wide receiver , but he signed with the Kansas City Chiefs instead . However , the Eagles also acquired league leading rusher DeMarco Murray , which not only helped the Eagles , but hurt their rivals , the Dallas Cowboys . They also obtained Super Bowl champion Byron Maxwell , who left the Seattle Seahawks in free agency to sign a six - year , $63 million contract . The first two games of the season were disastrous , as they started 0 -- 2 . Bradford had a 2 -- 4 TD - INT ratio , Maxwell was constantly beaten by Falcons receiver Julio Jones , and Murray was held to 11 yards on 21 carries . After Murray was injured , Ryan Mathews rushed for over 100 yards in a Week 3 win against the New York Jets . Kelly made Murray the unquestioned starter and although Murray 's play improved over the season , he never regained his dominant form and was held to a career low 3.6 yards per carry average . On December 29 , 2015 , with one game left in the season , head coach Chip Kelly was released by the Eagles . Offensive Coordinator Pat Shurmur was named Interim Coach for the final game against the rival New York Giants , which Shurmur won 35 -- 30 . Former player and current running backs coach Duce Staley was the first coach to be interviewed for the opening head coaching job on January 2 , 2016 . Doug Pederson era ( 2016 -- present ) ( edit ) Carson Wentz made his debut in the 2016 season The Eagles hired Chiefs offensive coordinator Doug Pederson as their next head coach . The team made the official announcement on Monday , January 18 , 2016 . Eagles owner Jeffrey Lurie said in a statement : `` Doug is a strategic thinker , a compelling leader and communicator , and someone who truly knows how to get the best out of his players . All of these factors were what initially attracted us to Doug and we believe that he is the right man to help us achieve our ultimate goal . '' Pederson had been with the Chiefs for the preceding three years after spending the four seasons previous to those with the Eagles . He served as a quality control assistant for the Eagles in 2009 and 2010 before being promoted to quarterbacks coach for the 2011 and 2012 seasons . He was praised for his work with Chiefs quarterback Alex Smith over the preceding few seasons , particularly 2015 , as the Chiefs moved into the top 10 in scoring offense . At the end of the 2015 season , the Eagles had the 13th pick in the 2016 NFL Draft . They traded Byron Maxwell , Kiko Alonso , and their pick to the Miami Dolphins for the # 8 pick . Later , they traded the # 8 pick , their third - round pick , their fourth - round pick , a 2017 first - round pick , and a 2018 second - round pick to the Cleveland Browns for the # 2 pick and a 2017 fourth - round pick . They would use the # 2 pick to draft North Dakota State quarterback Carson Wentz . On September 3 , 2016 , the Eagles traded starting quarterback Sam Bradford to the Minnesota Vikings , who had lost Teddy Bridgewater for the season , for a 2017 first - round pick and a 2018 fourth - round pick . Following the trade , the Eagles named Wentz the starting quarterback for Week 1 of the 2016 season . First time head coach Pederson led the Eagles to a successful 3 -- 0 start to the season . His rookie quarterback started with 5 touchdowns , 0 interceptions and over 255 yards per game . The week 4 bye took a toll on the Eagles , and they went on to lose their next four out of five games , including a loss to every rival team in their division . In those four games , their average margin of loss was just under 5 points . Continuing on throughout the season , Pederson and the Eagles won just 3 of their last 7 games . Among those included grueling road losses against the Seattle Seahawks , the Cincinnati Bengals , and the Baltimore Ravens . Although 2nd overall pick Wentz started off the season well , the 6 - 5 quarterback finished with a TD -- INT ratio of 16 : 14 . The rookie head coach and rookie quarterback tandem led the Eagles to an ultimately disappointing year , finishing with a 7 -- 9 record and coming in last in the division . Season records ( edit ) Main article : List of Philadelphia Eagles seasons Regular Season Record ( all - time ) : 556 -- 591 -- 26 Playoff Record ( all - time ) : 19 -- 21 ( last appearance after 2013 season ) Most Points in a Season : 474 points ( 2014 ) NFL Championships Won : 3 Super Bowls Won : 0 out of 2 appearances Passing Leader ( all - time ) : Donovan McNabb -- 32,873 yards Rushing Leader ( all - time ) : Lesean McCoy -- 6,792 yards Receiving Leader ( all - time ) : Harold Carmichael -- 8,978 yards Winning - est Coach ( all - time ) : Andy Reid -- 130 wins Top Player by Approximate Value ( all - time ) : Donovan McNabb -- 126 AV Rivalries ( edit ) New York Giants ( edit ) Main article : Eagles -- Giants rivalry One of the NFL 's oldest , this rivalry began on October 15 , 1933 when the Giants defeated the newly founded Eagles 56 -- 0 . The Giants lead the all - time series 85 -- 81 -- 2 . Three of the best known comebacks against the Giants are labeled as `` Miracle In The Meadowlands -- Herm Edwards '' , `` Miracle In The Meadowlands II -- Brian Westbrook '' and `` Miracle In The New Meadowlands -- DeSean Jackson '' . Dallas Cowboys ( edit ) Main article : Cowboys -- Eagles rivalry The Cowboys have been one of the Eagles ' biggest rivals . The Eagles won the first game in this rivalry 27 -- 25 on September 30 , 1960 . Dallas leads the all - time series 63 -- 50 -- 0 . They have been close in recent years , with Dallas winning 12 games from 2006 to the present while the Eagles have won 11 . There is much hostility between the two teams ' fan bases , with incidents such as the 1989 Bounty Bowl . Washington Redskins ( edit ) Main article : Eagles -- Redskins rivalry Not as big as the rivalries between the Giants and Cowboys , that with division rivals Washington Redskins is still fierce . It started in 1934 when the Washington Redskins were first known as the Boston Redskin ; the Redskin defeated the Eagles 6 -- 0 , and lead the all - time series 81 -- 78 -- 5 . The Redskins have owned the rivalry since 2010 , most recently extending their winning streak against the Eagles to 5 consecutive games with a 27 -- 22 victory at the Linc on December 11 , 2016 . The last time the Redskins won 5 or more consecutive games against the Eagles was 1981 -- 84 , during which they won 6 consecutive games . Pittsburgh Steelers ( edit ) Main article : Eagles -- Steelers rivalry The Eagles and Pittsburgh Steelers are both located in Pennsylvania and began play in 1933 . From that season , through 1966 , this was a major rivalry for both teams as both were part of the same division . In 1967 , they were placed in separate divisions but remained in the same conference for three years . Finally , in 1970 , the Steelers ( along with the Cleveland Browns and Baltimore Colts ) moved to the American Football Conference while the Eagles stayed with the rest of the old - line NFL teams in the National Football Conference . As a result , the Eagles and Steelers no longer played each other every year . Currently they are scheduled to meet once every four years in the regular season , the most recent meeting being in 2016 at Philadelphia , with the Eagles winning 34 - 3 . The Steelers have lost nine straight games on the road against the Eagles dating back to 1966 , which was also the start of the Super Bowl era . The Eagles lead the all - time series 48 -- 28 -- 3 . Logo and uniforms ( edit ) See also : Uniform ( American football ) and footnote about Eagles ' uniform numbers . For several decades , the Eagles ' colors were kelly green , silver , and white . In 1954 , the Eagles , along with the Baltimore Colts , became the second team ever in the NFL to put a logo on their helmets , with silver wings on a kelly green helmet . In 1969 , the team wore two helmet versions : Kelly green with white wings in road games , and white with kelly green wings at home . From 1970 to ' 73 , they wore the white helmets with Kelly green wings exclusively before switching back to Kelly green helmets with silver wings . By 1974 , Joseph A. Scirrotto Jr. designed the silver wings took on a white outline , and this style on a kelly green helmet became standard for over two decades . From 1948 -- 95 , the team logo was an eagle in flight carrying a football in its claws , although from ' 69 -- 72 , the eagle took on a more stylized look . As the design was similar to the Apollo 11 emblem , and its moon - landing craft was dubbed Eagle , players wore the flight 's mission patch on their jerseys during 1969 . In 1973 , the team 's name was added below the eagle , which returned to its pre - ' 69 look . However , both the logo and uniforms were radically altered in 1996 . The primary kelly green color was changed to a darker shade , officially described as `` midnight green . '' Silver was practically abandoned , as uniform pants moved to either white or midnight green . The traditional helmet wings were changed to a primarily white color , with silver and black accents . The team 's logo combination ( the eagle and club name lettering ) also changed in 1996 , with the eagle itself limited to a white ( bald eagle ) head , drawn in a less realistic , more cartoon - based style , and the lettering changing from calligraphic to block letters . Since the 1996 alterations , the team has made only minor alterations , mostly relating to jersey / pant combinations worn during specific games . For example , in 1997 , against the San Francisco 49ers , the team wore midnight green jerseys and pants for the first of only two occasions in team history . The second occasion was in 2002 , during the final regular season game at Veterans Stadium , a win over the division - rival Washington Redskins . A year later , in the first two games of the 2003 season ( both home losses to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers and New England Patriots ) , the Eagles wore white jerseys with white pants . Since 2003 , the white jerseys along with white pants have been worn during preseason games . The 2003 season also saw the first ( though only subtle ) change to the 1996 - style uniform . On both white and green jerseys , black shadows and silver trim were added to both the green and white numbering . The stripe on the pants changed from black - green - black to black - silver - green on the white pants , and from a solid black stripe to one stripe of black , another of silver , with one small white stripe in between for the midnight blue pants . The 2003 season also saw the team debut black alternate jerseys , with a green ( instead of black ) shadow on white numbers , and silver trim . These black jerseys have been worn for two selected home games each season ( usually the first home game after bye week and the season finale ) . In the 2003 and 2004 regular - season home finales , the team wore the green road pants with the black alternate jerseys , but lost each game . Since then , the Eagles have only worn the black jerseys with the white pants . However , due to the special 75th anniversary uniforms serving as the `` alternates '' for one game in 2007 , the Eagles could not wear the alternate black jersey that season per league rules ( alternate uniforms are permitted twice per season but only one can be used ) . The black jerseys with white pants , however , re-appeared for the 2008 Thanksgiving night game against the Arizona Cardinals . The black jerseys were most recently used in a December 21 , 2016 game against the New York Giants , in which they won 24 - 19 . From 2006 -- 2013 , the Eagles have only worn the alternate black jerseys once a season and for the last November home game , but did not use them in 2007 , 2010 , and 2011 . For the 2007 and 2010 seasons , the Eagles used throwback uniforms in place of the black alternates for their anniversary to commemorate past teams . The team also started wearing black shoes exclusively in 2004 . Since 2014 , the Eagles have worn the black jersey twice per season . In 2016 , they wore the black jersey three times . To celebrate the team 's 75th anniversary , the 2007 uniforms featured a 75th - season logo patch on the left shoulder . In addition , the team wore `` throwback '' jerseys in a 2007 game against the Detroit Lions . The yellow and blue jerseys , the same colors found on Philadelphia 's city flag , are based on those worn by the Philadelphia Eagles in the team 's inaugural season , and were the same colors used by the former Frankford Yellow Jackets franchise prior to their suspension of operations in 1931 . The Eagles beat Detroit , 56 -- 21 . The Philadelphia Eagles wear their white jerseys at home for preseason games and daytime games in the first half of the regular season from September to mid-October when the temperature is warmer . In night contests in the first half of the regular season , the Eagles do not need to wear white at home since the temperature is cooler . However , there have been exceptions , such as the home opener against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in 2003 and the Washington Redskins in 2007 that were played at night . In late October or beginning in November , the Eagles start to wear their colors at home ( although they have done it earlier before ) , be it the midnight green jerseys or a third jersey . On one occasion the Eagles wore white at home after October in a meeting against the Dallas Cowboys on November 4 , 2007 to make the Cowboys wear their road blue jerseys . Since moving to Lincoln Financial Field in 2003 , the Eagles have worn white at home for at least their home opener , with the exceptions for the 2010 home opener ( see next paragraph ) , the 2011 home opener against the New York Giants , the 2016 home opener against the Cleveland Browns , and the 2017 home opener against the Giants . In the 2010 season against the Green Bay Packers , on September 12 , 2010 , the Eagles wore uniforms similar to the ones that were worn by the 1960 championship team in honor the 50th anniversary of that team . In weeks 4 and 6 of the 2010 season , the Eagles wore their white jerseys in a match - up against the Washington Redskins and Atlanta Falcons respectively before reverting to their midnight green jerseys for the rest of their home games . For the 2011 season , the Eagles did not wear white for any of their home games . For the 2012 season Nike took over from Reebok as the NFL 's official apparel licensee but the Eagles decided that they would not be adopting Nike 's `` Elite 51 '' uniform technology . Aside from the Nike logo replacing the Reebok logo , the only other change is the league - wide revision of the NFL shield on the uniform ( replacing the NFL Equipment logo ) , other than that the uniforms essentially remain unchanged . The Eagles also revived their black alternate jersey . For the 2013 season , the Eagles started to wear white pants , as an alternate to their green pants , with their white jerseys , in the regular season . For the 2014 season the Eagles have officially adopted the `` Elite 51 '' style uniform from Nike . Recently the team has discussed bringing back the `` Kelly Green '' uniforms similar to the uniforms worn in the 1960 NFL Championship season and which were last worn in the 2010 season opener vs. Green Bay . Traditionally kelly green , silver and white had been the official team color until 1996 season when it switched to the current `` Midnight Green '' uniforms . But due to the NFL rules and restrictions having a team go through a waiting period before any major uniform changes and alterations can be made , it would most likely be quite some time before any uniform changes are officially made . In Week 6 of 2014 against the New York Giants , the team introduced black pants to complement their black jerseys , giving them a blackout uniform set , the Eagles won the game 27 -- 0 . The victory was their first shutout in 18 years . The blackout uniform was most recently worn in a Week 16 victory , 24 - 19 , against the Giants in 2016 . The Eagles are 4 -- 3 in their blackout uniforms : winning three times against the Giants and once against the Minnesota Vikings , and losing against the Seattle Seahawks , Arizona Cardinals , and Green Bay Packers . Training camp ( edit ) The Eagles previously held their preseason training camp from the end of July through mid-August each year at Lehigh University in Bethlehem , Pennsylvania in the Lehigh Valley . With the addition of new head coach Chip Kelly , the Eagles recently moved their training camp to the NovaCare Complex in Philadelphia . Training camps were previously held at Chestnut Hill Academy in 1935 , Saint Joseph 's University in 1939 and 1943 , Saranac Lake from 1946 -- 1948 , Hershey from 1951 -- 1967 , Albright College from 1968 -- 1972 , Widener University from 1973 -- 1979 , and West Chester University from 1980 -- 1995 . Fight song ( edit ) For more details on this topic , see Fly , Eagles Fly . This fight song is heard during Eagles ' home games after touchdowns and before the team is introduced prior to kickoff . Fans ( edit ) Full house at `` The Linc '' for a 2011 playoff game Devotion ( edit ) Although the method may vary , studies that attempt to rank the 32 fan bases in the NFL consistently place Eagles fans among the best in the league , noting their `` unmatched fervor . '' Eagles fans have numerous dedicated web communities , ranking the Eagles just behind the Phillies as the dominant Philadelphia sports presence on the web . The American City Business Journals , which conducts a regular study to determine the most loyal fans in the NFL , evaluates fans based primarily on attendance - related factors , and ranked Eagles fans third in both 1999 and 2006 . The 2006 study called the fans `` incredibly loyal '' , noting that they filled 99.8 % of the seats in the stadium over the previous decade . Forbes placed the Eagles fans first in its 2008 survey , which was based on the correlation between team performance and fan attendance . ESPN.com placed Eagles fans fourth in the league in its 2008 survey , citing the connection between the team 's performance and the mood of the city . The last home game which was blacked out on television in the Philadelphia market as a result of not being sold out was against the Arizona Cardinals on Sunday , September 12 , 1999 , which was Andy Reid 's first home game as new head coach of the Eagles . The studies note that -- win or lose -- Eagles fans can be counted on to pack their stadium . As of August 2008 , the team had sold out 71 consecutive games , and 70,000 were on the team 's waiting list for season tickets . Despite finishing with a 6 -- 10 record in the 2005 -- 2006 season , the Eagles ranked second in the NFL in merchandise sales , and single - game tickets for the next season were sold out minutes after phone and Internet lines opened . Eagles fans have also been known to chant the famous , `` E-A-G-L-E-S -- Eagles ! ! '' at Flyers , Phillies , and Sixers games when the team is getting blown out late in a game and a loss is inevitable , signifying their displeasure with the given team 's performance , and that they are instead putting their hope into the Eagles . Bad behavior ( edit ) Along with their fierce devotion , Eagles fans have a reputation for bad behavior and sports - related violence , especially when the team plays its rivals . In If Football 's a Religion , Why Do n't We Have a Prayer ? , Jereé Longman described the fans of the 700 Level of Veterans Stadium as having a reputation for `` hostile taunting , fighting , public urination and general strangeness . '' So many incidents occurred at a 1997 game against the 49ers that at the following home game , Judge Seamus McCaffrey began presiding over a temporary courtroom at the stadium ; 20 suspects came before him that day . Fan behavior improved after the team 's move to Lincoln Financial Field , and `` Eagles Court '' ended in December 2003 . Eagles Cheerleaders ( edit ) Eagles Cheerleaders doing a routine in 2008 . Main article : Philadelphia Eagles Cheerleaders The team also has its own cheerleading squad , who performs a variety of dance moves for the fans and the Eagles on the sideline . The squad also releases a swimsuit calendar each year , and is the first squad in the league to release the calendar on the Android and iOS mobile systems . Current roster ( edit ) Philadelphia Eagles roster view talk Quarterbacks 9 Nick Foles 11 Carson Wentz Running backs 38 Kenjon Barner 29 LeGarrette Blount 30 Corey Clement 28 Wendell Smallwood Wide receivers 13 Nelson Agholor 18 Shelton Gibson 10 Mack Hollins 17 Alshon Jeffery 14 Marcus Johnson 82 Torrey Smith Tight ends 88 Trey Burton 87 Brent Celek 86 Zach Ertz Offensive linemen 79 Brandon Brooks G 77 Taylor Hart T 65 Lane Johnson T 62 Jason Kelce C 73 Isaac Seumalo G 72 Halapoulivaati Vaitai T 67 Chance Warmack G 61 Stefen Wisniewski G Defensive linemen 94 Beau Allen DT 96 Derek Barnett DE 91 Fletcher Cox DT 75 Vinny Curry DE 55 Brandon Graham DE 90 Justin Hamilton DT 93 Timmy Jernigan DT 56 Chris Long DE 51 Steven Means DE 98 Elijah Qualls DT 97 Destiny Vaeao DT Linebackers 53 Nigel Bradham OLB 47 Nathan Gerry OLB 52 Najee Goode OLB 54 Kamu Grugier - Hill OLB 58 Jordan Hicks MLB 95 Mychal Kendricks OLB 59 Joe Walker MLB Defensive backs 41 Ronald Darby CB 32 Rasul Douglas CB 24 Corey Graham FS 27 Malcolm Jenkins SS 33 Dexter McDougle CB 23 Rodney McLeod FS 31 Jalen Mills CB 21 Patrick Robinson CB 26 Jaylen Watkins SS Special teams 4 Jake Elliott K 45 Rick Lovato LS 8 Donnie Jones P Reserve lists -- Randall Goforth CB ( IR ) 22 Sidney Jones CB ( NF - Inj . ) 42 Chris Maragos FS ( IR ) 71 Jason Peters T ( IR ) 34 Donnel Pumphrey RB ( IR ) -- Aziz Shittu DT ( IR ) 43 Darren Sproles RB ( IR ) 6 Caleb Sturgis K ( IR ) -- Dom Williams WR ( IR ) Practice squad 68 Josh Andrews G 36 De'Vante Bausby CB 85 Billy Brown TE 48 Don Cherry LB 4 Rashard Davis WR 69 Dillon Gordon OT 35 D.J. Killings CB 39 Byron Marshall RB 7 Nate Sudfeld QB 89 Greg Ward Jr . WR Rookies in italics Roster updated October 25 , 2017 Depth chart Transactions 53 Active , 8 Inactive , 10 Practice squad → AFC rosters → NFC rosters AFC East BUF MIA NE NYJ North BAL CIN CLE PIT South HOU IND JAX TEN West DEN KC LAC OAK NFC East DAL NYG PHI WAS North CHI DET GB MIN South ATL CAR NO TB West ARI LAR SF SEA List of Philadelphia Eagles players ( past and present ) ( edit ) Main article : List of Philadelphia Eagles players Awards and honors ( edit ) Retired numbers ( edit ) Philadelphia Eagles retired numbers No . Player Position Years played 5 Donovan McNabb QB 1999 -- 2009 15 Steve Van Buren HB 1944 -- 1951 20 Brian Dawkins 1996 -- 2008 40 Tom Brookshier CB 1953 -- 1961 44 Pete Retzlaff RB , WR , TE 1956 -- 1966 60 Chuck Bednarik LB , C 1949 -- 1962 70 Al Wistert OT 1943 -- 1951 92 Reggie White DE 1985 -- 1992 99 Jerome Brown DT 1987 -- 1991 Notes : Posthumous honors . Despite not being retired , no one has ever worn Randall Cunningham 's No. 12 since he left the Eagles . Pro Football Hall of Famers ( edit ) Eagles legend Steve Van Buren Main article : List of Pro Football Hall of Fame inductees Eagles in the Pro Football Hall of Fame Players No . Name Positions Seasons Inducted No . Name Positions Seasons Inducted 60 Chuck Bednarik C -- LB 1949 -- 1962 1967 33 Ollie Matson RB 1964 -- 1966 1972 76 Bob Brown OT 1964 -- 1968 25 Tommy McDonald WR 1957 -- 1963 1998 80 Cris Carter WR 1987 -- 1989 2013 85 James Arthur `` Art '' Monk WR 1995 2008 95 Richard Dent DE 1997 2011 35 Pete Pihos TE -- DE 1947 -- 1955 1970 89 Mike Ditka TE 1967 -- 1968 1988 54 Jim Ringo 1964 -- 1967 1981 86 Bud Grant WR -- DE 1951 -- 1952 1994 11 Norm Van Brocklin QB 1958 -- 1960 1971 56 Bill Hewitt End - FB 1937 -- 1939 , 1943 1971 15 Steve Van Buren HB 1944 -- 1951 1965 87 Claude Humphrey DE 1979 -- 1981 2014 92 Reggie White DE 1985 -- 1992 2006 9 Sonny Jurgensen QB 1957 -- 1963 53 Alex Wojciechowicz C -- DT 1946 -- 1950 1968 80 James Lofton WR 1993 2003 Coaches and Executives Name Positions Seasons Inducted Bert Bell Owner / Founder 1933 -- 1940 1963 Wayne Millner Assistant Coach 1951 1968 Earle `` Greasy '' Neale Head Coach 1941 -- 1950 1969 Mike McCormack Head Coach 1973 -- 1975 1984 Eagles Hall of Fame ( edit ) See also : Category : American football museums and halls of fame . In 1987 , the Eagles Honor Roll was established . Every Eagles player who had by then been elected into the Pro Football Hall of Fame was among the inaugural induction class . By 2012 , the Honor Roll had been retitled as the Eagles Hall of Fame . Players are considered for induction three years after their retirement from the NFL , and there have been 41 inductees into the Eagles Hall of Fame as of 2015 . Eagles Hall of Fame Year No . Name Position ( s ) Tenure 60 Chuck Bednarik C -- LB 1949 -- 1962 -- Bert Bell Founder - Owner 1933 -- 1940 17 Harold Carmichael WR 1971 -- 1983 56 Bill Hewitt TE -- DE 1936 -- 1939 , 1943 9 Sonny Jurgensen QB 1957 -- 1963 33 Ollie Matson RB 1964 -- 1966 31 Wilbert Montgomery RB 1977 -- 1984 -- Earle `` Greasy '' Neale Head Coach 1941 -- 1950 35 Pete Pihos TE -- DE 1947 -- 1955 54 Jim Ringo 1964 -- 1967 11 Norm Van Brocklin QB 1958 -- 1960 15 Steve Van Buren HB 1944 -- 1951 53 Alex Wojciechowicz C -- DT 1946 -- 1950 1988 66 Bill Bergey LB 1974 -- 1980 25 Tommy McDonald WR 1957 -- 1963 1989 40 Tom Brookshier CB 1954 -- 1961 44 Pete Retzlaff TE 1956 -- 1966 1990 22 Timmy Brown RB 1960 -- 1967 1991 76 Jerry Sisemore OT 1973 -- 1987 75 Stan Walters OT 1975 -- 1983 1992 7 Ron Jaworski QB 1977 -- 1986 1993 28 Bill Bradley S -- P 1969 -- 1976 1994 -- Dick Vermeil Head Coach 1976 -- 1982 1995 -- Jim Gallagher Team Executive 1949 -- 1995 82 Mike Quick WR 1982 -- 1990 99 Jerome Brown DT 1987 -- 1991 1999 -- Otho Davis Head Trainer 1973 -- 1995 1948 NFL Championship team 1949 NFL Championship team 76 Bob Brown OT 1964 -- 1968 2005 92 Reggie White DE 1985 -- 1992 2009 70 Al Wistert OT 1943 -- 1951 12 Randall Cunningham QB -- P 1985 -- 1995 2011 21 Eric Allen CB 1988 -- 1994 -- Jim Johnson Defensive Coordinator 1999 -- 2008 2012 -- Leo Carlin Ticket Manager 1960 -- 2015 20 Brian Dawkins 1996 -- 2008 23 Troy Vincent CB 1996 -- 2003 2013 5 Donovan McNabb QB 1999 -- 2009 2015 36 Brian Westbrook RB 2002 -- 2009 55 Maxie Baughan LB 1960 -- 1965 2016 54 Jeremiah Trotter LB 1998 -- 2001 , 2004 -- 2006 , 2009 - Merrill Reese Radio Play by Play 1977 -- Present 2017 David Akers 1999 - 2010 75th anniversary team ( edit ) Philadelphia Eagles 75th Anniversary Team ( 2007 ) Offense McNabb ( QB ) Van Buren ( RB ) Byars ( FB ) Carmichael ( WR ) McDonald ( WR ) Pihos ( TE ) Thomas ( LT ) Key ( LG ) Bednarik ( C ) Andrews ( RG ) Runyan ( RT ) Defense Simmons ( DE ) White ( DE ) J. Brown ( DT ) Johnson ( DT ) Bednarik ( MLB ) Joyner ( OLB ) Wojciechowicz ( OLB ) Allen ( CB ) Vincent ( CB ) Waters ( SS ) Dawkins ( FS ) Special teams T. Brown ( KR ) Westbrook ( PR ) Akers ( PK ) Landeta ( P ) Papale ( ST ) Coach Andy Reid John Wanamaker Athletic Award ( Philadelphia Sports Congress ) ( edit ) See footnote Philadelphia Sports Hall of Fame ( edit ) Main article : Philadelphia Sports Hall of Fame Pennsylvania Sports Hall of Fame ( edit ) See : Pennsylvania Sports Hall of Fame # Football Franchise records ( edit ) Source : pro-football-reference.com Eagles Franchise Page Passing ( edit ) Regular Season Playoffs Rookie Career Season Game Career Season Game Season Game Completions 2801 Donovan McNabb 379 Carson Wentz 2016 37 Mark Sanchez 2014 - 12 - 20 @ WAS Sam Bradford 2015 - 12 - 26 WAS 341 Donovan McNabb 73 Donovan McNabb 2008 30 Donovan McNabb 2005 - 02 - 06 NNWE 379 Carson Wentz 2016 36 Carson Wentz 2016 - 12 - 04 @ CIN Pass Attempts 4746 Donovan McNabb 607 Carson Wentz 2016 62 Randall Cunningham 1989 - 10 - 02 @ CHI Nick Foles 2014 - 10 - 26 @ ARI 577 Donovan McNabb 121 Donovan McNabb 2008 54 Randall Cunningham 1988 - 12 - 31 @ CHI 607 Carson Wentz 2016 60 Carson Wentz 2016 - 12 - 04 @ CIN Passing Yards 32873 Donovan McNabb 3916 Donovan McNabb 2008 464 Donovan McNabb 2004 - 12 - 05 GNB 3752 Donovan McNabb 892 Donovan McNabb 2008 407 Randall Cunningham 1988 - 12 - 31 @ CHI 3782 Carson Wentz 2016 381 Nick Foles 2012 - 12 - 09 @ TAM Passing TDs 216 Donovan McNabb 32 Sonny Jurgensen 1961 7 Nick Foles 2013 - 11 - 03 @ OAK 24 Donovan McNabb 7 Donovan McNabb Ron Jaworski 1979 - 12 - 23 CHI Rodney Peete 1995 - 12 - 30 DET Donovan McNabb 2005 - 02 - 06 NNWE 2009 - 01 - 18 @ ARI 16 Carson Wentz 2016 Scott Tinsley 1987 - 10 - 11 @ DAL Donovan McNabb 2000 - 01 - 02 STL Intercepted 151 Ron Jaworski 26 Sonny Jurgensen 1962 6 Bobby Thomason 1956 - 10 - 21 CRD Pete Liske 1971 - 09 - 26 DAL 17 Donovan McNabb 7 Ron Jaworski 1980 Ron Jaworski 1981 - 01 - 25 NOAK Randall Cunningham 1988 - 12 - 31 @ CHI Donovan McNabb 2004 - 01 - 18 CAR 2005 - 02 - 06 NNWE 17 Davey O'Brien 1939 Randall Cunningham 1985 - 09 - 15 RAM Scott Tinsley 1987 - 10 - 18 @ GNB Brad Goebel 1991 - 10 - 13 NOR Passer Rating 94.2 + Nick Foles 119.2 # Nick Foles 2013 158.3 * Donovan McNabb 2007 - 09 - 23 DET Nick Foles 2013 - 11 - 03 @ OAK 83.6 # Jeff Garcia 132.4 * Rodney Peete 1995 143.3 * Rodney Peete 1995 - 12 - 30 DET 79.3 # Carson Wentz 2016 131.7 * Scott Tinsley 1987 - 10 - 11 @ DAL Sacked 422 Randall Cunningham 72 Randall Cunningham 1986 12 Donovan McNabb 2007 - 09 - 30 @ NYG 48 Donovan McNabb 12 Donovan McNabb 2003 8 Donovan McNabb 2004 - 01 - 11 GNB 38 John Reaves 1972 7 Randall Cunningham 1985 - 09 - 29 NYG Yds / Pass Att 8.71 + Sonny Jurgensen 9.12 # Nick Foles 2013 16.29 * Sonny Jurgensen 1962 - 11 - 25 DAL 6.5 # Donovan McNabb Randall Cunningham 10.2 * Norm Van Brocklin 1960 10.8 * Rodney Peete 1995 - 12 - 30 DET 6.73 # John Reaves 1972 12.47 * Randall Cunningham 1985 - 09 - 22 @ WAS Pass Yds / Game 266.1 + Sam Bradford 278.6 # Donovan McNabb 2005 - 234.5 # Donovan McNabb 407 * Randall Cunningham 1988 - 242.7 # Nick Foles 2012 - + = min . 500 attempts , # = min . 100 attempts , ∗ = minimum 15 attempts , Rushing ( edit ) Regular Season Playoffs Rookie Statistic Career Season Game Career Season Game Season Game Rush Attempts 1465 Wilbert Montgomery 353 Ricky Watters 35 Heath Sherman 1990 - 11 - 12 WAS 141 Wilbert Montgomery 68 Wilbert Montgomery 1980 26 Wilbert Montgomery 1979 - 12 - 23 CHI 1981 - 01 - 03 MIN 1981 - 01 - 11 DAL 182 Po James 1972 28 Charlie Garner 1994 - 10 - 09 WAS Rush Yards 6792 LeSean McCoy 1607 LeSean McCoy 2013 217 LeSean McCoy 2013 - 12 - 08 DET 591 Brian Westbrook 312 Wilbert Montgomery 1980 194 Wilbert Montgomery 1981 - 01 - 11 DAL 637 LeSean McCoy 2009 178 Bryce Brown 2012 - 11 - 26 CAR Rush Yds / Att 6.62 Randall Cunningham 7.98 Randall Cunningham 1990 11.63 Timmy Brown 1965 - 11 - 07 @ CLE 5.86 Donovan McNabb 7.79 Brian Westbrook 2006 7.46 Wilbert Montgomery 1981 - 01 - 11 DAL 4.9 Bryce Brown 2012 9.37 Bryce Brown 2012 - 11 - 26 CAR Rushing TDs 69 Steve Van Buren 17 LeSean McCoy 2011 Wilbert Montgomery 1979 - 10 - 07 WAS 1982 - 12 - 19 HOU LeSean McCoy 2010 - 09 - 19 @ DET 6 Wilbert Montgomery Wilbert Montgomery 1980 Brian Westbrook 2006 Wilbert Montgomery 1981 - 01 - 03 MIN 1981 - 12 - 27 NYG Ken Keller 1956 LeSean McCoy 2009 Bryce Brown 2012 Wilbert Montgomery 1977 - 12 - 18 NYJ James Joseph 1991 - 11 - 04 NYG Charlie Garner 1994 - 10 - 02 @ SFO Bryce Brown 2012 - 11 - 26 CAR 2012 - 12 - 02 @ DAL Rush Yds / Game 79 Ricky Watters 100.4 LeSean McCoy 2013 - 74 Wilbert Montgomery 128.5 Brian Westbrook 2006 - 70.1 Mike Hogan 1976 - ∗ = minimum 15 attempts , # = min . 100 attempts , + = min . 500 attempts Receiving ( edit ) Regular Season Playoffs Rookie Statistic Career Season Game Career Season Game Season Game Receptions 589 Harold Carmichael 90 Brian Westbrook 2007 13 Jeremy Maclin 2011 - 09 - 18 @ ATL Zach Ertz 2017 - 01 - 01 DAL 38 Chad Lewis 19 Brent Celek 2008 10 Brent Celek 2009 - 01 - 18 @ ARI 81 Keith Jackson 1988 11 Junior Tautalatasi 1986 - 11 - 09 NYG Receiving Yds 8,978 Harold Carmichael 1409 Mike Quick 237 Tommy McDonald 1961 - 12 - 10 NYG 465 Harold Carmichael 211 Kevin Curtis 2008 146 Jeremy Maclin 2010 - 01 - 09 @ DAL 912 DeSean Jackson 2008 177 Hank Baskett 2006 - 12 - 31 ATL Yds / Rec 19.16 + Tommy McDonald 21.44 # Ben Hawkins 1967 52.5 * DeSean Jackson 2010 - 12 - 12 @ DAL 16.03 # Harold Carmichael 23.5 * Donte ' Stallworth 2006 30.5 * Kevin Curtis 2009 - 01 - 18 @ ARI 21.09 # Hank Baskett 2006 28.5 * Fred Barnett 1990 - 10 - 15 MIN Receiving TDs 79 Harold Carmichael 14 Terrell Owens Ben Hawkins 1969 - 09 - 28 PIT 6 Harold Carmichael Harold Carmichael 1979 Brent Celek 2008 Harold Carmichael 1979 - 12 - 23 CHI Fred Barnett 1993 - 01 - 03 @ NOR Chad Lewis 2005 - 01 - 23 ATL Brent Celek 2009 - 01 - 18 @ ARI 9 Calvin Williams 1990 ( 9 times ) Rec Yds / Game 70.3 + DeSean Jackson 90.4 # Ben Hawkins 1967 - 66.4 # Harold Carmichael 146 * Jeremy Maclin 2009 - 64.3 # Don Looney 1940 - ∗ = minimum 4 receptions , # = min . 20 receptions , + = min . 200 receptions Other ( edit ) Regular Season Playoffs Rookie Statistic Career Season Game Career Season Game Season Game Total TDs 79 Harold Carmichael 20 LeSean McCoy 2011 Ben Hawkins 1969 - 09 - 28 PIT Wilbert Montgomery 1978 - 09 - 10 @ WAS 1979 - 10 - 07 WAS Brian Westbrook 2008 - 11 - 27 ARI 6 Brian Westbrook Wilbert Montgomery Harold Carmichael Harold Carmichael 1979 Wilbert Montgomery 1980 Duce Staley 2001 Brian Westbrook 2006 Brent Celek 2008 ( 8 times ) 9 Calvin Williams 1990 ( 15 times ) Yds from Scrimmage 9,785 Brian Westbrook 2146 LeSean McCoy 2013 249 Timmy Brown 1962 - 12 - 16 @ STL 925 Brian Westbrook 443 Wilbert Montgomery 1980 208 Wilbert Montgomery 1981 - 01 - 11 DAL 878 Charle Young 1973 189 Bryce Brown 2012 - 11 - 26 CAR All Purpose Yds 12,049 Timmy Brown 2428 Timmy Brown 1963 341 Timmy Brown 1962 - 12 - 16 @ STL 953 Brian Westbrook 443 Wilbert Montgomery 1980 208 Wilbert Montgomery 1981 - 01 - 11 DAL 940 Steve Van Buren 1944 231 Kevin Bowman 1987 - 10 - 11 @ DAL Returning ( edit ) Regular Season Playoffs Career Season Game Career Season Game Kick Returns 169 Timmy Brown 54 Allen Rossum 1999 8 Derrick Witherspoon 1996 - 11 - 24 @ ARI Allen Rossum 1999 - 11 - 21 IND Quintin Demps 2008 - 11 - 09 NYG 22 Brian Mitchell 11 Brian Mitchell 2001 6 Brian Mitchell 2002 - 01 - 27 @ STL Kick Ret Yds 4,483 Timmy Brown 1347 Allen Rossum 1999 253 Derrick Witherspoon 1996 - 11 - 24 @ ARI 522 Brian Mitchell 239 Brian Mitchell 2001 128 Brian Mitchell 2002 - 01 - 27 @ STL Yds / KR 27.74 Josh Huff 33.25 Steve Van Buren 1944 59 Timmy Brown 1963 - 09 - 22 STL 25.29 J.R. Reed 26.8 Brian Mitchell 2002 31.25 Brian Mitchell 2003 - 01 - 19 TAM Kick Ret TDs 5 Timmy Brown Timmy Brown 1966 Derrick Witherspoon Timmy Brown 1966 - 11 - 06 DAL 0 Punt Returns 148 Wally Henry 54 Wally Henry 1981 9 Larry Marshall 1977 - 09 - 18 TAM 16 Brian Mitchell 8 Wally Henry 1979 John Sciarra 1980 6 John Sciarra 1981 - 01 - 11 DAL Punt Ret Yds 1369 Brian Mitchell 567 Brian Mitchell 2002 140 Alvin Haymond 1968 - 10 - 06 @ WAS 174 DeSean Jackson 122 DeSean Jackson 2008 109 DeSean Jackson 2009 - 01 - 04 @ MIN Yds / PR 14.71 Ernie Steele 20.44 Ernie Steele 1942 33 Brian Mitchell 2002 - 11 - 25 @ SFO 15.82 DeSean Jackson 17.43 DeSean Jackson 2008 21.8 DeSean Jackson 2009 - 01 - 04 @ MIN Punt Ret TDs DeSean Jackson Darren Sproles Brian Westbrook 2003 DeSean Jackson 2009 Darren Sproles 2014 , 2015 ( 8 times ) 0 Total Return Yds 4,997 Timmy Brown 1729 Brian Mitchell 2002 234 Vai Sikahema 1992 - 11 - 22 @ NYG 657 Brian Mitchell 296 Brian Mitchell 2001 159 Brian Mitchell 2003 - 01 - 19 TAM Defense ( edit ) Regular Season Playoffs Career Season Game Career Season Game Interceptions 34 Bill Bradley Brian Dawkins Eric Allen 11 Bill Bradley 1971 Don Burroughs 1961 - 12 - 03 @ PIT Nate Ramsey 1965 - 11 - 28 @ STL Jim Nettles 1965 - 12 - 12 @ PIT Joe Scarpati 1966 - 10 - 23 @ NYG 5 Herm Edwards Roynell Young 1980 Damon Moore 2001 Herm Edwards 1981 - 01 - 03 MIN Roynell Young 1981 - 01 - 03 MIN Eric Allen 1993 - 01 - 03 @ NOR Damon Moore 2002 - 01 - 12 TAM Int Ret Yds 536 Bill Bradley 248 Bill Bradley 1971 114 Frank LeMaster 1975 - 12 - 21 @ WAS 77 Damon Moore 77 Damon Moore 2001 59 Damon Moore 2002 - 01 - 12 TAM Int Ret TDs 5 Eric Allen Eric Allen 1993 Eric Allen 1993 - 12 - 26 NOR ( 6 times ) Sacks ( since 1982 ) 124 Reggie White 21 Reggie White 4.5 Clyde Simmons 1991 - 09 - 15 @ DAL Hugh Douglas 1998 - 10 - 18 @ SDG Derrick Burgess Hugh Douglas Carl Hairston Reggie White Carl Hairston 1980 Derrick Burgess Carl Hairston 1981 - 01 - 03 MIN Hugh Douglas 2000 - 12 - 31 TAM Derrick Burgess 2005 - 01 - 23 ATL Darwin Walker 2007 - 01 - 13 @ NOR Exceptional performances ( edit ) Statistic Career Season Playoff Games Rookie Games 300 + yard passing games 30 Donovan McNabb 6 Donovan McNabb Donovan McNabb Carson Wentz 2016 100 + yard rushing games 26 Wilbert Montgomery 8 Wilbert Montgomery 1981 Brian Westbrook 2006 Brian Westbrook Don Johnson 1953 Mike Hogan 1976 Charlie Garner 1994 Bryce Brown 2012 100 + yard receiving games 23 Pete Retzlaff 8 Terrell Owens Fred Barnett Keith Jackson Charle Young 1973 Games with 1 + TD scored 69 Harold Carmichael 13 LeSean McCoy 2011 5 Harold Carmichael Duce Staley Brian Westbrook 9 Calvin Williams 1990 Games with 2 + TD scored 18 Brian Westbrook 6 LeSean McCoy 2011 Wilbert Montgomery Bryce Brown 2012 Jordan Matthews 2014 Games with 3 + TD scored 7 Brian Westbrook Pete Retzlaff 1965 Wilbert Montgomery 1982 Terrell Owens Brian Westbrook 2007 , 2008 - - Coaches of note ( edit ) Main article : List of Philadelphia Eagles head coaches Current staff ( edit ) Philadelphia Eagles staff Front Office Chairman / CEO -- Jeffrey Lurie President -- Don Smolenski Executive Vice President of Football Operations -- Howie Roseman Senior Football Advisor -- Tom Donahoe Vice President of Player Personnel - Joe Douglas Assistant Director of Player Personnel - Andy Weidl Vice President of Football Operations and Strategy - Alec Halaby Senior Director of College Scouting - Anthony Patch Director of College Scouting -- Ian Cunningham Assistant Director of College Scouting - Mike Bradway Director of Pro Scouting -- Dwayne Joseph Assistant Director of Pro Scouting - Brandon Brown Director of Football Administration -- Jake Rosenberg Football Operations Executive - Brian Dawkins Player Personnel Executive - T.J. McCreight Player Personnel Executive College / Pro - Trey Brown Director of Player Engagement - Paul Lancaster Director of Football Compliance - Jon Ferrari Head Coaches Head Coach -- Doug Pederson Offensive Coaches Offensive Coordinator -- Frank Reich Quarterbacks -- John DeFilippo Running Backs -- Duce Staley Wide Receivers -- Mike Groh Tight Ends -- Justin Peelle Offensive Line -- Jeff Stoutland Assistant Offensive Line / Tight Ends / Run Game -- Eugene Chung Offensive Quality Control / Assistant Quarterbacks -- Press Taylor Offensive Quality Control / Assistant Offensive Line -- T.J. Paganetti Defensive Coaches Defensive Coordinator -- Jim Schwartz Defensive Line -- Chris Wilson Linebackers -- Ken Flajole Secondary -- Cory Undlin Safeties -- Tim Hauck Defensive Quality Control / Assistant Defensive Line -- Phillip Daniels Defensive Quality Control / Assistant Secondary -- Dino Vasso Special Teams Coaches Special Teams Coordinator -- Dave Fipp Assistant Special Teams -- Matthew Harper Strength and Conditioning Head Strength and Conditioning -- Josh Hingst Assistant Strength and Conditioning -- Keith Gray Strength Assistant - Ben Wagner Director of Sports Science and Reconditioning -- Shaun Huls Support Staff Coaching Assistant - Spencer Phillips Coaching Assistant / Linebackers - Ryan Paganetti Coaching Assistant - Trent Miles → Coaching Staff → Management → More NFL staffs AFC East BUF MIA NE NYJ North BAL CIN CLE PIT South HOU IND JAX TEN West DEN KC LAC OAK NFC East DAL NYG PHI WAS North CHI DET GB MIN South ATL CAR NO TB West ARI LAR SF SEA Radio and television ( edit ) Main article : List of Philadelphia Eagles broadcasters Eagles Radio affiliates ( edit ) Map of radio affiliates . City Call Sign Frenquency Atlantic City , New Jersey WPGG 1450 AM Easton , Pennsylvania WCTO 96.1 FM Levittown , Pennsylvania WBCB 1490 AM Milford , Delaware WAFL 97.7 FM Millville , New Jersey WENJ 97.3 FM Philadelphia WTEL 610 AM Philadelphia WIP - FM 94.1 FM Pottsville , Pennsylvania WPPA 1360 AM Reading , Pennsylvania WEEU 830 AM Scranton , Pennsylvania WEJL 630 AM Sunbury , Pennsylvania WEGH 107.3 FM Williamsport , Pennsylvania WBZD - FM 93.3 FM Wilmington , Delaware WDEL 1150 AM York , Pennsylvania WSOX 96.1 FM From 2008 through 2010 , Eagles games were broadcast on both rock - formatted WYSP and sports - talk Sports Radio 610 WIP , as both stations are owned and operated by CBS Radio . In 2011 , CBS dropped the music on WYSP , renaming it WIP - FM and making it a full simulcast of WIP . Merrill Reese , who joined the Eagles in 1976 , is the play - by - play announcer , and former Eagles wide receiver Mike Quick , who replaced the offense lineman Stan Walters beginning in 1998 , is the color analyst . The post game show , which has consisted of many Philadelphia sports personalities , as of the 2014 season is hosted by Kevin Riley , a former Eagles linebacker and special - teamer , and Rob Ellis . Riley was the former post-game host for the show on 94 WYSP before the WIP change over ; Rob Ellis hosts a weekly show nightly from 6 -- 10 on 94.1 WIP - FM . No announcement was made prior to the start of preseason regarding who would be the host ( s ) for 2015 . In 2015 , the preseason games are being televised on WCAU , the local NBC owned and operated station . Television announcers for these preseason games were not announced prior to the start of preseason . During the regular season , the games can be aired on Fox 's O&O affiliate WTXF - TV . When hosting an AFC team , those games can be seen on CBS - owned KYW - TV . Media and cultural reference ( edit ) In the book MASH : A Novel About Three Army Doctors , the character Captain Oliver Wendell `` Spearchucker '' Jones fictionally played for the Philadelphia Eagles , though in the movie this was changed to San Francisco . The 1976 draw was the subject of the movie Invincible . The movie stars Mark Wahlberg as Vince Papale , a 30 - year - old bartender and part - time school teacher , and also a diehard Eagles fan who became an Eagles player . The film differs slightly from true events as the selection process was invitation only , and Papale had at least some previous playing experience . The film Silver Linings Playbook highlights the 2008 Philadelphia Eagles season . The film was critically acclaimed and nominated for several awards including 8 Academy Awards . In the 1978 Academy Award - winning movie The Deer Hunter , the Eagles are referenced when Nick talks to Stan in the bar , saying : `` Hey , I got a hundred bucks says the Eagles never cross the fifty in the next half and Oakland wins by 20 ! '' Stan responds ; `` And I got an extra twenty says the Eagles ' quarterback wears a dress ! '' The award - winning comedy series It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia starring Danny DeVito makes several references to the Philadelphia Eagles , most notably Season 3 , Episode 2 -- `` The Gang Gets Invincible '' . See also ( edit ) Philadelphia portal Sports portal South Philadelphia Sports Complex Sports in Philadelphia The Michael Vick Project Forbes ' list of the most valuable sports teams Notes and references ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Philadelphia Eagles Team Facts '' . Pro Football Hall of Fame . Retrieved October 2 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Team Information '' ( PDF ) . 2016 Philadelphia Eagles Training Camp Media Guide . Philadelphia Eagles . September 9 , 2016 . Retrieved September 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Philadelphia Eagles Team Capsule '' ( PDF ) . 2017 Official National Football League Record and Fact Book . National Football League . August 22 , 2017 . Retrieved September 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Top 10 NFL Rivalries Of All Time : No. 4 Giants - Eagles '' . Sports Illustrated . December 15 , 2005 . Retrieved September 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Chadiha , Jeffri ( October 31 , 2007 ) . `` Ranking the NFL 's best rivalries : Where does Colts - Pats fit ? '' . ESPN.com . Retrieved April 12 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Bryan , Dave ( September 20 , 2016 ) . `` After 8 Straight Losses , Steelers Looking For Philadelphia Freedom Sunday Against Eagles '' . SteelersDepot.com . Retrieved September 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Fox , Ashley ( January 4 , 2014 ) . `` Fans always have Eagles ' back '' . ESPN . Retrieved September 14 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Clark , Kevin ( July 2 , 2012 ) . `` Game Changer : NFL Scrambles to Fill Seats '' . The Wall Street Journal . Retrieved September 14 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Smith , Howard ( December 7 , 2011 ) . `` NFL Players Poll : Most Intimidating Fans '' . Sports Illustrated . Retrieved September 14 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Lyons , 2010 pg. 81 ^ Jump up to : Lyons , 2010 pg. 82 Jump up ^ Kuklick , Bruce ( 1993 ) . To Every Thing a Season : Shibe Park and Urban Philadelphia , 1909 -- 1976 . Princeton University Press . p. 86 . ISBN 0 - 691 - 02104 - X . Retrieved May 27 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : See : History of the Pittsburgh Steelers # 1940 -- 41 : A new name and a `` new '' team . ^ Jump up to : Didinger , Ray ; Robert S. Lyons ( 2005 ) . The Eagles Encyclopedia . Temple University Press . ISBN 1 - 59213 - 449 - 1 . Jump up ^ `` Year - by - Year History '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on January 29 , 2006 . Retrieved December 20 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Brookover , Bob ( September 17 , 2006 ) . `` The Birds ' Biggest Rival -- In a division of fierce foes , the Giants have battled the Eagles as tough as anyone '' . Philadelphia Inquirer . p . D1 . Jump up ^ Brookover , Bob ( November 6 , 2008 ) . `` Eagles -- Giants among top rivalries '' . Philadelphia Inquirer . p . D6 . Jump up ^ `` Eagles search ends with Vermeil '' . St Petersburg Times . February 9 , 1976 . Retrieved November 5 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The World 's Most Valuable Sports Teams No. 11 Philadelphia Eagles '' . Forbes.com . July 12 , 2011 . Retrieved February 11 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Heath , John . `` Denver 's Brian Dawkins : An Ageless Wolverine '' . BroncoTalk . Retrieved 24 April 2012 . Jump up ^ Dan Gelston ( Oct 26 , 2008 ) . `` Westbrook Helps Eagles Soar Above Falcons , Win 500th Game '' . NBC 10 Philadelphia . Retrieved February 11 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Vick , Eagles agree to 2 - year deal '' . ESPN.com . August 14 , 2009 . Retrieved February 11 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Eagles sign Reid through 2013 '' . ESPN.com . December 9 , 2009 . Retrieved February 11 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Maese , Rick ( April 5 , 2010 ) . `` Washington Redskins acquire quarterback Donovan McNabb from Philadelphia Eagles '' . The Washington Post . Retrieved April 5 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Eagles fire Reid '' . USA Today . Philadelphia . December 30 , 2012 . Retrieved December 30 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Eagles hire Chip Kelly as coach '' . ESPN.com . January 16 , 2013 . Retrieved February 11 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Sports . Rocky Mount Telegram . Retrieved on August 6 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Eagles Acquire LB Alonso For RB McCoy '' . PhiladelphiaEagles.com . March 10 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Patra , Kevin ( March 10 , 2015 ) . `` Indianapolis Colts to sign Trent Cole '' . NFL.com . Retrieved March 10 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Sessler , Marc . `` Rams trading Sam Bradford to Eagles for Nick Foles '' . NFL.com . Retrieved March 10 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` It 's Official : RB Murray Signs With Eagles '' . PhiladelphiaEagles.com . March 12 , 2015 . Retrieved March 12 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` CB Byron Maxwell joins Eagles via FA '' . PhiladelphiaEagles.com . Retrieved March 10 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Eagles Release Head Coach Chip Kelly '' . PhiladelphiaEagles.com . December 29 , 2015 . Retrieved January 1 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Duce Staley interviews for Philadelphia Eagles ' vacant coaching job . Espn.go.com ( January 2 , 2016 ) . Retrieved on 2016 - 08 - 06 . Jump up ^ Wesseling , Chris ( January 18 , 2016 ) . `` Philadelphia Eagles hire Doug Pederson as coach '' . National Football League . Retrieved January 21 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Eagles Name Doug Pederson Head Coach '' . Philadelphia Eagles . January 18 , 2016 . Retrieved January 21 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Reimer , Alex ( September 5 , 2016 ) . `` Carson Wentz will start for Eagles '' . sbnation.com . Jump up ^ Pennington , Tom ( November 11 , 2016 ) . `` The Eagles Should Be Better Than 4 - 4 '' . fivethirtyeight.com . Retrieved April 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Philadelphia Eagles Media Guide . Legacy.philadelphiaeagles.com . Retrieved on August 6 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Berman , Zach ( November 18 , 2016 ) . `` What 's in a number ? Eagles tell their stories : Some are chosen , some are random '' . Philadelphia Media Network ( Digital ) , LLC . Retrieved 2016 - 11 - 30 . See also : National Football League uniform numbers . Jump up ^ `` Eagles Unveil 75th Anniversary Plans '' . Philadelphia Eagles. April 25 , 2007 . Archived from the original on July 24 , 2010 . Retrieved December 20 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Eagles Announce Plans to Honor 1960 Title Team '' . Csnphilly.com . May 3 , 2010 . Retrieved December 20 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Training Camp , '' . Philadelphiaeagles.com . Archived from the original on August 18 , 2010 . Retrieved December 20 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Eagles move training camp from Lehigh . Foxnews.com ( March 15 , 2013 ) . Retrieved on 2016 - 08 - 06 . ^ Jump up to : Frank , Reuben ( July 10 , 2012 ) . `` Eagles to keep training camp at Lehigh in 2013 '' . CSN Philly . Retrieved July 10 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Woolsey , Matt ( September 1 , 2008 ) . `` In Depth : America 's Most Die - Hard Football Fans '' . Forbes . Retrieved February 8 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Phillies Pass Eagles In Google Ranking . myfoxphilly.com ( July 2 , 2011 ) Jump up ^ Thomas , G. Scott ( September 4 , 2006 ) . `` NFL Fan Loyalty : Methodology '' . Bizjournals . Archived from the original on May 26 , 2008 . Retrieved February 6 , 2009 . Jump up ^ George , John ( February 5 , 1999 ) . `` Proven : Eagles ' fans are fanatics '' . Philadelphia Business Journal . Philadelphia ; Pennsylvania . p. 3 . Jump up ^ Thomas , G. Scott ( September 4 , 2006 ) . `` Full fan loyalty rankings '' . Bizjournals . Archived from the original on June 29 , 2009 . Retrieved February 6 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Thomas , G. Scott ( September 4 , 2006 ) . `` NFL Fan Support Rankings '' . Bizjournals . Archived from the original on June 29 , 2011 . Retrieved February 6 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Woolsey , Matt ( September 1 , 2008 ) . `` America 's Most Die - Hard Football Fans '' . Forbes . Retrieved February 8 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Woolsey , Matt ( September 1 , 2008 ) . `` America 's Most Die - Hard Football Fans : Methodology '' . Forbes . Retrieved February 8 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Mosley , Matt ( August 29 , 2008 ) . `` NFL 's best fans ? We got ta hand it to Steelers barely '' . ESPN . Retrieved August 30 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Berman , Zack ( June 14 , 2006 ) . `` Single Game Tickets Sold Out ! '' . PhiladelphiaEagles.com . Archived from the original on December 9 , 2008 . Retrieved June 22 , 2006 . ^ Jump up to : Anderson , Dave ( October 29 , 2002 ) . `` To Eagles , Shockey Is Public Enemy No. 1 '' . The New York Times . Retrieved December 23 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Longman , Jeré ( 2006 ) . If Football 's a Religion , Why Do n't We Have a Prayer ? . New York : HarperCollins Publishers . ISBN 978 - 0 - 06 - 084373 - 1 . Jump up ^ `` Court at Eagles ' games is out of session Sunday '' . Sports Illustrated . Associated Press . December 6 , 2003 . Retrieved December 23 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Cheerleaders '' . Philadelphia Eagles . Retrieved September 3 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Cheerleaders -- Swimsuit Calendar '' . Philadelphia Eagles . Retrieved July 4 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Eagles Cheerleaders Swimsuit -- Android - apps op Google Play '' . Play.google.com . November 28 , 2011 . Retrieved July 4 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Didinger , Ray ( July 21 , 2012 ) . `` Ray 's QB Notes 4 : Randall 's No. 12 retired ? '' . CSN Philly . Retrieved August 3 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Weinberg , David ( July 20 , 2012 ) . `` Leo Carlin , Troy Vincent headed to Eagles Hall of Fame '' . pressofatlanticcity.com . Retrieved July 20 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Eagles Hall of Fame Inductees '' ( PDF ) . philadelphiaeagles.com . Retrieved August 2 , 2014 . Jump up ^ And The Winners Were ... See all the John Wanamaker Athletic Award - recipients since 1961 webpage . Philadelphia Sports Congress website ( Philadelphia Convention & Visitors Bureau ) . Retrieved July 8 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Invincible on IMDb Jump up ^ http://www.pages.drexel.edu/~ina22/splaylib/Screenplay-Deer_Hunter.pdf Jump up ^ Savage , Fred ( 13 September 2007 ) . `` The Gang Gets Invincible '' . IMDB . IMDB . Retrieved 27 September 2016 . Vick helps Eagles fly on the road to victory Sources ( edit ) Lyons , Robert S. ( 2010 ) . On Any Given Sunday : A Life of Bert Bell . Philadelphia : Temple University Press . ISBN 978 - 1 - 59213 - 731 - 2 . OCLC 607553558 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Philadelphia Eagles . Official website Philadelphia Eagles Founded in 1933 Based and headquartered in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania Franchise Franchise History Seasons Coaches Quarterbacks Players Stadiums Baker Bowl Philadelphia Municipal Stadium Connie Mack Stadium Franklin Field Veterans Stadium Lincoln Financial Field Culture Fly , Eagles Fly Swoop Curse of Billy Penn The Lombardi Curse Invincible Philadelphia Sports Hall of Fame Matt Guokas Sr . Dan Baker Cheerleaders `` The Gang Gets Invincible '' ( It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia episode ) Silver Linings Playbook The Garbage Picking Field Goal Kicking Philadelphia Phenomenon Lore Frankford Yellow Jackets Pennsylvania Keystoners `` Pennsylvania Polka '' Steagles `` Happy Hundred '' Miracle at the Meadowlands Buddy Ball Fog Bowl Bounty Bowl series Body Bag Game 4th and 26 Miracle at the New Meadowlands Rivalries Dallas Cowboys New York Giants Washington Redskins Pittsburgh Steelers Division championships ( 13 ) 1947 1948 1949 1960 1980 1988 2001 2002 2003 2006 2013 Conference championships ( 3 ) 1960 1980 League championships ( 3 ) 1948 1949 1960 Retired numbers 5 15 20 40 44 60 70 92 99 Media Broadcasters WTEL WIP - FM Merrill Reese Mike Quick Current league affiliations League : National Football League Conference : National Football Conference Division : East Division Seasons ( 85 ) 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1984 1985 1986 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Championship seasons in bold Links to related articles National Football League ( 2017 ) AFC East North South West Buffalo Bills Miami Dolphins New England Patriots New York Jets Baltimore Ravens Cincinnati Bengals Cleveland Browns Pittsburgh Steelers Houston Texans Indianapolis Colts Jacksonville Jaguars Tennessee Titans Denver Broncos Kansas City Chiefs Los Angeles Chargers Oakland Raiders NFC East North South West Dallas Cowboys New York Giants Philadelphia Eagles Washington Redskins Chicago Bears Detroit Lions Green Bay Packers Minnesota Vikings Atlanta Falcons Carolina Panthers New Orleans Saints Tampa Bay Buccaneers Arizona Cardinals Los Angeles Rams San Francisco 49ers Seattle Seahawks Seasons Seasons ( by team ) Preseason Hall of Fame Game American Bowl Regular season Kickoff game Monday Night Football International Series Thanksgiving games Christmas games Playoffs Streaks Droughts AFC Championship NFC Championship Super Bowl champions quarterbacks Pro Bowl History League history Executive history Championship history AFL Championship ( 1960 -- 1969 ) NFL Championship ( 1920 -- 1969 ) Playoff Bowl Other Owners Officials Properties Stadiums ( chronology ) Timeline Defunct franchises Franchise moves and mergers Los Angeles team history Records individual team Super Bowl All time win -- loss Last undefeated Awards All - 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LASIK - wikipedia LASIK Jump to : navigation , search For the article on the drug used for treatment of hypertension , see Lasix . LASIK LASIK surgery using an excimer laser at US National Naval Medical Center Bethesda ICD - 9 - CM 11.71 MeSH D020731 MedlinePlus 007018 ( edit on Wikidata ) LASIK or Lasik ( laser - assisted in situ keratomileusis ) , commonly referred to as laser eye surgery or laser vision correction , is a type of refractive surgery for the correction of myopia , hyperopia , and astigmatism . The LASIK surgery is performed by an ophthalmologist who uses a laser or microkeratome to reshape the eye 's cornea in order to improve visual acuity . For most people , LASIK provides a long - lasting alternative to eyeglasses or contact lenses . LASIK is most similar to another surgical corrective procedure , photorefractive keratectomy ( PRK ) , and LASEK . All represent advances over radial keratotomy in the surgical treatment of refractive errors of vision . For patients with moderate to high myopia or thin corneas which can not be treated with LASIK and PRK , the phakic intraocular lens is an alternative . As of 2011 , over 11 million LASIK procedures had been performed in the United States and as of 2009 over 28 million have been performed worldwide . Contents ( hide ) 1 Effectiveness 1.1 Satisfaction 1.2 Dissatisfaction 1.3 Presbyopia 2 Risks 2.1 Higher - order aberrations 2.2 Dry eyes 2.3 Halos 2.4 Other complications 2.5 FDA 's position 3 Process 3.1 Preoperative procedures 3.1. 1 Contact lenses 3.1. 2 Pre-operative examination and education 3.2 Operative procedure 3.2. 1 Flap creation 3.2. 2 Laser remodeling 3.2. 3 Repositioning of the flap 3.3 Postoperative care 4 Wavefront - guided 5 Topography - assisted 6 History 6.1 Barraquer 's early work 6.2 Laser refractive surgery 6.3 Patent 6.4 Implementation in U.S. 7 Further research 7.1 Experimental techniques 8 Comparison to photorefractive keratectomy 9 References 10 External links Effectiveness ( edit ) In 2006 , the British National Health Service 's National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence ( NICE ) considered evidence of the effectiveness and the potential risks of the laser surgery stating `` current evidence suggests that photorefractive ( laser ) surgery for the correction of refractive errors is safe and efficacious for use in appropriately selected patients . Clinicians undertaking photorefractive ( laser ) surgery for the correction of refractive errors should ensure that patients understand the benefits and potential risks of the procedure . Risks include failure to achieve the expected improvement in unaided vision , development of new visual disturbances , corneal infection and flap complications . These risks should be weighed against those of wearing spectacles or contact lenses . '' The FDA reports `` The safety and effectiveness of refractive procedures has not been determined in patients with some diseases . '' Satisfaction ( edit ) Surveys of LASIK surgery find rates of patient satisfaction between 92 and 98 percent . In March 2008 , the American Society of Cataract and Refractive Surgery published a patient satisfaction meta - analysis of over 3,000 peer - reviewed articles from international clinical journals . Data from the prior 10 years revealed a 95.4 percent patient satisfaction rate among LASIK patients . Dissatisfaction ( edit ) Some people with poor outcomes from LASIK surgical procedures report a significantly reduced quality of life because of vision problems or physical pain associated with the surgery . A small percentage of patients may need to have another surgery because their condition is over-corrected or under - corrected . Some patients need to wear contact lenses or glasses even after treatment . The most common reason for dissatisfaction in LASIK patients is chronic severe dry eye . Independent research indicates 30 % of patients develop chronic dry eye which counters the 95 % satisfaction claim previously touted by the industry . Morris Waxler , a former FDA official who was involved in the approval of LASIK , has subsequently criticized its widespread use . In 2010 , Waxler made media appearances and claimed that the procedure had a failure rate greater than 50 % . The FDA responded that Waxler 's information was `` filled with false statements , incorrect citations '' and `` mischaracterization of results '' . A 2016 JAMA study indicates that the prevalence of complications from LASIK are higher than indicated , with the study indicating many patients wind up with glare , halos or other visual symptoms . Presbyopia ( edit ) A type of LASIK , known as presbyLasik , may be used in presbyopia . Results are , however , more variable and some people have a decrease in visual acuity . Risks ( edit ) Higher - order aberrations ( edit ) Higher - order aberrations are visual problems that require special testing for diagnosis and are not corrected with normal spectacles ( eyeglasses ) . These aberrations include ' starbursts ' , ' ghosting ' , ' halos ' and others . Some patients describe these symptoms post-operatively and associate them with the LASIK technique including the formation of the flap and the tissue ablation . The advancement of the LASIK technology has reduced the risk of clinically significant visual impairment after surgery . There is a correlation between pupil size and aberrations . This correlation may be the result of irregularity in the corneal tissue between the untouched part of the cornea and the reshaped part . Daytime post-LASIK vision is optimal , since the pupil size is smaller than the LASIK flap . However , at night , the pupil may dilate such that light passes through the edge of the LASIK flap , which gives rise to aberrations . LASIK and PRK may induce spherical aberration if the laser under - corrects as it moves outward from the centre of the treatment zone , especially when major corrections are made . Others propose that higher - order aberrations are present preoperatively . They can be measured in micrometers ( μm ) whereas the smallest laser beam size approved by the FDA is about 1000 times larger , at 0.65 mm . In situ keratomileusis effected at a later age increases the incidence of corneal higher - order wavefront aberrations . These factors demonstrate the importance of careful patient selection for LASIK treatment . A subconjunctival hemorrhage is a common and minor post-LASIK complication . Dry eyes ( edit ) 95 % of patients report dry eye symptoms after LASIK Although it is usually temporary it can develop into chronic and severe dry eye syndrome . Quality of life can be severely affected by dry eye syndrome . Underlying conditions with dry eye such as Sjögren 's syndrome are considered contraindications to Lasik . Treatments include artificial tears , prescription tears and punctal occlusion . Punctal occlusion is accomplished by placing a collagen or silicone plug in the tear duct , which normally drains fluid from the eye . Some patients complain of ongoing dry eye symptoms despite such treatments and dry eye symptoms may be permanent . Halos ( edit ) Some post-LASIK patients see halos and starbursts around bright lights at night . At night , the pupil may dilate to be larger than the flap leading to the edge of the flap or stromal changes causing visual distortion of light that does not occur during the day when the pupil is smaller . The eyes can be examined for large pupils pre-operatively and the risk of this symptom assessed . Complications due to LASIK have been classified as those that occur due to preoperative , intraoperative , early postoperative , or late postoperative sources : According to the UK National Health Service complications occur in fewer than 5 % of cases . Other complications ( edit ) Flap complications -- The incidence of flap complications is about 0.244 % . Flap complications ( such as displaced flaps or folds in the flaps that necessitate repositioning , diffuse lamellar keratitis , and epithelial ingrowth ) are common in lamellar corneal surgeries but rarely lead to permanent loss of visual acuity . The incidence of these microkeratome - related complications decreases with increased physician experience . Slipped flap -- is a corneal flap that detaches from the rest of the cornea . The chances of this are greatest immediately after surgery , so patients typically are advised to go home and sleep to let the flap adhere and heal . Patients are usually given sleep goggles or eye shields to wear for several nights to prevent them from dislodging the flap in their sleep . A short operation time may decrease the chance of this complication , as there is less time for the flap to dry . Flap interface particles -- are a finding whose clinical significance is undetermined . Particles of various sizes and reflectivity are clinically visible in about 38.7 % of eyes examined via slit lamp biomicroscopy and in 100 % of eyes examined by confocal microscopy . Diffuse lamellar keratitis -- an inflammatory process that involves an accumulation of white blood cells at the interface between the LASIK corneal flap and the underlying stroma . It is known colloquially as `` sands of Sahara syndrome '' because on slit lamp exam , the inflammatory infiltrate appears similar to waves of sand . The USAeyes organisation reports an incidence of 2.3 % after LASIK . It is most commonly treated with steroid eye drops . Sometimes it is necessary for the eye surgeon to lift the flap and manually remove the accumulated cells . DLK has not been reported with photorefractive keratectomy due to the absence of flap creation . Infection -- the incidence of infection responsive to treatment has been estimated at 0.4 % . Post-LASIK corneal ectasia -- a condition where the cornea starts to bulge forwards at a variable time after LASIK , causing irregular astigmatism . the condition is similar to keratoconus . Subconjunctival hemorrhage -- A report shows the incidence of subconjunctival hemorrhage has been estimated at 10.5 % . Corneal scarring -- or permanent problems with cornea 's shape making it impossible to wear contact lenses . Epithelial ingrowth -- estimated at 0.1 % . Traumatic flap dislocations -- Cases of late traumatic flap dislocations have been reported up to seven years after LASIK . Retinal detachment : estimated at 0.36 percent . Choroidal neovascularization : estimated at 0.33 percent . Uveitis : estimated at 0.18 percent . For climbers -- Although the cornea usually is thinner after LASIK , because of the removal of part of the stroma , refractive surgeons strive to maintain the maximum thickness to avoid structurally weakening the cornea . Decreased atmospheric pressure at higher altitudes has not been demonstrated as extremely dangerous to the eyes of LASIK patients . However , some mountain climbers have experienced a myopic shift at extreme altitudes . Late postoperative complications -- A large body of evidence on the chances of long - term complications is not yet established and may be changing due to advances in operator experience , instruments and techniques . Potential best vision loss may occur a year after the surgery regardless of the use of eyewear . Eye floaters -- ocular mechanical stress created by LASIK have the potential to damage the vitreous , retina , and macula causing floaters as a result . FDA 's position ( edit ) In October 2009 , the FDA , the National Eye Institute ( NEI ) , and the Department of Defense ( DoD ) launched the LASIK Quality of Life Collaboration Project ( LQOLCP ) to help better understand the potential risk of severe problems that can result from LASIK in response to widespread reports of problems experienced by patients after LASIK laser eye surgery . This project examined patient - reported outcomes with LASIK ( PROWL ) . The project consisted of three phases : pilot phase , phase I , phase II ( PROWL - 1 ) and phase III ( PROWL - 2 ) . The last two phases were completed in 2014 . The results of the LASIK Quality of Life Study were published in October , 2014 . Based on our initial analyses of our studies : Up to 46 percent of participants , who had no visual symptoms before surgery , reported at least one visual symptom at three months after surgery . Participants who developed new visual symptoms after surgery , most often developed halos . Up to 40 percent of participants with no halos before LASIK had halos three months following surgery . Up to 28 percent of participants with no symptoms of dry eyes before LASIK , reported dry eye symptoms at three months after their surgery . Less than 1 percent of study participants experienced `` a lot of '' difficulty with or inability to do usual activities without corrective lenses because of their visual symptoms ( halos , glare , et al . ) after LASIK surgery . Participants who were not satisfied with the LASIK surgery reported all types of visual symptoms the questionnaire measured ( double vision / ghosting , starbursts , glare , and halos ) . The FDA 's director of the Division of Ophthalmic Devices , said about the LASIK study `` Given the large number of patients undergoing LASIK annually , dissatisfaction and disabling symptoms may occur in a significant number of patients '' . Also in 2014 , FDA published an article highlighting the risks and a list of factors and conditions individuals should consider when choosing a doctor for their refractive surgery . Process ( edit ) The planning and analysis of corneal reshaping techniques such as LASIK have been standardized by the American National Standards Institute , an approach based on the Alpins method of astigmatism analysis . The FDA website on LASIK states , `` Before undergoing a refractive procedure , you should carefully weigh the risks and benefits based on your own personal value system , and try to avoid being influenced by friends that have had the procedure or doctors encouraging you to do so . '' The procedure involves creating a thin flap on the eye , folding it to enable remodeling of the tissue beneath with a laser and repositioning the flap . Preoperative procedures ( edit ) Contact lenses ( edit ) Patients wearing soft contact lenses are instructed to stop wearing them 5 to 21 days before surgery . One industry body recommends that patients wearing hard contact lenses should stop wearing them for a minimum of six weeks plus another six weeks for every three years the hard contacts have been worn . The cornea is avascular because it must be transparent to function normally . Its cells absorb oxygen from the tear film . Thus , low - oxygen - permeable contact lenses reduce the cornea 's oxygen absorption , sometimes resulting in corneal neovascularization -- the growth of blood vessels into the cornea . This causes a slight lengthening of inflammation duration and healing time and some pain during surgery , because of greater bleeding . Although some contact lenses ( notably modern RGP and soft silicone hydrogel lenses ) are made of materials with greater oxygen permeability that help reduce the risk of corneal neovascularization , patients considering LASIK are warned to avoid over-wearing their contact lenses . Preoperative examination and education ( edit ) In the United States , the FDA has approved LASIK for age 18 and over . More importantly the patient 's eye prescription should be stable for at least one year prior to surgery . The patient may be examined with pupillary dilation and education given prior to the procedure . Before the surgery , the patient 's corneas are examined with a pachymeter to determine their thickness , and with a topographer , or corneal topography machine , to measure their surface contour . Using low - power lasers , a topographer creates a topographic map of the cornea . The procedure is contraindicated if the topographer finds difficulties such as keratoconus The preparatory process also detects astigmatism and other irregularities in the shape of the cornea . Using this information , the surgeon calculates the amount and the location of corneal tissue to be removed . The patient is prescribed and self - administers an antibiotic beforehand to minimize the risk of infection after the procedure and is sometimes offered a short acting oral sedative medication as a pre-medication . Prior to the procedure , anaesthetic eye drops are instilled . Factors that may rule out LASIK for some patients include large pupils , thin corneas and extremely dry eyes . Operative procedure ( edit ) Flap creation ( edit ) Flap creation with femtosecond laser A soft corneal suction ring is applied to the eye , holding the eye in place . This step in the procedure can sometimes cause small blood vessels to burst , resulting in bleeding or subconjunctival hemorrhage into the white ( sclera ) of the eye , a harmless side effect that resolves within several weeks . Increased suction causes a transient dimming of vision in the treated eye . Once the eye is immobilized , a flap is created by cutting through the corneal epithelium and Bowman 's layer . This process is achieved with a mechanical microkeratome using a metal blade , or a femtosecond laser that creates a series of tiny closely arranged bubbles within the cornea . A hinge is left at one end of this flap . The flap is folded back , revealing the stroma , the middle section of the cornea . The process of lifting and folding back the flap can sometimes be uncomfortable . Laser remodeling ( edit ) The second step of the procedure uses an excimer laser ( 193 nm ) to remodel the corneal stroma . The laser vaporizes the tissue in a finely controlled manner without damaging the adjacent stroma . No burning with heat or actual cutting is required to ablate the tissue . The layers of tissue removed are tens of micrometers thick . Performing the laser ablation in the deeper corneal stroma provides for more rapid visual recovery and less pain than the earlier technique , photorefractive keratectomy ( PRK ) . During the second step , the patient 's vision becomes blurry , once the flap is lifted . They will be able to see only white light surrounding the orange light of the laser , which can lead to mild disorientation . The excimer laser uses an eye tracking system that follows the patient 's eye position up to 4,000 times per second , redirecting laser pulses for precise placement within the treatment zone . Typical pulses are around 1 millijoule ( mJ ) of pulse energy in 10 to 20 nanoseconds . Repositioning of the flap ( edit ) After the laser has reshaped the stromal layer , the LASIK flap is carefully repositioned over the treatment area by the surgeon and checked for the presence of air bubbles , debris , and proper fit on the eye . The flap remains in position by natural adhesion until healing is completed . Postoperative care ( edit ) Patients are usually given a course of antibiotic and anti-inflammatory eye drops . These are continued in the weeks following surgery . Patients are told to rest and are given dark eyeglasses to protect their eyes from bright lights and occasionally protective goggles to prevent rubbing of the eyes when asleep and to reduce dry eyes . They also are required to moisturize the eyes with preservative - free tears and follow directions for prescription drops . Occasionally after the procedure a bandage contact lens is placed to aid the healing , and typically removed after 3 -- 4 days . Patients should be adequately informed by their surgeons of the importance of proper post-operative care to minimize the risk of complications . Wavefront - guided ( edit ) Wavefront - guided LASIK is a variation of LASIK surgery in which , rather than applying a simple correction of only long / short - sightedness and astigmatism ( only lower order aberrations as in traditional LASIK ) , an ophthalmologist applies a spatially varying correction , guiding the computer - controlled excimer laser with measurements from a wavefront sensor . The goal is to achieve a more optically perfect eye , though the final result still depends on the physician 's success at predicting changes that occur during healing and other factors that may have to do with the regularity / irregularity of the cornea and the axis of any residual astigmatism . Another important factor is whether the excimer laser can correctly register eye position in 3 dimensions , and to track the eye in all the possible directions of eye movement . If a wavefront guided treatment is performed with less than perfect registration and tracking , pre-existing aberrations can be worsened . In older patients , scattering from microscopic particles ( cataract or incipient cataract ) may play a role that outweighs any benefit from wavefront correction . Therefore , patients expecting so - called `` super vision '' from such procedures may be disappointed . When treating a patient with preexisting astigmatism , most wavefront - guided LASIK lasers are designed to treat regular astigmatism as determined externally by corneal topography . In patients who have an element of internally induced astigmatism , therefore , the wavefront - guided astigmatism correction may leave regular astigmatism behind ( a cross-cylinder effect ) . If the patient has preexisting irregular astigmatism , wavefront - guided approaches may leave both regular and irregular astigmatism behind . This can result in less - than - optimal visual acuity compared with a wavefront - guided approach combined with vector planning , as shown in a 2008 study . Thus , vector planning offers a better alignment between corneal astigmatism and laser treatment , and leaves less regular astigmatism behind on the cornea , which is advantageous whether irregular astigmatism coexists or not . The `` leftover '' astigmatism after a purely surface - guided laser correction can be calculated beforehand , and is called ocular residual astigmatism ( ORA ) . ORA is a calculation of astigmatism due to the noncorneal surface ( internal ) optics . The purely refraction - based approach represented by wavefront analysis actually conflicts with corneal surgical experience developed over many years . The pathway to `` super vision '' thus may require a more customized approach to corneal astigmatism than is usually attempted , and any remaining astigmatism ought to be regular ( as opposed to irregular ) , which are both fundamental principles of vector planning overlooked by a purely wavefront - guided treatment plan . This was confirmed by the 2008 study mentioned above , which found a greater reduction in corneal astigmatism and better visual outcomes under mesopic conditions using wavefront technology combined with vector analysis than using wavefront technology alone , and also found equivalent higher - order aberrations ( see below ) . Vector planning also proved advantageous in patients with keratoconus . No good data can be found that compare the percentage of LASIK procedures that employ wavefront guidance versus the percentage that do not , nor the percentage of refractive surgeons who have a preference one way or the other . Wavefront technology continues to be positioned as an `` advance '' in LASIK with putative advantages ; however , it is clear that not all LASIK procedures are performed with wavefront guidance . Still , surgeons claim patients are generally more satisfied with this technique than with previous methods , particularly regarding lowered incidence of `` halos , '' the visual artifact caused by spherical aberration induced in the eye by earlier methods . A meta - analysis of eight trials showed a lower incidence of these higher order aberrations in patients who had wavefront - guided LASIK compared to non-wavefront - guided LASIK . Based on their experience , the United States Air Force has described WFG - Lasik as giving `` superior vision results '' . Topography - assisted ( edit ) Topography - assisted LASIK is intended to be an advancement in precision and reduce night vision side effects . The first topography - assisted device received FDA approval September 13 , 2013 . History ( edit ) Barraquer 's early work ( edit ) In the 1950s , the microkeratome and keratomileusis technique were developed in Bogotá , Colombia , by the Spanish ophthalmologist Jose Barraquer . In his clinic , he would cut thin ( one hundredth of a mm thick ) flaps in the cornea to alter its shape . Barraquer also investigated how much of the cornea had to be left unaltered in order to provide stable long - term results . This work was followed by that of the Russian scientist , Svyatoslav Fyodorov , who developed radial keratotomy ( RK ) in the 1970s and designed the first posterior chamber implantable contact lenses ( phakic intraocular lens ) in the 1980s . Laser refractive surgery ( edit ) In 1980 , Rangaswamy Srinivasan , at the IBM Research laboratory , discovered that an ultraviolet excimer laser could etch living tissue , with precision and with no thermal damage to the surrounding area . He named the phenomenon `` ablative photo - decomposition '' ( APD ) . Five years later , in 1985 , Steven Trokel at the Edward S. Harkness Eye Institute , Columbia University in New York City , published his work using the excimer laser in radial keratotomy . He wrote , `` The central corneal flattening obtained by radial diamond knife incisions has been duplicated by radial laser incisions in 18 enucleated human eyes . The incisions , made by 193 nm far - ultraviolet light radiation emitted by the excimer laser , produced corneal flattening ranging from 0.12 to 5.35 diopters . Both the depth of the corneal incisions and the degree of central corneal flattening correlated with the laser energy applied . Histopathology revealed the remarkably smooth edges of the laser incisions . '' Together with his colleagues , Charles Munnerlyn and Terry Clapham , Trokel founded VISX USA inc . Marguerite B. MacDonald MD performed the first human VISX refractive laser eye surgery in 1989 . Patent ( edit ) A number of patents have been issued for several techniques related to LASIK . Stuart I. Brown and Josef F. Bille filed a patent on surgical lasers in 1988 . Samuel E. Blum , Rangaswamy Srinivasan and James Wynne filed a patent application on the ultraviolet excimer laser , in 1982 , issued in 1988 . In 1989 , Gholam A. Peyman was granted a US patent for using an excimer laser to modify corneal curvature . It was , `` A method and apparatus for modifying the curvature of a live cornea via use of an excimer laser . The live cornea has a thin layer removed therefrom , leaving an exposed internal surface thereon . Then , either the surface or thin layer is exposed to the laser beam along a predetermined pattern to ablate desired portions . The thin layer is then replaced onto the surface . Ablating a central area of the surface or thin layer makes the cornea less curved , while ablating an annular area spaced from the center of the surface or layer makes the cornea more curved . The desired predetermined pattern is formed by use of a variable diaphragm , a rotating orifice of variable size , a movable mirror or a movable fiber optic cable through which the laser beam is directed towards the exposed internal surface or removed thin layer . '' The patents related to so - called broad - beam LASIK and PRK technologies were granted to US companies including Visx and Summit during 1990 - 1995 based on the fundamental US patent issued to IBM ( 1983 ) which claimed the use of UV laser for the ablation of organic tissues . Implementation in US ( edit ) The LASIK technique was implemented in the U.S. after its successful application elsewhere . The Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) commenced a trial of the excimer laser in 1989 . The first enterprise to receive FDA approval to use an excimer laser for photo - refractive keratectomy was Summit Technology ( founder and CEO , Dr. David Muller ) . In 1992 , under the direction of the FDA , Greek ophthalmologist Ioannis Pallikaris introduced LASIK to ten VISX centres . In 1998 , the `` Kremer Excimer Laser '' , serial number KEA 940202 , received FDA approval for its singular use for performing LASIK . Subsequently , Summit Technology was the first company to receive FDA approval to mass manufacture and distribute excimer lasers . VISX and other companies followed . The excimer laser that was used for the first LASIK surgeries by I. Pallikaris Pallikaris suggested a flap of cornea could be raised by microkeratome prior to the performing of PRK with the excimer laser . The addition of a flap to PRK became known as LASIK . Further research ( edit ) Since 1991 , there have been further developments such as faster lasers ; larger spot areas ; bladeless flap incisions ; intraoperative corneal pachymetry ; and `` wavefront - optimized '' and `` wavefront - guided '' techniques . The goal of refractive surgery is to avoid permanently weakening the cornea with incisions and to deliver less energy to the surrounding tissues . Experimental techniques ( edit ) `` plain '' LASIK : LASEK , Epi - LASIK , Sub-Bowman's keratomileusis ( thin flap LASIK ) , Wavefront - guided PRK , advanced intraocular lenses . Femtosecond laser intrastromal vision correction : using all - femtosecond correction , for example , Femtosecond Lenticule EXtraction , FLIVC , or IntraCOR ) , Keraflex : a thermobiochemical solution which has received the CE Mark for refractive correction . and is in European clinical trials for the correction of myopia and keratoconus . Technolas FEMTEC laser : for incisionless IntraCOR ablation for presbyopia , with trials ongoing for myopia and other conditions . LASIK with the IntraLase femtosecond laser : early trials comparing to the `` LASIK with microkeratomes for the correction of myopia suggest no significant differences in safety or efficacy . However , the femtosecond laser has a potential advantage in predictability , although this finding was not significant '' . Comparison to photorefractive keratectomy ( edit ) A systematic review that compared PRK and LASIK concluded that LASIK has shorter recovery time and less pain . The two techniques after a period of one year have similar results . A 2017 systematic review found uncertainty in visual acuity , but found that in one study , those receiving PRK were less likely to achieve a refractive error , and were less likely to have an over-correction than compared to LASIK . 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Jump up ^ Oshika T , Miyata K , Tokunaga T , Samejima T , Amano S , Tanaka S , Hirohara Y , Mihashi T , Maeda N , Fujikado T ; Miyata ; Tokunaga ; Samejima ; Amano ; Tanaka ; Hirohara ; Mihashi ; Maeda ; Fujikado ( June 2002 ) . `` Higher order wavefront aberrations of cornea and magnitude of refractive correction in laser in situ keratomileusis '' . Ophthalmology. 109 ( 6 ) : 1154 -- 8 . doi : 10.1016 / S0161 - 6420 ( 02 ) 01028 - X . PMID 12045059 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) ^ Jump up to : `` Laser eye surgery '' . NHS Choices. 5 March 2012 . Retrieved 26 October 2013 . Jump up ^ `` LASIK -- What are the risks and how can I find the right doctor for me ? '' . Food and Drug Administration . 12 September 2011 . Retrieved 26 October 2013 . Jump up ^ Simpson RG , Moshirfar M , Edmonds JN , Christiansen SM , Behunin N ; Moshirfar ; Edmonds ; Christiansen ; Behunin ( 2012 ) . `` Laser in situ keratomileusis in patients with collagen vascular disease : A review of the literature '' . Clinical ophthalmology ( Auckland , N.Z. ) . 6 : 1827 -- 37 . doi : 10.2147 / OPTH. S36690 . PMC 3497460 . PMID 23152662 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ `` LASIK '' . Fda.gov. 2008 - 11 - 11 . Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 10 . Jump up ^ Majmudar , PA . `` LASIK Complications . '' Focal Points : Clinical Modules for Ophthalmologists . American Academy of Ophthalmology . September , 2004 . Archived March 11 , 2006 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Carrillo C , Chayet AS , Dougherty PJ , Montes M , Magallanes R , Najman J , Fleitman J , Morales A ; Chayet ; Dougherty ; Montes ; Magallanes ; Najman ; Fleitman ; Morales ( 2005 ) . `` Incidence of complications during flap creation in LASIK using the NIDEK MK - 2000 microkeratome in 26,600 cases '' . J Refract Surg. 21 ( 5 Suppl ) : S655 -- 7 . PMID 16212299 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ `` Eye Surgery Education Council '' . Lasikinstitute.org . Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 10 . Jump up ^ Tham VM , Maloney RK ; Maloney ( May 2000 ) . `` Microkeratome complications of laser in situ keratomileusis '' . Ophthalmology. 107 ( 5 ) : 920 -- 4 . doi : 10.1016 / S0161 - 6420 ( 00 ) 00004 - X . PMID 10811084 . ^ Jump up to : Vesaluoma M , Pérez - Santonja J , Petroll WM , Linna T , Alió J , Tervo T ; Pérez - Santonja ; Petroll ; Linna ; Alió ; Tervo ( 1 February 2000 ) . `` Corneal stromal changes induced by myopic LASIK '' . Invest . Ophthalmol . Vis . Sci. 41 ( 2 ) : 369 -- 76 . PMID 10670464 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) ^ Jump up to : Sun L , Liu G , Ren Y , Li J , Hao J , Liu X , Zhang Y ; Liu ; Ren ; Li ; Hao ; Liu ; Zhang ( 2005 ) . `` Efficacy and safety of LASIK in 10,052 eyes of 5081 myopic Chinese patients '' . J Refract Surg. 21 ( 5 Suppl ) : S633 -- 5 . PMID 16212294 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ `` Ectasia After LASIK '' . American Academy of Ophthalmology . Jump up ^ Cheng AC , Rao SK , Leung GY , Young AL , Lam DS ; Rao ; Leung ; Young ; Lam ( May 2006 ) . `` Late traumatic flap dislocations after LASIK '' . J Refract Surg. 22 ( 5 ) : 500 -- 4 . PMID 16722490 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) ^ Jump up to : Ruiz - Moreno JM , Alió JL ; Alió ( 2003 ) . `` Incidence of retinal disease following refractive surgery in 9,239 eyes '' . J Refract Surg. 19 ( 5 ) : 534 -- 47 . PMID 14518742 . Jump up ^ Suarez E , Torres F , Vieira JC , Ramirez E , Arevalo JF ; Torres ; Vieira ; Ramirez ; Arevalo ( October 2002 ) . `` Anterior uveitis after laser in situ keratomileusis '' . J Cataract Refract Surg. 28 ( 10 ) : 1793 -- 8 . doi : 10.1016 / S0886 - 3350 ( 02 ) 01364 - 0 . PMID 12388030 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Boes DA , Omura AK , Hennessy MJ ; Omura ; Hennessy ( December 2001 ) . `` Effect of high - altitude exposure on myopic laser in situ keratomileusis '' . J Cataract Refract Surg. 27 ( 12 ) : 1937 -- 41 . doi : 10.1016 / S0886 - 3350 ( 01 ) 01074 - 4 . PMID 11738908 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Dimmig JW , Tabin G ; Tabin ( 2003 ) . `` The ascent of Mount Everest following laser in situ keratomileusis '' . J Refract Surg. 19 ( 1 ) : 48 -- 51 . PMID 12553606 . Jump up ^ Hammer T , Heynemann M , Naumann I , Duncker GI ; Heynemann ; Naumann ; Duncker ( March 2006 ) . `` Correction and induction of high - order aberrations after standard and wavefront - guided LASIK and their influence on the postoperative contrast sensitivity '' . Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd ( in German ) . 223 ( 3 ) : 217 -- 24 . doi : 10.1055 / s - 2005 - 858864 . PMID 16552654 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Alió JL , Montés - Mico R ; Montés - Mico ( February 2006 ) . `` Wavefront - guided versus standard LASIK enhancement for residual refractive errors '' . Ophthalmology. 113 ( 2 ) : 191 -- 7 . doi : 10.1016 / j. ophtha. 2005.10. 004 . PMID 16378639 . Jump up ^ Caster AI , Hoff JL , Ruiz R ; Hoff ; Ruiz ( 2005 ) . `` Conventional vs wavefront - guided LASIK using the LADARVision4000 excimer laser '' . J Refract Surg. 21 ( 6 ) : S786 -- 91 . PMID 16329381 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ http://www.fda.gov/MedicalDevices/ProductsandMedicalProcedures/SurgeryandLifeSupport/LASIK/ucm061354.htm Jump up ^ `` LASIK laser eye surgery '' . WebMD Boots . Retrieved 2016 - 05 - 06 . ^ Jump up to : `` LASIK Quality of Life Collaboration Project '' . U.S Food and Drug Administration . Retrieved 28 November 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Latest on FDA 's LASIK Program '' . U.S Food and Drug Administration . Jump up ^ Malvina B. Eydelman , LASIK Quality of Life Collaboration Project ( LQOLCP ) ( pdf ) , U.S. Food and Drug Administration Jump up ^ LASIK Quality of Life Collaboration Project : Study Results Presented at the Refractive Surgery Subspecialty Day of the American Academy of Ophthalmology ( AAO ) on October 17 , 2014 ( PDF - 1.8 MB ) Jump up ^ `` What are the risks and how can I find the right doctor for me ? '' . U.S. Food and Drug Administration . Retrieved 2015 - 12 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` US FDA / CDRH : LASIK - What are the risks and how can I find the right doctor for me ? '' . Fda.gov . June 9 , 2014 . Retrieved December 23 , 2016 . Jump up ^ http://www.tlcvision.com/learn-about-laser-eye-surgery/am-i-a-lasik-surgery-candidate/ Jump up ^ Shortt , Alex J. ; Allan , Bruce D.S. ; Evans , Jennifer R. ( 1 January 2013 ) . `` Laser - assisted in - situ keratomileusis ( LASIK ) versus photorefractive keratectomy ( PRK ) for myopia '' . The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews . 1 ( 1 ) : CD005135 . doi : 10.1002 / 14651858. CD005135. pub3 . ISSN 1469 - 493X . PMID 23440799 . There was evidence that LASIK gives a faster visual recovery than PRK and is a less painful technique . Results at one year after surgery were comparable : most analyses favoured LASIK but they were not statistically significant . Jump up ^ `` Patent : ultraviolet solid state laser '' . Freepatentsonline.com . Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 10 . Jump up ^ Dimitri T. Azar ; Damien Gatinel ( 2007 ) . Refractive surgery ( 2nd ed . ) . Philadelphia : Mosby Elsevier . ISBN 9780323035996 . Jump up ^ Walsh MJ . Is the future of refractive surgery based on corneal topography or wavefront ? `` Ocular Surgery News '' . August 1 , 2000 , page 26 . Jump up ^ Walsh MJ . Wavefront is showing signs of success , but can it do it alone ? Ocular Surgery News . September 1 , 2000 , page 41 . Jump up ^ EW Dialogue : the future of wavefront refraction as a diagnostic tool . `` EyeWorld '' . May 2000 , pages 64 and 65 . ^ Jump up to : Alpins NA ( 2002 ) . `` Wavefront technology : A new advance that fails to answer old questions on corneal vs. Refractive astigmatism correction '' . Journal of refractive surgery . 18 ( 6 ) : 737 -- 9 . PMID 12458868 . ^ Jump up to : Alpins N , Stamatelatos G ; Stamatelatos ( 2008 ) . `` Clinical outcomes of laser in situ keratomileusis using combined topography and refractive wavefront treatments for myopic astigmatism '' . Journal of cataract and refractive surgery . 34 ( 8 ) : 1250 -- 9 . doi : 10.1016 / j. jcrs. 2008.03. 028 . PMID 18655973 . Jump up ^ Alpins N , Stamatelatos G ; Stamatelatos ( 2007 ) . `` Customized photoastigmatic refractive keratectomy using combined topographic and refractive data for myopia and astigmatism in eyes with forme fruste and mild keratoconus '' . Journal of cataract and refractive surgery . 33 ( 4 ) : 591 -- 602 . doi : 10.1016 / j. jcrs. 2006.12. 014 . PMID 17397730 . Jump up ^ American Academy of Ophthalmology . `` Refractive Laser Surgery : An In - Depth Look at LASIK and Brief Overview of PRK , Epi - LASIK , and LASEK : A Science Writer 's Guide '' . Accessed January 29 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Abbott Medical Optics website . `` WaveScan WaveFront System '' . Accessed August 15 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Emory Healthcare website . `` Wavefront technology '' . Accessed August 15 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Croes K. AllAboutVision website . `` Custom LASIK or wavefront LASIK : individualized vision correction '' . Accessed August 15 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Liz Segre . `` Cost of LASIK eye surgery and other corrective procedures '' . allaboutvision.com . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 15 . Jump up ^ Fares U , Suleman H , Al - Aqaba MA , Otri AM , Said DG , Dua HS ; Suleman ; Al - Aqaba ; Otri ; Said ; Dua ( 2011 ) . `` Efficacy , predictability , and safety of wavefront - guided refractive laser treatment : Metaanalysis '' . Journal of Cataract & Refractive Surgery . 37 ( 8 ) : 1465 -- 1475 . doi : 10.1016 / j. jcrs. 2011.02. 029 . PMID 21782089 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Sue Campbell . `` Air Force aims for ' weapons - grade ' vision '' . Af.mil . Archived from the original on 2012 - 07 - 28 . Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 10 . Jump up ^ `` Nidek EC - 5000 Excimer Laser System - P970053 / S011 '' . Food and Drug Administration . 2013 - 10 - 13 . Retrieved 2016 - 05 - 01 . Jump up ^ Doyle Stulting , MD ( 2014 - 04 - 28 ) . `` Topography - guided LASIK : A paradigm shift in refractive laser treatment '' ( PDF ) . EyeWorld Daily News . Retrieved 2016 - 05 - 01 . Jump up ^ Troutman RC , Swinger C ; Swinger ( 1978 ) . `` Refractive keratoplasty : keratophakia and keratomileusis '' . Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 76 : 329 -- 39 . PMC 1311630 . PMID 382579 . Jump up ^ `` Prize for the Industrial Application of Physics Winner - American Institute of Physics '' . Aip.org . Archived from the original on 2011 - 09 - 28 . Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 10 . Jump up ^ Cotliar AM , Schubert HD , Mandel ER , Trokel SL ; Schubert ; Mandel ; Trokel ( Feb 1985 ) . `` Excimer laser radial keratotomy '' . Ophthalmology. 92 ( 2 ) : 206 -- 8 . doi : 10.1016 / s0161 - 6420 ( 85 ) 34052 - 6 . PMID 3982798 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ ( 1 ) VISX USA Technology ( Last accessed 4th June , 2012 ) Jump up ^ McDonald M.B. , Kaufman H.E. , Frantz J.M. , Shofner S , Salmeron B , Klyce S.D. ; Kaufman ; Frantz ; Shofner ; Salmeron ; Klyce ( 1989 ) . `` Excimer laser ablation - human eye '' . Arch Ophthalmol. 107 ( 5 ) : 641 -- 642 . doi : 10.1001 / archopht. 1989.01070010659013 . PMID 2719572 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ US4881808 , Josef F. Bille , Stuart I. Brown , `` Imaging system for surgical lasers '' , issued 1989 - 11 - 21 ^ Jump up to : US4784135 , Samuel E. Blum , Rangaswamy Srinivasan , James J. Wynne , `` Far ultraviolet surgical and dental procedures '' , issued 1988 - 11 - 15 Jump up ^ US4840175 , Gholam A. Peyman , `` Method for modifying corneal curvature '' , issued 1988 - 6 - 20 Jump up ^ `` FDA - Approved Lasers for PRK and Other Refractive Surgeries '' . Fda.gov . Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 10 . ^ Jump up to : `` List of FDA - Approved Lasers for LASIK '' . Fda.gov . Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 10 . Jump up ^ ( 2 ) Jump up ^ `` CRSTodayEurope.com > May 2010 > Industry interview : Aiming to change the face of refractive surgery -- again '' . Bmctoday.net. 2010 - 04 - 16 . Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 10 . Jump up ^ ( 3 ) IntraCOR for presbyopia . Jump up ^ ( 4 ) IntraCOR for myopia Jump up ^ Chen , Shihao ; Feng , Yifan ; Stojanovic , Aleksandar ; Jankov , Mirko R. ; Wang , Qinmei ( 2012 ) . `` IntraLase Femtosecond Laser vs Mechanical Microkeratomes in LASIK for Myopia : A Systematic Review and Meta - analysis '' ( PDF ) . Journal of Refractive Surgery . 28 ( 1 ) : 15 -- 24 . doi : 10.3928 / 1081597x - 20111228 - 02 . PMID 22233436 . Retrieved 1 November 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Shortt , AJ ; Allan , BD ; Evans , JR ( 31 January 2013 ) . `` Laser - assisted in - situ keratomileusis ( LASIK ) versus photorefractive keratectomy ( PRK ) for myopia '' . The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews . 1 ( 1 ) : CD005135 . doi : 10.1002 / 14651858. CD005135. pub3 . PMID 23440799 . Jump up ^ Kuryan J , Cheema A , Chuck RS ( 2017 ) . `` Laser - assisted subepithelial keratectomy ( LASEK ) versus laser - assisted in - situ keratomileusis ( LASIK ) for correcting myopia '' . Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2 ( 2 ) : CD011080 . doi : 10.1002 / 14651858. CD011080. pub2 . PMC 5408355 . PMID 28197998 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) External links ( edit ) What is LASIK ? -- Food and Drug Administration Laser Eye Surgery -- United States National Library of Medicine Ectasia After LASIK on EyeWiki Eye surgery and other procedures ( ICD - 9 - CM V3 08 -- 16 + 95.0 -- 95.2 , ICD - 10 - PCS 08 ) Adnexa Eyelids Blepharoplasty East Asian blepharoplasty Epicanthoplasty Tarsorrhaphy Lacrimal system Dacryocystorhinostomy Punctoplasty Globe Cornea Radial keratotomy LASIK Keratomileusis Epikeratophakia Corneal transplantation Photorefractive keratectomy Intrastromal corneal ring segment Corneal collagen cross-linking Iris , ciliary body , sclera , and anterior chamber Glaucoma surgery : Trabeculectomy Iridectomy Lens Phacoemulsification Cataract surgery Capsulorhexis Retina , choroid , vitreous , and posterior chamber Vitrectomy Orbit and eyeball Enucleation of the eye Extraocular muscles Harada -- Ito procedure Strabismus surgery Botulinum toxin therapy of strabismus Medical imaging Fluorescein angiography Fundus photography Corneal topography Optical coherence tomography Electrodiagnosis : Electrooculography Electroretinography Electronystagmography Eye examination Gonioscopy Dilated fundus examination Ocular tonometry Ophthalmoscopy Retinoscopy Color perception test Visual field test / Perimetry Radiotherapy Plaque radiotherapy Lasers List of laser articles List of laser types List of laser applications Laser acronyms Laser types : Solid - state Semiconductor Dye Gas Chemical Excimer Ion Metal Vapor Laser physics Active laser medium Amplified spontaneous emission Continuous wave Doppler cooling Laser ablation Laser cooling Laser linewidth Lasing threshold Magneto - optical trap Optical tweezers Population inversion Resolved sideband cooling Ultrashort pulse Laser optics Beam expander Beam homogenizer B Integral Chirped pulse amplification Gain - switching Gaussian beam Injection seeder Laser beam profiler M squared Mode - locking Multiple - prism grating laser oscillator Multiphoton intrapulse interference phase scan Optical amplifier Optical cavity Optical isolator Output coupler Q - switching Regenerative amplification Laser spectroscopy Cavity ring - down spectroscopy Confocal laser scanning microscopy Laser - based angle - resolved photoemission spectroscopy Laser diffraction analysis Laser - induced breakdown spectroscopy Laser - induced fluorescence Noise - immune cavity - enhanced optical heterodyne molecular spectroscopy Raman spectroscopy Second - harmonic imaging microscopy Terahertz time - domain spectroscopy Tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy Two - photon excitation microscopy Ultrafast laser spectroscopy Laser ionization Above threshold ionization Atmospheric - pressure laser ionization Matrix - assisted laser desorption / ionization Resonance - enhanced multiphoton ionization Soft laser desorption Surface - assisted laser desorption / ionization Surface - enhanced laser desorption / ionization Laser fabrication Laser beam welding Laser bonding Laser converting Laser cutting Laser cutting bridge Laser drilling Laser engraving Laser - hybrid welding Laser peening Multiphoton lithography Pulsed laser deposition Selective laser melting Selective laser sintering Laser medicine Computed tomography laser mammography IntraLASIK Laser capture microdissection Laser hair removal Laser lithotripsy Laser coagulation Laser scalpel Laser surgery Laser thermal keratoplasty LASIK Low level laser therapy Optical coherence tomography Photorefractive keratectomy Photorejuvenation Soft - tissue laser surgery Laser fusion Argus laser Cyclops laser GEKKO XII HiPER ISKRA lasers Janus laser Laboratory for Laser Energetics Laser integration line Laser Mégajoule Long path laser LULI2000 Mercury laser National Ignition Facility Nike laser Nova ( laser ) Novette laser Shiva laser Trident laser Vulcan laser Civil applications 3D laser scanner CD DVD Laser lighting display Laser pointer Laser printer Laser tag Military applications Advanced Tactical Laser Boeing Laser Avenger Dazzler ( weapon ) Electrolaser Laser designator Laser guidance Laser - guided bomb Laser guns Laser rangefinder Laser warning receiver Laser weapon LLM01 Multiple Integrated Laser Engagement System Tactical High Energy Laser Tactical light ZEUS - HLONS ( HMMWV Laser Ordnance Neutralization System ) Commons NDL : 01160653 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LASIK&oldid=835948128 '' Categories : LASIK 1989 introductions Hidden categories : CS1 French - language sources ( fr ) CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list CS1 errors : dates Webarchive template wayback links CS1 German - language sources ( de ) All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2012 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski עברית ಕನ್ನಡ മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Tiếng Việt Winaray ייִדיש 中文 19 more Edit links This page was last edited on 11 April 2018 , at 18 : 57 . 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who is considered the 'father' of the minicomputer

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Minicomputer&oldid=818370677

Minicomputer - wikipedia Minicomputer Jump to : navigation , search For small modern computers , see Small form factor , nettop , etc ... This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( October 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) First - generation Digital Equipment Corporation ( DEC ) PDP - 8 on display at the National Museum of American History Data General Nova , serial number 1 , the first 16 - bit minicomputer , on display at the Computer History Museum A PDP - 11 , model 40 , an early member of DECs 16 - bit minicomputer family , on display at the Vienna Technical Museum A minicomputer , or colloquially mini , is a class of smaller computers that was developed in the mid-1960s and sold for much less than mainframe and mid-size computers from IBM and its direct competitors . In a 1970 survey , the New York Times suggested a consensus definition of a minicomputer as a machine costing less than US $25,000 , with an input - output device such as a teleprinter and at least four thousand words of memory , that is capable of running programs in a higher level language , such as Fortran or BASIC . The class formed a distinct group with its own software architectures and operating systems . Minis were designed for control , instrumentation , human interaction , and communication switching as distinct from calculation and record keeping . Many were sold indirectly to original equipment manufacturers ( OEMs ) for final end use application . During the two decade lifetime of the minicomputer class ( 1965 -- 1985 ) , almost 100 companies formed and only a half dozen remained . When single - chip CPU microprocessors appeared , beginning with the Intel 4004 in 1971 , the term `` minicomputer '' came to mean a machine that lies in the middle range of the computing spectrum , in between the smallest mainframe computers and the microcomputers . The term `` minicomputer '' is little used today ; the contemporary term for this class of system is `` midrange computer '' , such as the higher - end SPARC , Power Architecture and Itanium - based systems from Oracle , IBM and Hewlett - Packard . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 1960s : Origin ; 1970s : Market entrenchment 1.2 Mid-1980s , 1990s : The minis give way to the micros 1.3 The minicomputer 's industrial impact and heritage 2 List of some notable minicomputers 3 See also 4 References 5 External links History ( edit ) 1960s : origin ; 1970s : market entrenchment ( edit ) The term `` minicomputer '' developed in the 1960s to describe the smaller computers that became possible with the use of transistors and core memory technologies , minimal instructions sets and less expensive peripherals such as the ubiquitous Teletype Model 33 ASR . They usually took up one or a few 19 - inch rack cabinets , compared with the large mainframes that could fill a room . The definition of minicomputer is vague with the consequence that there are a number of candidates for the first minicomputer . An early and highly successful minicomputer was Digital Equipment Corporation 's ( DEC ) 12 - bit PDP - 8 , which was built using discrete transistors and cost from US $ 16,000 upwards when launched in 1964 . Later versions of the PDP - 8 took advantage of small - scale integrated circuits . The important precursors of the PDP - 8 include the PDP - 5 , LINC , the TX - 0 , the TX - 2 , and the PDP - 1 . DEC gave rise to a number of minicomputer companies along Massachusetts Route 128 , including Data General , Wang Laboratories , Apollo Computer , and Prime Computer . Minicomputers were also known as midrange computers . They grew to have relatively high processing power and capacity . They were used in manufacturing process control , telephone switching and to control laboratory equipment . In the 1970s , they were the hardware that was used to launch the computer - aided design ( CAD ) industry and other similar industries where a smaller dedicated system was needed . The 7400 series of TTL integrated circuits started appearing in minicomputers in the late 1960s . The 74181 arithmetic logic unit ( ALU ) was commonly used in the CPU data paths . Each 74181 had a bus width of four bits , hence the popularity of bit - slice architecture . Some scientific computers , such as the Nicolet 1080 , would use the 7400 series in groups of five ICs ( parallel ) for their uncommon twenty bits architecture . The 7400 series offered data - selectors , multiplexers , three - state buffers , memories , etc. in dual in - line packages with one - tenth inch spacing , making major system components and architecture evident to the naked eye . Starting in the 1980s , many minicomputers used VLSI circuits . At the launch of the MITS Altair 8800 in 1975 , Radio Electronics magazine referred to the system as a `` minicomputer '' , although the term microcomputer soon became usual for personal computers based on single - chip microprocessors . At the time , microcomputers were 8 - bit single - user , relatively simple machines running simple program - launcher operating systems like CP / M or MS - DOS , while minis were much more powerful systems that ran full multi-user , multitasking operating systems , such as VMS and Unix , and although the classical mini was a 16 - bit computer , the emerging higher performance superminis were 32 - bit . Mid-1980s , 1990s : the minis give Way to the micros ( edit ) The decline of the minis happened due to the lower cost of microprocessor - based hardware , the emergence of inexpensive and easily deployable local area network systems , the emergence of the 68020 , 80286 and the 80386 microprocessors , and the desire of end - users to be less reliant on inflexible minicomputer manufacturers and IT departments or `` data centers '' . The result was that minicomputers and computer terminals were replaced by networked workstations , file servers and PCs in some installations , beginning in the latter half of the 1980s . During the 1990s , the change from minicomputers to inexpensive PC networks was cemented by the development of several versions of Unix and Unix - like systems that ran on the Intel x86 microprocessor architecture , including Solaris , Linux , FreeBSD , NetBSD and OpenBSD . Also , the Microsoft Windows series of operating systems , beginning with Windows NT , now included server versions that supported preemptive multitasking and other features required for servers . As microprocessors have become more powerful , the CPUs built up from multiple components -- once the distinguishing feature differentiating mainframes and midrange systems from microcomputers -- have become increasingly obsolete , even in the largest mainframe computers . Digital Equipment Corporation ( DEC ) was once the leading minicomputer manufacturer , at one time the second - largest computer company after IBM . But as the minicomputer declined in the face of generic Unix servers and Intel - based PCs , not only DEC , but almost every other minicomputer company including Data General , Prime , Computervision , Honeywell and Wang Laboratories , many based in New England ( hence the end of the Massachusetts Miracle ) , also collapsed or merged . DEC was sold to Compaq in 1998 , while Data General was acquired by EMC Corporation . Today only a few proprietary minicomputer architectures survive . The IBM System / 38 operating system , which introduced many advanced concepts , lives on with IBM 's AS / 400 . Realising the importance of the myriad lines of ' legacy code ' ( programs ) written , ' AS ' stands for ' Application System ' . Great efforts were made by IBM to enable programs originally written for the System / 34 and System / 36 to be moved to the AS / 400 . The AS / 400 was replaced by the iSeries , which was subsequently replaced by the System i . In 2008 , the System i was replaced by the IBM Power Systems . By contrast , competing proprietary computing architectures from the early 1980s , such as DEC 's VAX , Wang VS and Hewlett Packard 's HP3000 have long been discontinued without a compatible upgrade path . OpenVMS runs HP Alpha and Intel IA64 ( Itanium ) CPU architectures . Tandem Computers , which specialized in reliable large - scale computing , was acquired by Compaq , and a few years afterward the combined entity merged with Hewlett Packard . The NSK - based NonStop product line was re-ported from MIPS processors to Itanium - based processors branded as ' HP Integrity NonStop Servers ' . As in the earlier migration from stack machines to MIPS microprocessors , all customer software was carried forward without source changes . Integrity NonStop continues to be HP 's answer for the extreme scaling needs of its very largest customers . The NSK operating system , now termed NonStop OS , continues as the base software environment for the NonStop Servers , and has been extended to include support for Java and integration with popular development tools like Visual Studio and Eclipse . The minicomputer 's industrial impact and heritage ( edit ) A variety of companies emerged that built turnkey systems around minicomputers with specialized software and , in many cases , custom peripherals that addressed specialized problems such as computer aided design , computer aided manufacturing , process control , manufacturing resource planning , and so on . Many if not most minicomputers were sold through these original equipment manufacturers and value - added resellers . Several pioneering computer companies first built minicomputers , such as DEC , Data General , and Hewlett - Packard ( HP ) ( who now refers to its HP3000 minicomputers as `` servers '' rather than `` minicomputers '' ) . And although today 's PCs and servers are clearly microcomputers physically , architecturally their CPUs and operating systems have developed largely by integrating features from minicomputers . In the software context , the relatively simple OSs for early microcomputers were usually inspired by minicomputer OSs ( such as CP / M 's similarity to Digital 's single user OS / 8 and RT - 11 and multi-user RSTS time - sharing system ) . Also , the multiuser OSs of today are often either inspired by , or directly descended from , minicomputer OSs . UNIX was originally a minicomputer OS , while Windows NT kernel -- the foundation for all current versions of Microsoft Windows - borrowed design ideas liberally from VMS . Many of the first generation of PC programmers were educated on minicomputer systems . List of some notable minicomputers ( edit ) Control Data 's CDC 160A and CDC 1700 DEC PDP and VAX series Data General Nova Hewlett - Packard HP 3000 series , HP 2100 series , HP1000 series . Honeywell - Bull DPS 6 / DPS 6000 series IBM midrange computers Interdata 7 / 32 and 8 / 32 Varian 620 100 series Norsk Data Nord - 1 , Nord - 10 , and Nord - 100 Prime Computer Prime 50 series SDS SDS - 92 SEL , one of the first 32 - bit real - time computer system manufacturers Texas Instruments TI - 990 Wang Laboratories 2200 and VS series K - 202 , first Polish minicomputer See also ( edit ) The Soul of a New Machine -- about the development of Data General 's Eclipse / MV minicomputers in the early 1980s Charles Babbage Institute History of computing hardware ( 1960s -- present ) Superminicomputer References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Henderson , edited by Rebecca M. ; Newell , Richard G. ( 2011 ) . Accelerating energy innovation : insights from multiple sectors . Chicago : University of Chicago Press . p. 180 . ISBN 0226326837 . CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Huang , Han - Way ( 2014 ) . The atmel AVR microcontroller : MEGA and XMEGA in assembly and C. Australia ; United Kingdom : Delmar Cengage Learning . p. 4 . ISBN 1133607292 . Jump up ^ Estabrooks , Maurice ( 1995 ) . Electronic technology , corporate strategy , and world transformation . Westport , Conn. : Quorum Books . p. 53 . ISBN 0899309690 . Jump up ^ Smith , William D. ( April 5 , 1970 ) . `` Maxi Computers Face Mini Conflict : Mini Trend Reaching Computers '' . New York Times . Jump up ^ Bell , Gordon ( 9 January 2015 ) . `` Rise and Fall of Minicomputers '' . Engineering and Technology History Wiki . Retrieved 28 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Ranging from the CDC 160 circa 1960 to the DEC PDP 8 circa 1965 Lafferty , Stephen H. ( January 2014 ) . `` Who Built The First Minicomputers ? '' . Retrieved 24 January 2014 ... Jump up ^ Nicolette Instruments Corporation ( February 1 , 1972 ) . `` Nicolette 1080 Series , Data Acquisition and Processing System , Description and Specifications '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved May 28 , 2016 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Minicomputers . Early mini computers , still runnable in a German computer museum A list of Minicomputers Computer sizes Classes of computers Microcomputer , personal computer Stationary Workstation Desktop Home Personal supercomputer SFF Nettop Plug Portable Tabletop Game arcade cabinet System board Home console Microconsole Interactive kiosk Smart TV Smart speaker Mobile Laptop Desktop replacement Notebook 2 - in - 1 Subnotebook Netbook Smartbook Ultrabook Ultra-mobile PC Tablet Ultra-mobile PC 2 - in - 1 Mobile Internet device Tabletop Phablet Information appliance Handheld PC Palm - size PC Pocket PC Pocket computer Palmtop PC PDA Electronic organizer EDA Mobile phone Feature phone Smartphone Phablet PMP DAP E-reader Handheld game console Portable / Mobile data terminal Calculator Scientific Programmable Graphing Wearable Digital wristwatch Calculator watch Smartwatch Smartglasses Smart ring Midrange Server Minicomputer Supermini Large Super Mainframe Minisuper Others Microcontroller Nanocomputer Pizza box form factor Single - board computer Smartdust Wireless sensor network LCCN : sh85085693 GND : 4074837 - 6 BNF : cb11958910m ( data ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minicomputer&oldid=818370677 '' Categories : Minicomputers Classes of computers American inventions Hidden categories : CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list Articles needing additional references from October 2017 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2016 Articles with unsourced statements from April 2008 Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia বাংলা Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut Italiano עברית Latviešu Magyar Македонски Монгол Nederlands नेपाली 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Русский සිංහල Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 3 January 2018 , at 04 : 23 . 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what does shubin call the regulatory gene that controls the body segments

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Evolutionary_developmental_biology&oldid=805940877

Evolutionary developmental biology - wikipedia Evolutionary developmental biology Jump to : navigation , search Homologous hox genes in such different animals as insects and vertebrates control embryonic development and hence the form of adult bodies . These genes have been highly conserved through hundreds of millions of years of evolution . Evolutionary developmental biology ( informally , evo - devo ) is a field of biological research that compares the developmental processes of different organisms to infer the ancestral relationships between them and how developmental processes evolved . The field grew from 19th century beginnings , where embryology faced a mystery : zoologists did not know how embryonic development was controlled at the molecular level . Charles Darwin noted that having similar embryos implied common ancestry , but little progress was made until the 1970s . Then , recombinant DNA technology at last brought embryology together with molecular genetics . A key early discovery was of homeotic genes that regulate development in a wide range of eukaryotes . The field is characterised by some key concepts , which took biologists by surprise . One is deep homology , the finding that dissimilar organs such as the eyes of insects , vertebrates and cephalopod molluscs , long thought to have evolved separately , are controlled by similar genes such as pax - 6 , from the evo - devo gene toolkit . These genes are ancient , being highly conserved among phyla ; they generate the patterns in time and space which shape the embryo , and ultimately form the body plan of the organism . Another is that species do not differ much in their structural genes , such as those coding for enzymes ; what does differ is the way that gene expression is regulated by the toolkit genes . These genes are reused , unchanged , many times in different parts of the embryo and at different stages of development , forming a complex cascade of control , switching other regulatory genes as well as structural genes on and off in a precise pattern . This multiple pleiotropic reuse explains why these genes are highly conserved , as any change would have many adverse consequences which natural selection would oppose . New morphological features and ultimately new species are produced by variations in the toolkit , either when genes are expressed in a new pattern , or when toolkit genes acquire additional functions . Another possibility is the Neo-Lamarckian theory that epigenetic changes are later consolidated at gene level , something that may have been important early in the history of multicellular life . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Recapitulation 1.2 Evolutionary morphology 1.3 The modern synthesis of the early 20th century 1.4 The lac operon 1.5 The birth of evo - devo and a second synthesis 2 The control of body structure 2.1 Deep homology 2.2 Gene toolkit 2.3 The embryo 's regulatory networks 3 The origins of novelty 3.1 Variations in the toolkit 3.2 Consolidation of epigenetic changes 4 Eco-evo - devo 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References History ( edit ) Embryology theories of Ernst Haeckel , who argued for recapitulation of evolutionary development in the embryo , and Karl Ernst von Baer 's epigenesis Further information : History of evolutionary thought Recapitulation ( edit ) Main article : Recapitulation theory A recapitulation theory of evolutionary development was proposed by Étienne Serres in 1824 -- 26 , echoing the 1808 ideas of Johann Friedrich Meckel . They argued that the embryos of ' higher ' animals went through or recapitulated a series of stages , each of which resembled an animal lower down the great chain of being . For example , the brain of a human embryo looked first like that of a fish , then in turn like that of a reptile , bird , and mammal before becoming clearly human . The embryologist Karl Ernst von Baer opposed this , arguing in 1828 that there was no linear sequence as in the great chain of being , based on a single body plan , but a process of epigenesis in which structures differentiate . Von Baer instead recognised four distinct animal body plans : radiate , like starfish ; molluscan , like clams ; articulate , like lobsters ; and vertebrate , like fish . Zoologists then largely abandoned recapitulation , though Ernst Haeckel revived it in 1866 . Evolutionary morphology ( edit ) A. Lancelet ( a chordate ) , B. Larval tunicate , C. Adult tunicate . Kowalevsky saw that the notochord ( 1 ) and gill slit ( 5 ) are shared by tunicates and vertebrates . Further information : Morphology ( biology ) and Body plan From the early 19th century through most of the 20th century , embryology faced a mystery . Animals were seen to develop into adults of widely differing body plan , often through similar stages , from the egg , but zoologists knew almost nothing about how embryonic development was controlled at the molecular level , and therefore equally little about how developmental processes had evolved . Charles Darwin argued that a shared embryonic structure implied a common ancestor . As an example of this , Darwin cited in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species the shrimp - like larva of the barnacle , whose sessile adults looked nothing like other arthropods ; Linnaeus and Cuvier had classified them as molluscs . Darwin also noted Alexander Kowalevsky 's finding that the tunicate , too , was not a mollusc , but in its larval stage had a notochord and pharyngeal slits which developed from the same germ layers as the equivalent structures in vertebrates , and should therefore be grouped with them as chordates . 19th century zoology thus converted embryology into an evolutionary science , connecting phylogeny with homologies between the germ layers of embryos . Zoologists including Fritz Müller proposed the use of embryology to discover phylogenetic relationships between taxa . Müller demonstrated that crustaceans shared the Nauplius larva , identifying several parasitic species that had not been recognised as crustaceans . Müller also recognised that natural selection must act on larvae , just as it does on adults , giving the lie to recapitulation , which would require larval forms to be shielded from natural selection . Two of Haeckel 's other ideas about the evolution of development have fared better than recapitulation : he argued in the 1870s that changes in the timing ( heterochrony ) and changes in the positioning within the body ( heterotopy ) of aspects of embryonic development would drive evolution by changing the shape of a descendant 's body compared to an ancestor 's . It took a century before these ideas were shown to be correct . In 1917 , D'Arcy Thompson wrote a book on the shapes of animals , showing with simple mathematics how small changes to parameters , such as the angles of a gastropod 's spiral shell , can radically alter an animal 's form , though he preferred mechanical to evolutionary explanation . But for the next century , without molecular evidence , progress stalled . The modern synthesis of the early 20th century ( edit ) Main article : Modern synthesis In the so - called modern synthesis of the early 20th century , Ronald Fisher brought together Darwin 's theory of evolution , with its insistence on natural selection , heredity , and variation , and Gregor Mendel 's laws of genetics into a coherent structure for evolutionary biology . Biologists assumed that an organism was a straightforward reflection of its component genes : the genes coded for proteins , which built the organism 's body . Biochemical pathways ( and , they supposed , new species ) evolved through mutations in these genes . It was a simple , clear and nearly comprehensive picture : but it did not explain embryology . The lac operon ( edit ) The lac operon . Top : Repressed , Bottom : Active 1 : RNA Polymerase , 2 : Repressor , 3 : Promoter , 4 : Operator , 5 : Lactose , 6 -- 8 : protein - encoding genes , controlled by the switch , that cause lactose to be digested Main article : Lac operon In 1961 , Jacques Monod , Jean - Pierre Changeux and François Jacob discovered the lac operon in the bacterium Escherichia coli . It was a cluster of genes , arranged in a feedback control loop so that its products would only be made when `` switched on '' by an environmental stimulus . One of these products was an enzyme that splits a sugar , lactose ; and lactose itself was the stimulus that switched the genes on . This was a revelation , as it showed for the first time that genes , even in an organism as small as a bacterium , were subject to fine - grained control . The implication was that many other genes were also elaborately regulated . The birth of evo - devo and a second synthesis ( edit ) In 1977 , a revolution in thinking about evolution and developmental biology began , with the arrival of recombinant DNA technology in genetics , and the papers Ontogeny and Phylogeny by Stephen J. Gould and Evolution by Tinkering by François Jacob . Gould laid to rest Haeckel 's interpretation of evolutionary embryology , while Jacob set out an alternative theory . This led to a second synthesis , at last including embryology as well as molecular genetics , phylogeny , and evolutionary biology to form evo - devo . In 1978 , Edward B. Lewis discovered homeotic genes that regulate embryonic development in Drosophila fruit flies , which like all insects are arthropods , one of the major phyla of invertebrate animals . Bill McGinnis quickly discovered homeotic gene sequences , homeoboxes , in animals in other phyla , in vertebrates such as frogs , birds , and mammals ; they were later also found in fungi such as yeasts , and in plants . There were evidently strong similarities in the genes that controlled development across all the eukaryotes . In 1980 , Christiane Nüsslein - Volhard and Eric Wieschaus described gap genes which help to create the segmentation pattern in fruit fly embryos ; they and Lewis won a Nobel Prize for their work in 1995 . Later , more specific similarities were discovered : for example , the Distal-less gene was found in 1989 to be involved in the development of appendages or limbs in fruit flies , the fins of fish , the wings of chickens , the parapodia of marine annelid worms , the ampullae and siphons of tunicates , and the tube feet of sea urchins . It was evident that the gene must be ancient , dating back to the last common ancestor of bilateral animals ( before the Ediacaran Period , which began some 635 million years ago ) . Evo - devo had started to uncover the ways that all animal bodies were built during development . The control of body structure ( edit ) Deep homology ( edit ) Further information : Deep homology Roughly spherical eggs of different animals give rise to extremely different bodies , from jellyfish to lobsters , butterflies to elephants . Many of these organisms share the same structural genes for body - building proteins like collagen and enzymes , but biologists had expected that each group of animals would have its own rules of development . The surprise of evo - devo is that the shaping of bodies is controlled by a rather small percentage of genes , and that these regulatory genes are ancient , shared by all animals . The giraffe does not have a gene for a long neck , any more than the elephant has a gene for a big body . Their bodies are patterned by a system of switching which causes development of different features to begin earlier or later , to occur in this or that part of the embryo , and to continue for more or less time . The puzzle of how embryonic development was controlled began to be solved using the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster as a model organism . The step - by - step control of its embryogenesis was visualized by attaching fluorescent dyes of different colours to specific types of protein made by genes expressed in the embryo . A dye such as green fluorescent protein , originally from a jellyfish , was typically attached to an antibody specific to a fruit fly protein , forming a precise indicator of where and when that protein appeared in the living embryo . The pax - 6 gene controls development of eyes of different types across the animal kingdom . Using such a technique , in 1994 Walter Gehring found that the pax - 6 gene , vital for forming the eyes of fruit flies , exactly matches an eye - forming gene in mice and humans . The same gene was quickly found in many other groups of animals , such as squid , a cephalopod mollusc . Biologists including Ernst Mayr had believed that eyes had arisen in the animal kingdom at least 40 times , as the anatomy of different types of eye varies widely . For example , the fruit fly 's compound eye is made of hundreds of small lensed structures ( ommatidia ) ; the human eye has a blind spot where the optic nerve enters the eye , and the nerve fibres run over the surface of the retina , so light has to pass through a layer of nerve fibres before reaching the detector cells in the retina , so the structure is effectively `` upside - down '' ; in contrast , the cephalopod eye has the retina , then a layer of nerve fibres , then the wall of the eye `` the right way around '' . The evidence of pax - 6 , however , was that the same genes controlled the development of the eyes of all these animals , suggesting that they all evolved from a common ancestor . Ancient genes had been conserved through millions of years of evolution to create dissimilar structures for similar functions , demonstrating deep homology between structures once thought to be purely analogous . This has caused a radical revision of the meaning of homology in evolutionary biology . Gene toolkit ( edit ) Expression of homeobox ( Hox ) genes in the fruit fly Main article : Evo - devo gene toolkit A small fraction of the genes in an organism 's genome control the organism 's development . These genes are called the developmental - genetic toolkit . They are highly conserved among phyla , meaning that they are ancient and very similar in widely separated groups of animals . Differences in deployment of toolkit genes affect the body plan and the number , identity , and pattern of body parts . Most toolkit genes are parts of signalling pathways : they encode transcription factors , cell adhesion proteins , cell surface receptor proteins and signalling ligands that bind to them , and secreted morphogens that diffuse through the embryo . All of these help to define the fate of undifferentiated cells in the embryo . Together , they generate the patterns in time and space which shape the embryo , and ultimately form the body plan of the organism . Among the most important toolkit genes are the Hox genes . These transcription factors contain the homeobox protein - binding DNA motif , also found in other toolkit genes , and create the basic pattern of the body along its front - to - back axis . Hox genes determine where repeating parts , such as the many vertebrae of snakes , will grow in a developing embryo or larva . Pax - 6 , already mentioned , is a classic toolkit gene . Homeobox genes are also found in plants , implying they are common to all eukaryotes . The embryo 's regulatory networks ( edit ) A gene regulatory network Further information : Regulation of gene expression and Transcriptional regulation The protein products of the regulatory toolkit are reused not by duplication and modification , but by a complex mosaic of pleiotropy , being applied unchanged in many independent developmental processes , giving pattern to many dissimilar body structures . The loci of these pleiotropic toolkit genes have large , complicated and modular cis - regulatory elements . For example , while a non-pleiotropic rhodopsin gene in the fruit fly has a cis - regulatory element just a few hundred base pairs long , the pleiotropic eyeless cis - regulatory region contains 6 cis - regulatory elements in over 7000 base pairs . The regulatory networks involved are often very large . Each regulatory protein controls `` scores to hundreds '' of cis - regulatory elements . For instance , 67 fruit fly transcription factors controlled on average 124 target genes each . All this complexity enables genes involved in the development of the embryo to be switched on and off at exactly the right times and in exactly the right places . Some of these genes are structural , directly forming enzymes , tissues and organs of the embryo . But many others are themselves regulatory genes , so what is switched on is often a precisely - timed cascade of switching , involving turning on one developmental process after another in the developing embryo . Gene product distributions along the long axis of the early embryo of a fruit fly Such a cascading regulatory network has been studied in detail in the development of the fruit fly embryo . The young embryo is oval in shape , like a rugby ball . A small number of genes produce messenger RNAs that set up concentration gradients along the long axis of the embryo . In the early embryo , the bicoid and hunchback genes are at high concentration near the anterior end , and give pattern to the future head and thorax ; the caudal and nanos genes are at high concentration near the posterior end , and give pattern to the hindmost abdominal segments . The effects of these genes interact ; for instance , the Bicoid protein blocks the translation of caudal 's messenger RNA , so the Caudal protein concentration becomes low at the anterior end . Caudal later switches on genes which create the fly 's hindmost segments , but only at the posterior end where it is most concentrated . Gap genes in the fruit fly are switched on by genes such as bicoid , setting up stripes across the embryo which start to pattern the body 's segments . The Bicoid , Hunchback and Caudal proteins in turn regulate the transcription of gap genes such as giant , knirps , Krüppel , and tailless in a striped pattern , creating the first level of structures that will become segments . The proteins from these in turn control the pair - rule genes , which in the next stage set up 7 bands across the embryo 's long axis . Finally , the segment polarity genes such as engrailed split each of the 7 bands into two , creating 14 future segments . This process explains the accurate conservation of toolkit gene sequences , which has resulted in deep homology and functional equivalence of toolkit proteins in dissimilar animals ( seen , for example , when a mouse protein controls fruit fly development ) . The interactions of transcription factors and cis - regulatory elements , or of signalling proteins and receptors , become locked in through multiple usages , making almost any mutation deleterious and hence eliminated by natural selection . The Origins of novelty ( edit ) See also : History of evolutionary thought § 21st century Among the more surprising and , perhaps , counterintuitive ( from a neo-Darwinian viewpoint ) results of recent research in evolutionary developmental biology is that the diversity of body plans and morphology in organisms across many phyla are not necessarily reflected in diversity at the level of the sequences of genes , including those of the developmental genetic toolkit and other genes involved in development . Indeed , as Gerhart and Kirschner have noted , there is an apparent paradox : `` where we most expect to find variation , we find conservation , a lack of change '' . So , if the observed morphological novelty between different clades does not come from changes in gene sequences ( such as by mutation ) , where does it come from ? Novelty may arise by mutation - driven changes in gene regulation . Variations in the toolkit ( edit ) Heliconius erato Heliconius melpomene Different species of Heliconius butterfly have independently evolved similar patterns , apparently both facilitated and constrained by the available developmental - genetic toolkit genes controlling wing pattern formation . Variations in the toolkit may have produced a large part of the morphological evolution of animals . The toolkit can drive evolution in two ways . A toolkit gene can be expressed in a different pattern , as when the beak of Darwin 's large ground - finch was enlarged by the BMP gene , or when snakes lost their legs as distal-less became under - expressed or not expressed at all in the places where other reptiles continued to form their limbs . Or , a toolkit gene can acquire a new function , as seen in the many functions of that same gene , distal-less , which controls such diverse structures as the mandible in vertebrates , legs and antennae in the fruit fly , and eyespot pattern in butterfly wings . Given that small changes in toolbox genes can cause significant changes in body structures , they have often enabled the same function convergently or in parallel . distal-less generates wing patterns in the butterflies Heliconius erato and Heliconius melpomene , which are Müllerian mimics . In so - called facilitated variation , their wing patterns arose in different evolutionary events , but are controlled by the same genes . Developmental changes can contribute directly to speciation . Consolidation of epigenetic changes ( edit ) Main article : Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance Further information : Extended Evolutionary Synthesis Evolutionary innovation may sometimes begin in Lamarckian style with epigenetic alterations of gene regulation or phenotype generation , subsequently consolidated by changes at the gene level . Epigenetic changes include modification of DNA by reversible methylation , as well as nonprogrammed remoulding of the organism by physical and other environmental effects due to the inherent plasticity of developmental mechanisms . The biologists Stuart A. Newman and Gerd B. Müller have suggested that organisms early in the history of multicellular life were more susceptible to this second category of epigenetic determination than are modern organisms , providing a basis for early macroevolutionary changes . Eco-evo - devo ( edit ) Ecological evolutionary developmental biology ( eco-evo - devo ) integrates research from developmental biology and ecology to examine their relationship with evolutionary theory . Researchers study concepts and mechanisms such as developmental plasticity , epigenetic inheritance , genetic assimilation , niche construction and symbiosis . See also ( edit ) Arthropod head problem Cell signaling Evolution & Development ( journal ) Human evolutionary developmental biology Just So Stories ( as seen by evolutionary developmental biologists ) Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Richardson and Keuck ( 2002 ) , `` Haeckel 's ABC of evolution and development '' , Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society , 77 ( 4 ) : 495 -- 528 , PMID 12475051 , doi : 10.1017 / s1464793102005948 CS1 maint : Uses authors parameter ( link ) p. 516 Jump up ^ O'Connell , Lindsey ( 10 July 2013 ) . `` The Meckel - Serres Conception of Recapitulation '' . The Embryo Project Encyclopedia . Retrieved 10 October 2016 . Jump up ^ Desmond , Adrian J. ( 1989 ) . The politics of evolution : morphology , medicine , and reform in radical London . Chicago : University of Chicago Press . pp. 53 -- 53 , 86 -- 88 , 337 -- 340 , 490 -- 491 . ISBN 0 - 226 - 14374 - 0 . Jump up ^ ( Secord 2003 , p. 252 -- 253 ) Jump up ^ Bowler , Peter J. ( 2003 ) . Evolution : the history of an idea . Berkeley : University of California Press . pp. 120 -- 128 , 190 -- 191 , 208 . ISBN 0 - 520 - 23693 - 9 . Jump up ^ ( Secord 2003 , p. 424 , 512 ) ^ Jump up to : Carroll , Sean B . `` The Origins of Form '' . Natural History . Retrieved 9 October 2016 . Biologists could say , with confidence , that forms change , and that natural selection is an important force for change . Yet they could say nothing about how that change is accomplished . How bodies or body parts change , or how new structures arise , remained complete mysteries . ^ Jump up to : Gilbert , Scott F. ( 2003 ) . `` The morphogenesis of evolutionary developmental biology '' ( PDF ) . International Journal of Developmental Biology . 47 : 467 -- 477 . Jump up ^ Darwin , Charles ( 1859 ) . On the Origin of Species . London : John Murray . pp. 439 -- 440 . ISBN 0 - 8014 - 1319 - 2 . Cirripedes afford a good instance of this : even the illustrious Cuvier did not perceive that a barnacle was , as it certainly is , a crustacean ; but a glance at the larva shows this to be the case in an unmistakeable manner . Jump up ^ Richmond , Marsha ( January 2007 ) . `` Darwin 's Study of the Cirripedia '' . Darwin Online . Retrieved 9 October 2016 . Jump up ^ Hall , B.K. ( 2003 ) . `` Evo - Devo : evolutionary developmental mechanisms '' . International Journal of Developmental Biology . 47 ( 7 -- 8 ) : 491 -- 495 . PMID 14756324 . Jump up ^ Ridley , Mark ( 2003 ) . Evolution . Wiley - Blackwell . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4051 - 0345 - 9 . Jump up ^ Gould , Stephen Jay ( 1977 ) . Ontogeny and Phylogeny . Cambridge , Massachusetts : Harvard University Press . pp. 221 -- 222 . ISBN 0 - 674 - 63940 - 5 . Jump up ^ Ball , Philip ( 7 February 2013 ) . `` In retrospect : On Growth and Form '' . Nature . 494 ( 32 -- 33 ) . doi : 10.1038 / 494032a . Jump up ^ Shalizi , Cosma . `` Review : The Self - Made Tapestry by Philip Ball '' . University of Michigan . Retrieved 14 October 2016 . Jump up ^ Bock , Walter J. ( July 1981 ) . `` Reviewed Work : The Evolutionary Synthesis . Perspectives on the Unification of Biology '' . The Auk . McLean , VA : American Ornithologists ' Union . 98 ( 3 ) : 644 -- 646 . ISSN 0004 - 8038 . JSTOR 4086148 . Jump up ^ Monod , Jacques ; Changeux , J.P. ; Jacob , François ( 1963 ) . `` Allosteric proteins and cellular control systems '' . Journal of Molecular Biology . 6 ( 4 ) : 306 -- 329 . PMID 13936070 . doi : 10.1016 / S0022 - 2836 ( 63 ) 80091 - 1 . Jump up ^ Gilbert , S.F. ; Opitz , J.M. ; Raff , R.A. ( 1996 ) . `` Resynthesizing Evolutionary and Developmental Biology '' . Developmental Biology . 173 ( 2 ) : 357 -- 372 . PMID 8605997 . doi : 10.1006 / dbio. 1996.0032 . Jump up ^ Müller , G.B. ( 2007 ) . `` Evo -- devo : extending the evolutionary synthesis '' . Nature Reviews Genetics . 8 ( 12 ) : 943 -- 949 . PMID 17984972 . doi : 10.1038 / nrg2219 . Jump up ^ Goodman CS and Coughlin BS ( Eds ) . ( 2000 ) . `` Special feature : The evolution of evo - devo biology '' . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . 97 ( 9 ) : 4424 -- 4456 . Bibcode : 2000PNAS ... 97.4424 G. PMC 18255 . PMID 10781035 . doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 97.9. 4424 . Jump up ^ Müller GB and Newman SA ( Eds . ) ( 2005 ) . `` Special issue : Evolutionary Innovation and Morphological Novelty '' . Journal of Exp . Zool . Part B : Molecular and Developmental Evolution . 304B ( 6 ) : 485 -- 631 . doi : 10.1002 / jez. b. 21080 . CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Palmer , R.A. ( 2004 ) . `` Symmetry breaking and the evolution of development '' . Science . 306 ( 5697 ) : 828 -- 833 . Bibcode : 2004Sci ... 306 ... 828P . PMID 15514148 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1103707 . ^ Jump up to : Winchester , Guil ( 2004 ) . `` Edward B. Lewis 1918 - 2004 '' ( PDF ) . Current Biology ( published Sep 21 , 2004 ) . 14 ( 18 ) : R740 -- 742 . PMID 15380080 . doi : 10.1016 / j. cub. 2004.09. 007 . Jump up ^ Bürglin , Thomas R . `` The Homeobox Page '' . Karolinska Institutet . Retrieved 13 October 2016 . Jump up ^ Holland , P.W. ( 2013 ) . `` Evolution of homeobox genes '' . Wiley Interdiscip Rev Dev Biol. 2 ( 1 ) : 31 -- 45 . PMID 23799629 . doi : 10.1002 / wdev. 78 . Homeobox genes are found in almost all eukaryotes , and have diversified into 11 gene classes and over 100 gene families in animal evolution , and 10 to 14 gene classes in plants . ^ Jump up to : Nüsslein - Volhard , C. ; Wieschaus , E. ( October 1980 ) . `` Mutations affecting segment number and polarity in Drosophila '' . Nature . 287 ( 5785 ) : 795 -- 801 . PMID 6776413 . doi : 10.1038 / 287795a0 . CS1 maint : Uses authors parameter ( link ) Jump up ^ Arthur , Wallace ( 14 February 2002 ) . `` The emerging conceptual framework of evolutionary developmental biology '' . Nature . 415 : 757 -- 764 . doi : 10.1038 / 415757a . Jump up ^ `` Eric Wieschaus and Christiane Nüsslein - Volhard : Collaborating to Find Developmental Genes '' . iBiology . Retrieved 13 October 2016 . Jump up ^ Cohen , S.M. ; Jurgens , G. ( 1989 ) . `` Proximal - distal pattern formation in Drosophila : cell autonomous requirement for Distal-less activity in limb development '' . EMBO J. 8 ( 7 ) : 2045 -- 2055 . PMC 401088 . PMID 16453891 . Jump up ^ Carroll , Sean B. ( 2006 ) ( 2005 ) . Endless Forms Most Beautiful : The New Science of Evo Devo and the Making of the Animal Kingdom . Weidenfeld & Nicolson ( Norton ) . pp. 63 -- 70 . 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( 2000 ) , Victorian sensation : the extraordinary publication , reception , and secret authorship of Vestiges of the natural history of creation , Chicago : University of Chicago Press , ISBN 978 - 0 - 226 - 74410 - 0 The development of phenotype Key concepts Genotype -- phenotype distinction Norms of reaction Gene -- environment interaction Gene -- environment correlation Operon Heritability Quantitative genetics Heterochrony Neoteny Heterotopy Genetic architecture Canalisation Genetic assimilation Dominance Epistasis Fitness landscape / evolutionary landscape Pleiotropy Plasticity Polygenic inheritance Transgressive segregation Sequence space Non-genetic influences Epigenetics Maternal effect Dual inheritance theory Polyphenism Developmental architecture Developmental biology Morphogenesis Eyespot Pattern formation Segmentation Modularity Evolution of genetic systems Evolvability Mutational robustness Neutral networks Evolution of sexual reproduction Control of development Systems Regulation of gene expression Gene regulatory network Developmental - genetic toolkit Evolutionary developmental biology Homeobox Hedgehog signaling pathway Notch signaling pathway Elements Homeotic gene Hox gene Pax genes eyeless gene Distal-less Engrailed cis - regulatory element Ligand Morphogen Cell surface receptor Transcription factor Influential figures C.H. Waddington Richard Lewontin François Jacob + Jacques Monod Lac operon Eric F. Wieschaus Christiane Nüsslein - Volhard William McGinnis Mike Levine Sean B. 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the 1848 discovery of gold in the sacramento valley led to all of the following except

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=California_Gold_Rush&oldid=818770301

California gold Rush - wikipedia California gold Rush Jump to : navigation , search For the film , see California Gold Rush ( film ) . California Gold Rush Prospectors working California gold placer deposits in 1850 Date January 24 , 1848 ( 1848 - 01 - 24 ) -- 1855 Location Sierra Nevada and Northern California goldfields Coordinates 38 ° 48 ′ 09 '' N 120 ° 53 ′ 41 '' W  /  38.80250 ° N 120.89472 ° W  / 38.80250 ; - 120.89472 Coordinates : 38 ° 48 ′ 09 '' N 120 ° 53 ′ 41 '' W  /  38.80250 ° N 120.89472 ° W  / 38.80250 ; - 120.89472 Participants 300,000 prospectors Outcome California becomes a U.S. state California Genocide Advertisement about sailing to California , circa 1850 The California Gold Rush ( 1848 -- 1855 ) began on January 24 , 1848 , when gold was found by James W. Marshall at Sutter 's Mill in Coloma , California . The news of gold brought some 300,000 people to California from the rest of the United States and abroad . The sudden influx of immigration and gold into the money supply reinvigorated the American economy , and California became one of the few American states to go directly to statehood without first being a territory , in the Compromise of 1850 . The Gold Rush had severe effects on Native Californians and resulted in a precipitous population decline from disease , genocide and starvation . By the time it ended , California had gone from a thinly populated ex-Mexican territory , to the home state of the first presidential nominee for the new Republican Party , in 1856 . The effects of the Gold Rush were substantial . Whole indigenous societies were attacked and pushed off their lands by the gold - seekers , called `` forty - niners '' ( referring to 1849 ) . The first to hear confirmed information of the gold rush were the people in Oregon , the Sandwich Islands ( Hawaii ) , and Latin America , and they were the first to start flocking to the state in late 1848 . Of the 300,000 people who came to America during the Gold Rush , approximately half arrived by sea and half came overland on the California Trail and the Gila River trail ; forty - niners often faced substantial hardships on the trip . While most of the newly arrived were Americans , the Gold Rush attracted tens of thousands from Latin America , Europe , Australia , and China . Agriculture and ranching expanded throughout the state to meet the needs of the settlers . San Francisco grew from a small settlement of about 200 residents in 1846 to a boomtown of about 36,000 by 1852 . Roads , churches , schools and other towns were built throughout California . In 1849 a state constitution was written . The new constitution was adopted by referendum vote , and the future state 's interim first governor and legislature were chosen . In September , 1850 , California became a state . At the beginning of the Gold Rush , there was no law regarding property rights in the goldfields and a system of `` staking claims '' was developed . Prospectors retrieved the gold from streams and riverbeds using simple techniques , such as panning . Although the mining caused environmental harm , more sophisticated methods of gold recovery were developed and later adopted around the world . New methods of transportation developed as steamships came into regular service . By 1869 railroads were built across the country from California to the eastern United States . At its peak , technological advances reached a point where significant financing was required , increasing the proportion of gold companies to individual miners . Gold worth tens of billions of today 's dollars was recovered , which led to great wealth for a few . However , many returned home with little more than they had started with . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Discovery announced 1.2 Transportation to California 1.3 Supplies and goods needed 1.4 Northern California strikes 1.5 Indigenous driven out 1.6 Earlier discoveries of gold 2 Forty - niners 2.1 Homosexuality 3 Legal rights 4 Development of gold - recovery techniques 5 Profits 5.1 Path of the gold 6 Near - term effects 6.1 Development of government and commerce 6.2 Impact on Native Americans 6.3 World - wide economic stimulation 7 Longer - term effects 8 Cultural references 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links History California goldfields ( red ) in the Sierra Nevada and northern California The Mexican -- American War ended on February 3 , 1848 , although California was firmly in American hands before that . The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo provided for , among other things , the formal transfer of Upper California to the United States . The California Gold Rush began at Sutter 's Mill , near Coloma . On January 24 , 1848 , James W. Marshall , a foreman working for Sacramento pioneer John Sutter , found shiny metal in the tailrace of a lumber mill Marshall was building for Sutter on the American River . Marshall brought what he found to John Sutter , and the two privately tested the metal . After the tests showed that it was gold , Sutter expressed dismay : he wanted to keep the news quiet because he feared what would happen to his plans for an agricultural empire if there were a mass search for gold . Discovery announced However , rumors soon started to spread and were confirmed in March 1848 by San Francisco newspaper publisher and merchant Samuel Brannan . The most famous quote of the California Gold Rush was by Brannan ; after he had hurriedly set up a store to sell gold prospecting supplies , Brannan strode through the streets of San Francisco , holding aloft a vial of gold , shouting `` Gold ! Gold ! Gold from the American River ! '' On August 19 , 1848 , the New York Herald was the first major newspaper on the East Coast to report the discovery of gold . On December 5 , 1848 , President James Polk confirmed the discovery of gold in an address to Congress . Soon , waves of immigrants from around the world , later called the `` forty - niners , '' invaded the Gold Country of California or `` Mother Lode '' . As Sutter had feared , he was ruined ; his workers left in search of gold , and squatters took over his land and stole his crops and cattle . San Francisco had been a tiny settlement before the rush began . When residents learned about the discovery , it at first became a ghost town of abandoned ships and businesses , but then boomed as merchants and new people arrived . The population of San Francisco exploded from perhaps about 1,000 in 1848 to 25,000 full - time residents by 1850 . Miners lived in tents , wood shanties , or deck cabins removed from abandoned ships . Transportation to California In what has been referred to as the `` first world - class gold rush , '' there was no easy way to get to California ; forty - niners faced hardship and often death on the way . At first , most Argonauts , as they were also known , traveled by sea . From the East Coast , a sailing voyage around the tip of South America would take five to eight months , and cover some 18,000 nautical miles ( 33,000 kilometres ) . An alternative was to sail to the Atlantic side of the Isthmus of Panama , take canoes and mules for a week through the jungle , and then on the Pacific side , wait for a ship sailing for San Francisco . There was also a route across Mexico starting at Veracruz . Many gold - seekers took the overland route across the continental United States , particularly along the California Trail . Each of these routes had its own deadly hazards , from shipwreck to typhoid fever and cholera . Supplies and goods needed To meet the demands of the arrivals , ships bearing goods from around the world came to San Francisco as well . Ships ' captains found that their crews deserted to go to the goldfields . The wharves and docks of San Francisco became a forest of masts , as hundreds of ships were abandoned . Enterprising San Franciscans turned the abandoned ships into warehouses , stores , taverns , hotels , and one into a jail . Many of these ships were later destroyed and used for landfill to create more buildable land in the boomtown . Northern California strikes Merchant ships fill San Francisco harbor , 1850 -- 51 Within a few years , there was an important but lesser - known surge of prospectors into far Northern California , specifically into present - day Siskiyou , Shasta and Trinity Counties . Discovery of gold nuggets at the site of present - day Yreka in 1851 brought thousands of gold - seekers up the Siskiyou Trail and throughout California 's northern counties . Settlements of the Gold Rush era , such as Portuguese Flat on the Sacramento River , sprang into existence and then faded . The Gold Rush town of Weaverville on the Trinity River today retains the oldest continuously used Taoist temple in California , a legacy of Chinese miners who came . While there are not many Gold Rush era ghost towns still in existence , the remains of the once - bustling town of Shasta have been preserved in a California State Historic Park in Northern California . Gold was also discovered in Southern California but on a much smaller scale . The first discovery of gold , at Rancho San Francisco in the mountains north of present - day Los Angeles , had been in 1842 , six years before Marshall 's discovery , while California was still part of Mexico . However , these first deposits , and later discoveries in Southern California mountains , attracted little notice and were of limited consequence economically . Indigenous driven out By 1850 , most of the easily accessible gold had been collected , and attention turned to extracting gold from more difficult locations . Faced with gold increasingly difficult to retrieve , Americans began to drive out foreigners to get at the most accessible gold that remained . The new California State Legislature passed a foreign miners tax of twenty dollars per month ( $590 per month as of 2018 ) , and American prospectors began organized attacks on foreign miners , particularly Latin Americans and Chinese . In addition , the huge numbers of newcomers were driving Native Americans out of their traditional hunting , fishing and food - gathering areas . To protect their homes and livelihood , some Native Americans responded by attacking the miners . This provoked counter-attacks on native villages . The Native Americans , out - gunned , were often slaughtered . Those who escaped massacres were many times unable to survive without access to their food - gathering areas , and they starved to death . Novelist and poet Joaquin Miller vividly captured one such attack in his semi-autobiographical work , Life Amongst the Modocs . Earlier discoveries of gold The first gold found in California was made on March 9 , 1842 . Francisco Lopez , a native California , was searching for stray horses . He stopped on the bank of a small creek in what later was known as Placerita Canyon , about 3 miles ( 4.8 km ) east of the present - day Newhall , California , and about 35 miles ( 56 km ) northwest of Los Angeles . While the horses grazed , Lopez dug up some wild onions and found a small gold nugget in the roots among the onion bulbs . He looked further and found more gold . Lopez took the gold to authorities who confirmed its worth . Lopez and others began to search for other steambeds with gold deposits in the area . They found several in the northeastern section of the forest , within present - day Ventura County . In 1843 he found gold in San Feliciano Canyon near his first discovery . Mexican miners from Sonora worked the placer deposits until 1846 , when the Californios began to agitate for independence from Mexico , and the Bear Flag Revolt caused many Mexicans to leave California . Forty - niners Panning for gold on the Mokelumne River `` Independent Gold Hunter on His Way to California '' , circa 1850 . The gold hunter is loaded down with every conceivable appliance , much of which would be useless in California . The prospector says : `` I am sorry I did not follow the advice of Granny and go around the Horn , through the Straights , or by Chagres ( Panama ) . '' The first people to rush to the goldfields , beginning in the spring of 1848 , were the residents of California themselves -- primarily agriculturally oriented Americans and Europeans living in Northern California , along with Native Americans and some Californios ( Spanish - speaking Californians ) . These first miners tended to be families in which everyone helped in the effort . Women and children of all ethnicities were often found panning next to the men . Some enterprising families set up boarding houses to accommodate the influx of men ; in such cases , the women often brought in steady income while their husbands searched for gold . Word of the Gold Rush spread slowly at first . The earliest gold - seekers were people who lived near California or people who heard the news from ships on the fastest sailing routes from California . The first large group of Americans to arrive were several thousand Oregonians who came down the Siskiyou Trail . Next came people from the Sandwich Islands , and several thousand Latin Americans , including people from Mexico , from Peru and from as far away as Chile , both by ship and overland . By the end of 1848 , some 6,000 Argonauts had come to California . Only a small number ( probably fewer than 500 ) traveled overland from the United States that year . Some of these `` forty - eighters '' , as the earliest gold - seekers were sometimes called , were able to collect large amounts of easily accessible gold -- in some cases , thousands of dollars worth each day . Even ordinary prospectors averaged daily gold finds worth 10 to 15 times the daily wage of a laborer on the East Coast . A person could work for six months in the goldfields and find the equivalent of six years ' wages back home . Some hoped to get rich quick and return home , and others wished to start businesses in California . By the beginning of 1849 , word of the Gold Rush had spread around the world , and an overwhelming number of gold - seekers and merchants began to arrive from virtually every continent . The largest group of forty - niners in 1849 were Americans , arriving by the tens of thousands overland across the continent and along various sailing routes ( the name `` forty - niner '' was derived from the year 1849 ) . Many from the East Coast negotiated a crossing of the Appalachian Mountains , taking to riverboats in Pennsylvania , poling the keelboats to Missouri River wagon train assembly ports , and then travelling in a wagon train along the California Trail . Many others came by way of the Isthmus of Panama and the steamships of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company . Australians and New Zealanders picked up the news from ships carrying Hawaiian newspapers , and thousands , infected with `` gold fever '' , boarded ships for California . Forty - niners came from Latin America , particularly from the Mexican mining districts near Sonora and Chile . Gold - seekers and merchants from Asia , primarily from China , began arriving in 1849 , at first in modest numbers to Gum San ( `` Gold Mountain '' ) , the name given to California in Chinese . The first immigrants from Europe , reeling from the effects of the Revolutions of 1848 and with a longer distance to travel , began arriving in late 1849 , mostly from France , with some Germans , Italians , and Britons . Chinese gold miners in California It is estimated that approximately 90,000 people arrived in California in 1849 -- about half by land and half by sea . Of these , perhaps 50,000 to 60,000 were Americans , and the rest were from other countries . By 1855 , it is estimated at least 300,000 gold - seekers , merchants , and other immigrants had arrived in California from around the world . The largest group continued to be Americans , but there were tens of thousands each of Mexicans , Chinese , Britons , Australians French , and Latin Americans , together with many smaller groups of miners , such as African Americans , Filipinos , Basques and Turks . People from small villages in the hills near Genova , Italy were among the first to settle permanently in the Sierra Nevada foothills ; they brought with them traditional agricultural skills , developed to survive cold winters . A modest number of miners of African ancestry ( probably less than 4,000 ) had come from the Southern States , the Caribbean and Brazil . A number of immigrants were from China . Several hundred Chinese arrived in California in 1849 and 1850 , and in 1852 more than 20,000 landed in San Francisco . Their distinctive dress and appearance was highly recognizable in the goldfields . Chinese miners suffered enormously , enduring violent racism from white miners who aimed their frustrations at foreigners . To this day , there has been no justice for known victims . Further animosity toward the Chinese led to legislation such as the Chinese Exclusion Act and Foreign Miners Tax . There were also women in the Gold Rush . However , their numbers were small . Of the 40,000 people who arrived by ship in the San Francisco harbor in 1849 , only 700 were women . They held various roles including prostitutes , single entrepreneurs , married women , poor and wealthy women . They were of various ethnicities including Anglo - American , African - American , Hispanic , Native , European , Chinese , and Jewish . The reasons they came varied : some came with their husbands , refusing to be left behind to fend for themselves , some came because their husbands sent for them , and others came ( singles and widows ) for the adventure and economic opportunities . On the trail many people died from accidents , cholera , fever , and myriad other causes , and many women became widows before even setting eyes on California . While in California , women became widows quite frequently due to mining accidents , disease , or mining disputes of their husbands . Life in the goldfields offered opportunities for women to break from their traditional work . Homosexuality The disproportionate number of men to women in San Francisco created an environment for homosexuality and gay cultures to flourish . The Barbary Coast was a district where men went to gamble and pay for sex from female impersonators and women alike . Described as the `` city of bachelors '' men often went to the Barbary Coast district to pay for prostitution and pleasure with other men . Legal rights When the Gold Rush began , the California goldfields were peculiarly lawless places . When gold was discovered at Sutter 's Mill , California was still technically part of Mexico , under American military occupation as the result of the Mexican -- American War . With the signing of the treaty ending the war on February 2 , 1848 , California became a possession of the United States , but it was not a formal `` territory '' and did not become a state until September 9 , 1850 . California existed in the unusual condition of a region under military control . There was no civil legislature , executive or judicial body for the entire region . Local residents operated under a confusing and changing mixture of Mexican rules , American principles , and personal dictates . Lax enforcement of federal laws , such as the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 , encouraged the arrival of free blacks and escaped slaves . While the treaty ending the Mexican -- American War obliged the United States to honor Mexican land grants , almost all the goldfields were outside those grants . Instead , the goldfields were primarily on `` public land '' , meaning land formally owned by the United States government . However , there were no legal rules yet in place , and no practical enforcement mechanisms . The benefit to the forty - niners was that the gold was simply `` free for the taking '' at first . In the goldfields at the beginning , there was no private property , no licensing fees , and no taxes . The miners informally adapted Mexican mining law that had existed in California . For example , the rules attempted to balance the rights of early arrivers at a site with later arrivers ; a `` claim '' could be `` staked '' by a prospector , but that claim was valid only as long as it was being actively worked . Miners worked at a claim only long enough to determine its potential . If a claim was deemed as low - value -- as most were -- miners would abandon the site in search for a better one . In the case where a claim was abandoned or not worked upon , other miners would `` claim - jump '' the land . `` Claim - jumping '' meant that a miner began work on a previously claimed site . Disputes were often handled personally and violently , and were sometimes addressed by groups of prospectors acting as arbitrators . This often led to heightened ethnic tensions . In some areas the influx of many prospectors could lead to a reduction of the existing claim size by simple pressure . Development of gold - recovery techniques Four hundred million years ago , California lay at the bottom of a large sea ; underwater volcanoes deposited lava and minerals ( including gold ) onto the sea floor . By tectonic forces these minerals and rocks came to the surface of the Sierra Nevada , and eroded . Water carried the exposed gold downstream and deposited it in quiet gravel beds along the sides of old rivers and streams . The forty - niners first focused their efforts on these deposits of gold . Because the gold in the California gravel beds was so richly concentrated , early forty - niners were able to retrieve loose gold flakes and nuggets with their hands , or simply `` pan '' for gold in rivers and streams . However , panning can not take place on a large scale , and industrious miners and groups of miners graduated to placer mining , using `` cradles '' and `` rockers '' or `` long - toms '' to process larger volumes of gravel . Miners would also engage in `` coyoteing '' , a method that involved digging a shaft 6 to 13 meters ( 20 to 43 ft ) deep into placer deposits along a stream . Tunnels were then dug in all directions to reach the richest veins of pay dirt . In the most complex placer mining , groups of prospectors would divert the water from an entire river into a sluice alongside the river , and then dig for gold in the newly exposed river bottom . Modern estimates by the U.S. Geological Survey are that some 12 million ounces ( 370 t ) of gold were removed in the first five years of the Gold Rush ( worth over US $ 16 billion at December 2010 prices ) . In the next stage , by 1853 , hydraulic mining was used on ancient gold - bearing gravel beds on hillsides and bluffs in the goldfields . In a modern style of hydraulic mining first developed in California , and later used around the world , a high - pressure hose directed a powerful stream or jet of water at gold - bearing gravel beds . The loosened gravel and gold would then pass over sluices , with the gold settling to the bottom where it was collected . By the mid-1880s , it is estimated that 11 million ounces ( 340 t ) of gold ( worth approximately US $15 billion at December 2010 prices ) had been recovered by `` hydraulicking '' . A byproduct of these extraction methods was that large amounts of gravel , silt , heavy metals , and other pollutants went into streams and rivers . As of 1999 many areas still bear the scars of hydraulic mining , since the resulting exposed earth and downstream gravel deposits do not support plant life . After the Gold Rush had concluded , gold recovery operations continued . The final stage to recover loose gold was to prospect for gold that had slowly washed down into the flat river bottoms and sandbars of California 's Central Valley and other gold - bearing areas of California ( such as Scott Valley in Siskiyou County ) . By the late 1890s , dredging technology ( also invented in California ) had become economical , and it is estimated that more than 20 million ounces ( 620 t ) were recovered by dredging ( worth approximately US $28 billion at December 2010 prices ) . Both during the Gold Rush and in the decades that followed , gold - seekers also engaged in `` hard - rock '' mining , that is , extracting the gold directly from the rock that contained it ( typically quartz ) , usually by digging and blasting to follow and remove veins of the gold - bearing quartz . By 1851 , quartz mining had become the major industry of Coloma . Once the gold - bearing rocks were brought to surface , the rocks were crushed and the gold separated , either using separation in water , using its density difference from quartz sand , or by washing the sand over copper plates coated with mercury ( with which gold forms an amalgam ) . Loss of mercury in the amalgamation process was a source of environmental contamination . Eventually , hard - rock mining wound up becoming the single largest source of gold produced in the Gold Country . The total production of gold in California from then till now is estimated at 118 million ounces ( 3700 t ) . Forty - niner panning for gold Sluice for separation of gold from dirt with water Excavating a river bed after the water has been diverted Crushing quartz ore prior to washing out gold Excavating a gravel bed with jets , circa 1863 Profits Recent scholarship confirms that merchants made far more money than miners during the Gold Rush . The wealthiest man in California during the early years of the rush was Samuel Brannan , a tireless self - promoter , shopkeeper and newspaper publisher . Brannan opened the first supply stores in Sacramento , Coloma , and other spots in the goldfields . Just as the rush began he purchased all the prospecting supplies available in San Francisco and re-sold them at a substantial profit . Some gold - seekers made a significant amount of money . On average , half the gold - seekers made a modest profit , after taking all expenses into account ; economic historians have suggested that white miners were more successful than black , Indian , or Chinese miners . However , taxes such as the California foreign miners tax passed in 1851 , targeted mainly Latino miners and kept them from making as much money as whites , who did n't have any taxes imposed on them . In California Most late arrivals made little or wound up losing money . Similarly , many unlucky merchants set up in settlements which disappeared , or which succumbed to one of the calamitous fires that swept the towns that sprang up . By contrast , a businessman who went on to great success was Levi Strauss , who first began selling denim overalls in San Francisco in 1853 . Other businessmen reaped great rewards in retail , shipping , entertainment , lodging , or transportation . Boardinghouses , food preparation , sewing , and laundry were highly profitable businesses often run by women ( married , single , or widowed ) who realized men would pay well for a service done by a woman . Brothels also brought in large profits , especially when combined with saloons and gaming houses . By 1855 , the economic climate had changed dramatically . Gold could be retrieved profitably from the goldfields only by medium to large groups of workers , either in partnerships or as employees . By the mid-1850s , it was the owners of these gold - mining companies who made the money . Also , the population and economy of California had become large and diverse enough that money could be made in a wide variety of conventional businesses . Path of the gold Portsmouth Square , San Francisco , during the Gold Rush , 1851 Once extracted , the gold itself took many paths . First , much of the gold was used locally to purchase food , supplies and lodging for the miners . It also went towards entertainment , which consisted of anything from a traveling theater to alcohol , gambling , and prostitutes . These transactions often took place using the recently recovered gold , carefully weighed out . These merchants and vendors in turn used the gold to purchase supplies from ship captains or packers bringing goods to California . The gold then left California aboard ships or mules to go to the makers of the goods from around the world . A second path was the Argonauts themselves who , having personally acquired a sufficient amount , sent the gold home , or returned home taking with them their hard - earned `` diggings '' . For example , one estimate is that some US $ 80 million worth of California gold was sent to France by French prospectors and merchants . As the Gold Rush progressed , local banks and gold dealers issued `` banknotes '' or `` drafts '' -- locally accepted paper currency -- in exchange for gold , and private mints created private gold coins . With the building of the San Francisco Mint in 1854 , gold bullion was turned into official United States gold coins for circulation . The gold was also later sent by California banks to U.S. national banks in exchange for national paper currency to be used in the booming California economy . Near - term effects The arrival of hundreds of thousands of new people in California within a few years , compared to a population of some 15,000 Europeans and Californios beforehand , had many dramatic effects . A 2017 study attributes the record - long economic expansion of the United States in the recession - free period of 1841 - 1856 primarily to `` a boom in transportation - goods investment following the discovery of gold in California . '' Development of government and commerce The Gold Rush propelled California from a sleepy , little - known backwater to a center of the global imagination and the destination of hundreds of thousands of people . The new immigrants often showed remarkable inventiveness and civic - mindedness . For example , in the midst of the Gold Rush , towns and cities were chartered , a state constitutional convention was convened , a state constitution written , elections held , and representatives sent to Washington , D.C. to negotiate the admission of California as a state . Large - scale agriculture ( California 's second `` Gold Rush '' ) began during this time . Roads , schools , churches , and civic organizations quickly came into existence . The vast majority of the immigrants were Americans . Pressure grew for better communications and political connections to the rest of the United States , leading to statehood for California on September 9 , 1850 , in the Compromise of 1850 as the 31st state of the United States . Between 1847 and 1870 , the population of San Francisco increased from 500 to 150,000 . The Gold Rush wealth and population increase led to significantly improved transportation between California and the East Coast . The Panama Railway , spanning the Isthmus of Panama , was finished in 1855 . Steamships , including those owned by the Pacific Mail Steamship Company , began regular service from San Francisco to Panama , where passengers , goods and mail would take the train across the Isthmus and board steamships headed to the East Coast . One ill - fated journey , that of the S.S. Central America , ended in disaster as the ship sank in a hurricane off the coast of the Carolinas in 1857 , with approximately three tons of California gold aboard . Impact on Native Americans Protecting The Settlers illustration by JR Browne for his work The Indians Of California 1864 Photo caption , `` The Heathen Chinee Prospecting '' indicates early prejudice against Chinese gold miners . California , 1852 The human and environmental costs of the Gold Rush were substantial . Native Americans , dependent on traditional hunting , gathering and agriculture , became the victims of starvation and disease , as gravel , silt and toxic chemicals from prospecting operations killed fish and destroyed habitats . The surge in the mining population also resulted in the disappearance of game and food gathering locales as gold camps and other settlements were built amidst them . Later farming spread to supply the settlers ' camps , taking more land away from the Native Americans . In some areas , systematic attacks against tribespeople in or near mining districts occurred . Various conflicts were fought between natives and settlers. Miners often saw Native Americans as impediments to their mining activities . Ed Allen , interpretive lead for Marshall Gold Discovery State Historic Park , reported that there were times when miners would kill up to 50 or more Natives in one day . Retribution attacks on solitary miners could result in larger scale attacks against Native populations , at times tribes or villages not involved in the original act . During the 1852 Bridge Gulch Massacre , a group of settlers attacked a band of Wintu Indians in response to the killing of a citizen named J.R. Anderson . After his killing , the sheriff led a group of men to track down the Indians , whom the men then attacked . Only three children survived the massacre that was against a different band of Wintu than the one that had killed Anderson . Historian Benjamin Madley recorded the numbers of killings of California Indians between 1846 and 1873 and estimated that during this period at least 9,400 to 16,000 California Indians were killed by non-Indians , mostly occurring in more than 370 massacres ( defined as the `` intentional killing of five or more disarmed combatants or largely unarmed noncombatants , including women , children , and prisoners , whether in the context of a battle or otherwise '' ) . According to demographer Russell Thornton , between 1849 and 1890 , the Indigenous population of California fell below 20,000 -- primarily because of the killings . According to the government of California , some 4,500 Native Americans suffered violent deaths between 1849 and 1870 . Furthermore , California stood in opposition of ratifying the eighteen treaties signed between tribal leaders and federal agents in 1851 . The state government , in support of miner activities funded and supported death squads , appropriating over 1 million dollars towards the funding and operation of the paramilitary organizations . Peter Burnett , California 's first governor declared that California was a battleground between the races and that there were only two options towards California Indians , extermination or removal . `` That a war of extermination will continue to be waged between the two races until the Indian race becomes extinct , must be expected . While we can not anticipate the result with but painful regret , the inevitable destiny of the race is beyond the power and wisdom of man to avert . '' For Burnett , like many of his contemporaries , the genocide was part of God 's plan , and it was necessary for Burnett 's constituency to move forward in California . The Act for the Government and Protection of Indians , passed on April 22 , 1850 by the California Legislature , allowed settlers to capture and use Native people as bonded workers , prohibited Native peoples ' testimony against settlers , and allowed the adoption of Native children by settlers , often for labor purposes . After the initial boom had ended , explicitly anti-foreign and racist attacks , laws and confiscatory taxes sought to drive out foreigners -- not just Native Americans -- from the mines , especially the Chinese and Latin American immigrants mostly from Sonora , Mexico and Chile . The toll on the American immigrants was severe as well : one in twelve forty - niners perished , as the death and crime rates during the Gold Rush were extraordinarily high , and the resulting vigilantism also took its toll . World - wide economic stimulation Chilean wheat exports to California from 1848 to 1854 ( in qqm ) Year Grains Flour 1848 3000 n / a 1849 87,000 69,000 1850 277,000 221,000 1854 63,000 50,000 The Gold Rush stimulated economies around the world as well . Farmers in Chile , Australia , and Hawaii found a huge new market for their food ; British manufactured goods were in high demand ; clothing and even prefabricated houses arrived from China . The return of large amounts of California gold to pay for these goods raised prices and stimulated investment and the creation of jobs around the world . Australian prospector Edward Hargraves , noting similarities between the geography of California and his home country , returned to Australia to discover gold and spark the Australian gold rushes . Preceding the Gold Rush , the United States was on a bi-metallic standard , but the sudden increase in physical gold supply increased the relative value of physical silver and drove silver money from circulation . The increase in gold supply also created a monetary supply shock . Within a few years after the end of the Gold Rush , in 1863 , the groundbreaking ceremony for the western leg of the First Transcontinental Railroad was held in Sacramento . The line 's completion , some six years later , financed in part with Gold Rush money , united California with the central and eastern United States . Travel that had taken weeks or even months could now be accomplished in days . Longer - term effects Legacy ( 1 ) State motto , `` Eureka '' on the Seal of California . ( 2 ) California state route shield , with the number 49 and shaped like a miner 's spade. ( 3 ) Commemorative coin from 1925 . California 's name became indelibly connected with the Gold Rush , and fast success in a new world became known as the `` California Dream . '' California was perceived as a place of new beginnings , where great wealth could reward hard work and good luck . Historian H.W. Brands noted that in the years after the Gold Rush , the California Dream spread across the nation : The old American Dream ... was the dream of the Puritans , of Benjamin Franklin 's `` Poor Richard '' ... of men and women content to accumulate their modest fortunes a little at a time , year by year by year . The new dream was the dream of instant wealth , won in a twinkling by audacity and good luck . ( This ) golden dream ... became a prominent part of the American psyche only after Sutter 's Mill . Overnight California gained the international reputation as the `` golden state '' . Generations of immigrants have been attracted by the California Dream . California farmers , oil drillers , movie makers , airplane builders , and `` dot - com '' entrepreneurs have each had their boom times in the decades after the Gold Rush . Included among the modern legacies of the California Gold Rush are the California state motto , `` Eureka '' ( `` I have found it '' ) , Gold Rush images on the California State Seal , and the state nickname , `` The Golden State '' , as well as place names , such as Placer County , Rough and Ready , Placerville ( formerly named `` Dry Diggings '' and then `` Hangtown '' during rush time ) , Whiskeytown , Drytown , Angels Camp , Happy Camp , and Sawyers Bar . The San Francisco 49ers National Football League team , and the similarly named athletic teams of California State University , Long Beach , are named for the prospectors of the California Gold Rush . In addition , the standard route shield of state highways in California is in the shape of a miner 's spade to honor the California Gold Rush . Today , aptly named State Route 49 travels through the Sierra Nevada foothills , connecting many Gold Rush - era towns such as Placerville , Auburn , Grass Valley , Nevada City , Coloma , Jackson , and Sonora . This state highway also passes very near Columbia State Historic Park , a protected area encompassing the historic business district of the town of Columbia ; the park has preserved many Gold Rush - era buildings , which are presently occupied by tourist - oriented businesses . Cultural references The literary history of the Gold Rush is reflected in the works of Mark Twain ( The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County ) , Bret Harte ( A Millionaire of Rough - and - Ready ) , Joaquin Miller ( Life Amongst the Modocs ) , and many others . See also San Francisco Bay Area portal California portal Barbary Coast California Mining and Mineral Museum Gold in California Mercury contamination in California waterways Women in the California Gold Rush Notes Jump up ^ `` ( E ) vents from January 1848 through December 1855 ( are ) generally acknowledged as the ' Gold Rush ' . After 1855 , California gold mining changed and is outside the ' rush ' era . '' `` The Gold Rush of California : A Bibliography of Periodical Articles '' . California State University , Stanislaus. 2002 . Archived from the original on July 1 , 2007 . Retrieved 2008 - 01 - 23 . Jump up ^ `` California Gold Rush , 1848 -- 1864 '' . Learn California.org , a site designed for the California Secretary of State . Archived from the original on July 27 , 2011 . Retrieved 2011 - 08 - 22 . Jump up ^ For a detailed map , see California Historic Gold Mines Archived December 14 , 2006 , at the Wayback Machine. , published by the State of California . Retrieved December 3 , 2006 . Jump up ^ Bancroft , Hubert Howe ( 1889 ) . History of California , Volume 23 : 1848 -- 1859 . San Francisco : The History Company . pp. 32 -- 34 . Jump up ^ Bancroft ( 1888 ) . History of California , 1848 - 1859 . pp. 39 to 41 . Jump up ^ Holliday , J.S. ( 1999 ) . Rush for riches ; gold fever and the making of California . Oakland , California , Berkeley and Los Angeles : Oakland Museum of California and University of California Press . p. 60 . Jump up ^ Bancroft ( 1888 ) . History of California , 1848 - 1859 . History Company . pp. 55 to 56 . Jump up ^ Starr , Kevin ( 2005 ) . California : a history . New York : The Modern Library . p. 80 . Jump up ^ Bancroft ( 1888 ) . History of California . 1848 - 1859 . History Company . pp. 103 to 105 . Jump up ^ Bancroft ( 1888 ) . History of California , 1848 - 1859 . History Company . pp. 59 to 60 . Jump up ^ Holliday , J.S. ( 1999 ) , p. 51 ( `` 800 residents '' ) Jump up ^ Rawls , James J. and Orsi , Richard J. ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) . A golden state : mining and economic development in Gold Rush California ( California History Sesquicentennial Series , 2 ) . Berkeley and Los Angeles : University of California Press . p. 187 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Holliday , J.S. ( 1999 ) , p. 126 . Jump up ^ Hill , Mary ( 1999 ) . Gold : the California story . Berkeley and Los Angeles : University of California Press . p. 1 . Jump up ^ Brands , H.W. ( 2003 ) . The age of gold : the California Gold Rush and the new American dream . New York : Anchor ( reprint ed . ) . pp. 103 -- 121 . Jump up ^ Brands , H.W. ( 2003 ) , pp. 75 -- 85 . Another route across Nicaragua was developed in 1851 ; it was not as popular as the Panama option . Rawls , James J. and Orsi , Richard ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) , pp. 252 -- 253 . Jump up ^ Rawls , James J. and Orsi , Richard ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) , p. 5 . Jump up ^ Holliday , J.S. ( 1999 ) , pp. 101 , 107 . ^ Jump up to : Starr , Kevin ( 2005 ) , p. 80 ; `` Shipping is the Foundation of San Francisco -- Literally '' . Oakland Museum of California . 1998 . Retrieved February 26 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Bancroft ( 1888 ) . History of California , 1848 - 1859 . History Company . pp. 363 to 366 . Jump up ^ Dillon , Richard ( 1975 ) . Siskiyou Trail . New York : McGraw Hill . pp. 361 -- 362 . Jump up ^ Wells , Harry L. ( 1881 ) . History of Siskiyou County , California . Oakland , California : D.J. Stewart & Co. pp. 60 -- 64 . Jump up ^ The buildings of Bodie , the best - known ghost town in California , date from the 1870s and later , well after the end of the Gold Rush . ^ Jump up to : Rawls , James J. and Orsi , Richard J. ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) , p. 3 . Jump up ^ Rawls , James J. and Orsi , Richard ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) , p. 9 . Jump up ^ Rawls , James J. and Orsi , Richard ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) , p. 8 . ^ Jump up to : Miller , Joaquin ( 1873 ) . Life amongst the Modocs : unwritten history . Berkeley : Heyday Books ; reprint edition ( January 1996 ) . ^ Jump up to : Blakely , Jim ; Barnette , Karen ( July 1985 ) . Historical Overview : Los Padres National Forest ( PDF ) . Jump up ^ Brands , H.W. ( 2003 ) , pp. 43 -- 46 . Jump up ^ Moynihan , Ruth B. , Armitage , Susan , and Dichamp , Christiane Fischer ( eds . ) ( 1990 ) . So Much to Be Done . Lincoln : U Nebraska , p. 3 Jump up ^ Starr , Kevin and Orsi , Richard J. ( eds . ) ( 2000 ) . Rooted in barbarous soil : people , culture , and community in Gold Rush California . Berkeley and Los Angeles : Univ. of California Press . pp. 50 -- 54 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Brands , H.W. ( 2003 ) , pp. 48 -- 53 . ^ Jump up to : Starr , Kevin and Orsi , Richard J. ( eds . ) ( 2000 ) , pp. 50 -- 54 . Jump up ^ Caughey , John Walton ( 1975 ) . The California Gold Rush . University of California Press . p. 17 . ISBN 0 - 520 - 02763 - 9 . Retrieved May 12 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Brands , H.W. ( 2003 ) , pp. 197 -- 202 . Jump up ^ Holliday , J.S. ( 1999 ) p. 63 . Holliday notes these luckiest prospectors were recovering , in short amounts of time , gold worth in excess of $1 million when valued at the dollars of today . Jump up ^ Starr , Kevin and Orsi , Richard J. ( eds . ) ( 2000 ) , p. 28 . ^ Jump up to : Starr , Kevin and Orsi , Richard J. ( eds . ) ( 2000 ) , pp. 57 -- 61 . Jump up ^ Brands , H.W. ( 2003 ) , pp. 53 -- 61 . ^ Jump up to : Starr , Kevin and Orsi , Richard J. ( eds . ) ( 2000 ) , pp. 53 -- 56 . Jump up ^ Johnson , Susan Lee ( 2001 ) . Roaring camp : the social world of the California Gold Rush ( 1st ed . ) . New York : W.W. Norton . p. 59 . ISBN 0 - 393 - 32099 - 5 . Jump up ^ Brands , H.W. ( 2003 ) , pp. 61 -- 64 . Jump up ^ Magagnini , Stephen ( January 18 , 1998 ) `` Chinese transformed ' Gold Mountain ' '' , The Sacramento Bee . Retrieved October 22 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Brands , H.W. ( 2003 ) , pp. 93 -- 103 . Jump up ^ Starr , Kevin and Orsi , Richard J. ( eds . ) ( 2000 ) , pp. 57 -- 61 . Other estimates range from 70,000 to 90,000 arrivals during 1849 ( ibid . p. 57 ) . Jump up ^ Starr , Kevin and Orsi , Richard J. ( eds . ) ( 2000 ) , p. 25 . Jump up ^ `` Exploration and Settlement -- John Bull and Uncle Sam : Four Centuries of British - American Relations -- Exhibitions ( Library of Congress ) '' . loc.gov . Jump up ^ Brands , H.W. ( 2003 ) , pp. 193 -- 194 . Jump up ^ Starr , Kevin and Orsi , Richard J. ( eds . ) ( 2000 ) , p. 62 . Jump up ^ `` The Oregon Trail '' . isu.edu . Archived from the original on May 13 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Neary , J. , & Robbins , H. ( 2015 ) . African American Literature of the Gold Rush . Mapping Region in Early American Writing , 226 Jump up ^ Freguli , Carolyn . ( eds . ) ( 2008 ) , pp. 8 -- 9 . Jump up ^ Another estimate is 2,500 forty - niners of African ancestry . Rawls , James , J. and Orsi , Richard ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) , p. 5 . Jump up ^ African Americans who were slaves and came to California during the Gold Rush could gain their freedom . One of the miners was African American Edmond Edward Wysinger ( 1816 -- 1891 ) , see also Moses Rodgers ( 1835 -- 1900 ) Jump up ^ Starr , Kevin and Orsi , Richard J. ( eds . ) ( 2000 ) , pp. 67 -- 69 . ^ Jump up to : Out of Many , 5th Edition Volume 1 , Faragher 2006 ( p. 411 ) Jump up ^ The Gold Rush American Experience , KQED 2006 Jump up ^ `` Men : Women in Early San Francisco '' . FoundSF. 2016 - 08 - 26 . Retrieved 2017 - 03 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Key Points in Black History and the Gold Rush - Instructional Materials ( CA Dept of Education ) '' . Cde.ca.gov . Retrieved 2017 - 03 - 07 . Jump up ^ Moynihan , Ruth B. , Armitage , Susan , and Dichamp , Christiane Fischer ( eds . ) ( 1990 ) , pp. 3 -- 8 Jump up ^ Levy , Joann ( 1992 ) . They saw the elephant : Women in the California Gold Rush . Archon : N.p. , pp. xxii , 92 Jump up ^ By one account , in late 1850 , the population of California was over 110,000 , not including the Californios or the California Indians . The surviving U.S. census counts in California add up to 92,600 , not including the lost censuses of San Francisco ( the largest city in California at that time ) , Contra Costa county and Santa Clara County . The women who came to California in the early years were a distinct minority , consisting of less than 10 % of the population . ^ Jump up to : Boyd , Nan Alamilla ( 2003 ) . Wide - Open Town . University of California Press . p. 27 -- via Project MUSE . As early gay cultures developed inside San Francisco 's many bars and taverns , they were bolstered by the disproportionate number of men in the city . Jump up ^ Boyd , Nan Alamilla ( 2003 ) . Wide - Open Town . University of California Press . p. 26 -- via Project MUSE . Here , the rough - and - tumble saloons of the Gold Rush developed into dance halls , honky - tonks , and bawdy houses that provided a space for men to gamble , dance , and satisfy their sexual desires . ^ Jump up to : Young , Otis E. ( 1970 ) . Western Mining . Norman : University of Oklahoma Press . pp. 111 -- 112 . ISBN 0 - 8061 - 1352 - 9 . Jump up ^ Holliday , J.S. ( 1999 ) , pp. 115 -- 123 . Jump up ^ Neary , J. , & Robbins , H. ( 2015 ) . African American Literature of the Gold Rush . Mapping Region in Early American Writing , 226 . Jump up ^ Rawls , James J. and Orsi , Richard ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) , p. 235 . ^ Jump up to : Rawls , James J. and Orsi , Richard ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) , pp. 123 -- 125 . Jump up ^ Rawls , James J. and Orsi , Richard ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) , p. 127 . There were fewer than 1,000 U.S. soldiers in California at the beginning of the Gold Rush . Jump up ^ Rawls , James J. and Orsi , Richard ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) , p. 27 . Jump up ^ The federal law in place at the time of the California Gold Rush was the Preemption Act of 1841 , which allowed `` squatters '' to improve federal land , then buy it from the government after 14 months . Jump up ^ Paul , Rodman W. ( 1947 ) California Gold , Lincoln : Univ . Nebraska Press , p. 211 -- 213 . ^ Jump up to : Clay , Karen and Wright , Gavin . ( 2005 ) , pp. 155 -- 183 . ^ Jump up to : Clappe , Louise Amelia Knapp Smith ( 2001 ) ( 1922 ) . The Shirley Letters from the California Mines , 1851 -- 1852 . Heyday Books , Berkeley , California . p. 109 . ISBN 1 - 890771 - 00 - 7 . Retrieved July 31 , 2010 . `` Dame Shirley '' was the name adopted by Louise Amelia Knapp Smith Clappe as she wrote a series of letters to her family describing in detail her life in the Feather River goldfields . The letters were originally published in 1854 -- 1855 by The Pioneer magazine . Jump up ^ The rules of mining claims adopted by the forty - niners spread with each new mining rush throughout the western United States . The U.S. Congress finally legalized the practice in the `` Chaffee laws '' of 1866 and the `` placer law '' of 1870 . Lindley , Curtis H. ( 1914 ) A Treatise on the American Law Relating to Mines and Mineral Lands , San Francisco : Bancroft - Whitney , p. 89 -- 92 . Karen Clay and Gavin Wright , `` Order Without Law ? Property Rights During the California Gold Rush . '' Explorations in Economic History 2005 42 ( 2 ) : 155 -- 183 . See also John F. Burns , and Richard J. Orsi , eds ; Taming the Elephant : Politics , Government , and Law in Pioneer California University of California Press , 2003 Jump up ^ Information Sharing During the Klondike Gold Rush , p. 13 -- 14 . Douglas W. Allen , Simon Fraser University Jump up ^ Hill , Mary ( 1999 ) , pp. 169 -- 173 . Jump up ^ Hill , Mary ( 1999 ) , pp. 94 -- 100 . Jump up ^ Young , Otis E. ( 1970 ) . Western Mining . Norman : University of Oklahoma Press . pp. 106 -- 108 . ISBN 0 - 8061 - 1352 - 9 . Jump up ^ Hill , Mary ( 1999 ) , pp. 105 -- 110 . Jump up ^ Young , Otis E. ( 1970 ) . Western Mining . Norman : University of Oklahoma Press . pp. 108 -- 110 . ISBN 0 - 8061 - 1352 - 9 . Jump up ^ Brands , H.W. ( 2003 ) , pp. 198 -- 200 . Jump up ^ `` goldrushtrail.net '' . goldrushtrail.net . Archived from the original on May 14 , 2006 . Jump up ^ Bancroft ( 1888 ) . History of California , 1848 - 1859 . History Company . pp. 87 to 88 . Jump up ^ Young , Otis E. ( 1970 ) . Western Mining . Norman : University of Oklahoma Press . pp. 110 -- 111 . ISBN 0 - 8061 - 1352 - 9 . Jump up ^ Rawls , James J. and Orsi , Richard ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) , p. 90 . Jump up ^ The Troy weight system is traditionally used to measure precious metals , not the more familiar avoirdupois weight system . The term `` ounces '' used in this article to refer to gold typically refers to troy ounces . There are some historical uses where , because of the age of the use , the intention is ambiguous . ^ Jump up to : Mining History and Geology of the Mother Lode ( accessed October 16 , 2006 ) . Archived June 17 , 2006 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Starr , Kevin ( 2005 ) , p. 89 . Jump up ^ Use of volumes of water in large - scale gold - mining dates at least to the time of the Roman Empire . ( See Roman - era gold mines in Spain . ) Roman engineers built extensive aqueducts and reservoirs above gold - bearing areas , and released the stored water in a flood so as to remove over-burden and expose gold - bearing bedrock , a process known as hushing . The bedrock was then attacked using fire and mechanical means , and volumes of water were used again to remove debris , and to process the resulting ore . Examples of this Roman mining technology may be found at Las Médulas in Spain and Dolaucothi in South Wales . The gold recovered using these methods was used to finance the expansion of the Roman Empire . Hushing was also used in lead and tin mining in Northern Britain and Cornwall . There is , however , no evidence of the earlier use of hoses , nozzles and continuous jets of water in the manner developed in California during the Gold Rush . ^ Jump up to : Rawls , James J. and Orsi , Richard ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) , pp. 32 -- 36 . ^ Jump up to : Rawls , James J. and Orsi , Richard ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) , pp. 116 -- 121 . Jump up ^ Rawls , James J. and Orsi , Richard ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) , p. 199 . Jump up ^ Rawls , James J. and Orsi , Richard ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) , pp. 36 -- 39 . Jump up ^ `` Amador City , California -- Historic Gold Mining Town . ( full text ) ( book links ) '' . readme-ebooks.org , The Pierian Press , 8 August 1999 . Online . Internet . May 18 , 1743 . Retrieved September 6 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Rawls , James J. and Orsi , Richard ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) , pp. 39 -- 43 . Jump up ^ Charles N. Alpers ; Michael P. Hunerlach ; Jason T. May ; Roger L. Hothem. `` Mercury Contamination from Historical Gold Mining in California '' . U.S. Geological Survey . Retrieved February 26 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Hausel , Dan . `` California -- Gold , Geology & Prospecting '' . Retrieved February 19 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Karen Clay and Randall Jones , `` Migrating to Riches ? Evidence from the California Gold Rush , '' Journal of Economic History , December 2008 , Vol. 68 Issue 4 , pp 997 -- 1027 Jump up ^ Rohrbough , Malcolm J. ( 1998 ) . Days of Gold : The California Gold Rush and the American Nation . Berkeley and Los Angeles : University of California Press . ISBN 0 - 520 - 21659 - 8 . ^ Jump up to : Holliday , J.S. ( 1999 ) pp. 69 -- 70 . Jump up ^ Holliday , J.S. ( 1999 ) , p. 63 . Jump up ^ Zerbe , R.O. , & Anderson , C.L. ( 2001 ) . Culture and fairness in the development of institutions in the California gold fields . The Journal of Economic History , 61 ( 01 ) , 114 -- 143 Jump up ^ Sears , Clare ( 2014 ) . Arresting Dress : Cross-Dressing , Law , and Fascination in Nineteenth - Century San Francisco . Duke University Press Books . p. 68 . In 1852 the California state legislature targeted Chinese residents for a `` foreign miners '' tax ( ... ) Jump up ^ Clay and Jones , `` Migrating to Riches ? Evidence from the California Gold Rush , '' Journal of Economic History , 2008 . Jump up ^ Levi 's jeans were not invented until the 1870s . Lynn Downey , Levi Strauss & Co. ( 2007 ) Jump up ^ James Lick made a fortune running a hotel and engaging in land speculation in San Francisco . Lick 's fortune was used to build Lick Observatory . Jump up ^ Four particularly successful Gold Rush era merchants were Leland Stanford , Collis P. Huntington , Mark Hopkins and Charles Crocker , Sacramento area businessmen ( later known as the Big Four ) who financed the western leg of the First Transcontinental Railroad , and became very wealthy as a result . Jump up ^ Susan Lee Johnson , Roaring Camp : The social world of the California Gold Rush . ( 2000 ) , pp. 164 -- 168 . Jump up ^ Rawls , James J. and Orsi , Richard ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) , pp. 52 -- 68 , 193 -- 197 . Jump up ^ Rawls , James J. and Orsi , Richard ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) , pp. 212 -- 214 . Jump up ^ Young , Otis E. ( 1970 ) . Western Mining . Norman : University of Oklahoma Press . p. 109 . ISBN 0 - 8061 - 1352 - 9 . Jump up ^ Rawls , James J. and Orsi , Richard ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) , pp. 256 -- 259 . Jump up ^ Holliday , J.S. ( 1999 ) p. 90 . Jump up ^ Rawls , James J. and Orsi , Richard ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) , pp. 193 -- 197 ; 214 -- 215 . Jump up ^ Rawls , James J. and Orsi , Richard ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) , p. 214 . Jump up ^ Rawls , James J. and Orsi , Richard ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) , p. 212 . Jump up ^ Rawls , James J. and Orsi , Richard ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) , pp. 226 -- 227 . Jump up ^ Starr , Kevin and Orsi , Richard J. ( eds . ) ( 2000 ) , p. 50 . Other estimates are that there were 7,000 -- 13,000 non-Native Americans in California before January 1848 . See Holliday , J.S. ( 1999 ) , pp. 26 , 51 . Jump up ^ Historians have reflected on the Gold Rush and its effect on California . Historian Kevin Starr stated that for all its problems and benefits , the Gold Rush established the `` founding patterns , the DNA code , of American California '' , and quotes from The Annals of San Francisco in 1855 that the Gold Rush advanced California into a `` rapid , monstrous maturity '' . See Starr , Kevin ( 2005 ) , p. 80 and Starr , Kevin ( 1973 ) , p. 110 . Jump up ^ Davis , Joseph ; Weidenmier , Marc D. ( 2017 ) . `` America 's First Great Moderation '' . The Journal of Economic History . 77 ( 4 ) : 1116 -- 1143 . doi : 10.1017 / S002205071700081X . ISSN 0022 - 0507 . ^ Jump up to : Starr , Kevin ( 2005 ) , pp. 91 -- 93 . Jump up ^ Rawls , James J. and Orsi , Richard ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) , pp. 243 -- 248 . By 1860 , California had over 200 flour mills , and was exporting wheat and flour around the world . Ibid . at 278 -- 280 . Jump up ^ Starr , Kevin ( 2005 ) , pp. 110 -- 111 . Jump up ^ Starr , Kevin ( 1973 ) . Americans and the California dream : 1850 -- 1915 . New York and Oxford : Oxford University Press . pp. 69 -- 75 . Jump up ^ Caughey , 1975 , p. 192 Jump up ^ Population of the 100 Largest Urban Places : 1870 , U.S. Bureau of the Census Jump up ^ Harper 's New Monthly Magazine March 1855 , Volume 10 , Issue 58 , p. 543 . Jump up ^ S.S. Central America information ; Final voyage of the S.S. Central America . Retrieved April 25 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Hill , Mary ( 1999 ) , pp. 192 -- 196 . Jump up ^ Another notable ship wreck was the steamship Winfield Scott , bound to Panama from San Francisco , which crashed into Anacapa Island off the Southern California coast in December 1853 . All hands and passengers were saved , along with the cargo of gold , but the ship was a total loss . Jump up ^ `` Focus On the West '' . Jump up ^ Castillo , Edward D. ( 1998 ) . `` California Indian History '' . Archived from the original on March 12 , 2010 . Retrieved February 26 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Native History : California Gold Rush Begins , Devastates Native Population '' . Indian Country Today Media Network.com . January 24 , 2014 . Retrieved April 7 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Native History : California Gold Rush Begins , Devastates Native Population '' . Indian Country Today Media Network.com . Jump up ^ While the Bloody Island Massacre occurred during this time period , it did not occur in the Gold Rush era mining districts . Jump up ^ `` Trinity County California '' . visittrinity.com . Retrieved April 7 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Madley , Benjamin , An American Genocide , The United States and the California Catastrophe , 1846 - 1873 , Yale University Press , 2016 , 692 pages , ISBN 978 - 0 - 300 - 18136 - 4 , p. 11 , p. 351 Jump up ^ Thornton 1987 , pp. 107 - 109 . Jump up ^ `` Minorities During the Gold Rush '' . California Secretary of State . Archived from the original on February 1 , 2014 . Retrieved March 23 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Norton , Jack ( 1979 ) . Genocide in northwestern California : when our worlds cried . San Francisco : Indian Historian Press . ISBN 0 - 913436 - 26 - 7 . pp. 70 -- 73 Jump up ^ `` Indians of California - American Period '' . www.cabrillo.edu . Jump up ^ Lindsay , Brenden C ( 2012 ) . `` Murder State : California 's Native American Genocide , 1846 -- 1873 . '' University of Nebraska Press , Lincoln and London . p. 231 Jump up ^ Lindsay , Brenden C ( 2012 ) . `` Murder State : California 's Native American Genocide , 1846 -- 1873 . '' University of Nebraska Press , Lincoln and London . p. 148 Jump up ^ Starr , Kevin and Orsi , Richard J. ( eds . ) ( 2000 ) , pp. 56 -- 79 . Jump up ^ Starr , Kevin ( 2005 ) , pp. 84 -- 87 . Joaquin Murrieta was a famous Mexican bandit during the Gold Rush of the 1850s. The Last of the California Rangers ( 1928 ) , `` 16 . California Banditti , '' by Jill L. Cossley - Batt Jump up ^ ( in Spanish ) Villalobos , Sergio ; Silva , Osvaldo ; Silva , Fernando and Estelle , Patricio. 1974 . Historia De Chile . Editorial Universitaria , Chile . p 481 - 485 . Jump up ^ Rawls , James J. and Orsi , Richard ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) , pp. 285 -- 286 . Jump up ^ Rawls , James J. and Orsi , Richard ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) , pp. 287 -- 289 . Jump up ^ Younger , R.M. ' Wondrous Gold ' in Australia and the Australians : A New Concise History , Rigby , Sydney , 1970 Jump up ^ Narron , James ; Morgan , Don ( 7 Aug 2015 ) . `` Crisis Chronicles -- The California Gold Rush and the Gold Standard '' . New York Fed . Liberty Street Economics . New York , NY : Federal Reserve Bank of New York . Retrieved 8 Aug 2015 . The gold rush constituted a positive monetary supply shock because the United States was on the gold standard at the time . The nation had switched from a bimetallic ( gold and silver ) standard to a de facto gold standard in 1834 . Under the latter , the U.S. government stood ready to buy gold for $20.67 per ounce , a parity that prevailed until 1933 . That commitment anchored prices , but the large gold discovery functioned like a monetary easing by a central bank , with more gold chasing the same amount of goods and services . The increase in spending ultimately led to higher prices because nothing real had changed except the availability of a shiny yellow metal . Jump up ^ Rawls , James J. and Orsi , Richard ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) , pp. 278 -- 279 . Jump up ^ Historians James Rawls and Walton Bean have postulated that were it not for the discovery of gold , Oregon might have been granted statehood ahead of California , and therefore the first `` Pacific Railroad might have been built to that state . '' See Rawls , James , J. , and Walton Bean ( 2003 ) , p. 112 . Jump up ^ Kevin Starr , Americans and the California Dream , 1850 -- 1915 ( 1986 ) Jump up ^ Brands , H.W. ( 2003 ) , p. 442 . Jump up ^ A perception of lawlessness also was connected with California . See , Robert A. Burchell , `` The Loss of a Reputation ; or , The Image of California in Britain before 1875 , '' California Historical Quarterly 53 ( Summer I974 ) : 115 - 30 ( stories about Gold Rush lawlessness deterred some immigration for two decades ) . Jump up ^ `` ( A ) griculture dominated the post-Gold Rush sequence of development , employing more people than mining by 1869 ... and surpassing mining in 1879 as the leading element of the California economy . '' Starr , Kevin ( 2005 ) , p. 110 . Jump up ^ See , e.g. , Signal Hill , California , Bakersfield , California ; Los Angeles , California Jump up ^ 20th Century - Fox , MGM , Paramount , RKO , Warner Bros. , Universal Pictures , Columbia Pictures , and United Artists are among the most recognized entertainment industry names centered in California ; see also Film studio Jump up ^ Hughes Aircraft , Douglas Aircraft , North American Aviation , Northrop , Lockheed Aircraft were among the complex of companies in the aerospace industry which flourished in California during and after World War II Jump up ^ Gaither , Chris ; Chmielewski , Dawn C ( October 10 , 2006 ) . `` Google Bets Big on Videos '' . Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on October 10 , 2006 . Retrieved October 10 , 2006 . Jump up ^ Gold Rush images on the state seal include a forty - niner digging with a pick and shovel , a pan for panning gold , and a `` long - tom . '' In addition , the ships on the water suggest the sailing ships filling the Sacramento River and San Francisco Bay during the Gold Rush era . Jump up ^ `` Economic Development History of State Route 99 in California '' . Federal Highway Administration . Retrieved September 7 , 2012 . In the 1960s , green and white CA - 99 signs that resemble miners ' spades replaced the black and white U.S. 99 shields Jump up ^ Papoulias , Alexander ( January 4 , 2008 ) . `` Car Sales Curbed Along El Camino '' . Palo Alto Weekly . Office of California State Senator Leland Yee . Archived from the original on October 19 , 2012 . Retrieved September 7 , 2012 . State routes can be identified by the green State Highway Route shield , which is in the shape of a spade in honor of the California Gold Rush , and bears the route 's number Jump up ^ `` Your guide to the Mother Lode : Complete map of historic Hwy 49 '' . historichwy49.com . Retrieved December 30 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Watson ( 2005 ) looks at Bret Harte 's notion of Western partnership in such California gold rush stories as `` The Luck of Roaring Camp ' ( 1868 ) , `` Tennessee 's Partner '' ( 1869 ) , and `` Miggles '' ( 1869 ) . While critics have long recognized Harte 's interest in gender constructs , Harte 's depictions of Western partnerships also explore changing dynamics of economic relationships and gendered relationships through terms of contract , mutual support , and the bonds of labor . Matthew A. Watson , `` The Argonauts of ' 49 : Class , Gender , and Partnership in Bret Harte 's West . '' Western American Literature 2005 40 ( 1 ) : 33 -- 53 . References Bancroft , Hubert Howe ( 1888 ) . History of California : 1848 - 1859 . History Company . Brands , H.W. ( 2003 ) . The age of gold : the California Gold Rush and the new American dream . New York : Anchor Books . ISBN 978 - 0 - 385 - 72088 - 5 . Clappe , Louise Amelia Knapp Smith ( 2001 ) ( 1922 ) . The Shirley Letters from the California Mines , 1851 -- 1852 . Heyday Books , Berkeley , California . p. 109 . ISBN 1 - 890771 - 00 - 7 . Clay , Karen ; Gavin Wright ( April 2005 ) . `` Order Without Law ? Property Rights During the California Gold Rush '' ( PDF ) . Explorations in Economic History . 42 ( 2 ) : 155 -- 183 . doi : 10.1016 / j. eeh. 2004.05. 003 . Dillon , Richard ( 1975 ) . Siskiyou Trail : the Hudson 's Bay Company route to California . New York : McGraw Hill . ISBN 0 - 07 - 016980 - 2 . Gaither , Chris ; Chmielewski , Dawn C. ( October 10 , 2006 ) . `` Google Bets Big on Videos '' ( PDF ) . Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on June 16 , 2007 . Retrieved October 10 , 2006 . Harper 's New Monthly Magazine March 1855 , volume 10 , issue 58 , p. 543 , complete text online . Heizer , Robert F. ( 1974 ) . The destruction of California Indians . Lincoln and London : University of Nebraska Press . ISBN 0 - 8032 - 7262 - 6 . Hill , Mary ( 1999 ) . Gold : the California story . Berkeley and Los Angeles : University of California Press . ISBN 0 - 520 - 21547 - 8 . Holliday , J.S. ( 1999 ) . Rush for riches : Gold fever and the making of California . Oakland , California , Berkeley and Los Angeles : Oakland Museum of California and University of California Press . ISBN 0 - 520 - 21401 - 3 . Johnson , Susan Lee ( 2001 ) . Roaring Camp : the social world of the California Gold Rush . New York : W.W. Norton & Company . ISBN 0 - 393 - 32099 - 5 . Levy , JoAnn ( 1992 ) ( 1990 ) . They saw the elephant : women in the California Gold Rush . Norman : University of Oklahoma Press . ISBN 0 - 8061 - 2473 - 3 . Miller , Joaquin ( 1873 ) . Life amongst the Modocs : unwritten history . Berkeley : Heyday Books ; reprint edition ( January 1996 ) . ISBN 0 - 930588 - 79 - 7 . Moynihan , Ruth B. ; Armitage , Susan ; Dichamp , Christiane Fischer , eds. ( 1990 ) . So much to be done : Women settlers on the mining and ranching frontier , 2d ed . ( Women in the West ) . Lincoln : University of Nebraska Press . ISBN 0 - 8032 - 8248 - 6 . Rawls , James , J. ; Bean , Walton ( 2003 ) . California : An interpretive history . New York : McGraw - Hill . ISBN 0 - 07 - 255255 - 7 . Rawls , James , J. and Richard J. Orsi ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) . A golden state : mining and economic development in Gold Rush California . California History Sesquicentennial , 2 . Berkeley and Los Angeles : University of California Press . ISBN 0 - 520 - 21771 - 3 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link ) Starr , Kevin ( 1973 ) . Americans and the California dream : 1850 -- 1915 . New York and Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 504233 - 6 . Starr , Kevin ( 2005 ) . California : a history . New York : Modern Library . ISBN 0 - 679 - 64240 - 4 . Starr , Kevin and Richard J. Orsi ( eds . ) ( 2000 ) . Rooted in barbarous soil : people , culture , and community in Gold Rush California . Berkeley and Los Angeles : University of California Press . ISBN 0 - 520 - 22496 - 5 . CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link ) Thornton , Russel ( 1987 ) . American Indian Holocaust and Survival : A Population History Since 1492 . Norman : University of Oklahoma Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8061 - 2074 - 4 . Wells , Harry L. ( 1971 ) ( 1881 ) . History of Siskiyou County , California . Siskiyou Historical Society . OCLC 6150902 . ASIN B0006YP8IE , . Further reading Burchell , Robert A. ( Summer 1974 ) . `` The Loss of a Reputation ; or , The Image of California in Britain before 1875 '' . California Historical Quarterly . 53 ( 3 ) : 115 -- 130 . doi : 10.2307 / 25157500 . ISSN 0097 - 6059 . Burns , John F. and Richard J. Orsi ( eds . ) ( 2003 ) . Taming the Elephant : Politics , Government , and Law in Pioneer California . Berkeley and Los Angeles : University of California Press . ISBN 0 - 520 - 23413 - 8 . Retrieved February 14 , 2007 . CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link ) Drager , K. ; C. Fracchia ( 1997 ) . The Golden Dream : California from Gold Rush to Statehood . Portland , Oregon : Graphic Arts Center Publishing Company . ISBN 1 - 55868 - 312 - 7 . Dwyer , Richard A. ; Richard E. Lingenfelter ; David Cohen ( 1964 ) . The Songs of the Gold Rush . Berkeley and Los Angeles : University of California Press . Eifler , Mark A. ( 2002 ) . Gold Rush Capitalists : Greed and Growth in Sacramento . Albuquerque : University of New Mexico Press . ISBN 0 - 8263 - 2822 - 9 . Hart , Eugene ( 2003 ) . A Guide to the California Gold Rush . Merced : Freewheel Publications . ISBN 0 - 9634197 - 2 - 2 . Helper , Hinton Rowan ( 1855 ) . The Land of Gold : Reality Versus Fiction . Baltimore : H. Taylor . Holliday , J.S. ; William Swain ( 2002 ) ( 1981 ) . The World Rushed in : The California Gold Rush Experience . Norman : University of Oklahoma Press . ISBN 0 - 8061 - 3464 - X . Hurtado , Albert L. ( 2006 ) . John Sutter : A Life on the North American Frontier . Norman : University of Oklahoma Press . ISBN 0 - 8061 - 3772 - X . Klare , Normand E. ( 2005 ) . The Final Voyage of the SS Central America 1857 . Ashland , Oregon : Klare Taylor Publishers . ISBN 0 - 9764403 - 0 - X . Knorr , Lawrence ( 2008 ) . A Pennsylvania Mennonite and the California Gold Rush . Camp Hill : Sunbury Press . ISBN 0 - 9760925 - 8 - 1 . Lienhard , Heinrich . `` Wenn Du absolut nach Amerika willst , so gehe in Gottesnamen ! '' , Erinnerungen an den California Trail , John A. Sutter und den Goldrausch 1846 -- 1849 . Herausgegeben von ( edited by ) Christa Landert , mit einem Vorwort von ( foreword by ) Leo Schelbert . Zürich : Limmat Verlag , 2010 , 2011 . ISBN 978 - 3 - 85791 - 504 - 8 Owens , Kenneth N. ( ed . ) ( 2002 ) . Riches for All : The California Gold Rush and the World . Lincoln : University of Nebraska Press . ISBN 0 - 8032 - 8617 - 1 . CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link ) `` Haun Collection Archive '' . Roberts , Brian ( 2000 ) . American Alchemy : The California Gold Rush and Middle - class Culture . Chapel Hill : University of North Carolina Press . ISBN 0 - 8078 - 4856 - 5 . Rohrbough , Malcolm J. ( 1998 ) . Days of Gold : The California Gold Rush and the American Nation . Berkeley and Los Angeles : University of California Press . ISBN 0 - 520 - 21659 - 8 . online edition Watson , Matthew A. ( 2005 ) . `` The Argonauts of ' 49 : Class , Gender , and Partnership in Bret Harte 's West '' . Western American Literature. 40 ( 1 ) : 33 -- 53 . ISSN 0043 - 3462 . Witschi , N.S. ( 2004 ) . `` Bret Harte . '' Oxford Encyclopedia of American Literature . Ed . Jay Parini . New York : Oxford University Press . 154 -- 157 . Witschi , N.S. ( 2002 ) . Traces of Gold : California 's Natural Resources and the Claim to Realism in Western American Literature . Tuscaloosa : University of Alabama Press . ISBN 0 - 8173 - 1117 - 3 . External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to California Gold Rush . Listen to this article ( 2 parts ) ( info ) Part 1 Part 2 This audio file was created from a revision of the article `` California Gold Rush '' dated 2009 - 04 - 09 , and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article . ( Audio help ) More spoken articles California Gold Rush at Curlie ( based on DMOZ ) California Gold Rush chronology at The Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco Gold at the website of United States Geological Survey Gold Country Museum in Placer County , California `` California as I Saw It : '' First - Person Narratives of California 's Early Years , 1849 -- 1900 Library of Congress American Memory Project University of California , Berkeley , Bancroft Library The University of California , Calisphere , 1848 -- 1865 : The Gold Rush Era California State Library , `` California As We Saw It '' : Exploring the California Gold Rush , online exhibit Map of North America during the California Gold Rush at omniatlas.com California gold rush letter , MSS SC 1180 at L. Tom Perry Special Collections , Harold B. Lee Library , Brigham Young University California Gold rush Geology Gold in California People List of people associated with the California Gold Rush Women in the California Gold Rush Culture Oh , California Oh My Darling , Clementine De Hamborger Veermaster Mursheen Durkin Early US mining Comstock Lode Copper mining in Michigan Part of a series on Gold mining History of California Before 1900 Native Californian Precontact First explorations Later explorations Spanish colonization Mexican rule California Trail Mexican -- American War California Republic United States rule Gold Rush Civil War Since 1900 Labor Engineering Water wars Industrial growth Postwar culture Development Legal revolution Tech boom Present day By topic Highways Maritime Missions Ranchos Slavery Railroads Etymology By region San Fernando Valley By county Alameda Alpine Amador Butte Calaveras Colusa Contra Costa Del Norte El Dorado Fresno Glenn Humboldt Imperial Inyo Kern Kings Lake Lassen Los Angeles Madera Marin Mariposa Mendocino Merced Modoc Mono Monterey Napa Nevada Orange Placer Plumas Riverside Sacramento San Benito San Bernardino San Diego San Francisco San Joaquin San Luis Obispo San Mateo Santa Barbara Santa Clara Santa Cruz Shasta Sierra Siskiyou Solano Sonoma Stanislaus Sutter Tehama Trinity Tulare Tuolumne Ventura Yolo Yuba By city Los Angeles San Diego San Jose San Francisco Fresno Sacramento Long Beach Oakland Bakersfield Anaheim Santa Ana Riverside Stockton Chula Vista Fremont Irvine San Bernardino Modesto Oxnard Fontana Moreno Valley Glendale Huntington Beach Santa Clarita Garden Grove Santa Rosa Oceanside Rancho Cucamonga Ontario Lancaster Elk Grove Palmdale Corona Salinas Pomona Torrance Hayward Escondido Sunnyvale Pasadena Fullerton Orange Thousand Oaks Visalia Simi Valley Concord Roseville Santa Clara Vallejo Victorville El Monte Berkeley Downey Costa Mesa Inglewood Ventura Fairfield Santa Maria Redding Santa Monica Santa Barbara Chico Merced Napa Redwood City Yuba City Madera Santa Cruz San Rafael Woodland Hanford San Luis Obispo El Centro Lompoc Martinez Hollister Eureka Susanville Ukiah Oroville Red Bluff Auburn Marysville Piedmont Placerville Yreka Crescent City Willows Colusa Sonora Lakeport Jackson Nevada City Alturas Gold rushes of the 18th , 19th and 20th centuries United States Carolina ( 1800s ) Georgia ( 1829 ) California ( 1848 ) Pike 's Peak ( 1858 ) Black Hills ( 1876 ) Nome ( 1899 ) Fairbanks ( 1902 ) Canada Queen Charlottes ( 1851 ) Fraser Canyon ( 1858 -- 60 ) Blackfoot ( 1860 ) Rock Creek ( 1860 ) Similkameen ( 1860 ) Stikine ( 1861 -- 62 ) Cariboo ( 1861 -- 66 ) Nova Scotia ( 1861 -- 74 , 1896 -- 1903 , 1932 -- 42 ) Wild Horse Creek ( 1863 -- 65 ) Goldstream ( 1863 ) Leechtown ( 1864 -- 65 ) Big Bend ( 1865 ) Peace River Omineca ( 1869 ) Cassiar ( 1871 -- ? 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where did the name penny mustard come from

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Penny_dreadful&oldid=837078867

Penny dreadful - wikipedia Penny dreadful Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Penny dreadful ( disambiguation ) . Black Bess ; or , The Knight of the Road . A romanticized tale of Dick Turpin -- a popular subject in fiction . Circa 1860 Penny dreadfuls were cheap popular serial literature produced during the nineteenth century in the United Kingdom . The pejorative term is roughly interchangeable with penny horrible , penny awful , and penny blood . The term typically referred to a story published in weekly parts , each costing one penny . The subject matter of these stories was typically sensational , focusing on the exploits of detectives , criminals , or supernatural entities . While the term `` penny dreadful '' was originally used in reference to a specific type of literature circulating in mid-Victorian Britain , it came to encompass a variety of publications that featured cheap sensational fiction , such as story papers and booklet `` libraries '' . The penny dreadfuls were printed on cheap wood pulp paper and were aimed at young working class men . Contents ( hide ) 1 Origins 2 Subject matter 3 Decline 4 Legacy 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Origins ( edit ) Crime broadsides were commonly sold at public executions in the United Kingdom in the 18th and 19th centuries . These were often produced by printers who specialised in them . They were typically illustrated by a crude picture of the crime , a portrait of the criminal , or a generic woodcut of a hanging taking place . There would be a written account of the crime and of the trial and often the criminal 's confession of guilt . A doggerel verse warning others to not follow the executed person 's example , to avoid their fate , was another common feature . Victorian era Britain experienced social changes that resulted in increased literacy rates . With the rise of capitalism and industrialisation , people began to spend more money on entertainment , contributing to the popularisation of the novel . Improvements in printing resulted in newspapers such as Joseph Addison 's The Spectator and Richard Steele 's The Tatler , and England 's more fully recognizing the singular concept of reading as a form of leisure ; it was , of itself , a new industry . Other significant changes included industrialisation and an increased capacity for travel via the invention of tracks , engines , and the corresponding railway distribution . These changes created both a market for cheap popular literature , and the ability for it to be circulated on a large scale . The first penny serials were published in the 1830s to meet this demand . The serials were priced to be affordable to working - class readers , and were considerably cheaper than the serialised novels of authors such as Charles Dickens , which cost a shilling ( twelve pennies ) per part . Subject matter ( edit ) Cover of a Varney the Vampire publication ( 1845 ) The stories themselves were reprints , or sometimes rewrites , of the earliest Gothic thrillers such as The Castle of Otranto or The Monk , as well as new stories about famous criminals . Some of the most famous of these penny part - stories were The String of Pearls : A Romance ( introducing Sweeney Todd , `` the Demon Barber of Fleet Street '' ) , The Mysteries of London ( inspired by the French serial The Mysteries of Paris ) , and Varney the Vampire ( 1845 -- 47 ) . Varney is the tale of the vampire Sir Francis Varney , and introduced many of the tropes present in vampire fiction recognizable to modern audiences -- it was the first story to refer to sharpened teeth for a vampire . Highwaymen were popular heroes ; Black Bess or the Knight of the Road , outlining the largely imaginary exploits of real - life English highwayman Dick Turpin , continued for 254 episodes . Other serials were thinly - disguised plagiarisms of popular contemporary literature . The publisher Edward Lloyd , for instance , published a number of penny serials derived from the works of Charles Dickens entitled Oliver Twiss , Nickelas Nicklebery , and Martin Guzzlewit . Working class boys who could not afford a penny a week often formed clubs that would share the cost , passing the flimsy booklets from reader to reader . Other enterprising youngsters would collect a number of consecutive parts , then rent the volume out to friends . In 1866 , Boys of England was introduced as a new type of publication , an eight - page magazine that featured serial stories as well as articles and shorts of interest . Numerous competitors quickly followed , with such titles as Boys ' Leisure Hour , Boys ' Standard , Young Men of Great Britain , etc . As the price and quality of other types of fiction works were the same , these also fell under the general definition of penny dreadfuls . American dime novels were edited and rewritten for a British audience . These appeared in booklet form , such as the Boy 's First Rate Pocket Library . Frank Reade , Buffalo Bill , and Deadwood Dick were all popular with the penny dreadful audience . The penny dreadfuls were influential since they were , in the words of one commentator , `` the most alluring and low - priced form of escapist reading available to ordinary youth , until the advent in the early 1890s of future newspaper magnate Alfred Harmsworth 's price - cutting ' halfpenny dreadfuller ' '' . In reality , the serial novels were overdramatic and sensational , but generally harmless . If anything , the penny dreadfuls , although obviously not the most enlightening or inspiring of literary selections , resulted in increasingly literate youth in the Industrial period . The wide circulation of this sensationalist literature , however , contributed to an ever - greater fear of crime in mid-Victorian Britain . Decline ( edit ) The popularity of penny dreadfuls was challenged in the 1890s by the rise of competing literature . Leading the challenge were popular periodicals published by Alfred Harmsworth . Priced at one half - penny , Harmsworth 's story papers were cheaper and , at least initially , were more respectable than the competition . Harmsworth claimed to be motivated by a wish to challenge the pernicious influence of penny dreadfuls . In an editorial in the first number of The Half - penny Marvel in 1893 it was stated that : It is almost a daily occurrence with magistrates to have before them boys who , having read a number of ' dreadfuls ' , followed the examples set forth in such publications , robbed their employers , bought revolvers with the proceeds , and finished by running away from home , and installing themselves in the back streets as ' highwaymen ' . This and many other evils the ' penny dreadful ' is responsible for . It makes thieves of the coming generation , and so helps fill our gaols . The Half - penny Marvel was soon followed by a number of other Harmsworth half - penny periodicals , such as The Union Jack and Pluck . At first the stories were high - minded moral tales , reportedly based on true experiences , but it was not long before these papers started using the same kind of material as the publications they competed against . A.A. Milne , the author of Winnie the Pooh , once said , `` Harmsworth killed the penny dreadful by the simple process of producing the ' ha'penny dreadfuller ' '' . The quality of the Harmsworth / Amalgamated Press papers began to improve throughout the early 20th century , however . By the time of the First World War , papers such as Union Jack dominated the market in the UK . Legacy ( edit ) Two popular characters to come out of the penny dreadfuls were Jack Harkaway , introduced in the Boys of England in 1871 , and Sexton Blake , who began in the Half - penny Marvel in 1893 . In 1904 , the Union Jack became `` Sexton Blake 's own paper '' , and he appeared in every issue thereafter , up until the paper 's demise in 1933 . In total , Blake appeared in roughly 4,000 adventures , right up into the 1970s , a record exceeded only by Nick Carter and Dixon Hawke . Harkaway was also popular in America and had many imitators . The fictional Sweeney Todd , the subject of both a successful musical by Stephen Sondheim and a feature film by Tim Burton , also first appeared in an 1846 / 1847 penny dreadful titled The String of Pearls : A Romance by James Malcolm Rymer and Thomas Peckett Prest . Over time , the penny dreadfuls evolved into the British comic magazines . Owing to their cheap production , their perceived lack of value , and such hazards as war - time paper drives , the penny dreadfuls , particularly the earliest ones , are fairly rare today . Some items that have been named after this topic include a song called `` Penny Dreadfuls '' by Animal Collective , the Irish literary magazine The Penny Dreadful and a Showtime horror television series set in Victorian England titled Penny Dreadful . See also ( edit ) Novels portal United Kingdom portal Dime novel History of the British comic Pulp magazine Story paper Manga References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Zimmer , Ben . `` Horribles and terribles '' . Language Log . Retrieved 4 June 2011 . Jump up ^ Many people use the term `` penny blood '' interchangeably with `` penny dreadful '' . Sally Powell distinguishes between these terms , however , and designates `` penny bloods '' as cheap sensational literature written largely for working - class adults . Powell , p. 46 Jump up ^ James , Louis ( 1974 ) . Fiction for the Working Man , 1830 -- 50 . Harmondsworth : Penguin University Books . p. 20 . ISBN 0 - 14 - 060037 - X . Jump up ^ `` Dying Speeches and Bloody Murders : Crime Broadsides Collected by Harvard Law School Library '' . Harvard University Law School Library . Retrieved March 8 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Turner , E.S. ( 1975 ) . Boys Will be Boys . Harmondsworth : Penguin . p. 20 . ISBN 0 - 14 - 004116 - 8 . Jump up ^ `` Was Dickens Really Paid By The Word ? '' . University of Santa Cruz . Retrieved 27 September 2017 Jump up ^ `` Penny Dreadful : From True Crime to Fiction > Sweeney Todd , The Demon Barber of Fleet Street in Concert '' . KQED - TV . Archived from the original on 21 February 2003 . Retrieved 9 November 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Did Vampires Not Have Fangs in Movies Until the 1950s ? '' . Huffington Post . Retrieved 27 September 2017 Jump up ^ Christopher Banham , `` England and America Against the World '' : Empire and the USE in Edwin J. Brett 's Boys of England , 1866 - 99 , Victorian Periodicals Review , 40 : 2 , 2007 , pp. 151 - 71 Jump up ^ `` Boys of England '' . Stanford University Libraries . Retrieved 20 December 2015 . Jump up ^ Springhall , John ( 1994 ) . `` Disseminating Impure Literature ' : The ' Penny Dreadful ' Publishing Business Since 1860 '' . Economic Historical Review . 47 ( 3 ) . Jump up ^ Casey , Christopher ( Winter 2011 ) . `` Common Misperceptions : The Press and Victorian Views of Crime '' . Journal of Interdisciplinary History . 41 ( 3 ) . Jump up ^ Springhall , John ( 1998 ) . Youth , Popular Culture and Moral Panics . New York : St. Martin 's Press . p. 75 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 312 - 21394 - 7 . OCLC 38206817 . Jump up ^ Editorials in early issues of papers such as the Union Jack or Boys ' Friend make frequent references to `` the blood and thunders '' , but as time went on the mentions disappeared . Letters sent in by parents or teachers were frequently printed , praising the papers for putting the `` trash '' out of business . Jump up ^ The String of Pearls ( 1846 / 1847 ) by James Malcolm Rymer and Thomas Peckett Prest on Wikisource . Jump up ^ `` From Zine to Magazine . About , The Penny Dreadful , New Irish Writers '' . Thepennydreadful.org . Retrieved 2013 - 10 - 23 . This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( April 2013 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Sources Anglo , Michael ( 1977 ) . Penny Dreadfuls and Other Victorian Horrors . London : Jupiter . ISBN 0 - 904041 - 59 - X . Carpenter , Kevin ( 1983 ) . Penny Dreadfuls and comics : English periodicals for children from Victorian times to the present day . London : Bethnal Green Museum of Childhood . ISBN 0 - 905209 - 47 - 8 . Casey , Christopher ( 2010 ) . `` Common Misperceptions : The Press and Victorian Views of Crime '' . Journal of Interdisciplinary History . Cambridge : MIT Press . 41 ( 3 - Winter 2011 ) : 367 -- 391 . doi : 10.1162 / JINH_a_00106 . PMID 21141651 . Chesterton , G.K. ( 1901 ) . A Defence of Penny Dreadfuls . London : The Daily News . Haining , Peter ( 1975 ) . The Penny dreadful : or , Strange , horrid and sensational tales ! . London : Victor Gollancz . ISBN 0 - 575 - 01779 - 1 . James , Louis ( 1963 ) . Fiction for the working man 1830 -- 50 . Harmondsworth : Penguin . ISBN 978 - 0 - 14 - 060037 - 7 . Powell , Sally ( 2004 ) . `` Black Markets and Cadaverous Pies : The Corpse , Urban Trade and Industrial Consumption in the Penny Blood '' . In Maunder , Andrew ; Moore , Grace . Victorian Crime Madness and Sensation . Burlington , VT : Ashgate . ISBN 0 - 7546 - 4060 - 4 . External links ( edit ) Look up penny dreadful in Wiktionary , the free dictionary . Wikimedia Commons has media related to Penny dreadfuls . Black Bess or , The knight of the road . A tale of the good old times British Library collection of images from penny dreadfuls Marie Léger - St - Jean . `` Price One Penny : Cheap Literature , 1837 -- 1860 '' . University of Cambridge . ( Bibliographic database of early Victorian penny fiction ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Penny_dreadful&oldid=837078867 '' Categories : Periodicals British culture Penny dreadfuls 19th century in the United Kingdom Hidden categories : Use dmy dates from January 2018 EngvarB from January 2018 Articles needing additional references from April 2013 All articles needing additional references Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Français Italiano ಕನ್ನಡ Edit links This page was last edited on 18 April 2018 , at 15 : 53 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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how did the geography and resources of san diego california help it grow

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Mission_San_Diego_de_Alcal%C3%A1&oldid=810422893

Mission San Diego de Alcalá - wikipedia Mission San Diego de Alcalá Jump to : navigation , search `` Mission San Diego '' redirects here . For the San Diego Trolley station , see Mission San Diego station . Mission San Diego de Alcalá The church façade of Mission San Diego de Alcalá Location in San Diego Location 10818 San Diego Mission Rd . San Diego , California 92108 - 2429 Coordinates 32 ° 47 ′ 4 '' N 117 ° 6 ′ 23 '' W  /  32.78444 ° N 117.10639 ° W  / 32.78444 ; - 117.10639 Coordinates : 32 ° 47 ′ 4 '' N 117 ° 6 ′ 23 '' W  /  32.78444 ° N 117.10639 ° W  / 32.78444 ; - 117.10639 Name as founded La Misión San Diego de Alcalá English translation The Mission of Saint Didacus of Acalá Patron Saint Didacus of Alcalá Nickname ( s ) `` Mother of the Alta California Missions '' Founding date July 16 , 1769 Founding priest ( s ) Father Presidente Junípero Serra Built 1769 Architect Fr . Jose Bernardo Sanchez Founding Order First Headquarters of the Alta California Mission System 1769 -- 1771 Military district First Native tribe ( s ) Spanish name ( s ) Kumeyaay ( Ipai / Tipai ) Diegueño Native place name ( s ) Kosoi , Nipawai Baptisms 6,522 Confirmations 1,379 Marriages 1,794 Burials 4,322 Neophyte population 1,455 Secularized 1834 Returned to the Church 1862 Governing body Roman Catholic Diocese of San Diego Current use Parish Church U.S. National Register of Historic Places Official name : San Diego Mission Church Designated April 15 , 1970 Reference no . 70000144 U.S. National Historic Landmark Designated April 15 , 1970 California Historical Landmark Reference no . # 242 San Diego Historic Landmark Designated October 6 , 1976 Reference no . 113 Website http://missionsandiego.com Mission Basilica San Diego de Alcalá was the first Franciscan mission in The Californias , a province of New Spain . Located in present - day San Diego , California , it was founded on July 16 , 1769 by Spanish friar Junípero Serra in an area long inhabited by the Kumeyaay people . The mission and the surrounding area were named for the Catholic Didacus of Alcalá , a Spaniard more commonly known as San Diego . The mission was the site of the first Christian burial in Alta California . San Diego is also generally regarded as the site of the region 's first public execution , in 1778 . Father Luis Jayme , California 's first Christian martyr , lies entombed beneath the chancel floor . The current church is the fifth to stand on this location . The Mission is a National Historic Landmark . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Rancho period ( 1834 -- 1849 ) 1.2 California statehood ( 1850 -- 1900 ) 1.3 20th century and beyond ( 1901 -- present ) 2 Other historic designations 3 Mission industries 3.1 Wine 4 Mission bells 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links History ( edit ) The former Spanish settlement at the Kumeyaay 's Nipawai lies within that area occupied during the late Paleoindian period and continuing on into the present day by the Native society commonly known as the Diegueño ; the name denotes those people who were ministered by the padres at Mission San Diego de Alcalá . Relatively , much is known about the native inhabitants in recent centuries , thanks in part to the efforts of the Spanish explorer Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo , who documented his observations of life in the coastal villages he encountered along the Southern California coast in October 1542 . Cabrillo , a Portuguese navigator in the service of Spain , is credited with the discovery of San Diego Bay . On the evening of September 28 , 1542 the ships San Salvador and Victoria sailed into the harbor , whereupon Cabrillo christened it `` San Miguel . '' During that expedition a landing party went ashore and briefly interacted with a small group of natives . Some sixty years later another Spanish explorer , Sebastián Vizcaíno , made landfall some ten miles from the present Mission site . Under Vizcaíno 's command the San Diego , Santo Tomás , and frigate Tres Reyes dropped anchor on November 10 , 1602 , and the port was renamed `` San Diego de Alcalá . '' It would be another 167 years before the Spanish returned to San Diego . Ever since the voyages of Christopher Columbus , the Kingdom of Spain sought to establish missions to convert the pagans in Nueva España ( `` New Spain '' ) to Roman Catholicism to save souls , and in part , to facilitate colonization of these lands . However , it was not until 1741 -- the time of the Vitus Bering expedition , when the territorial ambitions of Tsarist Russia towards North America became known -- that King Philip V felt such installations were necessary in Upper California . In 1769 , Visitador General José de Gálvez sent the expedition of Junípero Serra and Gaspar de Portolà to found missions and presidios at San Diego and Monterey ( see Timeline of the Portolà expedition ) , thereby securing Spain 's claim to the Pacific Coast harbors recommended by Cabrillo and Vizcaino . Two groups traveled from Lower California on foot , while a pair of packet ships ( bearing supplies ) traveled up the coast from the Baja California Peninsula . Rancho Period ( 1834 -- 1849 ) ( edit ) On August 9 , 1834 Governor Figueroa issued his `` Decree of Confiscation . '' The missions were offered for sale to citizens , who were unable to come up with the price , so all mission property was broken up into ranchos and given to ex-military officers who had fought in the War of Independence against Spain . On June 8 , 1846 Mission San Diego de Alcalá was given to Santiago Argüello by Governor Pío Pico `` ... for services rendered to the government . '' After the United States annexed California , the Mission was used by the military from 1846 to 1862 . Plaque of the Mission San Diego de Alcala California statehood ( 1850 -- 1900 ) ( edit ) President Abraham Lincoln signed a proclamation on May 23 , 1862 that restored ownership of the Mission proper to the Roman Catholic Church . When Mission San Diego de Alcalá was granted back to the Church , it was in ruins . In the 1880s Father Anthony Ubach began to restore the old Mission buildings . 20th century and beyond ( 1901 -- present ) ( edit ) Father Ubach died in 1907 and restoration work ceased until 1931 . In 1941 , the Mission once again became a parish church , in what is still an active parish serving the Diocese of San Diego . In 1976 , Pope Paul VI designated the Mission church as a minor basilica . Mission San Diego de Alcalá is located within San Diego city limits , near the intersection of Interstate 8 and Interstate 15 , and approximately one mile east of Qualcomm Stadium . The parish is partially funded by a gift shop , and self - guided tours of the grounds and buildings are available to the public for a small donation . Other historic designations ( edit ) California Historical Landmark # 242 California Historical Landmark # 784 -- El Camino Real ( starting point in Alta California ) City of San Diego Historic Designation # 113 Mission industries ( edit ) The cattle brand used at Mission San Diego . The goal of the missions was , above all , to become self - sufficient in relatively short order . Farming , therefore , was the most important industry of any mission . Prior to the establishment of the missions , the native peoples knew only how to utilize bone , seashells , stone , and wood for building , tool making , weapons , and so forth . The missionaries discovered that the Indians , who regarded labor as degrading to the masculine , had to be taught industry in order to learn how to be self - supportive . The result was the establishment of a great manual training school that comprised agriculture , the mechanical arts , and the raising and care of livestock . Everything consumed and otherwise utilized by the natives was produced at the missions under the supervision of the padres ; thus , the neophytes not only supported themselves , but after 1811 sustained the entire military and civil government of California . Wheat , corn , wine grapes , barley , beans , cattle , horses , and sheep were the major crops at San Diego . In 1795 , construction on a system of aqueducts was begun to bring water to the fields and the Mission ( the first irrigation project in Upper California ) . The building manager was Fray Pedro Panto , who was poisoned by his Indian cook Nazario before the project was completed . In his testimony , in the trial that followed , Nazario stated that he had poisoned the friar due to constant beatings inflicted by Friar Panto . The Mission San Diego was primarily supported from lands included in a Spanish royal land grant , encompassing roughly the eastern third of the current City of San Diego , as well as most of the cities of La Mesa and Lemon Grove . While not exact , its boundaries are roughly Interstate 805 , Miramar Road , Route 125 ( California ) , Skyline Drive and Division Street . Boundary Street ( which parallels Interstate 805 in the neighborhood of North Park ) lies directly on one portion of the boundary and draws its name from it . Wine ( edit ) See also : History of California wine The first vinyards planted in California , were planted at the mission in 1769 . Father Junípero Serra planted these initial vines . The vines were of the Mission variety , which were bright to Mexico in the 16th Century . Unfortunately , the initial plantings did not survive , with Mission San Juan Capistrano having the first surviving plantings . By at least 1781 , wine was being produced at the mission . One source claims that the vineyard on mission lands reached up to fifty thousand acres . The mission vineyards were around until at least 1823 . Mission bells ( edit ) Bells were vitally important to daily life at any mission . The bells were rung at mealtimes , to call the Mission residents to work and to religious services , during births and funerals , to signal the approach of a ship or returning missionary , and at other times ; novices were instructed in the intricate rituals associated with ringing the mission bells . This mission had five bells . See also ( edit ) San Diego County portal Catholicism portal Spanish missions in California Santa Ysabel Asistencia Presidio of San Diego USNS Mission San Diego ( AO - 121 ) -- a Mission Buenaventura Class fleet oiler built during World War II . Union Station ( San Diego ) Notes ( edit ) Natives utilize a primitive plow to prepare a field for planting near Mission San Diego de Alcalá . A painting of Mission San Diego de Alcalá as it appeared in 1848 depicts the original campanario ( `` bell tower '' ) , before it was reduced to rubble . The painting also shows the enclosed front portico . The `` Alemany Plat '' prepared by the U.S. Land Surveyor 's Office to define the property restored to the Catholic Church by the Public Land Commission , later confirmed by presidential proclamation on May 23 , 1862 . President Abraham Lincoln 's signature as it appeared on the United States Patent that restored the Mission property to the Catholic Church in 1862 . This is one of the few documents that the President signed as `` A. Lincoln '' instead of his customary `` Abraham Lincoln . '' Mission San Diego de Alcalá as it stood circa 1900 . Note the missing Campanario , and the exposed church , which fell into disrepair . Aerial view of the Mission , 2011 ^ Jump up to : Leffingwell , p. 17 ^ Jump up to : Krell , p. 71 Jump up ^ Young , p. 14 ^ Jump up to : Yenne , p. 24 Jump up ^ Ruscin , p. 196 Jump up ^ Yenne , p. 186 Jump up ^ Forbes , p. 202 Jump up ^ Engelhardt 1920 , pp. v , 228 `` The military district of San Diego embraced the Missions of San Diego , San Luis Rey , San Juan Capistrano , and San Gabriel ... '' Jump up ^ Ruscin , p. 195 ^ Jump up to : Krell , p. 315 : as of December 31 , 1832 ; information adapted from Engelhardt 's Missions and Missionaries of California . Jump up ^ Engelhardt 1920 , pp. 300 -- 301 : as of December 31 , 1832 . An additional 426 confirmations were performed between January 1 , 1833 and December 31 , 1841 . Jump up ^ Engelhardt 1920 , pp. 300 -- 301 . 1824 saw the greatest number of neophytes attached to the Mission ( 1,829 ) , whereas the smallest recorded neophyte population was ninety seven neophyte . It was seen in 1774 . ^ Jump up to : National Park Service ( 2010 - 07 - 09 ) . `` National Register Information System '' . National Register of Historic Places . National Park Service . ^ Jump up to : `` San Diego Mission Church '' . National Historic Landmark summary listing . National Park Service . Retrieved 2009 - 08 - 24 . Jump up ^ `` Historical Landmarks Designated by the San Diego Historical Resources Board '' ( PDF ) . City of San Diego . Jump up ^ Snell , Charles ( September 4 , 1976 ) . `` San Diego Mission Church '' ( pdf ) . National Register of Historic Places -- Inventory Nomination Form . National Park Service . Retrieved 22 May 2012 . Jump up ^ `` San Diego Mission Church '' ( pdf ) . Photographs . National Park Service . Retrieved 22 May 2012 . ^ Jump up to : http://www.missionsandiego.org/visit/history/questions-answers/ Jump up ^ Kroeber 1925 , p. 883 : Kroeber estimated that the native population in the immediate vicinity of San Diego was approximately 3,000 in 1770 ( exclusive of those in Baja California ) . Jump up ^ As with other Spanish names given to the indigenous tribes they encountered arthas , the appellation Diegueño does not necessarily identify a specific ethnic or tribal group . Jump up ^ Yenne , p. 8 Jump up ^ Engelhardt 1920 , p. 3 : September 28 was the eve of the `` Feast of the Archangel Saint Michael . '' Jump up ^ Engelhardt 1920 , pp. 6 -- 9 : November 10 was the eve of `` St. Martin 's Day '' . Jump up ^ Davidson , p. 2 : `` Sebastian Vizcaino , entering November 11 -- 12 , 1602 , first applied the name San Diego de Alcalá to this port . '' Jump up ^ Morrison , p. 214 Jump up ^ Yenne , p. 10 Jump up ^ Engelhardt 1920 , p. 9 Jump up ^ Yenne , p. 10 : In January 1769 the San Carlos departed Baya de San Barnabé , followed a month later by the San Antonio , which sailed out of Cabo San Lucas . A third vessel , the San José , left New Spain later that spring but was lost at sea . Jump up ^ Engelhardt 1922 , p. 114 Jump up ^ Leffingwell , p. 19 ^ Jump up to : Engelhardt 1920 , p. 348 Jump up ^ Robinson , pp. 31 -- 32 : Patents for each mission were issued to Archbishop J.S. Alemany based on his claim filed with the Public Land Commission on February 19 , 1853 . Jump up ^ Engelhardt 1920 , p. 223 . From the ' `` California Archives , State Papers , Missions , vol . vi , p. 180 . Jump up ^ Engelhardt 1922 , p. 211 Jump up ^ Hall , William Hammond ( 1888 ) . Irrigation in California ( Southern ) : The Field , Water - supply , and Works , Organization and Operation in San Diego , San Bernardino , and Los Angeles Counties . California . Office of State Engineer . p. 85 . Retrieved 14 July 2012 . Jump up ^ Smythe , William Ellsworth ( 1907 ) . History of San Diego , 1542 -- 1907 : An Account of the Rise and Progress of the Pioneer Settlement on the Pacific Coast of the United States . History Company . p. 77 . Retrieved 14 July 2012 . Jump up ^ McCormack , Brian T. ( 2007 - 01 - 01 ) . `` Conjugal Violence , Sex , Sin , and Murder in the Mission Communities of Alta California '' . Journal of the History of Sexuality. 16 ( 3 ) : 391 -- 415 . doi : 10.1353 / sex. 2007.0070 . ISSN 1535 - 3605 . Jump up ^ Dailey , Keli ( 29 August 2012 ) . `` Winery guide : San Diego County , uncorked '' . San Diego Union - Tribune . Retrieved 19 September 2017 . Never mind that the original Golden State vines broke ground at Mission San Diego de Alcalá in 1769 and became Father Junipero Serra 's Communion wine . Richard Vine ; Bruce Bordelon ; Ellen M. Harkness ; Theresa Browning ( 29 June 2013 ) . Winemaking : From Grape Growing to Marketplace . Springer Science & Business Media . p. 10 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4757 - 2656 - 5 . Wycoff , Ann ( 23 September 2016 ) . `` The Ultimate San Diego Wine Guide '' . San Diego Magazine . Retrieved 21 September 2017 . Jump up ^ Jean L. Jacobson ( 14 June 2006 ) . Introduction to Wine Laboratory Practices and Procedures . Springer Science & Business Media . p. 85 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 387 - 25120 - 2 . Ian S Hornsey ( 9 October 2015 ) . The Chemistry and Biology of Winemaking . Royal Society of Chemistry . p. 55 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 78262 - 631 - 2 . LaMar , Jim ( 25 August 2002 ) . `` Mission '' . Professional Friends of Wine . Retrieved 21 September 2017 . More than a century later , Franciscan monk Junipero Serra first planted the Mission variety in California , at Mission San Diego , in 1769 . Jump up ^ `` Mission '' . Calwineries Inc . Retrieved 19 September 2017 . Spanish Missionaries first brought the grape to Mexico during the 16th century . The vines that Father Juniper Serra planted at Mission San Diego in 1769 probably descended from these original grapes . Jump up ^ Charles L. Sullivan ( 1 October 1998 ) . A Companion to California Wine : An Encyclopedia of Wine and Winemaking from the Mission Period to the Present . University of California Press . p. 218 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 520 - 92087 - 3 . Jump up ^ Dwight Furrow ; Lynn Furrow ( 22 November 2014 ) . San Diego Wine Country : A Tasting Guide . BookBaby . p. 91 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4835 - 4599 - 8 . Jump up ^ `` The Winery '' . Social Studies Fact Cards . Toucan Valley Publications , Inc . Retrieved 19 September 2017 . Several missions became known for their wine . Mission San Diego had 50,000 acres of land planted in grapevines . Jump up ^ Lynne Newell Christenson ; Ellen L. Sweet ( 2008 ) . Ranchos of San Diego County . Arcadia Publishing . p. 9 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7385 - 5965 - 0 . Jump up ^ Engelhardt 1920 , p. 346 References ( edit ) Bancroft , Hubert Howe ( 1884 -- 1880 ) . History of California , vols . i -- vii ( 1542 -- 1890 ) . The History Company , San Francisco , CA . Check date values in : date = ( help ) Chapman , Charles E. ( 1921 ) . A History of California ; The Spanish Period . The MacMillan Company , New York , NY . Davidson , Winifred ( January 1955 ) . `` San Diego in One Easy Lesson '' . The Journal of San Diego History . 1 ( 1 ) : 2 -- 3 . Engelhardt , Zephyrin , O.F.M. ( 1920 ) . San Diego Mission . James H. Barry Company , San Francisco , CA . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Engelhardt , Zephyrin , O.F.M. ( 1922 ) . San Juan Capistrano Mission . Standard Printing Co. , Los Angeles , CA . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Forbes , Alexander ( 1839 ) . California : A History of Upper and Lower California . Smith , Elder and Co. , Cornhill , London . Jones , Terry L. and Kathryn A. Klar ( eds . ) ( 2007 ) . California Prehistory : Colonization , Culture , and Complexity . Altimira Press , Landham , MD . ISBN 0 - 7591 - 0872 - 2 . CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link ) Krell , Dorothy ( ed . ) ( 1979 ) . The California Missions : A Pictorial History . Sunset Publishing Corporation , Menlo Park , CA . ISBN 0 - 376 - 05172 - 8 . CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link ) Leffingwell , Randy ( 2005 ) . California Missions and Presidios : The History & Beauty of the Spanish Missions . Voyageur Press , Inc. , Stillwater , MN . ISBN 0 - 89658 - 492 - 5 . Morrison , Hugh ( 1987 ) . Early American Architecture : From the First Colonial Settlements to the National Period . Dover Publications , New York , NY . ISBN 0 - 486 - 25492 - 5 . Paddison , Joshua ( ed . ) ( 1999 ) . A World Transformed : Firsthand Accounts of California Before the Gold Rush . Heyday Books , Berkeley , CA . ISBN 1 - 890771 - 13 - 9 . CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link ) Robinson , W.W. ( 1948 ) . Land in California . University of California Press , Berkeley and Los Angeles , CA . Ruscin , Terry ( 1999 ) . Mission Memoirs . Sunbelt Publications , San Diego , CA . ISBN 0 - 932653 - 30 - 8 . Stern , Jean & Gerald J. Miller ( 1995 ) . Romance of the Bells : The California Missions in Art . The Irvine Museum , Irvine , CA . ISBN 0 - 9635468 - 5 - 6 . Yenne , Bill ( 2004 ) . The Missions of California . Advantage Publishers Group , San Diego , CA . ISBN 1 - 59223 - 319 - 8 . Young , Stanley & Melba Levick ( 1988 ) . The Missions of California . Chronicle Books LLC , San Francisco , CA . ISBN 0 - 8118 - 3694 - 0 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mission San Diego de Alcalá . Official Mission San Diego de Alcala website `` Sociopolitical Aspects of the 1775 Revolt at Mission San Diego de Alcalá : an Ethnohistorical Approach '' by Richard L. Carrico Spanish Wiki page with Fray Pedro Panto ́ s biography Early photographs , sketches of Mission San Diego de Alcala , via Calisphere , California Digital Library Early History of the California Coast , a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary Listing , photographs , and drawings at the Historic American Buildings Survey Howser , Huell ( December 8 , 2000 ) . `` California Missions ( 101 ) '' . California Missions . Chapman University Huell Howser Archive . Franciscan Missions in California San Diego de Alcalá ( 1769 ) San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo ( 1770 ) San Antonio de Padua ( 1771 ) San Gabriel Arcángel ( 1771 ) San Luis Obispo de Tolosa ( 1772 ) San Francisco de Asís ( 1776 ) San Juan Capistrano ( 1776 ) Santa Clara de Asís ( 1777 ) San Buenaventura ( 1782 ) Santa Barbara ( 1786 ) La Purísima Concepción ( 1787 ) Santa Cruz ( 1791 ) Nuestra Señora de la Soledad ( 1791 ) San José ( 1797 ) San Juan Bautista ( 1797 ) San Miguel Arcángel ( 1797 ) San Fernando Rey de España ( 1797 ) San Luis Rey de Francia ( 1798 ) Santa Inés ( 1804 ) San Rafael Arcángel ( 1817 ) San Francisco Solano ( 1823 ) Asistencias Nuestra Señora Reina de los Angeles ( 1784 ) San Pedro y San Pablo ( 1786 ) Santa Margarita de Cortona ( 1787 ) San Antonio de Pala ( 1816 ) Santa Ysabel ( 1818 ) Estancias San Francisco Xavier ( Castaic ) ( 1804 ) San Bernardino de Sena ( 1819 ) Santa Ana ( 1820 ) Las Flores ( 1823 ) See also Architecture of the California missions Mission Revival Style architecture California mission clash of cultures Catholicism portal U.S. National Register of Historic Places Topics Architectural style categories Contributing property Historic district History of the National Register of Historic Places Keeper of the Register National Park Service Property types Lists by states Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Lists by insular areas American Samoa Guam Minor Outlying Islands Northern Mariana Islands Puerto Rico Virgin Islands Lists by associated states Federated States of Micronesia Marshall Islands Palau Other areas District of Columbia Morocco Portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Mission_San_Diego_de_Alcalá&oldid = 810422893 '' Categories : Spanish missions in California 1769 in Alta California Churches in San Diego County , California Museums in San Diego Religious museums in California Basilica churches in California California Historical Landmarks History of San Diego History of San Diego County , California Landmarks in San Diego Mission Valley , San Diego San Diego River National Historic Landmarks in California National Register of Historic Places in San Diego Roman Catholic churches on the National Register of Historic Places in California 1769 establishments in California Native American history of California San Antonio - San Diego Mail Line Stagecoach stops in the United States Roman Catholic churches in San Diego Hidden categories : Coordinates on Wikidata CS1 errors : dates CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Deutsch Español Français Nederlands Edit links This page was last edited on 15 November 2017 , at 04 : 09 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

6403980650685931350

who is the best olympic gymnast of all time

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=List_of_Olympic_female_gymnasts_for_the_United_States&oldid=833140051

List of Olympic female gymnasts for the United States - wikipedia List of Olympic female gymnasts for the United States Jump to : navigation , search Shannon Miller Gymnastics events have been staged at the Olympic Games since 1896 . American female gymnasts have participated in every Olympic Games since 1936 except for 1980 . A total of 83 female gymnasts have represented the United States . American women have won 48 medals at the Olympics -- 9 in team all - around , 8 in individual all - around , 4 in vault , 8 in uneven bars , 10 in balance beam , and 9 in floor exercise . The medals include 28 golds . The U.S. has medaled in the team all - around in every Summer Olympics since 1992 , winning golds in 1996 , 2012 , and 2016 . Seven American female gymnasts have won at least four medals at the Olympic Games : Shannon Miller ( seven ) , Aly Raisman ( six ) , Simone Biles ( five ) , Nastia Liukin ( five ) , Mary Lou Retton ( five ) , Dominique Dawes ( four ) , and Shawn Johnson ( four ) . In 1984 , Mary Lou Retton became the first American female gymnast to win the individual all - around gold medal at the Olympics . She won five total medals that year in the only Olympic Games she participated in . Shannon Miller , who competed at the 1992 and 1996 Olympics , won seven total Olympic medals , the most of any American female gymnast . She won five medals in 1992 and added two more in 1996 . Dominique Dawes competed at the 1992 , 1996 , and 2000 Olympics , winning four medals . Miller and Dawes were both members of the `` Magnificent Seven '' , the 1996 team that became the first American squad to win the team all - around gold medal at the Olympics . The competition was highlighted by Kerri Strug sticking a vault while injured to ensure the U.S. victory . Nastia Liukin and Shawn Johnson won five and four medals , respectively , in 2008 , the only Olympics that either one participated in . Liukin won the individual all - around gold medal , and Johnson won the balance beam gold medal . In 2012 , the U.S. won the team all - around for the second time . This team , which was nicknamed the `` Fierce Five '' , featured five gymnasts who were all making their first appearance at the Olympics . That year , Gabby Douglas won the gold medal in individual all - around , and Aly Raisman won the gold medal in floor exercise . In 2016 , the U.S. won the team all - around gold medal for the second consecutive Olympics , and the third title overall . The team referred to as `` The Final Five '' , featured the return of 2012 Olympic gold medalists Gabby Douglas and Aly Raisman . It also featured newcomers Laurie Hernandez , Madison Kocian , and the 3 - time reigning world all - around champion Simone Biles . Biles won the individual all - around , vault , and floor exercise gold medals , and also took bronze in the balance beam final . Raisman won silver medals in the all - around and floor exercise . Hernandez took the silver on the balance beam while Kocian , the reigning uneven bars world co-champion would win silver in that event . The 2016 games had been the most dominant games ever for team USA in women 's gymnastics , having won 4 golds , 4 silvers , and a bronze medal overall . Gymnasts ( edit ) Simone Biles Gabby Douglas Nastia Liukin McKayla Maroney Dominique Moceanu Carly Patterson Samantha Peszek Gymnast Years Gold Silver Bronze Total medals Age at Last Olympics Ref . Barone , Marian Marian Barone 1948 , 1952 0 0 28 Bhardwaj , Mohini Mohini Bhardwaj 0 0 25 Bileck , Pam Pam Bileck 1984 0 0 15 Biles , Simone Simone Biles 2016 0 5 19 Borden , Amanda Amanda Borden 0 0 19 Bruce , Wendy Wendy Bruce 1992 0 0 19 Casey , Colleen Colleen Casey ( 1 ) 1976 0 0 0 0 16 Chace , Kimberly Kimberly Chace ( 2 ) 1972 , 1976 0 0 0 0 20 Chow , Amy Amy Chow 1996 , 2000 22 Cluff , Wendy Wendy Cluff ( 3 ) 1968 0 0 0 0 17 Corrigan , Kathy Kathy Corrigan ( 4 ) 1964 0 0 0 0 19 Dorothy Dalton 1948 , 1952 0 0 30 Dantzscher , Jamie Jamie Dantzscher 2000 0 0 18 Dawes , Dominique Dominique Dawes 1992 , 1996 , 2000 0 23 Douglas , Gabby Gabby Douglas 2012 , 2016 0 0 20 Dusserre , Michelle Michelle Dusserre 1984 0 0 15 Elste - Neumann , Meta Meta Elste - Neumann 1948 , 1952 0 0 28 Englert , Carrie Carrie Englert 1976 0 0 0 0 18 Fuchs , Doris Doris Fuchs 1956 , 1960 0 0 0 0 22 Garrison , Kelly Kelly Garrison 1988 0 0 0 0 21 Gleason , Kathy Kathy Gleason ( 5 ) 1968 0 0 0 0 19 Grossfeld , Muriel Muriel Grossfeld 1956 , 1960 , 1964 0 0 0 0 23 Grulkowski , Ruth Ruth Grulkowski 1952 0 0 0 0 21 Hatch , Annia Annia Hatch 0 0 26 Hernandez , Laurie Laurie Hernandez 2016 0 16 Hoesly , Marie Marie Hoesly 1952 0 0 0 0 35 Howard , Kathy Kathy Howard 1976 0 0 0 0 18 Howe , Judy Judy Howe 1956 0 0 0 0 21 Humphrey , Terin Terin Humphrey 0 0 17 Johnson , Brandy Brandy Johnson 1988 0 0 0 0 15 Johnson , Kathy Kathy Johnson 1984 0 24 Johnson , Shawn Shawn Johnson 2008 0 16 Kirkman , Doris Doris Kirkman ( 6 ) 1952 0 0 0 0 22 Klein , Jacquelyn Jacquelyn Klein 1956 0 0 0 0 19 Kocian , Madison Madison Kocian 2016 0 19 Kupets , Courtney Courtney Kupets 0 18 Liukin , Nastia Nastia Liukin 2008 5 18 Maloney , Kristen Kristen Maloney 2000 0 0 19 Marlowe , Melissa Melissa Marlowe 1988 0 0 0 0 16 Maroney , McKayla McKayla Maroney 2012 0 16 Maycock , Betty - Jean Betty - Jean Maycock 1960 0 0 0 0 17 McClements , Dorothy Dorothy McClements 1964 0 0 0 0 19 McCool , Courtney Courtney McCool 0 0 16 McNamara , Julianne Julianne McNamara 1984 0 18 Memmel , Chellsie Chellsie Memmel 2008 0 0 20 Metheny , Linda Linda Metheny 1964 , 1968 , 1972 0 0 0 0 25 Miller , Shannon Shannon Miller 1992 , 1996 7 19 Mills , Phoebe Phoebe Mills 1988 0 0 15 Moceanu , Dominique Dominique Moceanu 0 0 14 Montefusco , Theresa Theresa Montefusco ( 7 ) 1960 0 0 0 0 19 Moore , Joan Joan Moore ( 8 ) 1972 0 0 0 0 18 Mulvihill , Colleen Colleen Mulvihill ( 9 ) 1968 0 0 0 0 16 Okino , Betty Betty Okino 1992 0 0 17 Patterson , Carly Carly Patterson 0 16 Peszek , Samantha Samantha Peszek 2008 0 0 16 Phelps , Jaycie Jaycie Phelps 0 0 16 Pierce , Roxanne Roxanne Pierce ( 10 ) 1972 0 0 0 0 17 Racek , Joyce Joyce Racek 1956 0 0 0 0 18 Raisman , Aly Aly Raisman 2012 , 2016 6 22 Ray , Elise Elise Ray 2000 0 0 18 Retton , Mary Lou Mary Lou Retton 1984 5 16 Richardson , Sharon Sharon Richardson ( 11 ) 1960 0 17 Rigby , Cathy Cathy Rigby 1968 , 1972 0 0 0 0 19 Ross , Kyla Kyla Ross 2012 0 0 15 Ruddick , Sandra Sandra Ruddick 1956 0 0 0 0 24 Sacramone , Alicia Alicia Sacramone 2008 0 0 20 Schroth , Clara Clara Schroth 1948 , 1952 0 0 21 Schwikert , Tasha Tasha Schwikert 2000 0 0 15 Sloan , Bridget Bridget Sloan 2008 0 0 16 Sontgerath , Gail Gail Sontgerath ( 12 ) 1960 0 0 0 0 16 Speaks , Janie Janie Speaks ( 13 ) 1964 0 0 0 0 16 Spivey , Hope Hope Spivey 1988 0 0 0 0 17 Stack , Chelle Chelle Stack 1988 0 0 0 0 15 Strug , Kerri Kerri Strug 1992 , 1996 0 18 Talavera , Tracee Tracee Talavera 1984 0 0 17 Tanac , Joyce Joyce Tanac ( 14 ) 1968 0 0 0 0 18 Thies , Nancy Nancy Thies ( 15 ) 1972 0 0 0 0 15 Topalian , Ruth Ruth Topalian ( 16 ) 1952 0 0 0 0 25 Walther , Marie Marie Walther 1964 0 0 0 0 19 Wieber , Jordyn Jordyn Wieber 2012 0 0 17 Willcox , Debra Debra Willcox ( 17 ) 1976 0 0 0 0 16 Wolfsberger , Leslie Leslie Wolfsberger ( 18 ) 1976 0 0 0 0 17 Zmeskal , Kim Kim Zmeskal 1992 0 0 16 See also ( edit ) Gymnastics portal Olympics portal United States portal References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Gutman , Dan ( 1996 ) . Gymnastics . Puffin Books . p. 8 . ^ Jump up to : `` United States Gymnastics Women 's Team All - Around Results '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` United States Gymnastics '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Shannon Miller '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Nastia Liukin '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Mary Lou Retton '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Dominique Dawes '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Shawn Johnson '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Mary Lou Retton '' . ighof.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Weinberg , Rick . `` 51 : Kerri Strug fights off pain , helps U.S. win gold '' Archived 2008 - 06 - 29 at the Wayback Machine ... sports.espn.go.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Jenkins , Sally . `` U.S. women are simply flawless en route to dominant Olympic gold in team competition '' . washingtonpost.com . July 31 , 2012 . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Gabby Douglas '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Aly Raisman '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Marian Barone '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Mohini Bhardwaj '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Pam Bileck '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Amanda Borden '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Wendy Bruce '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Colleen Casey '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Kimberly Chace '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Amy Chow '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Wendy Cluff '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Kathy Corrigan '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Dorothy Dalton '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Jamie Dantzscher '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Michelle Dusserre '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Meta Elste '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Carrie Englert '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Doris Fuchs '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Kelly Garrison - Steves '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Kathy Gleason '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Muriel Davis - Grossfeld '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Ruth Grulkowski '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Annia Hatch '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Marie Hoesly '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Kathy Howard '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Judy Howe '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Terin Humphrey '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Brandy Johnson '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Kathy Johnson '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Doris Kirkman '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Jacquelyn Klein '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Courtney Kupets '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Kristen Maloney '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Melissa Marlowe '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` McKayla Maroney '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Betty Jean Maycock '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Dale McClements '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Courtney McCool '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Julianne McNamara '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Chellsie Memmel '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Linda Metheny '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Phoebe Mills '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Dominique Moceanu '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Theresa Montefusco '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Joan Moore '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Colleen Mulvihill '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Betty Okino '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Carly Patterson '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Samantha Peszek '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Jaycie Phelps '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Roxanne Pierce '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Joyce Racek '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Elise Ray '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Sharon Richardson '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Cathy Rigby '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Kyla Ross '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Sandra Ruddick '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Alicia Sacramone '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Clara Schroth - Lomady '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Tasha Schwikert - Warren '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Bridget Sloan '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Gail Sontgerath '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Janie Speaks '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Hope Spivey '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Chelle Stack '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Kerri Strug '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Tracee Talavera '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Joyce Tanac '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Nancy Thies '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Ruth Topalian '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Marie Walther '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Jordyn Wieber '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Debra Willcox '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Leslie Wolfsberger '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Kim Zmeskal '' . sports-reference.com . Retrieved July 13 , 2013 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Olympic_female_gymnasts_for_the_United_States&oldid=833140051 '' Categories : Olympic gymnasts of the United States Lists of American sportswomen Lists of Olympic female gymnasts Lists of Olympic competitors for the United States Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Articles with hCards Talk About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 29 March 2018 , at 21 : 37 . About Wikipedia

82049709330756774

when did 10 digit dialing start in colorado

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Area_codes_303_and_720&oldid=838036452

Area codes 303 and 720 - wikipedia Area codes 303 and 720 Jump to : navigation , search Clickable map of Colorado area codes in blue ( with border states ) . Area codes 303 and 720 are telephone area codes serving the north - central portion of the state of Colorado . They cover Denver , Lakewood , Littleton , Boulder , Longmont , Aurora , Castle Rock and most of the Front Range . Area code 303 is the original area code , while area code 720 is an overlay , meaning that the same physical service area is served by both area codes ( 303 and 720 ) and that ten - digit dialing is required for all calls made within the service area . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Local calling 3 See also 4 References 5 External links History ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( October 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Area code 303 was one of the original area codes put into service in 1947 , and originally covered the entire state of Colorado . Despite Colorado 's dramatic growth during the second half of the 20th century ( especially in the Denver area ) , it remained the sole area code in Colorado for over 40 years . By the late 1980s , an impending number shortage made a split necessary . On March 5 , 1988 , southeastern Colorado , including Colorado Springs and Pueblo , became area code 719 . The northeastern and western portions of area code 303 , including Fort Collins , Grand Junction , Vail and Aspen , switched to area code 970 on April 2 , 1995 , reducing 303 to cover Denver and the Front Range . With the 1995 split , 303 is the only Colorado area code that does not border another state . The 1995 split was intended as a long - term solution . However , within two years 303 was close to exhaustion once again . The Front Range is home not only to most of Colorado 's landlines , but also most of the state 's cell phones , fax machines and pagers . To solve this problem , 720 was activated as an overlay on June 1 , 1998 . Local calling ( edit ) With the exception of the Roggen area ( which has local calling only with itself ) , Brighton , and Wiggins , the entire 303 / 720 area is a local calling zone , one of the largest in the western United States , meaning no long - distance charges are applied to any calls made from one phone to another within the area . With the exception of Roggen , all users in the 303 / 720 area code must dial all ten digits to reach a destination phone , even if that phone is next door . Some users in the area abbreviate the two area codes to a single digit with a slash for easy notation . So 303 - 555 - 1212 is written as 3 / 555 - 1212 and 720 - 555 - 1212 becomes 7 / 555 - 1212 . See also ( edit ) List of Colorado area codes References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Area Codes Map , Colorado '' . NANPA . Retrieved 2018 - 04 - 24 . Jump up ^ `` Local Calling Guide '' . Retrieved September 30 , 2012 . External links ( edit ) Localcallingguide.com NPA 303 Localcallingguide.com NPA 720 Colorado area codes : 303 / 720 , 719 , 970 North : 970 West : 970 Area code 303 / 720 East : 719 South : 719 Coordinates : 40 ° N 105 ° W  /  40 ° N 105 ° W  / 40 ; - 105 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Area_codes_303_and_720&oldid=838036452 '' Categories : Telecommunications - related introductions in 1947 Telecommunications - related introductions in 1998 Area codes in Colorado Area codes in the United States Boulder , Colorado Denver metropolitan area Hidden categories : Use mdy dates from September 2013 Articles needing additional references from October 2017 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2018 Coordinates on Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Français Edit links This page was last edited on 24 April 2018 , at 15 : 01 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

6822526278087230475

where can the legal scope of practice be found

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Law&oldid=820921294

Law - wikipedia Law Jump to : navigation , search This article is about a system . For the social science or theory of law , see Jurisprudence . For a document passed by legislature , see statutory law . For other uses , see Law ( disambiguation ) . `` Legal '' and `` Legal concept '' redirect here . For other uses , see Legal ( disambiguation ) . Lady Justice , a goddess symbolising justice who bears a sword -- symbolising the coercive power of a tribunal -- , scales -- representing an objective standard by which competing claims are weighed -- and a blindfold indicating that justice should be impartial and meted out objectively , without fear or favor and regardless of money , wealth , power or identity . Law is a system of rules that are created and enforced through social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior . Law is a system that regulates and ensures that individuals or a community adhere to the will of the state . State - enforced laws can be made by a collective legislature or by a single legislator , resulting in statutes , by the executive through decrees and regulations , or established by judges through precedent , normally in common law jurisdictions . Private individuals can create legally binding contracts , including arbitration agreements that may elect to accept alternative arbitration to the normal court process . The formation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitution , written or tacit , and the rights encoded therein . The law shapes politics , economics , history and society in various ways and serves as a mediator of relations between people . A general distinction can be made between ( a ) civil law jurisdictions , in which a legislature or other central body codifies and consolidates their laws , and ( b ) common law systems , where judge - made precedent is accepted as binding law . Historically , religious laws played a significant role even in settling of secular matters , and is still used in some religious communities . Islamic Sharia law is the world 's most widely used religious law , and is used as the primary legal system in some countries , such as Iran and Saudi Arabia . The adjudication of the law is generally divided into two main areas . Criminal law deals with conduct that is considered harmful to social order and in which the guilty party may be imprisoned or fined . Civil law ( not to be confused with civil law jurisdictions above ) deals with the resolution of lawsuits ( disputes ) between individuals or organizations . Law provides a source of scholarly inquiry into legal history , philosophy , economic analysis and sociology . Law also raises important and complex issues concerning equality , fairness , and justice . Contents ( hide ) 1 Definition 1.1 Mainstream definitions 1.2 Whether it is possible or desirable to define law 2 History 3 Legal theory 3.1 Philosophy 3.2 Positive law and non-positive law discussions 3.3 Economic analysis 3.4 Sociology 4 Legal systems 4.1 Civil law 4.2 Common law and equity 4.3 Religious law 4.3. 1 Sharia law 5 Legal institutions 5.1 Judiciary 5.2 Legislature 5.3 Executive 5.4 Military and police 5.5 Bureaucracy 5.6 Legal profession 5.7 Civil society 6 Legal subjects 6.1 International law 6.2 Constitutional and administrative law 6.3 Criminal law 6.4 Contract law 6.5 Tort law 6.6 Property law 6.7 Equity and trusts 6.8 Further disciplines 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 External links Definition Main articles : Definition of law and Analytical jurisprudence Mainstream definitions Numerous definitions of law have been put forward over the centuries . The Third New International Dictionary from Merriam - Webster defines law as : `` Law is a binding custom or practice of a community ; a rule or mode of conduct or action that is prescribed or formally recognized as binding by a supreme controlling authority or is made obligatory by a sanction ( as an edict , decree , rescript , order , ordinance , statute , resolution , rule , judicial decision , or usage ) made , recognized , or enforced by the controlling authority . '' The Dictionary of the History of Ideas published by Scribner 's in 1973 defined the concept of law accordingly as : `` A legal system is the most explicit , institutionalized , and complex mode of regulating human conduct . At the same time , it plays only one part in the congeries of rules which influence behavior , for social and moral rules of a less institutionalized kind are also of great importance . '' Whether it is possible or desirable to define law There have been several attempts to produce `` a universally acceptable definition of law '' . In 1972 , one source indicated that no such definition could be produced . McCoubrey and White said that the question `` what is law ? '' has no simple answer . Glanville Williams said that the meaning of the word `` law '' depends on the context in which that word is used . He said that , for example , `` early customary law '' and `` municipal law '' were contexts where the word `` law '' had two different and irreconcilable meanings . Thurman Arnold said that it is obvious that it is impossible to define the word `` law '' and that it is also equally obvious that the struggle to define that word should not ever be abandoned . It is possible to take the view that there is no need to define the word `` law '' ( e.g. `` let 's forget about generalities and get down to cases '' ) . History Main article : Legal history King Hammurabi is revealed the code of laws by the Mesopotamian sun god Shamash , also revered as the god of justice . The history of law links closely to the development of civilization . Ancient Egyptian law , dating as far back as 3000 BC , contained a civil code that was probably broken into twelve books . It was based on the concept of Ma'at , characterised by tradition , rhetorical speech , social equality and impartiality . By the 22nd century BC , the ancient Sumerian ruler Ur - Nammu had formulated the first law code , which consisted of casuistic statements ( `` if ... then ... '' ) . Around 1760 BC , King Hammurabi further developed Babylonian law , by codifying and inscribing it in stone . Hammurabi placed several copies of his law code throughout the kingdom of Babylon as stelae , for the entire public to see ; this became known as the Codex Hammurabi . The most intact copy of these stelae was discovered in the 19th century by British Assyriologists , and has since been fully transliterated and translated into various languages , including English , Italian , German , and French . The Old Testament dates back to 1280 BC and takes the form of moral imperatives as recommendations for a good society . The small Greek city - state , ancient Athens , from about the 8th century BC was the first society to be based on broad inclusion of its citizenry , excluding women and the slave class . However , Athens had no legal science or single word for `` law '' , relying instead on the three - way distinction between divine law ( thémis ) , human decree ( nomos ) and custom ( díkē ) . Yet Ancient Greek law contained major constitutional innovations in the development of democracy . Roman law was heavily influenced by Greek philosophy , but its detailed rules were developed by professional jurists and were highly sophisticated . Over the centuries between the rise and decline of the Roman Empire , law was adapted to cope with the changing social situations and underwent major codification under Theodosius II and Justinian I . Although codes were replaced by custom and case law during the Dark Ages , Roman law was rediscovered around the 11th century when medieval legal scholars began to research Roman codes and adapt their concepts . Latin legal maxims ( called brocards ) were compiled for guidance . In medieval England , royal courts developed a body of precedent which later became the common law . A Europe - wide Law Merchant was formed so that merchants could trade with common standards of practice rather than with the many splintered facets of local laws . The Law Merchant , a precursor to modern commercial law , emphasised the freedom to contract and alienability of property . As nationalism grew in the 18th and 19th centuries , the Law Merchant was incorporated into countries ' local law under new civil codes . The Napoleonic and German Codes became the most influential . In contrast to English common law , which consists of enormous tomes of case law , codes in small books are easy to export and easy for judges to apply . However , today there are signs that civil and common law are converging . EU law is codified in treaties , but develops through the precedent laid down by the European Court of Justice . The Constitution of India is the longest written constitution for a country , containing 444 articles , 12 schedules , numerous amendments and 117,369 words . Ancient India and China represent distinct traditions of law , and have historically had independent schools of legal theory and practice . The Arthashastra , probably compiled around 100 AD ( although it contains older material ) , and the Manusmriti ( c. 100 -- 300 AD ) were foundational treatises in India , and comprise texts considered authoritative legal guidance . Manu 's central philosophy was tolerance and pluralism , and was cited across Southeast Asia . This Hindu tradition , along with Islamic law , was supplanted by the common law when India became part of the British Empire . Malaysia , Brunei , Singapore and Hong Kong also adopted the common law . The eastern Asia legal tradition reflects a unique blend of secular and religious influences . Japan was the first country to begin modernising its legal system along western lines , by importing bits of the French , but mostly the German Civil Code . This partly reflected Germany 's status as a rising power in the late 19th century . Similarly , traditional Chinese law gave way to westernisation towards the final years of the Qing Dynasty in the form of six private law codes based mainly on the Japanese model of German law . Today Taiwanese law retains the closest affinity to the codifications from that period , because of the split between Chiang Kai - shek 's nationalists , who fled there , and Mao Zedong 's communists who won control of the mainland in 1949 . The current legal infrastructure in the People 's Republic of China was heavily influenced by Soviet Socialist law , which essentially inflates administrative law at the expense of private law rights . Due to rapid industrialisation , today China is undergoing a process of reform , at least in terms of economic , if not social and political , rights . A new contract code in 1999 represented a move away from administrative domination . Furthermore , after negotiations lasting fifteen years , in 2001 China joined the World Trade Organisation . Legal theory Main article : Jurisprudence Philosophy Main article : Philosophy of law `` But what , after all , is a law ? ( ... ) When I say that the object of laws is always general , I mean that law considers subjects en masse and actions in the abstract , and never a particular person or action . ( ... ) On this view , we at once see that it can no longer be asked whose business it is to make laws , since they are acts of the general will ; nor whether the prince is above the law , since he is a member of the State ; nor whether the law can be unjust , since no one is unjust to himself ; nor how we can be both free and subject to the laws , since they are but registers of our wills . '' Jean - Jacques Rousseau , The Social Contract , II , 6 . The philosophy of law is commonly known as jurisprudence . Normative jurisprudence asks `` what should law be ? '' , while analytic jurisprudence asks `` what is law ? '' John Austin 's utilitarian answer was that law is `` commands , backed by threat of sanctions , from a sovereign , to whom people have a habit of obedience '' . Natural lawyers on the other side , such as Jean - Jacques Rousseau , argue that law reflects essentially moral and unchangeable laws of nature . The concept of `` natural law '' emerged in ancient Greek philosophy concurrently and in connection with the notion of justice , and re-entered the mainstream of Western culture through the writings of Thomas Aquinas , notably his Treatise on Law . Hugo Grotius , the founder of a purely rationalistic system of natural law , argued that law arises from both a social impulse -- as Aristotle had indicated -- and reason . Immanuel Kant believed a moral imperative requires laws `` be chosen as though they should hold as universal laws of nature '' . Jeremy Bentham and his student Austin , following David Hume , believed that this conflated the `` is '' and what `` ought to be '' problem . Bentham and Austin argued for law 's positivism ; that real law is entirely separate from `` morality '' . Kant was also criticised by Friedrich Nietzsche , who rejected the principle of equality , and believed that law emanates from the will to power , and can not be labelled as `` moral '' or `` immoral '' . In 1934 , the Austrian philosopher Hans Kelsen continued the positivist tradition in his book the Pure Theory of Law . Kelsen believed that although law is separate from morality , it is endowed with `` normativity '' , meaning we ought to obey it . While laws are positive `` is '' statements ( e.g. the fine for reversing on a highway is € 500 ) ; law tells us what we `` should '' do . Thus , each legal system can be hypothesised to have a basic norm ( Grundnorm ) instructing us to obey . Kelsen 's major opponent , Carl Schmitt , rejected both positivism and the idea of the rule of law because he did not accept the primacy of abstract normative principles over concrete political positions and decisions . Therefore , Schmitt advocated a jurisprudence of the exception ( state of emergency ) , which denied that legal norms could encompass all of political experience . Bentham 's utilitarian theories remained dominant in law until the 20th century . Later in the 20th century , H.L.A. Hart attacked Austin for his simplifications and Kelsen for his fictions in The Concept of Law . Hart argued law is a system of rules , divided into primary ( rules of conduct ) and secondary ones ( rules addressed to officials to administer primary rules ) . Secondary rules are further divided into rules of adjudication ( to resolve legal disputes ) , rules of change ( allowing laws to be varied ) and the rule of recognition ( allowing laws to be identified as valid ) . Two of Hart 's students continued the debate : In his book Law 's Empire , Ronald Dworkin attacked Hart and the positivists for their refusal to treat law as a moral issue . Dworkin argues that law is an `` interpretive concept '' , that requires judges to find the best fitting and most just solution to a legal dispute , given their constitutional traditions . Joseph Raz , on the other hand , defended the positivist outlook and criticised Hart 's `` soft social thesis '' approach in The Authority of Law . Raz argues that law is authority , identifiable purely through social sources and without reference to moral reasoning . In his view , any categorisation of rules beyond their role as authoritative instruments in mediation are best left to sociology , rather than jurisprudence . Positive law and non-positive law discussions One definition is that law is a system of rules and guidelines which are enforced through social institutions to govern behaviour . In The Concept of Law Hart argued law is a `` system of rules '' ; Austin said law was `` the command of a sovereign , backed by the threat of a sanction '' ; Dworkin describes law as an `` interpretive concept '' to achieve justice in his text titled Law 's Empire ; and Raz argues law is an `` authority '' to mediate people 's interests . Holmes said `` The prophecies of what the courts will do in fact , and nothing more pretentious , are what I mean by the law . '' In his Treatise on Law Aquinas argues that law is a rational ordering of things which concern the common good that is promulgated by whoever is charged with the care of the community . This definition has both positivist and naturalist elements . Economic analysis Main article : Law and economics In the 18th century Adam Smith presented a philosophical foundation for explaining the relationship between law and economics . The discipline arose partly out of a critique of trade unions and U.S. antitrust law . The most influential proponents , such as Richard Posner and Oliver Williamson and the so - called Chicago School of economists and lawyers including Milton Friedman and Gary Becker , are generally advocates of deregulation and privatisation , and are hostile to state regulation or what they see as restrictions on the operation of free markets . Richard Posner , one of the Chicago School , runs a blog with Bank of Sweden Prize winning economist Gary Becker . The most prominent economic analyst of law is 1991 Nobel Prize winner Ronald Coase , whose first major article , The Nature of the Firm ( 1937 ) , argued that the reason for the existence of firms ( companies , partnerships , etc . ) is the existence of transaction costs . Rational individuals trade through bilateral contracts on open markets until the costs of transactions mean that using corporations to produce things is more cost - effective . His second major article , The Problem of Social Cost ( 1960 ) , argued that if we lived in a world without transaction costs , people would bargain with one another to create the same allocation of resources , regardless of the way a court might rule in property disputes . Coase used the example of a nuisance case named Sturges v Bridgman , where a noisy sweetmaker and a quiet doctor were neighbours and went to court to see who should have to move . Coase said that regardless of whether the judge ruled that the sweetmaker had to stop using his machinery , or that the doctor had to put up with it , they could strike a mutually beneficial bargain about who moves that reaches the same outcome of resource distribution . Only the existence of transaction costs may prevent this . So the law ought to pre-empt what would happen , and be guided by the most efficient solution . The idea is that law and regulation are not as important or effective at helping people as lawyers and government planners believe . Coase and others like him wanted a change of approach , to put the burden of proof for positive effects on a government that was intervening in the market , by analysing the costs of action . Sociology Main article : Sociology of law Sociology of law is a diverse field of study that examines the interaction of law with society and overlaps with jurisprudence , philosophy of law , social theory and more specialised subjects such as criminology . The institutions of social construction , social norms , dispute processing and legal culture are key areas for inquiry in this knowledge field . Sociology of law is sometimes seen as a sub-discipline of sociology , but its ties to the academic discipline of law are equally strong , and it is best seen as a transdisciplinary and multidisciplinary study focused on the theorisation and empirical study of legal practices and experiences as social phenomena . In the United States the field is usually called law and society studies ; in Europe it is more often referred to as socio - legal studies . At first , jurists and legal philosophers were suspicious of sociology of law . Kelsen attacked one of its founders , Eugen Ehrlich , who sought to make clear the differences and connections between positive law , which lawyers learn and apply , and other forms of ' law ' or social norms that regulate everyday life , generally preventing conflicts from reaching barristers and courts . Contemporary research in sociology of law is much concerned with the way that law is developing outside discrete state jurisdictions , being produced through social interaction in many different kinds of social arenas , and acquiring a diversity of sources of ( often competing or conflicting ) authority in communal networks existing sometimes within nation states but increasingly also transnationally . Max Weber in 1917 , Weber began his career as a lawyer , and is regarded as one of the founders of sociology and sociology of law . Around 1900 Max Weber defined his `` scientific '' approach to law , identifying the `` legal rational form '' as a type of domination , not attributable to personal authority but to the authority of abstract norms . Formal legal rationality was his term for the key characteristic of the kind of coherent and calculable law that was a precondition for modern political developments and the modern bureaucratic state . Weber saw this law as having developed in parallel with the growth of capitalism . Another leading sociologist , Émile Durkheim , wrote in his classic work The Division of Labour in Society that as society becomes more complex , the body of civil law concerned primarily with restitution and compensation grows at the expense of criminal laws and penal sanctions . Other notable early legal sociologists included Hugo Sinzheimer , Theodor Geiger , Georges Gurvitch and Leon Petrażycki in Europe , and William Graham Sumner in the U.S. Legal systems Main article : List of national legal systems In general , legal systems can be split between civil law and common law systems . The term `` civil law '' referring to a legal system should not be confused with `` civil law '' as a group of legal subjects distinct from criminal or public law . A third type of legal system -- accepted by some countries without separation of church and state -- is religious law , based on scriptures . The specific system that a country is ruled by is often determined by its history , connections with other countries , or its adherence to international standards . The sources that jurisdictions adopt as authoritatively binding are the defining features of any legal system . Yet classification is a matter of form rather than substance , since similar rules often prevail . Civil law Main article : Civil law ( legal system ) First page of the 1804 edition of the Napoleonic Code . Civil law is the legal system used in most countries around the world today . In civil law the sources recognised as authoritative are , primarily , legislation -- especially codifications in constitutions or statutes passed by government -- and custom . Codifications date back millennia , with one early example being the Babylonian Codex Hammurabi . Modern civil law systems essentially derive from the legal practice of the 6th - century Eastern Roman Empire whose texts were rediscovered by late medieval Western Europe . Roman law in the days of the Roman Republic and Empire was heavily procedural , and lacked a professional legal class . Instead a lay magistrate , iudex , was chosen to adjudicate . Decisions were not published in any systematic way , so any case law that developed was disguised and almost unrecognised . Each case was to be decided afresh from the laws of the State , which mirrors the ( theoretical ) unimportance of judges ' decisions for future cases in civil law systems today . From 529 -- 534 AD the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I codified and consolidated Roman law up until that point , so that what remained was one - twentieth of the mass of legal texts from before . This became known as the Corpus Juris Civilis . As one legal historian wrote , `` Justinian consciously looked back to the golden age of Roman law and aimed to restore it to the peak it had reached three centuries before . '' The Justinian Code remained in force in the East until the fall of the Byzantine Empire . Western Europe , meanwhile , relied on a mix of the Theodosian Code and Germanic customary law until the Justinian Code was rediscovered in the 11th century , and scholars at the University of Bologna used it to interpret their own laws . Civil law codifications based closely on Roman law , alongside some influences from religious laws such as canon law , continued to spread throughout Europe until the Enlightenment ; then , in the 19th century , both France , with the Code Civil , and Germany , with the Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch , modernised their legal codes . Both these codes influenced heavily not only the law systems of the countries in continental Europe ( e.g. Greece ) , but also the Japanese and Korean legal traditions . Today , countries that have civil law systems range from Russia and China to most of Central and Latin America . With the exception of Louisiana 's Civil Code , the United States follows the common law system described below . Common law and equity Main article : Common law King John of England signs Magna Carta In common law legal systems , decisions by courts are explicitly acknowledged as `` law '' on equal footing with statutes adopted through the legislative process and with regulations issued by the executive branch . The `` doctrine of precedent '' , or stare decisis ( Latin for `` to stand by decisions '' ) means that decisions by higher courts bind lower courts , and future decisions of the same court , to assure that similar cases reach similar results . In contrast , in `` civil law '' systems , legislative statutes are typically more detailed , and judicial decisions are shorter and less detailed , because the judge or barrister is only writing to decide the single case , rather than to set out reasoning that will guide future courts . Common law originated from England and has been inherited by almost every country once tied to the British Empire ( except Malta , Scotland , the U.S. state of Louisiana , and the Canadian province of Quebec ) . In medieval England , the Norman conquest the law varied - shire - to - shire , based on disparate tribal customs . The concept of a `` common law '' developed during the reign of Henry II during the late 12th century , when Henry appointed judges that had authority to create an institutionalized and unified system of law `` common '' to the country . The next major step in the evolution of the common law came when King John was forced by his barons to sign a document limiting his authority to pass laws . This `` great charter '' or Magna Carta of 1215 also required that the King 's entourage of judges hold their courts and judgments at `` a certain place '' rather than dispensing autocratic justice in unpredictable places about the country . A concentrated and elite group of judges acquired a dominant role in law - making under this system , and compared to its European counterparts the English judiciary became highly centralized . In 1297 , for instance , while the highest court in France had fifty - one judges , the English Court of Common Pleas had five . This powerful and tight - knit judiciary gave rise to a systematized process of developing common law . However , the system became overly systematized -- overly rigid and inflexible . As a result , as time went on , increasing numbers of citizens petitioned the King to override the common law , and on the King 's behalf the Lord Chancellor gave judgment to do what was equitable in a case . From the time of Sir Thomas More , the first lawyer to be appointed as Lord Chancellor , a systematic body of equity grew up alongside the rigid common law , and developed its own Court of Chancery . At first , equity was often criticized as erratic , that it varied according to the length of the Chancellor 's foot . Over time , courts of equity developed solid principles , especially under Lord Eldon . In the 19th century in England , and in 1937 in the U.S. , the two systems were merged . In developing the common law , academic writings have always played an important part , both to collect overarching principles from dispersed case law , and to argue for change . William Blackstone , from around 1760 , was the first scholar to collect , describe , and teach the common law . But merely in describing , scholars who sought explanations and underlying structures slowly changed the way the law actually worked . Religious law Main article : Religious law Religious law is explicitly based on religious precepts . Examples include the Jewish Halakha and Islamic Sharia -- both of which translate as the `` path to follow '' -- while Christian canon law also survives in some church communities . Often the implication of religion for law is unalterability , because the word of God can not be amended or legislated against by judges or governments . However a thorough and detailed legal system generally requires human elaboration . For instance , the Quran has some law , and it acts as a source of further law through interpretation , Qiyas ( reasoning by analogy ) , Ijma ( consensus ) and precedent . This is mainly contained in a body of law and jurisprudence known as Sharia and Fiqh respectively . Another example is the Torah or Old Testament , in the Pentateuch or Five Books of Moses . This contains the basic code of Jewish law , which some Israeli communities choose to use . The Halakha is a code of Jewish law which summarises some of the Talmud 's interpretations . Nevertheless , Israeli law allows litigants to use religious laws only if they choose . Canon law is only in use by members of the Catholic Church , the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Anglican Communion . A trial in the Ottoman Empire , 1879 , when religious law applied under the Mecelle Sharia law Main article : Sharia Until the 18th century , Sharia law was practiced throughout the Muslim world in a non-codified form , with the Ottoman Empire 's Mecelle code in the 19th century being a first attempt at codifying elements of Sharia law . Since the mid-1940s , efforts have been made , in country after country , to bring Sharia law more into line with modern conditions and conceptions . In modern times , the legal systems of many Muslim countries draw upon both civil and common law traditions as well as Islamic law and custom . The constitutions of certain Muslim states , such as Egypt and Afghanistan , recognise Islam as the religion of the state , obliging legislature to adhere to Sharia . Saudi Arabia recognises Quran as its constitution , and is governed on the basis of Islamic law . Iran has also witnessed a reiteration of Islamic law into its legal system after 1979 . During the last few decades , one of the fundamental features of the movement of Islamic resurgence has been the call to restore the Sharia , which has generated a vast amount of literature and affected world politics . Legal institutions It is a real unity of them all in one and the same person , made by covenant of every man with every man , in such manner as if every man should say to every man : I authorise and give up my right of governing myself to this man , or to this assembly of men , on this condition ; that thou givest up , thy right to him , and authorise all his actions in like manner . Thomas Hobbes , Leviathan , XVII The main institutions of law in industrialised countries are independent courts , representative parliaments , an accountable executive , the military and police , bureaucratic organisation , the legal profession and civil society itself . John Locke , in his Two Treatises of Government , and Baron de Montesquieu in The Spirit of the Laws , advocated for a separation of powers between the political , legislature and executive bodies . Their principle was that no person should be able to usurp all powers of the state , in contrast to the absolutist theory of Thomas Hobbes ' Leviathan . Max Weber and others reshaped thinking on the extension of state . Modern military , policing and bureaucratic power over ordinary citizens ' daily lives pose special problems for accountability that earlier writers such as Locke or Montesquieu could not have foreseen . The custom and practice of the legal profession is an important part of people 's access to justice , whilst civil society is a term used to refer to the social institutions , communities and partnerships that form law 's political basis . Judiciary Main article : Judiciary A judiciary is a number of judges mediating disputes to determine outcome . Most countries have systems of appeal courts , answering up to a supreme legal authority . In the United States , this authority is the Supreme Court ; in Australia , the High Court ; in the UK , the Supreme Court ; in Germany , the Bundesverfassungsgericht ; and in France , the Cour de Cassation . For most European countries the European Court of Justice in Luxembourg can overrule national law , when EU law is relevant . The European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg allows citizens of the Council of Europe member states to bring cases relating to human rights issues before it . The judges of the International Court of Justice in the Hague Some countries allow their highest judicial authority to overrule legislation they determine to be unconstitutional . For example , in Brown v. Board of Education , the United States Supreme Court nullified many state statutes that had established racially segregated schools , finding such statutes to be incompatible with the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution . A judiciary is theoretically bound by the constitution , just as all other government bodies are . In most countries judges may only interpret the constitution and all other laws . But in common law countries , where matters are not constitutional , the judiciary may also create law under the doctrine of precedent . The UK , Finland and New Zealand assert the ideal of parliamentary sovereignty , whereby the unelected judiciary may not overturn law passed by a democratic legislature . In communist states , such as China , the courts are often regarded as parts of the executive , or subservient to the legislature ; governmental institutions and actors exert thus various forms of influence on the judiciary . In Muslim countries , courts often examine whether state laws adhere to the Sharia : the Supreme Constitutional Court of Egypt may invalidate such laws , and in Iran the Guardian Council ensures the compatibility of the legislation with the `` criteria of Islam '' . Legislature Main article : Legislature The debating chamber of the European Parliament Prominent examples of legislatures are the Houses of Parliament in London , the Congress in Washington D.C. , the Bundestag in Berlin , the Duma in Moscow , the Parlamento Italiano in Rome and the Assemblée nationale in Paris . By the principle of representative government people vote for politicians to carry out their wishes . Although countries like Israel , Greece , Sweden and China are unicameral , most countries are bicameral , meaning they have two separately appointed legislative houses . In the ' lower house ' politicians are elected to represent smaller constituencies . The ' upper house ' is usually elected to represent states in a federal system ( as in Australia , Germany or the United States ) or different voting configuration in a unitary system ( as in France ) . In the UK the upper house is appointed by the government as a house of review . One criticism of bicameral systems with two elected chambers is that the upper and lower houses may simply mirror one another . The traditional justification of bicameralism is that an upper chamber acts as a house of review . This can minimise arbitrariness and injustice in governmental action . To pass legislation , a majority of the members of a legislature must vote for a bill ( proposed law ) in each house . Normally there will be several readings and amendments proposed by the different political factions . If a country has an entrenched constitution , a special majority for changes to the constitution may be required , making changes to the law more difficult . A government usually leads the process , which can be formed from Members of Parliament ( e.g. the UK or Germany ) . However , in a presidential system , the government is usually formed by an executive and his or her appointed cabinet officials ( e.g. the United States or Brazil ) . Executive Main article : Executive ( government ) The G20 meetings are composed of representatives of each country 's executive branch . The executive in a legal system serves as the centre of political authority of the State . In a parliamentary system , as with Britain , Italy , Germany , India , and Japan , the executive is known as the cabinet , and composed of members of the legislature . The executive is led by the head of government , whose office holds power under the confidence of the legislature . Because popular elections appoint political parties to govern , the leader of a party can change in between elections . The head of state is apart from the executive , and symbolically enacts laws and acts as representative of the nation . Examples include the President of Germany ( appointed by members of federal and state legislatures ) , the Queen of the United Kingdom ( an hereditary office ) , and the President of Austria ( elected by popular vote ) . The other important model is the presidential system , found in the United States and in Brazil . In presidential systems , the executive acts as both head of state and head of government , and has power to appoint an unelected cabinet . Under a presidential system , the executive branch is separate from the legislature to which it is not accountable . Although the role of the executive varies from country to country , usually it will propose the majority of legislation , and propose government agenda . In presidential systems , the executive often has the power to veto legislation . Most executives in both systems are responsible for foreign relations , the military and police , and the bureaucracy . Ministers or other officials head a country 's public offices , such as a foreign ministry or defence ministry . The election of a different executive is therefore capable of revolutionising an entire country 's approach to government . Military and police Main articles : Military and Police U.S. Customs and Border Protection officers While military organisations have existed as long as government itself , the idea of a standing police force is a relatively modern concept . For example , Medieval England 's system of traveling criminal courts , or assizes , used show trials and public executions to instill communities with fear to maintain control . The first modern police were probably those in 17th - century Paris , in the court of Louis XIV , although the Paris Prefecture of Police claim they were the world 's first uniformed policemen . Max Weber famously argued that the state is that which controls the monopoly on the legitimate use of force . The military and police carry out enforcement at the request of the government or the courts . The term failed state refers to states that can not implement or enforce policies ; their police and military no longer control security and order and society moves into anarchy , the absence of government . Bureaucracy Main article : Bureaucracy The United Nations ' New York headquarters houses civil servants that serve its 193 member states . The etymology of `` bureaucracy '' derives from the French word for `` office '' ( bureau ) and the Ancient Greek for word `` power '' ( kratos ) . Like the military and police , a legal system 's government servants and bodies that make up its bureaucracy carry out the directives of the executive . One of the earliest references to the concept was made by Baron de Grimm , a German author who lived in France . In 1765 he wrote , The real spirit of the laws in France is that bureaucracy of which the late Monsieur de Gournay used to complain so greatly ; here the offices , clerks , secretaries , inspectors and intendants are not appointed to benefit the public interest , indeed the public interest appears to have been established so that offices might exist . Cynicism over `` officialdom '' is still common , and the workings of public servants is typically contrasted to private enterprise motivated by profit . In fact private companies , especially large ones , also have bureaucracies . Negative perceptions of `` red tape '' aside , public services such as schooling , health care , policing or public transport are considered a crucial state function making public bureaucratic action the locus of government power . Writing in the early 20th century , Max Weber believed that a definitive feature of a developed state had come to be its bureaucratic support . Weber wrote that the typical characteristics of modern bureaucracy are that officials define its mission , the scope of work is bound by rules , and management is composed of career experts who manage top down , communicating through writing and binding public servants ' discretion with rules . Legal profession Main article : Legal profession In civil law systems such as those of Italy , France , Germany , Spain and Greece , there is a distinct category of notary , a legally trained public official , compensated by the parties to a transaction . This is a 16th - century painting of such a notary by Flemish painter Quentin Massys . A corollary of the rule of law is the existence of a legal profession sufficiently autonomous to invoke the authority of the independent judiciary ; the right to assistance of a barrister in a court proceeding emanates from this corollary -- in England the function of barrister or advocate is distinguished from legal counselor . As the European Court of Human Rights has stated , the law should be adequately accessible to everyone and people should be able to foresee how the law affects them . In order to maintain professionalism , the practice of law is typically overseen by either a government or independent regulating body such as a bar association , bar council or law society . Modern lawyers achieve distinct professional identity through specified legal procedures ( e.g. successfully passing a qualifying examination ) , are required by law to have a special qualification ( a legal education earning the student a Bachelor of Laws , a Bachelor of Civil Law , or a Juris Doctor degree . Higher academic degrees may also be pursued . Examples include a Master of Laws , a Master of Legal Studies , a Bar Professional Training Course or a Doctor of Laws . ) , and are constituted in office by legal forms of appointment ( being admitted to the bar ) . There are few titles of respect to signify famous lawyers , such as Esquire , to indicate barristers of greater dignity , and Doctor of law , to indicate a person who obtained a PhD in Law . Many Muslim countries have developed similar rules about legal education and the legal profession , but some still allow lawyers with training in traditional Islamic law to practice law before personal status law courts . In China and other developing countries there are not sufficient professionally trained people to staff the existing judicial systems , and , accordingly , formal standards are more relaxed . Once accredited , a lawyer will often work in a law firm , in a chambers as a sole practitioner , in a government post or in a private corporation as an internal counsel . In addition a lawyer may become a legal researcher who provides on - demand legal research through a library , a commercial service or freelance work . Many people trained in law put their skills to use outside the legal field entirely . Significant to the practice of law in the common law tradition is the legal research to determine the current state of the law . This usually entails exploring case - law reports , legal periodicals and legislation . Law practice also involves drafting documents such as court pleadings , persuasive briefs , contracts , or wills and trusts . Negotiation and dispute resolution skills ( including ADR techniques ) are also important to legal practice , depending on the field . Civil society Main article : Civil society A march in Washington D.C. during the Civil Rights Movement in 1963 The Classical republican concept of `` civil society '' dates back to Hobbes and Locke . Locke saw civil society as people who have `` a common established law and judicature to appeal to , with authority to decide controversies between them . '' German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel distinguished the `` state '' from `` civil society '' ( bürgerliche Gesellschaft ) in Elements of the Philosophy of Right . Hegel believed that civil society and the state were polar opposites , within the scheme of his dialectic theory of history . The modern dipole state -- civil society was reproduced in the theories of Alexis de Tocqueville and Karl Marx . Nowadays in post-modern theory civil society is necessarily a source of law , by being the basis from which people form opinions and lobby for what they believe law should be . As Australian barrister and author Geoffrey Robertson QC wrote of international law , ... one of its primary modern sources is found in the responses of ordinary men and women , and of the non-governmental organizations which many of them support , to the human rights abuses they see on the television screen in their living rooms . Freedom of speech , freedom of association and many other individual rights allow people to gather , discuss , criticise and hold to account their governments , from which the basis of a deliberative democracy is formed . The more people are involved with , concerned by and capable of changing how political power is exercised over their lives , the more acceptable and legitimate the law becomes to the people . The most familiar institutions of civil society include economic markets , profit - oriented firms , families , trade unions , hospitals , universities , schools , charities , debating clubs , non-governmental organisations , neighbourhoods , churches , and religious associations . Legal subjects All legal systems deal with the same basic issues , but jurisdictions categorise and identify its legal subjects in different ways . A common distinction is that between `` public law '' ( a term related closely to the state , and including constitutional , administrative and criminal law ) , and `` private law '' ( which covers contract , tort and property ) . In civil law systems , contract and tort fall under a general law of obligations , while trusts law is dealt with under statutory regimes or international conventions . International , constitutional and administrative law , criminal law , contract , tort , property law and trusts are regarded as the `` traditional core subjects '' , although there are many further disciplines . International law Main articles : Public international law , Conflict of laws , and European Union law Providing a constitution for public international law , the United Nations system was agreed during World War II . The Italian lawyer Sir Alberico Gentili , the Father of international law . International law can refer to three things : public international law , private international law or conflict of laws and the law of supranational organisations . Public international law concerns relationships between sovereign nations . The sources for public international law development are custom , practice and treaties between sovereign nations , such as the Geneva Conventions . Public international law can be formed by international organisations , such as the United Nations ( which was established after the failure of the League of Nations to prevent World War II ) , the International Labour Organisation , the World Trade Organisation , or the International Monetary Fund . Public international law has a special status as law because there is no international police force , and courts ( e.g. the International Court of Justice as the primary UN judicial organ ) lack the capacity to penalise disobedience . However , a few bodies , such as the WTO , have effective systems of binding arbitration and dispute resolution backed up by trade sanctions . Conflict of laws ( or `` private international law '' in civil law countries ) concerns which jurisdiction a legal dispute between private parties should be heard in and which jurisdiction 's law should be applied . Today , businesses are increasingly capable of shifting capital and labour supply chains across borders , as well as trading with overseas businesses , making the question of which country has jurisdiction even more pressing . Increasing numbers of businesses opt for commercial arbitration under the New York Convention 1958 . European Union law is the first and , so far , only example of an internationally accepted legal system other than the UN and the World Trade Organisation . Given the trend of increasing global economic integration , many regional agreements -- especially the Union of South American Nations -- are on track to follow the same model . In the EU , sovereign nations have gathered their authority in a system of courts and political institutions . These institutions are allowed the ability to enforce legal norms both against or for member states and citizens in a manner which is not possible through public international law . As the European Court of Justice said in the 1960s , European Union law constitutes `` a new legal order of international law '' for the mutual social and economic benefit of the member states . Constitutional and administrative law Main articles : Constitutional law and Administrative law The French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen Constitutional and administrative law govern the affairs of the state . Constitutional law concerns both the relationships between the executive , legislature and judiciary and the human rights or civil liberties of individuals against the state . Most jurisdictions , like the United States and France , have a single codified constitution with a bill of rights . A few , like the United Kingdom , have no such document . A `` constitution '' is simply those laws which constitute the body politic , from statute , case law and convention . A case named Entick v Carrington illustrates a constitutional principle deriving from the common law . Mr Entick 's house was searched and ransacked by Sheriff Carrington . When Mr Entick complained in court , Sheriff Carrington argued that a warrant from a Government minister , the Earl of Halifax , was valid authority . However , there was no written statutory provision or court authority . The leading judge , Lord Camden , stated that , The great end , for which men entered into society , was to secure their property . That right is preserved sacred and incommunicable in all instances , where it has not been taken away or abridged by some public law for the good of the whole ... If no excuse can be found or produced , the silence of the books is an authority against the defendant , and the plaintiff must have judgment . The fundamental constitutional principle , inspired by John Locke , holds that the individual can do anything except that which is forbidden by law , and the state may do nothing except that which is authorised by law . Administrative law is the chief method for people to hold state bodies to account . People can sue an agency , local council , public service , or government ministry for judicial review of actions or decisions , to ensure that they comply with the law , and that the government entity observed required procedure . The first specialist administrative court was the Conseil d'État set up in 1799 , as Napoleon assumed power in France . Criminal law Main article : Criminal law Criminal law , also known as penal law , pertains to crimes and punishment . It thus regulates the definition of and penalties for offences found to have a sufficiently deleterious social impact but , in itself , makes no moral judgment on an offender nor imposes restrictions on society that physically prevent people from committing a crime in the first place . Investigating , apprehending , charging , and trying suspected offenders is regulated by the law of criminal procedure . The paradigm case of a crime lies in the proof , beyond reasonable doubt , that a person is guilty of two things . First , the accused must commit an act which is deemed by society to be criminal , or actus reus ( guilty act ) . Second , the accused must have the requisite malicious intent to do a criminal act , or mens rea ( guilty mind ) . However , for so called `` strict liability '' crimes , an actus reus is enough . Criminal systems of the civil law tradition distinguish between intention in the broad sense ( dolus directus and dolus eventualis ) , and negligence . Negligence does not carry criminal responsibility unless a particular crime provides for its punishment . A depiction of a 17th - century criminal trial , for witchcraft in Salem Examples of crimes include murder , assault , fraud and theft . In exceptional circumstances defences can apply to specific acts , such as killing in self defence , or pleading insanity . Another example is in the 19th - century English case of R v Dudley and Stephens , which tested a defence of `` necessity '' . The Mignonette , sailing from Southampton to Sydney , sank . Three crew members and Richard Parker , a 17 - year - old cabin boy , were stranded on a raft . They were starving and the cabin boy was close to death . Driven to extreme hunger , the crew killed and ate the cabin boy . The crew survived and were rescued , but put on trial for murder . They argued it was necessary to kill the cabin boy to preserve their own lives . Lord Coleridge , expressing immense disapproval , ruled , `` to preserve one 's life is generally speaking a duty , but it may be the plainest and the highest duty to sacrifice it . '' The men were sentenced to hang , but public opinion was overwhelmingly supportive of the crew 's right to preserve their own lives . In the end , the Crown commuted their sentences to six months in jail . Criminal law offences are viewed as offences against not just individual victims , but the community as well . The state , usually with the help of police , takes the lead in prosecution , which is why in common law countries cases are cited as `` The People v ... '' or `` R ( for Rex or Regina ) v ... '' . Also , lay juries are often used to determine the guilt of defendants on points of fact : juries can not change legal rules . Some developed countries still condone capital punishment for criminal activity , but the normal punishment for a crime will be imprisonment , fines , state supervision ( such as probation ) , or community service . Modern criminal law has been affected considerably by the social sciences , especially with respect to sentencing , legal research , legislation , and rehabilitation . On the international field , 111 countries are members of the International Criminal Court , which was established to try people for crimes against humanity . Contract law Main article : Contract The famous Carbolic Smoke Ball advertisement to cure influenza was held to be a unilateral contract Contract law concerns enforceable promises , and can be summed up in the Latin phrase pacta sunt servanda ( agreements must be kept ) . In common law jurisdictions , three key elements to the creation of a contract are necessary : offer and acceptance , consideration and the intention to create legal relations . In Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Company a medical firm advertised that its new wonder drug , the smokeball , would cure people 's flu , and if it did not , the buyers would get £ 100 . Many people sued for their £ 100 when the drug did not work . Fearing bankruptcy , Carbolic argued the advert was not to be taken as a serious , legally binding offer . It was an invitation to treat , mere puffery , a gimmick . But the Court of Appeal held that to a reasonable man Carbolic had made a serious offer , accentuated by their reassuring statement , `` £ 1000 is deposited '' . Equally , people had given good consideration for the offer by going to the `` distinct inconvenience '' of using a faulty product . `` Read the advertisement how you will , and twist it about as you will '' , said Lord Justice Lindley , `` here is a distinct promise expressed in language which is perfectly unmistakable '' . `` Consideration '' indicates the fact that all parties to a contract have exchanged something of value . Some common law systems , including Australia , are moving away from the idea of consideration as a requirement . The idea of estoppel or culpa in contrahendo , can be used to create obligations during pre-contractual negotiations . In civil law jurisdictions , consideration is not required for a contract to be binding . In France , an ordinary contract is said to form simply on the basis of a `` meeting of the minds '' or a `` concurrence of wills '' . Germany has a special approach to contracts , which ties into property law . Their ' abstraction principle ' ( Abstraktionsprinzip ) means that the personal obligation of contract forms separately from the title of property being conferred . When contracts are invalidated for some reason ( e.g. a car buyer is so drunk that he lacks legal capacity to contract ) the contractual obligation to pay can be invalidated separately from the proprietary title of the car . Unjust enrichment law , rather than contract law , is then used to restore title to the rightful owner . Tort law Main article : Tort The `` McLibel case '' two were involved in the longest - running case in UK history for publishing a pamphlet criticising McDonald 's restaurants . Torts , sometimes called delicts , are civil wrongs . To have acted tortiously , one must have breached a duty to another person , or infringed some pre-existing legal right . A simple example might be accidentally hitting someone with a cricket ball . Under the law of negligence , the most common form of tort , the injured party could potentially claim compensation for their injuries from the party responsible . The principles of negligence are illustrated by Donoghue v Stevenson . A friend of Mrs Donoghue ordered an opaque bottle of ginger beer ( intended for the consumption of Mrs Donoghue ) in a café in Paisley . Having consumed half of it , Mrs Donoghue poured the remainder into a tumbler . The decomposing remains of a snail floated out . She claimed to have suffered from shock , fell ill with gastroenteritis and sued the manufacturer for carelessly allowing the drink to be contaminated . The House of Lords decided that the manufacturer was liable for Mrs Donoghue 's illness . Lord Atkin took a distinctly moral approach , and said , The liability for negligence ... is no doubt based upon a general public sentiment of moral wrongdoing for which the offender must pay ... The rule that you are to love your neighbour becomes in law , you must not injure your neighbour ; and the lawyer 's question , Who is my neighbour ? receives a restricted reply . You must take reasonable care to avoid acts or omissions which you can reasonably foresee would be likely to injure your neighbour . This became the basis for the four principles of negligence : ( 1 ) Mr Stevenson owed Mrs Donoghue a duty of care to provide safe drinks ( 2 ) he breached his duty of care ( 3 ) the harm would not have occurred but for his breach and ( 4 ) his act was the proximate cause of her harm . Another example of tort might be a neighbour making excessively loud noises with machinery on his property . Under a nuisance claim the noise could be stopped . Torts can also involve intentional acts , such as assault , battery or trespass . A better known tort is defamation , which occurs , for example , when a newspaper makes unsupportable allegations that damage a politician 's reputation . More infamous are economic torts , which form the basis of labour law in some countries by making trade unions liable for strikes , when statute does not provide immunity . Property law Main article : Property law A painting of the South Sea Bubble , one of the world 's first ever speculations and crashes , led to strict regulation on share trading . Property law governs ownership and possession . Real property , sometimes called ' real estate ' , refers to ownership of land and things attached to it . Personal property , refers to everything else ; movable objects , such as computers , cars , jewelry or intangible rights , such as stocks and shares . A right in rem is a right to a specific piece of property , contrasting to a right in personam which allows compensation for a loss , but not a particular thing back . Land law forms the basis for most kinds of property law , and is the most complex . It concerns mortgages , rental agreements , licences , covenants , easements and the statutory systems for land registration . Regulations on the use of personal property fall under intellectual property , company law , trusts and commercial law . An example of a basic case of most property law is Armory v Delamirie ( 1722 ) . A chimney sweep 's boy found a jewel encrusted with precious stones . He took it to a goldsmith to have it valued . The goldsmith 's apprentice looked at it , sneakily removed the stones , told the boy it was worth three halfpence and that he would buy it . The boy said he would prefer the jewel back , so the apprentice gave it to him , but without the stones . The boy sued the goldsmith for his apprentice 's attempt to cheat him . Lord Chief Justice Pratt ruled that even though the boy could not be said to own the jewel , he should be considered the rightful keeper ( `` finders keepers '' ) until the original owner is found . In fact the apprentice and the boy both had a right of possession in the jewel ( a technical concept , meaning evidence that something could belong to someone ) , but the boy 's possessory interest was considered better , because it could be shown to be first in time . Possession may be nine tenths of the law , but not all . This case is used to support the view of property in common law jurisdictions , that the person who can show the best claim to a piece of property , against any contesting party , is the owner . By contrast , the classic civil law approach to property , propounded by Friedrich Carl von Savigny , is that it is a right good against the world . Obligations , like contracts and torts , are conceptualised as rights good between individuals . The idea of property raises many further philosophical and political issues . Locke argued that our `` lives , liberties and estates '' are our property because we own our bodies and mix our labour with our surroundings . Equity and trusts Main articles : Equity ( law ) and Trust law The Court of Chancery , London , early 19th century Equity is a body of rules that developed in England separately from the `` common law '' . The common law was administered by judges and barristers . The Lord Chancellor on the other hand , as the King 's keeper of conscience , could overrule the judge - made law if he thought it equitable to do so . This meant equity came to operate more through principles than rigid rules . For instance , whereas neither the common law nor civil law systems allow people to split the ownership from the control of one piece of property , equity allows this through an arrangement known as a ' trust ' . ' Trustees ' control property , whereas the ' beneficial ' ( or ' equitable ' ) ownership of trust property is held by people known as ' beneficiaries ' . Trustees owe duties to their beneficiaries to take good care of the entrusted property . In the early case of Keech v Sandford ( 1722 ) a child had inherited the lease on a market in Romford , London . Mr Sandford was entrusted to look after this property until the child matured . But before then , the lease expired . The landlord had ( apparently ) told Mr Sandford that he did not want the child to have the renewed lease . Yet the landlord was happy ( apparently ) to give Mr Sandford the opportunity of the lease instead . Mr Sandford took it . When the child ( now Mr Keech ) grew up , he sued Mr Sandford for the profit that he had been making by getting the market 's lease . Mr Sandford was meant to be trusted , but he put himself in a position of conflict of interest . The Lord Chancellor , Lord King , agreed and ordered Mr Sandford should disgorge his profits . He wrote , I very well see , if a trustee , on the refusal to renew , might have a lease to himself few trust - estates would be renewed ... This may seem very hard , that the trustee is the only person of all mankind who might not have the lease ; but it is very proper that the rule should be strictly pursued and not at all relaxed . Of course , Lord King LC was worried that trustees might exploit opportunities to use trust property for themselves instead of looking after it . Business speculators using trusts had just recently caused a stock market crash . Strict duties for trustees made their way into company law and were applied to directors and chief executive officers . Another example of a trustee 's duty might be to invest property wisely or sell it . This is especially the case for pension funds , the most important form of trust , where investors are trustees for people 's savings until retirement . But trusts can also be set up for charitable purposes , famous examples being the British Museum or the Rockefeller Foundation . Further disciplines Law spreads far beyond the core subjects into virtually every area of life . Three categories are presented for convenience , though the subjects intertwine and overlap . Law and society A trade union protest by UNISON while on strike Labour law is the study of a tripartite industrial relationship between worker , employer and trade union . This involves collective bargaining regulation , and the right to strike . Individual employment law refers to workplace rights , such as job security , health and safety or a minimum wage . Human rights , civil rights and human rights law are important fields to guarantee everyone basic freedoms and entitlements . These are laid down in codes such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights , the European Convention on Human Rights ( which founded the European Court of Human Rights ) and the U.S. Bill of Rights . The Treaty of Lisbon makes the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union legally binding in all member states except Poland and the United Kingdom . Civil procedure and criminal procedure concern the rules that courts must follow as a trial and appeals proceed . Both concern a citizen 's right to a fair trial or hearing . Evidence law involves which materials are admissible in courts for a case to be built . Immigration law and nationality law concern the rights of foreigners to live and work in a nation - state that is not their own and to acquire or lose citizenship . Both also involve the right of asylum and the problem of stateless individuals . Social security law refers to the rights people have to social insurance , such as jobseekers ' allowances or housing benefits . Family law covers marriage and divorce proceedings , the rights of children and rights to property and money in the event of separation . Transactional law refers to the practice of law concerning business and money . Law and commerce Company law sprang from the law of trusts , on the principle of separating ownership of property and control . The law of the modern company began with the Joint Stock Companies Act 1856 , passed in the United Kingdom , which provided investors with a simple registration procedure to gain limited liability under the separate legal personality of the corporation . Commercial law covers complex contract and property law . The law of agency , insurance law , bills of exchange , insolvency and bankruptcy law and sales law are all important , and trace back to the medieval Lex Mercatoria . The UK Sale of Goods Act 1979 and the US Uniform Commercial Code are examples of codified common law commercial principles . Admiralty law and the Law of the Sea lay a basic framework for free trade and commerce across the world 's oceans and seas , where outside of a country 's zone of control . Shipping companies operate through ordinary principles of commercial law , generalised for a global market . Admiralty law also encompasses specialised issues such as salvage , maritime liens , and injuries to passengers . Intellectual property law aims at safeguarding creators and other producers of intellectual goods and services . These are legal rights ( copyrights , trademarks , patents , and related rights ) which result from intellectual activity in the industrial , literary and artistic fields . Restitution deals with the recovery of someone else 's gain , rather than compensation for one 's own loss . Unjust enrichment When someone has been unjustly enriched ( or there is an `` absence of basis '' for a transaction ) at another 's expense , this event generates the right to restitution to reverse that gain . Space law is a relatively new field dealing with aspects of international law regarding human activities in Earth orbit and outer space . While at first addressing space relations of countries via treaties , increasingly it is addressing areas such as space commercialisation , property , liability , and other issues . Law and regulation The New York Stock Exchange trading floor after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 , before tougher banking regulation was introduced Tax law involves regulations that concern value added tax , corporate tax , and income tax . Banking law and financial regulation set minimum standards on the amounts of capital banks must hold , and rules about best practice for investment . This is to insure against the risk of economic crises , such as the Wall Street Crash of 1929 . Regulation deals with the provision of public services and utilities . Water law is one example . Especially since privatisation became popular and took management of services away from public law , private companies doing the jobs previously controlled by government have been bound by varying degrees of social responsibility . Energy , gas , telecomms and water are regulated industries in most OECD countries . Competition law , known in the U.S. as antitrust law , is an evolving field that traces as far back as Roman decrees against price fixing and the English restraint of trade doctrine . Modern competition law derives from the U.S. anti-cartel and anti-monopoly statutes ( the Sherman Act and Clayton Act ) of the turn of the 20th century . It is used to control businesses who attempt to use their economic influence to distort market prices at the expense of consumer welfare . Consumer law could include anything from regulations on unfair contractual terms and clauses to directives on airline baggage insurance . Environmental law is increasingly important , especially in light of the Kyoto Protocol and the potential danger of climate change . Environmental protection also serves to penalise polluters within domestic legal systems . See also Law portal Library resources about Law Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Law dictionary Legal research in the United States Legal treatise Political science Public interest law Rule according to higher law Social law Translating `` law '' to other European languages Law -- Wikipedia book Notes Jump up ^ Luban , Law 's Blindfold , 23 . ^ Jump up to : Robertson , Crimes against humanity , 90 . Jump up ^ `` What is sharia law ? '' . brightknowledge.org . Jump up ^ `` Criminal and Civil Law '' . www.cscja-acjcs.ca . Retrieved 2016 - 07 - 31 . Jump up ^ Third New International Dictionary , Merriam - Webster , Inc. , Springfield , Massachusetts . Jump up ^ Dictionary of the History of Ideas , Charles Scribner 's Sons , Editor Philip P. Weiner , 1973 . Jump up ^ Lord Lloyd of Hampstead . Introduction to Jurisprudence . Third Edition . Stevens & Sons . London . 1972 . Second Impression . 1975 . Page 39 . Jump up ^ Mc Coubrey , Hilaire and White , Nigel D. Textbook on Jurisprudence . Second Edition . Blackstone Press Limited . 1996 . ISBN 1 - 85431 - 582 - X . Page 2 . Jump up ^ Williams , Glanville . International Law and the Controversy Concerning the Meaning of the Word `` Law '' . Revised version published in Laslett ( Editor ) , Philosophy , Politics and Society ( 1956 ) p. 134 et seq . The original was published in ( 1945 ) 22 BYBIL 146 . Jump up ^ Arnold , Thurman . The Symbols of Government . 1935 . Page 36 . Jump up ^ Lord Lloyd of Hampstead . Introduction to Jurisprudence . Third Edition . Stevens & Sons . London . 1972 . Second Impression . 1975 . Jump up ^ Théodoridés . `` law '' . Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt . Jump up ^ VerSteeg , Law in ancient Egypt Jump up ^ Richardson , Hammurabi 's Laws , 11 Jump up ^ Kelly , A Short History of Western Legal Theory , 5 -- 6 Jump up ^ J.P. Mallory , `` Law '' , in Encyclopedia of Indo - European Culture , 346 Jump up ^ Ober , The Nature of Athenian Democracy , 121 Jump up ^ Kelly , A Short History of Western Legal Theory , 39 Jump up ^ Stein , Roman Law in European History , 1 Jump up ^ As a legal system , Roman law has affected the development of law worldwide . It also forms the basis for the law codes of most countries of continental Europe and has played an important role in the creation of the idea of a common European culture ( Stein , Roman Law in European History , 2 , 104 -- 107 ) . Jump up ^ Sealey - Hooley , Commercial Law , 14 Jump up ^ Mattei , Comparative Law and Economics , 71 Jump up ^ For discussion of the composition and dating of these sources , see Olivelle , Manu 's Code of Law , 18 -- 25 . Jump up ^ Glenn , Legal Traditions of the World , 276 Jump up ^ Glenn , Legal Traditions of the World , 273 Jump up ^ Glenn , Legal Traditions of the World , 287 Jump up ^ Glenn , Legal Traditions of the World , 304 Jump up ^ Glenn , Legal Traditions of the World , 305 Jump up ^ Glenn , Legal Traditions of the World , 307 Jump up ^ Glenn , Legal Traditions of the World , 309 Jump up ^ Farah , Five Years of China WTO Membership , 263 -- 304 Jump up ^ Rousseau , The Social Contract , Book II : Chapter 6 ( Law ) ^ Jump up to : Bix , John Austin Jump up ^ Fritz Berolzheimer , The World 's Legal Philosophies , 115 -- 116 Jump up ^ Kant , Immanuel , Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals , 42 ( par . 434 ) Jump up ^ Green , Legal Positivism Jump up ^ Nietzsche , Zur Genealogie der Moral , Second Essay , 11 Jump up ^ Kazantzakis , Friedrich Nietzsche and the Philosophy of Law , 97 -- 98 Jump up ^ Linarelli , Nietzsche in Law 's Cathedral , 23 -- 26 Jump up ^ Marmor , The Pure Theory of Law Jump up ^ Bielefeldt , Carl Schmitt 's Critique of Liberalism , 25 -- 26 Jump up ^ Finn , Constitutions in Crisis , 170 -- 171 Jump up ^ Bayles , Hart 's Legal Philosophy , 21 Jump up ^ Dworkin , Law 's Empire , 410 . ^ Jump up to : Raz , The Authority of Law , 3 -- 36 Jump up ^ Raz , The Authority of Law , 37 etc . Jump up ^ Campbell , The Contribution of Legal Studies , 184 Jump up ^ Dworkin , Law 's Empire , 410 Jump up ^ Holmes , Oliver Wendell . `` The Path of Law ( 1897 ) 10 Harvard Law Review 457 at 461 . Jump up ^ Aquinas , St Thomas . Summa Theologica . 1a2ae , 90.4 . Translated by JG Dawson . Ed d'Entreves . ( Basil Blackwell ) . Latin : `` nihil est aliud qau edam rationis ordinatio ad bonum commune , ab eo qi curam communitatis habet , promulgata '' . Jump up ^ McCoubrey , Hilaire and White , Nigel D. Textbook on Jurisprudence . Second Edition . Blackstone Press Limited . 1996 . ISBN 1 - 85431 - 582 - X . Page 73 . Jump up ^ According to Malloy ( Law and Economics , 114 ) , Smith established `` a classical liberal philosophy that made individuals the key referential sign while acknowledging that we live not alone but in community with others '' . Jump up ^ Jakoby , Economic Ideas and the Labour Market , 53 Jump up ^ `` The Becker - Posner Blog '' . Retrieved 20 May 2010 . Jump up ^ Coase , The Nature of the Firm , 386 -- 405 Jump up ^ Coase , The Problem of Social Cost , 1 -- 44 ^ Jump up to : Sturges v Bridgman ( 1879 ) 11 Ch D 852 Jump up ^ Coase , The Problem of Social Cost , IV , 7 Jump up ^ Coase , The Problem of Social Cost , V , 9 Jump up ^ Coase , The Problem of Social Cost , VIII , 23 ^ Jump up to : Cotterrell , Sociology of Law , Jary , Collins Dictionary of Sociology , 636 Jump up ^ Ehrlich , Fundamental Principles , Hertogh , Living Law , Rottleuthner , La Sociologie du Droit en Allemagne , 109 , Rottleuthner , Rechtstheoritische Probleme der Sociologie des Rechts , 521 Jump up ^ Cotterrell , Law , Culture and Society Jump up ^ Rheinstein , Max Weber on Law and Economy in Society , 336 Jump up ^ Cotterrell , Emile Durkheim : Law in a Moral Domain , Johnson , The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology , 156 Jump up ^ Gurvitch , Sociology of Law , 142 Jump up ^ Papachristou , Sociology of Law , 81 -- 82 Jump up ^ Modern scholars argue that the significance of this distinction has progressively declined ; the numerous legal transplants , typical of modern law , result in the sharing by modern legal systems of many features traditionally considered typical of either common law or civil law ( Mattei , Comparative Law and Economics , 71 ) Jump up ^ Civil law jurisdictions recognise custom as `` the other source of law '' ; hence , scholars tend to divide the civil law into the broad categories of `` written law '' ( ius scriptum ) or legislation , and `` unwritten law '' ( ius non scriptum ) or custom . Yet they tend to dismiss custom as being of slight importance compared to legislation ( Georgiadis , General Principles of Civil Law , 19 ; Washofsky , Taking Precedent Seriously , 7 ) . Jump up ^ Gordley - von Mehren , Comparative Study of Private Law , 18 Jump up ^ Gordley - von Mehren , Comparative Study of Private Law , 21 Jump up ^ Stein , Roman Law in European History , 32 Jump up ^ Stein , Roman Law in European History , 35 Jump up ^ Stein , Roman Law in European History , 43 Jump up ^ Hatzis , The Short - Lived Influence of the Napoleonic Civil Code in Greece , 253 -- 263 Jump up ^ Demirgüç - Kunt - Levine , Financial Structures and Economic Growth , 204 Jump up ^ The World Factbook -- Field Listing -- Legal system , CIA Jump up ^ Magna Carta , Fordham University Jump up ^ Gordley - von Mehren , Comparative Study of Private Law , 4 Jump up ^ Gordley - von Mehren , Comparative Study of Private Law , 3 Jump up ^ Pollock ( ed ) Table Talk of John Selden ( 1927 ) 43 ; `` Equity is a roguish thing . For law we have a measure ... equity is according to the conscience of him that is Chancellor , and as that is longer or narrower , so is equity . ' Tis all one as if they should make the standard for the measure a Chancellor 's foot . '' Jump up ^ Gee v Pritchard ( 1818 ) 2 Swans. 402 , 414 Jump up ^ Blackstone , Commentaries on the Laws of England , Book the First -- Chapter the First Jump up ^ Gordley - von Mehren , Comparative Study of Private Law , 17 Jump up ^ Glenn , Legal Traditions of the World , 159 Jump up ^ Anderson , Law Reform in the Middle East , 43 Jump up ^ Giannoulatos , Islam , 274 -- 275 Jump up ^ Sherif , Constitutions of Arab Countries , 157 -- 158 Jump up ^ Saudi Arabia Archived 30 August 2006 at the Wayback Machine. , Jurist Jump up ^ Akhlagi , Iranian Commercial Law , 127 Jump up ^ Hallaq , The Origins and Evolution of Islamic Law , 1 Jump up ^ Montesquieu , The Spirit of Laws , Book XI : Of the Laws Which Establish Political Liberty , with Regard to the Constitution , Chapters 6 -- 7 Jump up ^ Thomas Hobbes , Leviathan , XVII Jump up ^ A Brief Overview of the Supreme Court , Supreme Court of the United States Jump up ^ House of Lords Judgments , House of Lords Jump up ^ Entscheidungen des Bundesverfassungsgerichts Archived 21 November 2006 at the Wayback Machine. , Bundesverfassungsgericht Jump up ^ Jurisprudence , publications , documentation , Cour de cassation Jump up ^ Goldhaber , European Court of Human Rights , 1 -- 2 Jump up ^ Patterson , Brown v. Board of Education Jump up ^ Dicey , Law of the Constitution , 37 -- 82 Jump up ^ E.g. , the court president is a political appointee ( Jensen -- Heller , Introduction , 11 -- 12 ) . About the notion of `` judicial independence '' in China , see Findlay , Judiciary in the PRC , 282 -- 284 ^ Jump up to : Sherif , Constitutions of Arab Countries , 158 Jump up ^ Rasekh , Islamism and Republicanism , 115 -- 116 ^ Jump up to : Riker , The Justification of Bicameralism , 101 Jump up ^ About `` cabinet accountability '' in both presidential and parliamentary systems , see Shugart -- Haggard , Presidential Systems , 67 etc . ^ Jump up to : Haggard , Presidents , Parliaments and Policy , 71 Jump up ^ Olson , The New Parliaments of Central and Eastern Europe , 7 Jump up ^ See , e.g. Tuberville v Savage ( 1669 ) , 1 Mod . Rep. 3 , 86 Eng . Rep. 684 , where a knight said in a threatening tone to a layman , `` If it were not assize time , I would not take such language from you . '' Jump up ^ History of Police Forces Archived 29 December 2006 at the Wayback Machine. , History.com Encyclopedia Jump up ^ Des Sergents de Ville et Gardiens de la Paix à la Police de Proximité , La Préfecture de Police Jump up ^ Weber , Politics as a Vocation Jump up ^ Weber , The Theory of Social and Economic Organisation , 154 Jump up ^ In these cases sovereignty is eroded , and often warlords acquire excessive powers ( Fukuyama , State - Building , 166 -- 167 ) . Jump up ^ Bureaucracy , Online Etymology Dictionary Jump up ^ Albrow , Bureaucracy , 16 Jump up ^ Mises , Bureaucracy , II , Bureaucratic Management ^ Jump up to : Kettl , Public Bureaucracies , 367 Jump up ^ Weber , Economy and Society , I , 393 Jump up ^ Kettl , Public Bureaucracies , 371 Jump up ^ Hazard -- Dondi , Legal Ethics , 22 Jump up ^ Hazard -- Dondi , Legal Ethics , 1 Jump up ^ The Sunday Times v The United Kingdom ( 1979 ) ECHR 1 at 49 Case no . 6538 / 74 Jump up ^ `` British English : Esquire '' . Collins Dictionary . n.d . Retrieved 23 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` American English : Esquire '' . Collins Dictionary . n.d . Retrieved 23 September 2014 . Jump up ^ Ahamd , Lawyers : Islamic Law Archived 1 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Hazard -- Dondi , Legal Ethics , 22 -- 23 ^ Jump up to : Fine , The Globalisation of Legal Education , 364 Jump up ^ Warren , Civil Society , 3 -- 4 Jump up ^ Locke , Second Treatise , Chap . VII , Of Political or Civil_Society . Chapter 7 , section 87 Jump up ^ Hegel , Elements of the Philosophy of Right , 3 , II , 182 ; Karkatsoulis , The State in Transition , 277 -- 278 Jump up ^ ( Pelczynski , The State and Civil Society , 1 -- 13 ; Warren , Civil Society , 5 -- 9 ) Jump up ^ Zaleski , Pawel ( 2008 ) . `` Tocqueville on Civilian Society . A Romantic Vision of the Dichotomic Structure of Social Reality '' . Archiv für Begriffsgeschichte . Felix Meiner Verlag. 50 . Jump up ^ Robertson , Crimes Against Humanity , 98 -- 99 Jump up ^ There is no clear legal definition of the civil society , and of the institutions it includes . Most of the institutions and bodies who try to give a list of institutions ( such as the European Economic and Social Committee ) exclude the political parties . For further information , see Jakobs , Pursuing Equal Opportunities , 5 -- 6 ; Kaldor -- Anheier -- Glasius , Global Civil Society , passim ( PDF ) ; Karkatsoulis , The State in Transition , 282 -- 283 . Archived 17 August 2007 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Although many scholars argue that `` the boundaries between public and private law are becoming blurred '' , and that this distinction has become mere `` folklore '' ( Bergkamp , Liability and Environment , 1 -- 2 ) . Jump up ^ E.g. in England these seven subjects , with EU law substituted for international law , make up a `` qualifying law degree '' . For criticism , see Peter Birks ' poignant comments attached to a previous version of the Notice to Law Schools . Jump up ^ Pagden , Anthony ( 1991 ) . Vitoria : Political Writings ( Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought ) . UK : Cambridge University Press . p. xvi . ISBN 0 - 521 - 36714 - X . Jump up ^ History of the UN Archived 18 February 2010 at the Wayback Machine. , United Nations . Winston Churchill ( The Hinge of Fate , 719 ) comments on the League of Nations ' failure : `` It was wrong to say that the League failed . It was rather the member states who had failed the League . '' Jump up ^ The prevailing manner of enforcing international law is still essentially `` self help '' ; that is the reaction by states to alleged breaches of international obligations by other states ( Robertson , Crimes against Humanity , 90 ; Schermers - Blokker , International Institutional Law , 900 -- 901 ) . Jump up ^ Petersmann , The GATT / WTO Dispute Settlement System International Criminal Court Archived 23 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine. , 32 Jump up ^ Redfem , International Commercial Arbitration , 68 -- 69 Jump up ^ Schermers -- Blokker , International Institutional Law , 943 Jump up ^ See the fundamental C - 26 / 62 Van Gend en Loos v Nederlandse Administratie der Belastingen , and Flaminio Costa v E.N.E.L. decisions of the European Court . Jump up ^ Entick v Carrington ( 1765 ) 19 Howell 's State Trials 1030 ; ( 1765 ) 95 ER 807 Jump up ^ `` Entick v Carrington '' . 19 Howell 's State Trials 1029 ( 1765 ) . US : Constitution Society . Retrieved 13 November 2008 . Jump up ^ Locke , The Second Treatise , Chapter 9 , section 124 Jump up ^ Tamanaha , On the Rule of Law , 47 Jump up ^ Auby , Administrative Law in France , 75 Jump up ^ Cesare Beccaria 's seminal treatise of 1763 -- 1764 is titled On Crimes and Punishments ( Dei delitti e delle pene ) . ^ Jump up to : Brody , Acker and Logan , Criminal Law , 2 ; Wilson , Criminal Law , 2 Jump up ^ Dennis J. Baker , Glanville Williams Textbook of Criminal Law ( London : 2012 ) , 2 Jump up ^ See e.g. Brody , Acker and Logan , Criminal Law , 205 about Robinson v. California , 370 U.S. 660 ( 1962 ) . Jump up ^ See e.g. Feinman , Law 111 , 260 -- 261 about Powell v. Texas , 392 U.S. 514 ( 1968 ) . Jump up ^ Dörmann , Doswald - Beck and Kolb , Elements of War Crimes , 491 Jump up ^ Kaiser , Leistungsstörungen , 333 Jump up ^ About R v Dudley and Stephens ( 1884 ) 14 QBD 273 DC Archived 28 February 2005 at the Wayback Machine. , see Simpson , Cannibalism and the Common Law , 212 -- 217 , 229 -- 237 Jump up ^ Pelser , Criminal Legislation , 198 Jump up ^ The States Parties to the Rome Statute , International Criminal Court Jump up ^ Wehberg , Pacta Sunt Servanda , 775 Jump up ^ About Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Company Archived 5 December 2004 at the Wayback Machine . ( 1893 ) 1 QB 256 , and the element of consideration , see Beale and Tallon , Contract Law , 142 -- 143 Jump up ^ Austotel v Franklins ( 1989 ) 16 NSWLR 582 Jump up ^ e.g. in Germany , § 311 Abs. II BGB Jump up ^ `` § 105 BGB Nichtigkeit der Willenserklärung '' . dejure.org . Jump up ^ Smith , The Structure of Unjust Enrichment Law , 1037 Jump up ^ Bolton v Stone ( 1951 ) AC 850 ^ Jump up to : Donoghue v Stevenson ( ( 1932 ) A.C. 532 , 1932 S.C. ( H.L. ) 31 , ( 1932 ) All ER Rep 1 ) . See the original text of the case in UK Law Online . Jump up ^ Donoghue v Stevenson ( 1932 ) AC 532 , 580 Jump up ^ e.g. concerning a British politician and the Iraq War , George Galloway v Telegraph Group Ltd ( 2004 ) EWHC 2786 Jump up ^ Taff Vale Railway Co v Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants ( 1901 ) AC 426 Jump up ^ In the UK , Trade Union and Labour Relations ( Consolidation ) Act 1992 ; c.f. in the U.S. , National Labor Relations Act Jump up ^ Harris , The Bubble Act , 610 -- 627 Jump up ^ e.g. Hunter v Canary Wharf Ltd ( 1997 ) 2 All ER 426 Jump up ^ Armory v Delamirie ( 1722 ) 93 ER 664 , 1 Strange 505 Jump up ^ Matthews , The Man of Property , 251 -- 274 Jump up ^ Savigny , Das Recht des Besitzes , 25 Jump up ^ Locke , Second Treatise on Civil Government , Chap . IX . Of the Ends of Political Society and Government . Chapter 9 , section 123 . Jump up ^ McGhee , Snell 's Equity , 7 Jump up ^ c.f. Bristol and West Building Society v Mothew ( 1998 ) Ch 1 Jump up ^ Keech v Sandford ( 1726 ) Sel Cas Ch 61 Jump up ^ Nestlé v National Westminster Bank plc ( 1993 ) 1 WLR 1260 Jump up ^ A Guide to the Treaty of Lisbon Archived 10 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine. , The Law Society Jump up ^ Berle , Modern Corporation and Private Property Jump up ^ WIPO , Intellectual Property , 3 References Printed sources Ahmad , Ahmad Atif . `` Lawyers : Islamic Law '' ( PDF ) . Oxford Encyclopedia of Legal History . Oxford University Press . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 26 March 2009 . Akhlaghi , Behrooz ( 2005 ) . `` Iranian Commercial Law and the New Investment Law FIPPA '' . In Yassari , Nadjma . The Sharīʻa in the Constitutions of Afghanistan , Iran , and Egypt . Mohr Siebeck . ISBN 3 - 16 - 148787 - 7 . Albrow , Martin ( 1970 ) . Bureaucracy ( Key Concepts in Political Science ) . London : Palgrave Macmillan . ISBN 0 - 333 - 11262 - 8 . Anderson , J.N.D. 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The Walking Dead ( Video game ) - Wikipedia The Walking Dead ( Video game ) Jump to : navigation , search `` The Walking Dead : Season One '' redirects here . For the first season of the television series , see The Walking Dead ( season 1 ) . This article is about the Telltale game . For other video games based on the franchise , see The Walking Dead : Survival Instinct and The Walking Dead : Road to Survival . The Walking Dead Developer ( s ) Telltale Games Publisher ( s ) Telltale Games Director ( s ) Sean Vanaman Jake Rodkin Dennis Lenart Eric Parsons Nick Herman Sean Ainsworth Designer ( s ) Sean Vanaman Jake Rodkin Mark Darin Harrison G. Pink Andrew Langley Sean Ainsworth Programmer ( s ) Carl Muckenhoupt Randy Tudor Keenan Patterson Artist ( s ) Derek Sakai Writer ( s ) Sean Vanaman Mark Darin Gary Whitta Composer ( s ) Jared Emerson - Johnson Series The Walking Dead Engine Telltale Tool Platform ( s ) Android iOS Kindle Fire HDX OS X Linux Microsoft Windows Ouya PlayStation 3 PlayStation 4 PlayStation Vita Xbox 360 Xbox One Release Episode 1 ( show ) Microsoft Windows , Mac OS X WW : April 24 , 2012 PlayStation 3 NA : April 24 , 2012 EU : April 25 , 2012 Xbox 360 WW : April 27 , 2012 iOS WW : July 26 , 2012 Kindle Fire HDX WW : December 19 , 2013 Episode 2 ( show ) Xbox 360 WW : June 27 , 2012 Microsoft Windows , Mac OS X WW : June 29 , 2012 PlayStation 3 NA : June 29 , 2012 EU : July 6 , 2012 iOS WW : August 29 , 2012 Kindle Fire HDX WW : December 19 , 2013 Episode 3 ( show ) PlayStation 3 WW : August 28 , 2012 Microsoft Windows , Mac OS X , Xbox 360 WW : August 29 , 2012 iOS WW : October 28 , 2012 Kindle Fire HDX WW : December 19 , 2013 Episode 4 ( show ) PlayStation 3 WW : October 9 , 2012 Microsoft Windows , Mac OS X , Xbox 360 WW : October 10 , 2012 iOS WW : November 8 , 2012 Kindle Fire HDX WW : December 19 , 2013 Episode 5 ( show ) PlayStation 3 WW : November 20 , 2012 Microsoft Windows , Mac OS X , Xbox 360 WW : November 21 , 2012 iOS WW : November 20 , 2012 Kindle Fire HDX WW : December 19 , 2013 Retail version ( show ) Mac OS X , Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 & Xbox 360 NA : December 11 , 2012 AU : May 9 , 2013 EU : May 10 , 2013 PlayStation Vita WW : August 22 , 2013 PlayStation 4 , Xbox One NA : October 14 , 2014 EU : October 31 , 2014 Ouya WW : TBA Genre ( s ) Graphic adventure Interactive drama Mode ( s ) Single - player The Walking Dead ( also known as The Walking Dead : The Game and The Walking Dead : Season One ) is an episodic interactive drama graphic adventure survival horror video game developed and published by Telltale Games . Based on The Walking Dead comic book series , the game consists of five episodes , released between April and November 2012 . It is available for Android , iOS , Kindle Fire HDX , Microsoft Windows , Mac OS X , PlayStation 3 , PlayStation Vita , Xbox 360 , PlayStation 4 and Xbox One . The game is the first of The Walking Dead video game series published by Telltale . The game takes place in the same fictional world as the comic , with events occurring shortly after the onset of the zombie apocalypse in Georgia . However , most of the characters are original to the game , which centers on university professor and convicted criminal Lee Everett , who helps to rescue and subsequently care for a young girl named Clementine . Kirkman provided oversight for the game 's story to ensure it corresponded to the tone of the comic , but allowed Telltale to handle the bulk of the developmental work and story specifics . Some characters from the original comic book series also make in - game appearances . Unlike many graphic adventure games , The Walking Dead does not emphasize puzzle solving , but instead focuses on story and character development . The story is affected by both the dialogue choices of the player and their actions during quick time events , which can often lead to , for example , certain characters being killed , or an adverse change in the disposition of a certain character or characters towards Lee . The choices made by the player carry over from episode to episode . Choices were tracked by Telltale , and used to influence their writing in later episodes . The Walking Dead has been critically acclaimed , with reviewers praising the harsh emotional tone of the story and the empathetic connection established between Lee and Clementine . It won year - end accolades , including Game of the Year awards from several gaming publications . More than one million unique players have purchased at least one episode from the series , with over 8.5 million individual units sold by the end of 2012 , and its success has been seen as constituting a revitalization of the weakened adventure game genre . In July 2013 , Telltale released an additional downloadable episode , 400 Days , to extend the first season and bridge the gap towards the second season . The third season premiered on December 20 , 2016 . The fourth and final season is set to be released in 2018 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Gameplay 2 Synopsis 2.1 Setting 2.2 Characters 2.3 Plot 2.4 400 Days 3 Episodes 3.1 Supplemental episodes 4 Development 4.1 Rights 4.2 Writing 4.3 Choice 4.4 Art 4.5 Multi-platform 5 Downloadable content and sequels 6 Marketing and release 7 Reception 7.1 Sales 7.2 Accolades 8 References 9 External links Gameplay ( edit ) The Walking Dead is a graphic adventure , played from a third - person perspective with a variety of cinematic camera angles , in which the player , as protagonist Lee Everett , works with a rag - tag group of survivors to stay alive in the midst of a zombie apocalypse . The player can examine and interact with characters and items , and must make use of inventory items and the environment . Throughout the game , the player is presented with the ability to interact with their surroundings , and options to determine the nature of that interaction . For example , the player may be able to look at a character , talk to that character , or if they are carrying an item , offer it to the character or ask them about it . According to Robert Kirkman , The Walking Dead game is focused more on developing characters and story , and less on the action tropes that tend to feature in other zombie - based games , such as Left 4 Dead . A screenshot showing dialog choices . At certain points in the game 's conversation trees , the player will have a limited amount of time to respond , shown at the bottom of this screen . If they do n't respond in time , the game will default to the `` no statement '' ( ellipses ) option . Some parts of the game require timed responses from the player , often leading to significant decisions that will impact the game 's story , in the manner of role - playing games ( RPGs ) . Some conversation trees require the player to make a selection within a limited time , otherwise Lee will remain quiet , which can affect how other characters respond to him . Unlike in other RPGs such as the Mass Effect or Fallout series , where choices fall on either side of a `` good or evil '' scale , the choices within The Walking Dead have ambiguous results , having an effect on the attitude of the non-player characters towards Lee . The player can opt to enable a `` choice notification '' feature , in which the game 's interface indicates that a character has changed their disposition towards Lee as a result of these choices . In more action - based sequences , the player must follow on - screen prompts for quick time events ( QTEs ) so as to keep themselves or other characters alive . If the player dies , the game restarts from just prior to the QTE . Other timed situations involve major decisions , such as choosing which of two characters to keep alive . Each episode contains five points where the player must make a significant decision , choosing from one of two available options . Through Telltale 's servers , the game tracks how many players selected which option and lets the player compare their choices to the rest of the player base . The game can be completed regardless of what choices are made in these situations ; the main events of the story , as described below , will continue regardless of what choices are made , but the presence and behavior of the non-player characters in later scenes will be affected by these choices . The game does allow the player to make multiple saves , and includes a `` rewind '' feature where the player can back up and alter a previous decision , thus facilitating the exploration of alternative choices . Synopsis ( edit ) Setting ( edit ) The Walking Dead occurs simultaneously with the events from the original comic series , where a zombie apocalypse overwhelms much of society . Characters in the game come to call the zombies `` walkers '' , due to the slowness of their movement . Although the survivors initially think that being bitten by a zombie is the only way to become infected , it is later discovered that one becomes a zombie upon death irrespective of the manner in which one dies ; only by damaging the brain can the reanimation be stopped . As with the comic and television series , the game 's events occur in the state of Georgia . Characters ( edit ) Several members of the main cast of survivors of The Walking Dead by Episode 4 . From left , Christa , Omid , Kenny , Lee , Ben , and Chuck . Numerous characters appear throughout the game . Lee Everett ( voiced by Dave Fennoy ) , the primary protagonist of the series , is a native of Macon and a former university professor convicted for killing a state senator who was sleeping with his wife . Lee eventually finds and becomes a father figure to Clementine ( voiced by Melissa Hutchison ) , an eight - year - old whose parents went away for the weekend , leaving her with a babysitter. Lee and Clementine soon encounter a family from Fort Lauderdale , Florida ; Kenny ( voiced by Gavin Hammon ) , a fisherman who prioritizes his family above all else ; Katjaa , Kenny 's wife , who works as a veterinarian ( voiced by Cissy Jones ) ; and Kenny and Katjaa 's son , Kenny Jr. ( voiced by Max Kaufman ) , more commonly known as `` Duck '' . The five join a survivor group led by Lilly ( voiced by Nicki Rapp ) , who was formerly stationed on the Robins Air Force Base . Lilly 's group consists of multiple survivors , including Larry ( voiced by Terry McGovern ) , her aggressive and judgmental father , a retired U.S. Army commander who knows Lee 's past ; Carley ( voiced by Nicole Vigil ) a quick - thinking regional news reporter who is also aware of Lee 's crimes ; Doug ( voiced by Sam Joan ) , a resourceful and logical information systems technician ; and Glenn Rhee ( voiced by Nick Herman ) , a former pizza delivery boy . In the second episode , two more survivors join the group : Mark ( voiced by Mark Middleton ) , a survivor who used to work for the U.S. Air Force ; and Ben Paul ( voiced by Trevor Hoffman ) , a high school student rescued by Lee , Mark and Kenny . In the third episode , more characters are introduced ; Chuck ( voiced by Roger Jackson ) , a level - headed homeless man who lives in a boxcar ; and Omid and Christa ( voiced by Owen Thomas and Mara Junot respectively ) , a young couple who tend to stay away from large groups . The fourth episode introduces two more characters ; Molly ( voiced by Erin Ashe ) , an acrobatic and resourceful young woman who carries an ice axe ; and Vernon ( voiced by Butch Engle ) , a doctor and leader of a group of cancer survivors hiding in the morgue of a hospital . The Stranger ( voiced by Anthony Lam , and by Roger Jackson through the walkie - talkie ) is a man that communicates to Clementine via her walkie - talkie as the group nears Savannah . Plot ( edit ) This article 's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed . Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise . ( October 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The following summary is a broad overview of the work , describing the major events that occur regardless of player choice . Some specific elements not listed here will change based on the impact of player choices . The game opens with Lee Everett on his way to prison after his conviction in Atlanta , Georgia . En route , the police car in which he is travelling strikes a walker and careens off - road . The officer is killed by walkers , and Lee takes shelter in a nearby home , discovering a little girl named Clementine . Her parents went away for a few days to Savannah , when the zombie apocalypse began . Lee offers to protect and care for Clementine , and help her find them . They meet Kenny , his wife Katjaa and their son Kenny Jr. ( nicknamed `` Duck '' ) and head towards Macon ; the group are able to find safety in a motel with a defensible perimeter . Though protected from walkers , Lee and the survivors struggle to find food , and after three months , are at the last of their supplies . They are approached by the St. Johns , a family who own a nearby dairy . However , while on the dairy , Lee discovers the St. Johns have engaged in cannibalism . The group escapes using an abandoned station wagon , leaving the St. Johns as the farm is overrun by walkers . The group soon learns that the St. Johns had a deal with local bandits ; they gave the bandits food and in exchange the bandits would not attack the dairy . The bandits launch an attack on the motel that attracts walkers , and the group is forced to abandon their base and supplies . The group come upon a freight train and a homeless man named Chuck . They get the train working , heading towards Savannah , with the intention of finding a boat and getting out onto the ocean . During the trip , Duck succumbs to his bite he received during the attack on the motel driving Katjaa to suicide . The group then encounters Christa and Omid , two other survivors who join them . Nearing Savannah , Clementine 's walkie - talkie goes off . An unknown man tells her she will be safe once he deals with Lee and the group , and promises her that her parents are waiting for her . The group runs into a horde after church bells are rung by a mysterious stranger in the shadows . Chuck is left behind fighting the horde as the group takes shelter in a well - fortified mansion , and Lee and Kenny head towards the pier to find a boat . There , they discover that there are no boats left in the city , and whatever useful supplies remain are being held in Crawford , a fortified elitist community who do not permit the elderly , the sick , or children into their ranks . When walkers attack , Lee is separated from the group , and he makes his way back to the mansion through the sewers . While there , he finds a dead Chuck . He also discovers a group of cancer survivors , led by Vernon , hiding in a hospital morgue . Vernon returns with Lee back to the mansion , where Clementine has discovered a boat in the shed ; it lacks fuel and a battery , but both items can be obtained in Crawford . Lee and the group plan an invasion , but once there , they find the entire population has turned into walkers . They quickly gather the necessary supplies and leave . Vernon departs , but not before warning Lee that he does not believe Lee an appropriate guardian for Clementine , and offering to take care of her instead . The next morning , Lee wakes to find Clementine missing , and in his haste to find her , he is attacked and bitten by a walker . Initially suspecting Vernon , Lee finds the morgue abandoned , when Clementine 's walkie - talkie goes off . The man on the other end reports that he has Clementine and challenges Lee to come and find her . Clementine is able to reveal to Lee where she is being held , and Lee returns to the mansion only to find that the boat and other supplies have been stolen by Vernon 's group . The group heads off to rescue Clementine , and Kenny is lost during an attack by a herd of walkers . Lee reaches the hotel where Clementine is captive where he comes face to face with her captor , who reveals that he was the owner of the station wagon that the group ransacked after leaving the dairy and lost his family to walkers as a result . Seeking revenge , the stranger found Clementine on his walkie - talkie and manipulated her into keeping tabs on the group under the guise that he had her parents and had been following them ever since . Realizing that the man is insane , Lee , with Clementine 's help , kills him . As Lee and Clementine leave the hotel , Clementine spots her parents , both of whom have turned into walkers , and Lee falls unconscious . Awakening soon after , he realizes he is near conversion , and instructs her to escape the city and meet Omid and Christa at the edge of town . The player can choose to have Lee order Clementine to either kill him , leave him to become a walker , or opt to do nothing , in which case Clementine will choose based on the culmination of the player 's choices within the game . 400 Days ( edit ) The downloadable content 400 Days relates stories of other survivors of zombie apocalypse , starting at its onset and occurring concurrently with Season One . Some of these characters , depending on player choices , reappear in Season Two . The character stories include : Vince ( Anthony Lam ) who has been sentenced to prison for murder which he had done to help his brother sometime prior to the outbreak . On Day 2 of the outbreak , Vince is on a prison - bound bus with Danny ( Erik Braa ) and Justin ( Trevor Hoffmann ) when it is ambushed by walkers . He manages to escape , helping one of his fellow prisoners as well while forced to leave another behind . Wyatt ( Jace Smykel ) his friend Eddie ( Brandon Bales ) have just accidentally killed a friend of Nate ( Jefferson Arca ) and are fleeing in a car on Day 41 of the outbreak when they run over one of Vince 's security guards in a dense fog . One of them gets out to check on the damage to the car and the fate of the guard , but the other one flees in the car , abandoning their friend . Russell ( Vegas Trip ) , a teenager traveling by foot to try to see if his grandmother is safe . On Day 184 of the outbreak he hitchhikes and is picked up by Nate , who takes Russell to a nearby gas station and truck stop . The two explore the stop for supplies coming across an older couple , Walt and Jean , who Nate prepares to kill , while Russell deliberates on staying with Nate or leaving him . Bonnie ( Erin Yvette ) , a former drug - addict , has joined with married couple Leland ( Adam Harrington ) and Dee ( Cissy Jones ) , Dee suspecting that Leland is becoming attracted to Bonnie . On Day 220 of the outbreak they are discovered by the survivors that Dee stole supplies from , forcing them to split up into a corn field . To protect herself , Bonnie attacks an approaching shadow with a farm tool , shocked to find it was actually Dee , who accuses her of purposely attacked her as she dies . Bonnie must determine whether to tell Leland the truth or not . Shel ( Cissy Jones ) and her younger sister , Becca ( Brett Pels ) have joined a large group who have acquired the truck stop some time after Russell 's story and were the same group Dee stole from in Bonnie 's story . Several members of the group are also former cancer patients who Lee encounter in Episode 4 of the main story and who stole Kenny 's boat . Roman ( Kid Beyond ) holds tight control as the leader of the group , and when Roberto , a scavenger , attempts to steal from the group on Day 236 of the outbreak , Roman debates whether to have him kill the scavenger or let him go and risk their safety , making Shel give the deciding vote . Sometime after on Day 259 , the consequences of her choice have splintered the group 's security or positivity . When another group member Stephanie ( Dana Bauer ) is caught stealing supplies , Roman asks Shel to kill her , leading Shel to consider either going through with it or fleeing the camp with Becca . The five stories culminate in a final scene on Day 400 where Tavia ( Rashida Clendening ) discovers photos of the five on a billboard near the now - overrun truck stop , along with a map to a nearby location . There , she finds the survivors , and offers them sanctuary nearby . The choices the player has previously made , and will make as Tavia , will determine which members join Tavia or remain behind . Episodes ( edit ) The game was separated into five episodes , released in two - month intervals . No . overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original release date Main series `` A New Day '' Sean Vanaman Jake Rodkin Sean Vanaman April 24 , 2012 ( 2012 - 04 - 24 ) At the onset of the zombie apocalypse , Lee Everett rescues young Clementine , and joins with other survivors in Macon , Georgia to protect themselves from the undead . `` Starved for Help '' Dennis Lenart Mark Darin Story by : Chuck Jordan June 27 , 2012 ( 2012 - 06 - 27 ) After having secured a motel , Lee saves a young man named Ben Paul , and the other survivors run low on food , and decide to take an offer made by the St. Johns , a family who own a nearby dairy farm . They come to learn the St. Johns may not be what they seem . `` Long Road Ahead '' Eric Parsons Sean Vanaman Story by : Sean Vanaman Jake Rodkin Harrison G. Pink August 28 , 2012 ( 2012 - 08 - 28 ) When bandits and walkers attack the motel , the group is forced to flee without their supplies , leading to tensions on the road . The group finds an operating train , headed for Savannah , where Clementine hopes to find her parents . `` Around Every Corner '' Nick Herman Gary Whitta October 9 , 2012 ( 2012 - 10 - 09 ) The survivors arrive in Savannah to search for a boat , only to get caught in a conflict involving a corrupt community and an elusive enemy , whom Clementine has been contacting . 5 5 `` No Time Left '' Sean Vanaman Jake Rodkin Sean Ainsworth Sean Vanaman November 20 , 2012 ( 2012 - 11 - 20 ) Lee and the remaining survivors travel across the now infested Savannah in an effort to rescue Clementine from The Marsh House . Downloaded content -- -- `` 400 Days '' Sean Ainsworth Sean Ainsworth Nick Breckon Mark Darin Sean Vanaman Gary Whitta July 2 , 2013 ( 2013 - 07 - 02 ) The story focuses on five new characters during the first 400 days of the zombie outbreak : Vince , a convicted criminal ; Wyatt , who is fleeing from an unknown pursuer ; Russell , who is trying to discover his grandmother 's fate ; Bonnie , a drug addict ; and Shel , who is fleeing with her sister Becca . The epilogue follows Tavia , who is trying to save other survivors . Supplemental episodes ( edit ) An additional episode , titled 400 Days , was released in July 2013 as downloadable content , bridging the gap between the first and second season . It focuses on five new characters , and is presented in a nonlinear narrative style ; players can approach the five stories in any order they choose . Development ( edit ) Rights ( edit ) Prior to The Walking Dead , Telltale Games had made several successful episodic adventure games based on established properties , including three seasons of Sam & Max based on the comics and prior video games , and the five - episode Tales of Monkey Island , based upon the Monkey Island video game series . In 2010 , the company secured the rights to two licensed movie properties from Universal Studios , resulting in Back to the Future : The Game and Jurassic Park : The Game . The latter included elements atypical of adventure games , including more action - oriented sequences incorporating quick time events , and was inspired by Quantic Dream 's Heavy Rain . In February 2011 , Telltale announced deals with Warner Bros. to develop episodic series based on both The Walking Dead and Fables . For The Walking Dead , the agreement including provisions for `` multi-year , multi-platform , multi-title '' arrangements , with an initial episodic series release to commence in the fourth quarter of 2011 . Writing ( edit ) During development of the game , Robert Kirkman and the comic publisher Skybound Entertainment worked with Telltale . According to Kirkman , he had previously played Telltale 's Strong Bad 's Cool Game for Attractive People , and felt that they `` were more focused on telling a good story , and I thought they were good at engaging the player in the narrative . '' Telltale approached him with a proposal which , according to Kirkman , `` involved decision - making and consequences rather than ammunition gathering or jumping over things . '' The proposal 's emphasis on the survival aspect of the comics , and the need for the player to make choices between two bad options sold him on the project . Since then , Kirkman became involved with Telltale , mostly providing oversight on what aspects of the story were appropriate components of The Walking Dead universe , in much the same manner as he does for the television show , staying out of the direct development process . Dan Connors , CEO of Telltale , stated that working with Kirkman made it easier for Telltale to craft its story and introduce new characters , instead of having to work with those already established in the comic . One of the few demands Kirkman asked of Telltale was to avoid telling anything involved with the comic 's main character , Rick Grimes , as Kirkman has stated long - term plans with the character in other media . Kirkman had not been impressed with an early build of the first episode , but by the time they had presented him with a near - final build , Kirkman told the Telltale team , `` Holy shit guys , you did it '' , according to the game 's co-lead developer Jake Rodkin . Connors stated that from a gameplay perspective , they had looked to games such as Heavy Rain and the Uncharted series as a basis for in - game cinematics , while the idea of giving the player choice was influenced by the Mass Effect series . In addition to the television version of The Walking Dead , Telltale took cues from Game of Thrones and Mad Men in terms of how to develop characters within a brief time . Connors also noted that he found that traditional conversation trees did not possess `` a believable rhythm '' to dialog , and developed a conversion system , using timed input , to create more natural - sounding dialog . The game 's story was written with the final scene in the fifth episode , where Clementine either shoots Lee or walks away to let him become a walker , as the established ending that the game would build towards . As such , the character of Clementine was considered critical to the game 's writing , and the team spent much time making her the `` moral compass '' for the game , while assuring that as a child character , she would not come off to the player as whining or annoying . Similarly , the scene with the Stranger in the hotel room was planned very early in development , and also used to review the player 's decisions on a moral basis , allowing the player to respond , if they desired , to the allegations . Each episode was developed by pairing a writer and a game designer so that the plot and gameplay style for that episode would work in cooperation and avoid having one feel detached from the other , according to Vanaman . As such , certain gameplay ideas were left out of the game ; one example given by Vanaman was a scene where everyone in the survivor group was firing on a wall of zombies , but as this would lead to a discrete success or failure , it did not fit in with the sense of panic they wanted to convey in the scene . Choice ( edit ) A major aspect in the writing The Walking Dead was the concept of death , whether for the player or non-player characters . Telltale itself was formed from many former LucasArts employees , who had previously written games where the player could not die . As such , they introduced situations where Lee would die if the player did not react fast enough , although the game would restart just before these events , and situations where non-player characters would die based on the player 's on - the - spot decisions . This latter aspect was designed to maintain the game 's pace , and led to the idea of tracking the player 's decisions . Telltale 's development tools and engines had previously included means of tracking players ' progress , but the use in The Walking Dead was more explicit , revealing global statistics . The ultimate goal of introducing non-game - ending choices into the game was to make the player more invested in the story and more likely to avoid using the rewind feature . Telltale spent a great deal of time to assure that no choice would appear to be punishing to the player , though ultimately `` all choices are equally wrong '' , according to Whitta . The writers wanted to create choices that would appear to have a significant impact on the story but ultimately would be mostly inconsequential to the larger story . At major decision points , the writers ' aim was try to have the audience split evenly by making the dialog as neutral as possible prior to the choice ; they considered that a split of 75 to 25 percent was not ideal . They noted such cases occurred in both the first episode , where the player has an option to save Carley ( the `` hot reporter with a gun '' ) or Doug ( the `` dorky dude '' ) , with the vast majority of players saving Carley , and in the second episode , where the player is given the option to cut off Parker 's leg before they are attacked by Walkers or leave him behind , with most players cutting off the leg . As such , in subsequent episodes , they worked to modify dialog to eliminate any sense of suggestion , leaving the notion of the ' right ' choice ambiguous , and totally up to the player themself . In some cases , the writers had to work around the established characters and chronology from the comic series . In the first episode , for example , the player is introduced to Hershel Greene , who is established in the comics as a bitter character due to witnessing his son Shawn turn into a walker in the early stages of the outbreak . One of the first decisions the player makes is whether to save Shawn or Duck ; however , either choice results in Shawn being bitten , so as to maintain the comic 's continuity ; only the manner in which he is bitten is changed . The major consequence aspect of the choice instead involves how Kenny feels towards Lee . In other cases , Telltale designed scenes and choices knowing how the majority of players would be predisposed to certain characters . One example is the character of Larry , who is introduced in the first episode as a hard - nosed jerk . Based on the statistical feedback , Telltale recognized that most players would want to either abandon or kill Larry at the first opportunity , and as such , they created a conversation tree in episode two where Lilly goes some way to redeem Larry in the eyes of the player . The idea was that this might influence the player when they must choose whether to help Kenny kill Larry , who may , or may not , have died from a heart attack and be on the verge of turning . Telltale found that 75 % of the players now wanted to save Larry , a result they had expected . The writers also used the decision statistics from previous episodes to develop the direction of future ones . Gary Whitta , the writer of the fourth episode , specifically reviewed all the statistics from the previous three episodes to determine the general development of the episode 's story . One example involved the death of Duck in the third episode . In that episode , the player must choose to either kill Duck for Kenny , or have Kenny do it himself . In the fourth episode , Whitta wrote a scene where Kenny finds a similar - looking boy , who has starved to death in an attic and come back as a walker . Again , the player is faced with the choice of whether to kill the boy themselves or have Kenny do it . They also included a third choice , in which the player would simply walk away , leaving the boy as a walker trapped in the attic , but this decision would harshly affect the disposition of the others characters towards Lee . By the first act of episode 5 , there were 32 variations due to past player choices that they had to write towards . The number of possible scenarios were considered necessary to make the game feel `` organic '' to the individual player , making the player feel like they weaved their own story within the game instead of just taking a specific route through the choices . Art ( edit ) Telltale 's art director , Derek Sakai , led the creation of the characters and their expressions . Sakai was told to not use symmetric expressions to help create more human - like expressions and help improve the realism of the game . Sakai drew inspiration from his own daughter to develop the character of Clementine . Multi-platform ( edit ) The game engine used for The Walking Dead was optimized so as to facilitate the multi-platform nature of the release , which included PCs , gaming consoles and mobile devices , with the aim of minimizing the work in porting . However , the development team still focused on achieving the best control schemes for each platform ; in particular , the touchscreen control scheme on mobile devices was based on experience gained during the development of the Back to the Future game . A major challenge through the development of all five episodes was the save game file format , which they continually have to update and fix across platforms , and in some cases , causing existing save files to become invalid . Unique fixes applied for earlier episodes on one platform would reappear as problems in later ones . Connors stated that for the next series , they will be `` a lot more diligent '' on the save game issues , using data gathered during the first season development and information on how players would approach the game . In previous series developed by Telltale for multiple platforms , they had had difficulty in timing releases to reach all players at the same time . One aspect of this was due to issues encountered on the Xbox Live Arcade service for the Xbox 360 ; for small publishers , like Telltale at the time , they had to arrange with larger publishers to allocate a slot within the Arcade 's release schedule several months in advance , making it difficult to coordinate with releases on other platforms . After the success of the Back to the Future and Jurassic Park games , however , Telltale were able to officially achieve a publisher status on Xbox Live , giving them more control of the release schedule . Furthermore , they had designed the game such that the second through fifth episodes would be treated as downloadable content , allowing them to bypass slot scheduling and assuring same - day release on both PCs and consoles . Downloadable content and sequels ( edit ) Main articles : The Walking Dead : Season Two , The Walking Dead : Michonne , and The Walking Dead : A New Frontier The first series proved successful , leading Telltale to begin development of a second episodic season . The first episode of the second season was released in late 2013 . According to Connors , Telltale incorporates what players liked best from the previous seasons , while considering how and by what means they will continue the story , and include the possibility of tying in more of the characters from the television show . In February 2013 , Whitta suggested that there may also be some material released before the second season to tide players over until then . This was revealed to be the aforementioned 400 Days downloadable content , revealed at the 2013 Electronic Entertainment Expo following a week of brief Vine video teaser movies posted by Telltale , introducing the five main characters in the added episode . The content uses information from the player 's saved game from the first season , and decisions made within 400 Days will continue into season two . The content was made available on the game 's existing platforms between July 2 and 11 , 2013 , while a special bundled edition of the PlayStation Vita , including the full The Walking Dead game and 400 Days content , was released on August 20 , 2013 . A `` Game of the Year '' edition of The Walking Dead , including all five episodes and 400 Days , was released for retail for the Microsoft Windows , Xbox 360 , and PlayStation 3 platforms on November 19 , 2013 . A three episode mini-series , The Walking Dead : Michonne , based on the character Michonne , was released in February 2016 . The first episode of third season The Walking Dead : A New Frontier was released on December 20 , 2016 , with physical season pass disc released on February 7 , 2017 . The fourth and final season is scheduled to premiere in 2018 . Marketing and release ( edit ) The Walking Dead was originally announced as a five - episode series with approximately monthly releases as digital downloads for Microsoft Windows , OS X , Xbox 360 , and PlayStation 3 systems . Its release was slated for late 2011 , but it was ultimately pushed back to April 2012 . This date was shortly after the conclusion of the final episode of the second season of The Walking Dead television show , providing a means for the game to ride the popularity of the show . Telltale later announced that they would provide a disc - based release of the complete game for these platforms on December 11 , 2012 , after the release of the fifth episode . Exclusive to GameStop stores in North America is the Collector 's Edition , which includes new artwork by Charlie Adlard and The Walking Dead : Compendium One , a comic book that embody the first 48 issues of the series by Robert Kirkman . Following the retail release , some Xbox 360 owners without large storage options reported stuttering issues with the disc - based game ; Telltale compensated these users with free codes to download the full series digitally . An iOS version of the game was announced in August 2012 , with episodes released shortly after their computer / console debut . Later , after the full release of all five episodes to the App Store , Telltale offered the first episode for free , something they had done in the past , as doing so , according to Dan Connors , `` opens the funnel and gets it out to more people who can then convert into the ( full ) game '' . In March 2013 , Telltale announced that The Walking Dead will be ported to the PlayStation Vita , later revealed in June 2013 to be a retail release , including a special Vita bundle package that would include the game , the 400 Days episode , and additional content . In November 2013 , Telltale announced that a Game of the Year edition of The Walking Dead was to be released for PC , Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 through retail . It will includes the five episodes , the 400 Days DLC episode , the original score and a behind - the - scenes feature . Releases for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One consoles were announced in May 2014 and released in October later that year . Reception ( edit ) Aggregate review scores Game Metacritic Episode 1 -- A New Day ( PS3 ) 84 ( PC ) 82 ( X360 ) 79 Episode 2 -- Starved for Help ( PC ) 84 ( X360 ) 84 ( PS3 ) 84 Episode 3 -- Long Road Ahead ( X360 ) 88 ( PS3 ) 87 ( PC ) 85 Episode 4 -- Around Every Corner ( X360 ) 82 ( PS3 ) 81 ( PC ) 80 Episode 5 -- No Time Left ( PC ) 89 ( X360 ) 89 ( PS3 ) 88 Special Episode -- 400 Days ( X360 ) 80 ( PS3 ) 78 ( PC ) 78 A Telltale Games Series ( X360 ) 92 ( PS3 ) 94 ( PC ) 89 ( PSVITA ) 82 The Walking Dead has received critical acclaim , with reviewers giving praise for the harsh emotional tone , the characters , story and the resemblance to the original comic book , although criticizing the graphical glitches . The game received over 80 Game of the Year awards and many other awards . `` Episode 1 -- A New Day '' received positive reviews . Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic gave the PlayStation 3 version 85.14 % and 84 / 100 , the Xbox 360 version 83.87 % and 79 / 100 and the PC version 83.38 % and 82 / 100 . The game received various accolades including the IGN `` Editors ' Choice '' , PC Gamer `` Editors ' Choice '' , Xbox Editors ' Choice Award , and the PlayStation Gold Award . `` Episode 2 -- Starved for Help '' received positive reviews . Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic gave the PC version 86.53 % and 84 / 100 , the Xbox 360 version 86.26 % and 84 / 100 and the PlayStation 3 version 85.90 % and 84 / 100 . The game won the GameSpy E3 2012 award for `` Best Adventure Game '' . `` Episode 3 -- Long Road Ahead '' received positive reviews . Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic gave the Xbox 360 version 88.47 % and 88 / 100 , the PlayStation 3 version 86.11 % and 87 / 100 and the PC version 85.41 % and 85 / 100 . IGN 's Greg Miller gave it a 9 out of 10 , saying `` It 's a disturbing , depressing and entertaining entry in a journey that 's been nothing short of excellent so far . '' GameSpot gave the game an 8.5 , saying `` The Walking Dead has passed the midway point of its series of five episodes with every indication that the game will keep getting better right through to its inevitably depressing and unsettling conclusion . '' MTV also gave it a positive review , saying `` Telltale has created a series of wrenching , emotional decisions in the middle of a collection of not - too - hard puzzles in a visually - impressive adaptation of the Robert Kirkman comic series ( with some nods to the TV show ) . '' `` Episode 4 -- Around Every Corner '' received positive reviews . Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic gave the PC version 84.00 % and 80 / 100 , the Xbox 360 version 82.50 % and 82 / 100 and the PlayStation 3 version 78.94 % and 81 / 100 . `` Episode 5 -- No Time Left '' received critical acclaim . Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic gave the PC version 94.75 % and 89 / 100 , the Xbox 360 version 88.15 % and 89 / 100 and the PlayStation 3 version 87.75 % and 88 / 100 . 400 Days received positive reviews . Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic gave the PlayStation 3 version 78.20 % and 78 / 100 , the PC version 78.00 % and 78 / 100 and the Xbox 360 version 76.88 % and 80 / 100 . Sales ( edit ) The Walking Dead was a financial success , aided by the ease of digital distribution . The first episode topped the charts on Xbox Live Arcade for the week of April 30 , and remained at the top for two weeks . It also topped the sales charts for both PlayStation Network and Steam for a week . The first episode sold one million copies in 20 days ( not including iOS sales ) , making it Telltale 's fastest selling title to date . With the third episode 's release , over 3.8 million episodes were delivered to 1.2 million players . As of January 2013 , over 8.5 million episodes have been sold across all platforms , representing about $40 million in revenue . Telltale 's CEO Dan Connors has stated that the iOS version represented about 25 % of their overall sales , the `` largest upswing '' for any platform , with sale particularly high in November and December 2012 , due in part due to various sales on the App Store . Upon announcement of the 400 Days content , Telltale reported that over 17 million episodes have been purchased across all platforms worldwide , while by October 2013 , at the time of the formal announcement of Season Two , over 21 million episodes have been sold . As of July 28 , 2014 , 28 million episodes have been sold . Accolades ( edit ) The Walking Dead has been described as representing a revitalization of the adventure game genre , which had been in decline since the mid-1990s . Telltale have been praised for taking their previous experiences in the genre and expanding on them , whilst also incorporating strong writing and voice acting ; Gamasutra and Game Developer named the studio one of the top 10 developers in 2012 . The Walking Dead has garnered many other 2012 `` Game of the Year '' awards , notably from USA Today , Wired , Complex , GamesRadar and Official Xbox Magazine . The Walking Dead was awarded `` Game of the Year '' , `` Best Adapted Video Game '' , and `` Best Downloadable Game '' at the 2012 Spike Video Game Awards ; Melissa Hutchison 's role as Clementine was named as `` Best Performance By a Human Female '' , while Dave Fennoy was nominated for `` Best Performance by a Human Male '' . Telltale Games was also named as `` Studio of the Year '' . The game was awarded `` Best Downloadable Game '' and `` Best Character Design '' for Lee Everett at the 2012 Inside Gaming Awards . The Walking Dead was Destructoid 's 2012 `` Game of the Year '' and `` Best Multi-Platform Game '' . Digital Trends awarded the game with `` Best Writing '' , `` Best Digitally Distributed Game '' , and `` Game of the Year '' for 2012 . Yahoo ! Games ' Flan Dering listed The Walking Dead as his `` Game of the Year '' and `` Best Downloadable Game '' for 2012 . For the 2013 D.I.C.E. Interactive Achievement Awards , The Walking Dead was nominated for eight awards , and won for `` Adventure Game of the Year '' , `` Downloadable Game of the Year '' , `` Outstanding Achievement in Story '' , and `` Outstanding Character Performance '' for the character of Lee . The Walking Dead won the `` Best Narrative '' award and received nominations for `` Best Downloadable Game '' and `` Game of the Year '' for the 2013 Game Developer 's Choice Awards . The Walking Dead won the `` Story '' and `` Mobile & Handheld '' awards at the 2013 British Academy Video Games Awards , and was nominated for `` Best Game '' , `` Game Design '' , and `` Original Music '' for the 2013 British Academy Video Games Awards , along with separate `` Performance '' nominations for Fennoy and Hutchinson for their roles as Lee and Clementine , respectively . In March 2013 , the game was nominated for and won several Pocket Gamer Awards categories , including iOS Game of the Year . The Walking Dead : 400 Days won Animation , Interactive at the 2013 National Academy of Video Game Trade Reviewers ( NAVGTR ) awards . A virtual pinball table , developed jointly by Telltale Games and Zen Studios , was released on August 27 , 2014 as downloadable content for Zen Pinball 2 and Pinball FX 2 . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Everything Breaks Bad In The Darkest , Strongest Episode Of The Walking Dead Yet '' . Kotaku . Retrieved 2012 - 09 - 29 . 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Jump up ^ `` TelltaleGames - The Walking Dead : Season One Episode Two - Starved for Help - Twitch '' . Twitch.tv . Retrieved 2013 - 12 - 02 . Jump up ^ Campbell , Colin ( 2013 - 07 - 20 ) . `` More tears for Clementine at Comic - Con '' . Polygon . Retrieved 2013 - 07 - 22 . Jump up ^ Dyer , Mitch ( 2015 - 06 - 15 ) . `` E3 2015 : THE WALKING DEAD : MICHONNE MINISERIES ANNOUNCED '' . IGN . Retrieved 2015 - 06 - 15 . Jump up ^ Rose , Mike ( 2014 - 07 - 27 ) . `` The Walking Dead sells 28M episodes , third season on the way '' . Gamasutra . Retrieved 2014 - 07 - 27 . Jump up ^ https://telltale.com/news/2016/11/-the-walking-dead-the-telltale-series---a-new-frontier-premieres-december-20th/ Jump up ^ Goldfarb , Andrew ( July 19 , 2017 ) . `` Comic - Con 2017 : Telltale 's The Walking Dead Season 4 Is Final Season , Coming in 2018 '' . IGN . Ziff Davis . Retrieved July 20 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Miller , Greg ( 2011 - 02 - 17 ) . `` Walking Dead Video Game Lives '' . IGN . Retrieved 2011 - 03 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` The Walking Dead on Steam '' . Store.steampowered.com . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` Playing Dead '' . IGN . Retrieved 2012 - 09 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` How The Walking Dead Confounds Gaming 's Gloom '' . IGN . Retrieved 2012 - 10 - 20 . Jump up ^ `` The Walking Dead : Collector 's Edition Is A GameStop Exclusive '' . G4 . Retrieved 2012 - 10 - 23 . Jump up ^ Hillier , Brenna ( 2013 - 01 - 09 ) . `` The Walking Dead digital free to those troubled by stuttering issues '' . VG247 . Retrieved 2013 - 01 - 10 . Jump up ^ `` The Walking Dead Episode Two iOS Dated '' . IGN. 2012 - 08 - 23 . Retrieved 2012 - 09 - 16 . Jump up ^ Moriarty , Colin ( 2013 - 03 - 22 ) . `` Telltale 's The Walking Dead Coming to PlayStation Vita '' . IGN . Retrieved 2013 - 03 - 22 . Jump up ^ Corriea , Alexa Rae ( 2014 - 05 - 30 ) . `` Telltale 's The Walking Dead , The Wolf Among Us coming to PS4 and Xbox One '' . Polygon . Retrieved 2014 - 05 - 30 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Walking Dead : Episode 1 -- A New Day Reviews '' . Metacritic . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Walking Dead : Episode 1 -- A New Day Reviews '' . Metacritic . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Walking Dead : Episode 1 -- A New Day Reviews '' . Metacritic . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Walking Dead : Episode 2 -- Starved for Help Reviews '' . Metacritic . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Walking Dead : Episode 2 -- Starved for Help Reviews '' . Metacritic . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Walking Dead : Episode 2 -- Starved for Help Reviews '' . Metacritic . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Walking Dead : Episode 3 -- Long Road Ahead Reviews '' . Metacritic . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Walking Dead : Episode 3 -- Long Road Ahead Reviews '' . Metacritic . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Walking Dead : Episode 3 -- Long Road Ahead Reviews '' . Metacritic . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Walking Dead : Episode 4 -- Around Every Corner Reviews '' . Metacritic . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Walking Dead : Episode 4 -- Around Every Corner Reviews '' . Metacritic . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Walking Dead : Episode 4 -- Around Every Corner Reviews '' . Metacritic . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Walking Dead : Episode 5 -- No Time Left Reviews '' . Metacritic . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Walking Dead : Episode 5 -- No Time Left Reviews '' . Metacritic . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Walking Dead : Episode 5 -- No Time Left Reviews '' . Metacritic . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Walking Dead : 400 Days Reviews '' . Metacritic . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Walking Dead : 400 Days Reviews '' . Metacritic . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Walking Dead : 400 Days Reviews '' . Metacritic . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . Jump up ^ http://www.metacritic.com/game/xbox-360/the-walking-dead-a-telltale-games-series Jump up ^ http://www.metacritic.com/game/playstation-3/the-walking-dead-a-telltale-games-series Jump up ^ http://www.metacritic.com/game/pc/the-walking-dead-a-telltale-games-series Jump up ^ http://www.metacritic.com/game/playstation-vita/the-walking-dead-a-telltale-games-series---the-complete-first-season Jump up ^ `` The Walking Dead : Episode 1 -- A New Day Reviews '' . GameRankings . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The Walking Dead : Episode 1 -- A New Day Reviews '' . GameRankings . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The Walking Dead : Episode 1 -- A New Day Reviews '' . GameRankings . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The Walking Dead : Episode 2 -- Starved for Help Reviews '' . GameRankings . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The Walking Dead : Episode 2 -- Starved for Help Reviews '' . GameRankings . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The Walking Dead : Episode 2 -- Starved for Help Reviews '' . GameRankings . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` GameSpy 's Best of E3 2012 Awards '' . GameSpy . Retrieved 2011 - 07 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` The Walking Dead : Episode 3 -- Long Road Ahead Reviews '' . GameRankings . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The Walking Dead : Episode 3 -- Long Road Ahead Reviews '' . GameRankings . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The Walking Dead : Episode 3 -- Long Road Ahead Reviews '' . GameRankings . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The Walking Dead : The Game -- Episode 3 : Long Road Ahead Review '' . IGN . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 07 . Jump up ^ August 30 , 2012 2 : 51PM PDT ( 2012 - 08 - 28 ) . `` The Walking Dead : Episode 3 -- Long Road Ahead Review '' . GameSpot.com . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Review : Telltale Breaks Your Heart With ' The Walking Dead : Ep. 3 -- Long Road Ahead ' '' . Multiplayerblog.mtv.com. 2012 - 08 - 30 . Archived from the original on 2012 - 09 - 11 . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` The Walking Dead : Episode 4 -- Around Every Corner Reviews '' . GameRankings . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The Walking Dead : Episode 4 -- Around Every Corner Reviews '' . GameRankings . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The Walking Dead : Episode 4 -- Around Every Corner Reviews '' . GameRankings . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The Walking Dead : Episode 5 -- No Time Left Reviews '' . GameRankings . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The Walking Dead : Episode 5 -- No Time Left Reviews '' . GameRankings . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The Walking Dead : Episode 5 -- No Time Left Reviews '' . GameRankings . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The Walking Dead : 400 Days Reviews '' . GameRankings . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The Walking Dead : 400 Days Reviews '' . GameRankings . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The Walking Dead : 400 Days Reviews '' . GameRankings . Retrieved February 7 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Campbell , Colin ( 2012 - 09 - 21 ) . `` How The Walking Dead Confounds Gaming 's Gloom '' . IGN . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 28 . Jump up ^ `` The Walking Dead Tops Xbox Live Arcade Chart '' . Eurogamer . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 15 . ^ Jump up to : `` Telltale Games ' The Walking Dead Sells a Million '' . IGN . Retrieved 2011 - 07 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` Telltale Games and Skybound Announce The Walking Dead : 400 Days as new DLC for Award - Winning Game Series '' ( Press release ) . Telltale Games . 2013 - 06 - 11 . Retrieved 2013 - 06 - 11 . Jump up ^ http://www.techtimes.com/articles/11417/20140728/walking-dead-video-game-telltale-games.htm Jump up ^ Rosenberg , Adam ( 2012 - 11 - 15 ) . `` The Walking Dead 's Season Finale Is Coming Next Week '' . G4 . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 30 . Jump up ^ Moss , Richard ( 2011 - 01 - 26 ) . `` A truly graphic adventure : the 25 - year rise and fall of a beloved genre '' . Ars Technica . Retrieved 2012 - 12 - 13 . Jump up ^ Graft , Kris ( 2012 - 12 - 13 ) . `` The top 10 game developers of 2012 '' . Gamasutra . Retrieved 2012 - 12 - 13 . Jump up ^ Molina , Brett ( 2013 - 01 - 01 ) . `` ' Walking Dead ' heads USA TODAY 's best 2012 video games '' . USA Today . Retrieved 2013 - 01 - 01 . Jump up ^ Kohler , Chris ( 2012 - 12 - 14 ) . `` Indie Passion Fuels the 10 Best Games of 2012 '' . Wired . Retrieved 2012 - 12 - 14 . Jump up ^ Hester , Larry ( 2012 - 12 - 17 ) . `` The 25 Best Video Games Of 2012 '' . Complex . Retrieved 2012 - 12 - 17 . Jump up ^ GamesRadar Staff ( 2012 - 12 - 17 ) . `` Game of the Year 2012 '' . GamesRadar . Retrieved 2012 - 12 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` OXM 2012 GAME OF THE YEAR : The Walking Dead '' . Official Xbox Magazine . Jump up ^ Labrecque , Jeff ( 2012 - 12 - 07 ) . `` ' The Walking Dead ' dominates Spike 's Video Game Awards '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved 2012 - 12 - 08 . Jump up ^ Phillips , Jevon ( 2012 - 12 - 09 ) . `` Inside Gaming Awards : ' Halo 4 ′ and ' Fez ' take top honors '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 2012 - 12 - 10 . Jump up ^ North , Dale ( 2012 - 12 - 14 ) . `` The winner of Destructoid 's Game of the Year 2012 '' . Destructoid . Retrieved 2012 - 12 - 17 . Jump up ^ Sterling , Jim ( 2012 - 12 - 14 ) . `` The winner of Dtoid 's best multiplatform game of 2012 '' . Destructoid . Retrieved 2012 - 12 - 17 . Jump up ^ Digital Trends Staff ( 2012 - 12 - 14 ) . `` Digital Trends ' Best Games of 2012 Winners '' . Digital Trends . Retrieved 2012 - 12 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` Yahoo ! Games Best of 2012 Awards '' . Yahoo ! Games . 2012 - 12 - 14 . Archived from the original on 2012 - 12 - 18 . Retrieved 2012 - 12 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` Yahoo ! Games Best of 2012 Awards '' . Yahoo ! Games . 2012 - 12 - 14 . Archived from the original on 2013 - 01 - 04 . Retrieved 2012 - 12 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences -- 16th Annual D.I.C.E. Awards Finalists '' ( PDF ) . Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences . January 14 , 2013 . Retrieved January 14 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Molina , Brett ( 2013 - 02 - 08 ) . `` ' Journey ' big winner at D.I.C.E. Awards '' . USA Today . Retrieved 2013 - 02 - 09 . Jump up ^ Makuch , Eddie ( 2013 - 03 - 28 ) . `` Journey takes top prize at GDC Awards '' . GameSpot . Retrieved 2013 - 03 - 28 . Jump up ^ Narcisse , Evan ( January 24 , 2013 ) . `` Here Are the 2012 Games That Developers Want to Give Awards to '' . Kotaku . Gawker Media . Archived from the original on January 24 , 2013 . Retrieved January 24 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Stewart , Keith ( 2013 - 02 - 12 ) . `` Bafta Video Game Awards 2013 -- nominees announced '' . The Guardian . Retrieved 2013 - 02 - 12 . Jump up ^ `` Pocket Gamer Awards 2013 '' . Pocketgamer.co.uk. 2013 - 03 - 18 . Retrieved 2013 - 12 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` NAVGTR Awards ( 2014 ) '' . National Academy of Video Game Trade Reviewers . Jump up ^ Xbox.com . `` The Walking Dead '' . Xbox.com . Retrieved 2014 - 10 - 19 . Jump up ^ Sarkar , Samit ( 2014 - 06 - 04 ) . `` The Walking Dead table shambling to Zen Pinball '' . Polygon . Retrieved 2014 - 06 - 04 . Jump up ^ Zen Studios ( June 4 , 2014 ) . `` Announcing The Walking Dead Pinball '' . Zen Studios Blog . Retrieved 2014 - 10 - 19 . External links ( edit ) Official website The Walking Dead on IMDb The Walking Dead Robert Kirkman Tony Moore Charlie Adlard Comic books The Walking Dead Television series The Walking Dead Episodes season 1 5 6 7 8 Accolades Soundtrack Vol. 1 Talking Dead Fear the Walking Dead Episodes season 1 Web series The Walking Dead Torn Apart Cold Storage Fear the Walking Dead Flight 462 Miscellaneous Video games Season One `` 400 Days '' Two Michonne Three : A New Frontier Other games Survival Instinct Road to Survival Rides The Walking Dead : The Ride Novels Rise of the Governor The Road to Woodbury The Fall of the Governor Descent Invasion Search and Destroy Return to Woodbury Characters Lists Comic book series Television series Aaron Alden Amy Jessie Anderson Andrea Axel Tara Chambler Clementine Daryl Dixon Merle Dixon Dwight Rosita Espinosa Lee Everett King Ezekiel Abraham Ford Gareth The Governor Gregory Beth Greene Hershel Greene Maggie Greene Carl Grimes Lori Grimes Rick Grimes Dale Horvath Jadis Morgan Jones Lilly Milton Mamet Caesar Martinez Deanna Monroe Paul `` Jesus '' Monroe Spencer Monroe Morales Michonne Negan Olivia The Prisoners Carol Peletier Sophia Peletier Eugene Porter Glenn Rhee Lizzie and Mika Samuels Simon Gabriel Stokes Bob Stookey T - Dog Shane Walsh Sasha Williams Tyreese Williams Telltale Games Bone series Out from Boneville The Great Cow Race CSI series 3 Dimensions of Murder Hard Evidence Deadly Intent Fatal Conspiracy Sam & Max series Save the World Beyond Time and Space The Devil 's Playhouse Puzzle Agent series Puzzle Agent Puzzle Agent 2 Poker Night series Poker Night at the Inventory Poker Night 2 The Walking Dead series The Walking Dead Season Two Michonne A New Frontier Minecraft : Story Mode series Minecraft : Story Mode Season 2 Batman series Batman : The Telltale Series The Enemy Within The Wolf Among Us Series The Wolf Among Us Season 2 Game of Thrones series Game of Thrones Season 2 Other titles Telltale Texas Hold'em Strong Bad 's Cool Game for Attractive People Wallace & Gromit 's Grand Adventures Tales of Monkey Island Back to the Future : The Game Jurassic Park : The Game Law & Order : Legacies Tales from the Borderlands Guardians of the Galaxy : The Telltale Series Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Walking_Dead_(video_game)&oldid=835168476 '' Categories : 2012 video games Android ( operating system ) games Adventure games Episodic video games Interactive movie video games IOS games MacOS games Ouya games PlayStation 3 games PlayStation 4 games PlayStation Network games PlayStation Vita games Post-apocalyptic video games Telltale Games games Square Enix games The Walking Dead Video games based on Image Comics Video games developed in the United States Video games featuring female protagonists Video games featuring non-playable protagonists Video games scored by Jared Emerson - Johnson Video games set in Georgia ( U.S. state ) Works set on trains Windows games Xbox 360 games Xbox 360 Live Arcade games Xbox One games Zombie video games Cannibalism in fiction Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from January 2018 Articles with permanently dead external links Articles with dead external links from March 2018 Articles using Infobox video game using locally defined parameters Articles using Wikidata infoboxes with locally defined images Wikipedia articles with plot summary needing attention from October 2015 All Wikipedia articles with plot summary needing attention Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Čeština Deutsch Español فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latviešu Lietuvių Nederlands 日本 語 Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська 中文 19 more Edit links This page was last edited on 7 April 2018 , at 00 : 02 . 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religious toleration becomes the law in maryland answers

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Maryland_Toleration_Act&oldid=819736071

Maryland Toleration Act - wikipedia Maryland Toleration Act Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( February 2014 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Maryland Toleration Act Part of English Civil War and Protestant Revolution of Maryland A small broadside reprint of the Maryland Toleration Act Date April 21 , 1649 Location Maryland Colony Also known as Act Concerning Religion Participants Colonial Assembly of Maryland Outcome Repealed in October 1694 The Maryland Toleration Act , also known as the Act Concerning Religion , was a law mandating religious tolerance for Trinitarian Christians . It was passed on April 21 , 1649 , by the assembly of the Maryland colony , in St. Mary 's City . It was the second law requiring religious tolerance in the British North American colonies and created one of the pioneer statutes passed by the legislative body of an organized colonial government to guarantee any degree of religious liberty . Specifically , the bill , now usually referred to as the Toleration Act , granted freedom of conscience to all Christians . ( The colony which became Rhode Island passed a series of laws , the first in 1636 , which prohibited religious persecution including against non-Trinitarians ; Rhode Island was also the first government to separate church and state . ) Historians argue that it helped inspire later legal protections for freedom of religion in the United States . The Calvert family , who founded Maryland partly as a refuge for English Catholics , sought enactment of the law to protect Catholic settlers and those of other religions that did not conform to the dominant Anglicanism of Britain and her colonies . The Act allowed freedom of worship for all Trinitarian Christians in Maryland , but sentenced to death anyone who denied the divinity of Jesus . It was revoked in 1654 by William Claiborne , a Virginian who had been appointed as a commissioner by Oliver Cromwell ; he was an Anglican , a Puritan sympathizer , and strongly hostile to the Catholic Religion . When the Calverts regained control of Maryland , the Act was reinstated , before being repealed permanently in 1692 following the events of the Glorious Revolution , and the Protestant Revolution in Maryland . As the first law on religious tolerance in the British North America , it influenced related laws in other colonies and portions of it were echoed in the writing of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution , which enshrined religious freedom in American law . Contents ( hide ) 1 Origin of the law 2 Description 3 Repeal and legacy 4 See also 5 External links 6 Footnotes 7 References Origin of the law ( edit ) Cecil Calvert , proprietor of the Maryland colony when the Maryland Toleration Act was passed The Maryland colony was founded by Cecil Calvert in 1634 . Like his father George Calvert , who had originated the efforts that led to the colony 's charter , Cecil Calvert was Catholic at a time when England was dominated by the Anglican Church . The Calverts intended the colony as a haven for Catholics fleeing England and as a source of income for themselves and their descendants . Many of Maryland 's first settlers were Catholic , including at least two Catholic priests , one of whom became the earliest chronicler of the colony 's history . But whatever Calvert 's intentions , Maryland was a colony of an Anglican nation . Its charter had been granted by an Anglican king and seems to have assumed that the Church of England would be its official church . Anglican and later Puritan newcomers quickly came to outnumber the early Catholic settlers . Thus , by 1649 when the law was passed , the colonial assembly was dominated by Protestants , and the law was in effect an act of Protestant tolerance for Catholics , rather than the reverse . From Maryland 's earliest days , Cecil Calvert had enjoined its colonists to leave religious rivalries behind . Along with giving instructions on the establishment and defense of the colony , he asked the men he appointed to lead it to ensure peace between Protestants and Catholics . He also asked the Catholics to practice their faith as privately as possible , so as not to disturb that peace . The Ordinance of 1639 , Maryland 's earliest comprehensive law , expressed a general commitment to the rights of man , but did not specifically detail protections for religious minorities of any kind . Peace prevailed until the English Civil War , which opened religious rifts and threatened Calvert 's control of Maryland . In 1647 , after the death of Governor Leonard Calvert , Protestants seized control of the colony . Cecil Calvert , 2nd Baron Baltimore , quickly regained power , but recognized that religious tolerance not specifically enshrined in law was vulnerable . This recognition was combined with the arrival of a group of Puritans whom Calvert had induced to establish Providence , now Annapolis , by guaranteeing their freedom of worship . Partially to confirm the promises he made to them , Calvert wrote the Maryland Toleration Act and encouraged the colonial assembly to pass it . They did so on April 21 , 1649 . Description ( edit ) The Maryland Toleration Act was an act of tolerance , allowing specific religious groups to practice their religion without being punished , but retaining the ability to revoke that right at any time . It also only granted tolerance to Christians who believed in the Trinity . The law was very explicit in limiting its effects to Christians : ... no person or persons ... professing to believe in Jesus Christ , shall from henceforth be anyways troubled , Molested or discountenanced for or in respect of his or her religion nor in the free exercise thereof within this Province ... -- Maryland Toleration Act , 1649 Settlers who blasphemed by denying either the Trinity or the divinity of Jesus Christ could be punished by execution or the seizure of their lands . That meant that Jews , Unitarians , and other dissenters from Trinitarian Christianity were practicing their religions at risk to their lives . Any person who insulted the Virgin Mary , the apostles , or the evangelists could be whipped , jailed , or fined . Otherwise , Trinitarian Christians ' right to worship was protected . The law outlawed the use of `` heretic '' and other religious insults against them . This attempt to limit the use of religious slurs and insults has been described as the first attempt in the world to limit the use of hate speech . The law was used in at least one attempt to prosecute a non-Christian . In 1658 a Jew named Jacob Lumbrozo was accused of blasphemy after saying that Jesus was not the son of God and that the miracles described in the New Testament were conjuring tricks . Lumbrozo did not deny having said such things , but argued that he had only been responding to questions asked of him . He was held for trial but the case was later dismissed , and he was given full citizenship as a condition of the restoration of Calvert 's rule following the English Civil War . The law had its detractors , even among those groups protected by it . Puritans were concerned that the act and the proprietary government in general were royalist . They were also concerned that by swearing allegiance to Calvert , who was Catholic , they were being required to submit to the Pope , whom they considered to be the antichrist . Some Anglicans also opposed the law , believing that the Church of England should be the colony 's sole established church . Repeal and legacy ( edit ) William Claiborne , who rescinded the Toleration Act when he took over the colony during the reign of Oliver Cromwell In 1654 , only five years after its passage , the Act was repealed . Two years earlier the colony had been seized by Protestants following the execution of King Charles I of England and the outbreak of the English Civil War . In the early stages of that conflict , the colonial assembly of Maryland and its neighbors in Virginia had publicly declared their support for the King . Parliament appointed Protestant commissioners loyal to their cause to subdue the colonies , and two of them , the Virginian William Claiborne and Puritan leader Richard Bennett , took control of the colonial government in St. Mary 's City in 1652 . In addition to repealing the Maryland Toleration Act with the assistance of Protestant assemblymen , Claiborne and Bennett passed a new law barring Catholics from openly practicing their religion . Calvert regained control after making a deal with the colony 's Protestants , and in 1657 the Act was again passed by the colonial assembly . This time , it would last more than thirty years , until 1692 . Following the Glorious Revolution of 1688 in England , when the Catholic King James II of England was deposed and the Protestant William III ascended the throne , a rebellion of Maryland Puritan Protestants overthrew Calvert 's rule . They quickly rescinded the Toleration Act and banned public practice of Catholicism , and it would never be reinstated under colonial rule . In fact , the colony established the Church of England as its official church in 1702 and explicitly barred Catholics from voting in 1718 . The Calvert family regained control over the colony in 1715 , but only after Benedict Calvert converted to Protestantism . His political control remained tenses enough that he did not risk an attempt to reinstate protections for Catholics . It took until the era of the American Revolution for religious tolerance or freedom to again become the practice in Maryland . While the law did not secure religious freedom , and while it included severe limitations , it was nonetheless a significant milestone . It predates the Enlightenment , which is generally considered to be when the idea of religious freedom took root , and stands as the first legal guarantee of religious tolerance in American and British history . Later laws ensuring religious tolerance and freedom , including the British Act of Toleration of 1689 , the Holy Experiment in Pennsylvania , and laws concerning religion in other colonies such as South Carolina , may have been influenced by its example . According to historian Robert Brugger , `` ... the measure marked a notable departure from Old World oppression . '' It was not until the passage of the signed First Amendment to the Constitution over a century later that religious freedom was enshrined as a fundamental guarantee , but even that document echoes the Toleration Act in its use of the phrase , `` free exercise thereof '' . Thus , despite its lack of a full guarantee of religious freedom or broad - based tolerance , the law is , `` a significant step forward in the struggle for religious liberty . '' See also ( edit ) History of religion in the United States External links ( edit ) Original text of the Maryland Toleration Act Yale University law library Footnotes ( edit ) Jump up ^ http://msa.maryland.gov/msa/speccol/sc2200/sc2221/000025/html/intro.html Jump up ^ Brugger , p 5 ^ Jump up to : Holmes , pp 20 -- 22 Jump up ^ Brugger , p 3 Jump up ^ Brugger , p 7 Jump up ^ Hanley , p 325 Jump up ^ Maclear , pp 45 -- 46 ^ Jump up to : Finkelman , p 675 ^ Jump up to : Brugger , p 20 Jump up ^ Toleration Act , paragraph 6 Jump up ^ McConnell , p 17 ^ Jump up to : Underwood , pp 6 -- 7 ^ Jump up to : Brugger , p 22 Jump up ^ Brugger , p 21 Jump up ^ Hoffman , pp 79 -- 80 References ( edit ) Brugger , Robert J. ( 1988 ) . Maryland : A Middle Temperament . Baltimore , Maryland : Johns Hopkins University Press . ISBN 0 - 8018 - 3399 - X . Finkelman , Paul ( 2006 ) . `` Maryland Toleration Act '' . The Encyclopedia of American Civil Liberties . New York : CRC Press . ISBN 0 - 415 - 94342 - 6 . Hanley , Thomas O'Brien ( 1957 ) . `` Church and State in the Maryland Ordinance of 1639 '' . Church History ( New York : Cambridge University Press on behalf of the American Society of Church History ) 26 ( 4 ) : 325 -- 341 . Retrieved November 14 , 2009 . Hoffman , Ronald ( 2000 ) . Princes of Ireland , Planters of Maryland : A Carroll Saga , 1500 -- 1782 . Chapel Hill : University of North Carolina Press . ISBN 0 - 8078 - 5347 - X . Holmes , David Lynn ( 2006 ) . The Faiths of the Founding Fathers . New York : Oxford University Press US . ISBN 0 - 19 - 530092 - 0 . Maclear , J.F. ( 1995 ) . Church and State in the Modern Age : A Documentary History . New York : Oxford University Press US . ISBN 0 - 19 - 508681 - 3 . McConnell , Michael W. ( 1992 ) . `` America 's First `` Hate Speech '' Regulation `` . Constitutional Commentary ( Minneapolis : University of Minnesota School of Law ) 9 ( 17 ) : 17 -- 23 . Retrieved November 14 , 2009 . `` Maryland Toleration Act '' . Yale University Avalon Project . 1649 . Retrieved November 14 , 2009 . Underwood , James L. and Burke , William Lewis ( 2006 ) . The Dawn of Religious Freedom in South Carolina . Columbia : University of South Carolina Press . ISBN 1 - 57003 - 621 - 7 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maryland_Toleration_Act&oldid=819736071 '' Categories : History of the Thirteen Colonies Colonial Maryland Religion in Maryland Christianity and law in the 17th century 1649 in law 1649 in Maryland St. Mary 's County , Maryland St. Mary 's City , Maryland History of Maryland 1649 in Christianity North America in the English Civil War Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from February 2014 All articles needing additional references Good articles Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Italiano Simple English Edit links This page was last edited on 11 January 2018 , at 00 : 31 . 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where does the saying to 86 something come from

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=86_(term)&oldid=837829693

86 ( term ) - wikipedia 86 ( term ) Jump to : navigation , search hide This article has multiple issues . Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages ) This article possibly contains original research . Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations . Statements consisting only of original research should be removed . ( August 2010 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( August 2010 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) When used as a verb , eighty - six , eighty - sixed , 86 , 86ed , or 86 'd is American English slang for getting rid of something , ejecting someone , or refusing service . Contents ( hide ) 1 Meaning 2 Etymology 3 Popular uses of term 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Meaning ( edit ) According to Merriam - Webster 's Dictionary , `` 86 '' is a slang term that is used in the American popular culture as a transitive verb to mean throw out or get rid of , particularly in the food service industry as a term to describe an item no longer available on the menu , or to refuse service to a customer . The Merriam Webster dictionary suggests the term may be associated with the word `` nix '' ( `` no '' or a more general prohibition ) . The term is part of restaurant slang , seen among restaurant workers in the 1930s , where 86 meant `` we 're all out of it . '' Walter Winchell published examples of similar restaurant slang in his newspaper column in 1933 , which he presented as part of a `` glossary of soda - fountain lingo . '' Etymology ( edit ) Several possible origins of the term 86 have been suggested , all dated before the 1950s . United States Navy decommissioning : One possible origin is from the U.S. Navy 's Allowance Type ( AT ) coding system used for logistics . The allowance type code is a single digit that identifies the reason that materiel is being carried in stock . Throughout the life - cycle of a warship , many pieces of equipment are upgraded or replaced , requiring onboard spare parts to be disposed of , and the code is AT - 6 for parts designated for disposal . Following World War II , there were a great number of warships being decommissioned , sold , scrapped , or deactivated and placed in reserve ( commonly referred to as `` mothballed '' ) . During this process , labor workers would bring up spare parts from the storerooms and the supply clerk would tell them the AT code . Anything to be disposed of was referred to as AT - 6 -- which is pronounced the same as `` 86 '' . Looking north at Chumley 's , 86 Bedford St , West Village . 86 Bedford Street : Author Jef Klein theorizes that the bar Chumley 's at 86 Bedford Street in the West Village of Lower Manhattan was the source . Klein 's 2006 book The History and Stories of the Best Bars of New York claims that the police would call Chumley 's bar during prohibition before making a raid and tell the bartender to `` 86 '' his customers , meaning that they should exit out the 86 Bedford Street door , while the police would come to the Pamela Court entrance . Documented 1944 use : According to the Oxford English Dictionary , the first verifiable use of 86 in the sense of `` refuse service to '' dates to a 1944 book about John Barrymore , a movie star of the 1920s famous for his acting and infamous for his drinking : `` There was a bar in the Belasco building ... but Barrymore was known in that cubby as an ' eighty - six ' . An ' eighty - six ' , in the patois of western dispensers , means : ' Do n't serve him . ' '' Electrical Protection : According to IEEE Std . C37. 2 - 2008 ( and previous versions of this standard which was originally published by the American Institute of Electrical Engineers ( AIEE ) as AIEE No. 26 in 1928 ) , Device Number 86 is a lockout relay , which is a `` device that trips and maintains the associated equipment or devices as inoperative until it is reset by an operator , either locally or remotely . '' In lay terms , an 86 device `` locks out '' a piece of electrical equipment , which is to say that it turns the equipment off so that it can not restart until the appropriate person investigates the problem and then resets the 86 device . Popular uses of term ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( March 2018 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) 1947 : In the song `` Boogie Woogie Blue Plate '' by Louis Jordan , one line is `` 86 on the cherry pies '' as one of many examples of short - order restaurant lingo . 1957 : The main character in Gore Vidal 's play Visit to a Small Planet uses the command `` 86 '' numerous times to destroy things . In the television series Get Smart , agent Maxwell Smart was code - named Agent 86 . 1973 : Thomas Pynchon used the term `` 86 '' in Gravity 's Rainbow : `` They did finally 86 him out of Massachusetts Bay Colony . '' 1976 : Jimmy Buffett 's song `` Cliches '' from the Havana Daydreamin ' album has a line `` she 's 86 'd from the Chart Room '' , meaning she is not allowed back there . 1989 : David B. Feinberg published the novel `` Eighty - sixed '' contrasting life in New York just before HIV to life in 1986 when AIDS had become a major health crisis in the city . Filmmaker Dave Markey made a documentary about the final tour of the infamous hardcore punk band Black Flag entitled Reality 86 'd . The movie was filmed in 1986 during the band 's final tour , but was n't released until 1991 . 1995 : Green Day wrote a song titled `` 86 '' off of their Insomniac album . The song is in reference to the band being banned from the punk club 924 Gilman Street -- as well as the backlash they received from the punk community at large -- due to their decision to sign to a major label . 2001 : The Princess Diaries ( film ) 's main protagonist Mia Thermopolis asked her bodyguard / driver Joe , `` Can we 86 the flags please ? '' ( referring to the flags on the royal limousine ) to which the latter refused . Alison Bechdel 's 2006 autobiographic novel Fun Home includes an incident about her and a few friends getting 86ed from Chumley 's Bar . Dan Fante 's 2009 novel 86 'd is about a man who gets fired and battles his alcoholism . Family Guy 's episode Tales of a Third Grade Nothing . The phrase is uttered by Andy Dick as he bursts into the club . Cars 's main antagonist Chick Hicks has this number which means he rammed other cars and got rid of them . 2014 : In the film `` Fury '' after the disastrous tank battle , commander `` Wardaddy '' Collier ( Brad Pitt ) tests communications and declares `` radio 's 86 '' . 2015 : The song `` The Remedy '' on the album Money Shot by Puscifer contains the line `` Trolls receive 86 's '' meaning there is a zero tolerance policy for inappropriate behavior . 2017 : `` EIGHTY - SIXED '' , a short web - based mini-series from Cazzie David , daughter of Larry David , debuted that surrounded her breakup with a boyfriend . See also ( edit ) List of restaurant terminology References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Eighty - six - Definition of eighty - six by Merriam - Webster '' . merriam-webster.com . Jump up ^ `` What does ' 86 'd ' or ' 86 It ' Mean in Restaurant Jargon ? '' . Culinary Lore . March 8 , 2015 . Retrieved August 12 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` linguistlist.org : Soda Jerk Slang & Coney Island Chicken ( Winchell , 1933 ) '' . linguistlist.org . Jump up ^ NAVSUP P - 485 Volume II ( PDF ) . Defense Logistics Agency . p. 369 . Jump up ^ Klein , Jef ( 2006 ) . The History and Stories of the Best Bars of New York . Turner Publishing Company . Jump up ^ `` snopes.com : Etymology of 86 '' . snopes.com . Jump up ^ New York Times , `` The Theatre : ' Visit to a Small Planet ' ; Vidal 's Foolish Notion Is Staged at Booth The Cast , '' by Brooks Atkinson ; February 8 , 1957 , page 18 Jump up ^ `` 86 by Green Day , '' . songfacts.com. 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Dan Fante , Confronting His Demons On The Page '' . NPR.org. 29 September 2009 . External links ( edit ) Look up eighty - six in Wiktionary , the free dictionary . `` eighty - six '' = `` nix '' Yaelf.com , the alt. usage. english FAQ Snopes.com : Etymology of the slang term `` 86 '' Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=86_(term)&oldid=837829693 '' Categories : Slang Restaurant terminology Hidden categories : Articles that may contain original research from August 2010 All articles that may contain original research Articles needing additional references from August 2010 All articles needing additional references Articles with multiple maintenance issues Articles needing additional references from March 2018 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Gaeilge Edit links This page was last edited on 23 April 2018 , at 08 : 51 . About Wikipedia

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famous temple believed to be built out of gold by the moon god

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Ranganathaswamy_Temple,_Srirangam&oldid=835718114

Ranganathaswamy temple , Srirangam - Wikipedia Ranganathaswamy temple , Srirangam Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Ranganathaswamy Temple ( disambiguation ) . Ranganathaswamy Temple Thiruvarangam Srirangam Temple gopurams Location in Tamil Nadu Ranganathaswamy Temple , Srirangam ( Tamil Nadu ) Show map of India Show map of Tamil Nadu Show all Basic information Location Srirangam Geographic coordinates 10 ° 51 ′ 45 '' N 78 ° 41 ′ 23 '' E  /  10.86250 ° N 78.68972 ° E  / 10.86250 ; 78.68972 Coordinates : 10 ° 51 ′ 45 '' N 78 ° 41 ′ 23 '' E  /  10.86250 ° N 78.68972 ° E  / 10.86250 ; 78.68972 Deity Ranganathar ( Vishnu ) , Ranganayagi ( Lakshmi ) Festivals Vaikunda Ekadesi Uriyadi Jeeyarpuram District Tiruchirapalli State Tamil Nadu Country India Website http://www.srirangam.org/ Inscriptions over 600 Part of a series on Vaishnavism Supreme deity ( show ) Vishnu Important deities ( show ) Dashavatara Matsya Kurma Varaha Narasimha Vamana Parasurama Rama Balarama Krishna Buddha Kalki Other Avatars Mohini Nara - Narayana Hayagriva Related Lakshmi Sita Hanuman Shesha Texts ( show ) Vedas Upanishads Bhagavad Gita Divya Prabandha Ramcharitmanas Puranas Vishnu Bhagavata Naradiya Garuda Padma Agni Sampradayas ( show ) Sri ( Vishishtadvaita ) Brahma ( Dvaita , Acintyabhedabheda ) Rudra ( Shuddhadvaita ) Nimbarka ( Dvaitadvaita ) Philosophers -- acharyas ( show ) Nammalvar Yamunacharya Ramanuja Madhva Chaitanya Vallabha Sankardev Madhavdev Nimbarka Pillai Lokacharya Prabhupada Vedanta Desika Related traditions ( show ) Bhagavatism Pancharatra Tattvavada Pushtimarg Radha Krishna ISKCON Swaminarayan Ekasarana Pranami Ramanandi Vaikhanasas Hinduism portal The Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple or Thiruvarangam is a Hindu temple dedicated to Ranganatha , a reclining form of the Hindu deity Vishnu , located in Srirangam , Tiruchirapalli , Tamil Nadu , India . Constructed in the Tamil style of architecture , this temple is glorified in the Thiviya Pirabandham , the early medieval Tamil literature canon of the Alvar saints of Bhakti movement from the 6th to 9th centuries AD . The temple tops the list among the 108 Divya Desams dedicated to Vishnu . It is one of the most illustrious Vaishnava temples in South India rich in legend and history . The temple has played an important role in Vaishnavism history starting with the 11th - century career of Ramanuja and his predecessors Nathamuni and Yamunacharya in Srirangam . Its location , on an island between the Kollidam and Cauvery rivers , has rendered it vulnerable to flooding as well as the rampaging of invading armies which repeatedly commandeered the site for military encampment . The temple was looted and destroyed by the Delhi Sultanate armies in a broad plunder raid on various cities of the Tamil Pandyan kingdom in early 14th century . The temple was rebuilt in late 14th century , the site fortified and expanded with many more gopurams in the 16th and 17th centuries . It was one of the hubs of early Bhakti movement with a devotional singing and dance tradition , but this tradition stopped during the 14th century and was revived in a limited way much later . The temple occupies an area of 155 acres ( 63 ha ) with 50 shrines , 21 towers , 39 pavilions and many water tanks integrated into the complex . The temple town is a significant archeological and epigraphical site , providing a historic window into the early and mid medieval South Indian society and culture . Numerous inscriptions suggest that this Hindu temple served not only as a spiritual center , but also a major economic and charitable institution that operated education and hospital facilities , ran a free kitchen , and financed regional infrastructure projects from the gifts and donations it received . The Srirangam temple is the largest temple compound in India and one of the largest religious complexes in the world . Some of these structures have been renovated , expanded and rebuilt over the centuries as a living temple . The latest addition is the outer tower that is 67 metres ( 220 ft ) tall , completed in 1987 . Srirangam temple is often listed as one of the largest functioning Hindu temple in the world , the still larger Angkor Wat being the largest existing temple . The temple is an active Hindu house of worship and follows Thenkalai tradition of Sri Vaishnavism . The annual 21 - day festival conducted during the Tamil month of Margazhi ( December -- January ) attracts 1 million visitors . The temple complex has been nominated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site , and is in UNESCO 's tentative list . Contents ( hide ) 1 Location 2 History 2.1 Sri Vaishnavism 2.2 Mythology 3 Architecture 3.1 Shrines 3.2 Mandapams ( Halls ) 3.3 Gopurams 3.4 Inscriptions and frescoes 3.5 Granaries , tanks and other monuments 4 Significance 4.1 Bhakti movement 4.2 Pilgrimage 4.3 Vaishnava scholarship 5 Festivals and routine visits 5.1 Vaikunta Ekadashi 5.2 Jyestabisheka 5.3 Brahmotsavam 5.4 Other Festivals 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 8.1 Bibliography 9 External links Location ( edit ) The Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam , also known as Thiruvaranga Tirupati , is located about 12 kilometres ( 7.5 mi ) north of the city of Tiruchirappalli , about 325 kilometres ( 200 mi ) southwest of Chennai . The city is connected daily to other major cities by the network of Indian Railways , Tamil Nadu bus services and the Highway 38 . The site is near the Tiruchirappalli International Airport ( IATA : TRZ ) . Srirangam temple complex across the river on left . The temple site is on a large island bounded by the Cauvery River and Kollidam River . It is vast and planned as a temple town with Sapta - Prakaram design where the sanctum , gopuram , services and living area are co-located in seven concentric enclosures . Rampart walls were added after medieval centuries that saw its invasion and destruction . The temple monuments are located inside the inner five enclosures of the complex , surrounded by living area and infrastructure in outer two enclosures . Numerous gopurams connect the Sapta - Prakaram enclosures allowing the pilgrims and visitors to reach the sanctum from many directions . The site includes two major temples , one for Vishnu as Ranganatha , and other to Shiva as Jambukeshvara . The island has some cave temples , older than both . History ( edit ) A temple at Srirangam is mentioned in Tamil literature of the Sangam era ( 1st to the 4th century AD ) , including the epic Silapadikaram ( book 11 , lines 35 -- 40 ) : ஆயிரம் விரித்தெழு தலையுடை அருந்திறற் பாயற் பள்ளிப் பலர்தொழு தேத்த விரிதிரைக் காவிரி வியன்பெருந் துருத்தித் திருவமர் மார்பன் கிடந்த வண்ணமும் āyiram viritteḻu talaiyuṭai aruntiṟaṟ pāyaṟ paḷḷip palartoḻu tētta viritiraik kāviri viyaṉperu turuttit tiruvamar mārpaṉ kiṭanta vaṇṇamum On a magnificent cot having a thousand heads spread out , worshipped and praised by many , in an islet surrounded by Kaveri with bellowing waves , is the lying posture of the one who has Lakshmi sitting in his chest Silapadikaram ( book 11 , lines 35 -- 40 ) Beyond the ancient textual history , archaeological evidence such as inscriptions refer to this temple , but these stone inscriptions are from late 1st millennium AD . The inscriptions in the temple belong to the Chola , Pandya , Hoysala and Vijayanagar dynasties who ruled over the region . These inscriptions range in date between the 9th and 16th centuries . During the period of invasion and plunder by the Ala ud Din Khilji 's Muslim general Malik Kafur and his Delhi Sultanate forces in 1311 , the Arabic texts of the period state that he raided a `` golden temple '' on river `` Kanobari '' ( Kaveri ) , destroyed the temple and took the plunder with the golden idol of the deity to Delhi . According to Steven P. Hopkins , this is believed to be the Ranganathaswamy Temple . The Tamil texts that followed offer various inconsistent legends on how the temple regained the Vishnu idol . According to one found in Koil Oluku , a young girl had vowed to fast till she had seen the idol . She followed the Muslim army as it returned with the loot back to Delhi . There she sneaked into the palace and saw that the Sultan 's daughter had fallen in love with the image . The young girl returned to Srirangam and told the priests about what she had seen in Delhi . The priests went with musicians to Delhi , found the idol in capriciously playful possession of the Sultan 's daughter , day and night . They sang and danced before the Sultan to return the idol , and he gave it back which upset his daughter . To console the daughter , the Sultan sent in his army again to bring it back , but this time they were not successful . According to other versions , the Muslim daughter followed the idol from Delhi to Srirangam on a horse , symbolizing that love brought back the icon after war had taken it away . An 1870 photo of the gopurams in the temple town . Beyond these legends , there was a more severe second invasion of South India including Srirangam in 1323 AD . The sanctum 's Vishnu image with its jewelry was pre-emptively removed by the Hindus before the Delhi Sultanate troops reached Srirangam by a group led by the Vaishnavite Acharaya Pillai Lokacharyar to Tirunelveli in Tamil Nadu . The Goddess Ranganayaki ( Lakshmi ) was also taken away to another location by a separate group . The temple was defended and according to the Tamil tradition some 13,000 Sri Vaishnavas devotees of Srirangam , died in the fierce battle . After nearly six decades when Madurai Sultanate ruled after the Chola rulers were ousted after the repeated Delhi Sultanate 's invasions , the Vijayanagara Empire ousted the Madurai Sultanate in 1378. > Thereafter , the Vishnu and Lakshmi images were brought back to Srirangam by Swami Vedanta Desika . Before then , for decades the deity and the priestly wardens wandered and secretly carried the temple 's idol through villages of Tamil Nadu , Kerala and Karnataka . They finally went to the hills of Tirumala Tirupati , where they remained until the temple was rebuilt in 1371 . The idol was consecrated again according to the Tamil legends . This time , in memory of the first Sultan 's daughter which Tamil tradition calls Thulukha Nachiyar , a niche in the temple was built for her . The niche shows her as a girl sitting on a horse that carried her to Delhi . Her legend is still remembered . During contemporary processions when the idol is taken out of sanctum and then returned to it after its journey , Thulukha Nachiyar is dressed in Muslim garments and food offerings are made to her in the form of butter and chappathis ( wheat bread ) . Thereafter , under Vijayanagara Empire , the temple site saw over 200 years of stability , repairs , first round of fortifications , and addition of mandapas . The Vishnu and Lakshmi images were reinstalled and the site became an Hindu temple again in 1371 CE under Kumara Kampana , a Vijayanagara commander and the son of Bukka I. In the last decade of the 14th century , a pillared antechamber was gifted by the Vijayanagara rulers . In the 15th century , they coated the apsidal roofs with solid gold sheets , followed by financing the addition of a series of new shrines , mandapas and gopuras to the temple , according to George Michell . After the destruction of the Vijayanagara in late 16th century , geo - political instability returned . The site became the focus of bitter wars between the Hindu Nayakas and the Muslim Mughals in the 17th century . The Nayakas fortified the temple town and the seven prakaras . It was taken over by Muslim Nawabs of Arcot as a lucrative source of revenues , and thereafter attracted a contest between the French and British military powers . Srirangam temple site and the neighboring city of Tiruchirappalli ( Trichy ) became an intense center of Christian and Muslim missionary activity during the 18th and 19th centuries . With the establishment of the Madras Presidency within the British Empire , geo - political stability returned and the Ranganathaswamy Temple site attracted interest in archeological and historical studies . Sri Vaishnavism ( edit ) The epigraphical evidence suggests that these Hindu dynasties -- Cholas , Pandiyas , Hoysalas , Nayaks , Vijayanagar -- assisted with rebuilding , renovation and supported the traditional customs . Some mention substantial gifts to the temple . A Chola king , for example , presented the temple with a golden serpent couch . Some historians identify this king with Rajamahendra Chola . The temple has witnessed and played a key role in the early Sri Vaishnavism history , particularly the centuries that followed the major Hindu philosopher Ramanuja ( 1017 -- 1137 AD ) , and his predecessors Nathamuni and Yamunacharya. . It witnessed the debate between the Dvaita ( dualistic ) and Advaita ( nondualistic ) sub-traditions within Vaishnavism . Centuries later , it was a key site in the debate and disagreements between the northern Tamil and southern Tamil traditions , also called as the Vadakalai and Thenkalai . The early rulers such as the Pallavas , Cholas and Pandiyas supported it as a hub of the Bhakti movement with a devotional singing and dance tradition , but this tradition stopped during the 14th century and was revived in a limited way much later . Mythology ( edit ) Ranganatha painting ( not from the temple , nothing like the one in the temple ) . The temple and its artwork are a subject of numerous different Tamil legends covered in regional Puranic texts . Sriranga Mahathmiyam , for example , is one of the compilation of the temple mythology about its origins . According to it , Brahma was performing austerities during the samudra manthan ( churning of cosmic ocean ) , and Srirangam Vimanam emerged as a result . It remained in Satyaloka for ages , was brought to Ayodhya by king Ikshvaku . After Rama , an Avatar of Vishnu had killed the evil demon Ravana , he gave it to King Vibhishana who wanted to be with Rama . When Vibhishana passed through Trichy en route to Sri Lanka where he had become the king , the Srirangam Vimanam would not move from the island . So he gave it to a local king called Dharma Varma if the king consecrated the Vimanam to face the south cardinal direction eternally , blessing him and Lanka . Hence it is that the deity ( in a reclining posture ) faces South , his body aligned to the east - west axis . As per another legend , Sanaka , the four child sages , came for a darshana of Ranganatha in Srirangam . They were stopped by Jaya and Vijaya , the guardians of the temple sanctum . In spite of their pleadings , they were refused entry . In anger , all four of them cursed the guardians in one voice and left . The guardians approached Vishnu and told him about the curse . Ranganatha said that he would not be able to revert the curse and gave them two options : be born as demons opposing Vishnu in three births or good human beings in the following hundred births . The guardians accepted being demons and are believed to have taken the form of Hiranyaksha & Hiranyakasipu , Ravana & Kumbakarna and Sisupala & Dantavakra . Vishnu took three avatars -- Narasimha , Rama and Krishna respectively -- to kill the demons in each one of those births . Architecture ( edit ) Plan of four inner courts of the Srirangam Temple ( Burgess , 1910 ) The temple is enclosed by 7 concentric enclosures with courtyards ( termed prakarams or mathil suvar ) . Each layer has walls and gopurams , which were built or fortified in and after the 16th century . These walls total 32,592 feet ( 9,934 m ) or over six miles . The temple has 17 major gopurams ( towers , 21 total ) , 39 pavilions , 50 shrines , 9 sacred water pools , Ayiram kaal mandapam ( a hall of 1000 pillars ) and several small water bodies inside . The temple is aligned to the north - south and east - west axis , on an island surrounded by the Kaveri River . The river has long been considered sacred , and called the Daksina Ganga or the `` Ganges of the South '' . The outer two prakarams ( outer courtyard ) are residential and markets with shops , restaurants and flower stalls . The five inner courtyards have shrines to Vishnu and his various avatars such as Rama and Krishna . Major shrines are additionally dedicated to goddess Lakshmi and many saints of Vaishnavism . In particular , these shrines celebrate and commemorate the Bhakti movement poet - saints called the Alvars , as well Hindu philosophers such as Ramanuja and Vedantadesika of Sri Vaishnavism tradition . Despite the construction of various mandapas and gopuras over a span of many centuries , the architecture of the Ranganathaswamy temple is one of the better illustrations of Hindu temple planometric geometry per agama design texts in the Tamil tradition . According to George Michell , a professor and art historian on Indian architecture , the regulating geometry and plan of Srirangam site takes on `` a ritual dimension since all the architectural components , especially the focal gopuras and the most important colonnades and mandapas , are arranged along the axes dictated by the cardinal directions '' . This alignment integrates the routes that devotees follow as they journey unto the innermost sanctum . Shrines ( edit ) Sculpture in the Venugopala shrine . The temple complex includes over 50 shrines . These are dedicated to Vishnu , Lakshmi as well as various Vaishnava scholars and poets . The shrines to Vishnu display him in his various avatars , as well as his iconography . For example , the Ranganathaswamy temple shrines and symbolism include those to Chakkarathazhwar , Narasimha , Rama , Hayagreeva and Gopala Krishna . The Chakrathazhwar shrine is in east facing on the south side of Akalanka . The sanctum is approached through a Mukamandapa ( six rows of pillars ) built during the Cholas and a Mahamandapa with six rows of eight pillars built during the period of Vijayanagar Empire . There is a circumambulation passage around the sanctum . The image of Chakrathazhwar is sculpted with Narasimha on the rear side and can be viewed from the passage around the sanctum . The Venugopala shrine , one of the most elaborately carved , is in the south - west corner of the fourth enclosure of the temple was built by Chokkanatha Nayak , according to an inscription dated 1674 . The main shrine for Ranganatha is in the innermost courtyard . The sanctum has a golden vimanam ( crown tower over the sanctum sanctorum ) . It is shaped like the Tamil omkara ( om symbol ) , shows anthropomorphic Paravasudeva on its gable , has an etching of Ramanuja as well on it , and is plated with gold . Inside , a 6 - metre ( 20 ft ) edifice shown Sri Ranganthar reclining on Adisesha , the coiled serpent . Adisesha has five hoods and is coiled into three and a half rounds . Vishnu 's head rests on a small cylindrical pillow and his right palm which faces upwards rests next to his head . Neither Sridevi ( goddess Lakshmi ) nor Bhudevi ( goddess Earth ) are depicted near his feet , as is found in late medieval era paintings . The sanctum does not show Brahma coming out of or connected to his navel either . However , the procession images of Sridevi , Bhudevi and Alagiyamanavalan reside within the sanctum in different places to ease their darshana ( viewing ) . The sanctum can be entered through the south gateway , one the reclining Vishnu is facing . The doorway as one enters from the mukhamandapam , also called the Gayatri mantapa , is flanked by Jaya and Vijaya dvarapalas . The sanctum chamber is round , even though the vimana above is an oval projection . The circumambulation path ( pradakshina - patha ) is set in a square , to journey clockwise . This garbha - griya is surrounded by a raised square Tiruvunnali , encircling pillars and another inner square . As the visitor completes the circumambulation around the resting Vishnu , one sees four additional images . On the western wall inside the core sanctum is Vighnesvara ( son of Shiva and Parvati , Ganesha , Shaivism ) , on the northwestern corner is Yoga - Ananta ( Vishnu seated in yoga asana on Sesha , Vaishnavism ) , on the northeastern side is Yoga - Narasimha ( Narasimha seated in yoga asana , Vaishnavism ) , and on the eastern wall is Durga ( an aspect of Parvati , Shaktism ) . The golden Vimana over the sanctum at Srirangam midst its gopurams , its gable with Paravasudeva image . The exterior of the vimana and attached mandap ( hall ) have intricately carved pilasters with fluted shafts , double capitals , and pendant lotus brackets . Sculptures are placed in the niches of three sides of the sanctuary walls ; maidens enhance the walls in between . The elevation is punctuated with a secondary set of pilasters that support shallow eaves at different levels to cap larger and smaller recesses . The sanctuary is crowned in the traditional fashion with a hemispherical roof . The double - curved eaves of the entrance porch on the east side are concealed in a later columned hall . Dhanvantari , a great physician of ancient India is considered to be an avatar of Vishnu -- there is a separate shrine of Dhanvantari within the temple . Ranganayaki ( Lakshmi ) shrine is in the second precinct of the temple . During the festival processions , Ranganayaki does not visit Ranganatha , but it is he who visits her . Ranganathar visiting Ranganayaki and being with her is called as ' Saerthi ' during ' Panguni Uthiram ' . There are three images of Ranganayaki within the sanctum . There are separate shrines for major saints in the Vaishnava tradition , including Ramanuja . Mandapams ( halls ) ( edit ) Sesharayar mandapam artwork The Ranganathaswamy Temple has many mandapams : Thousand pillar mandapam is a theatre like structure made from granite . It was built during the Vijayanagara rule period . It has a central wide aisle with seven side aisles on each side with pillars set in a square pattern . Sesharaya mandapam is the intricately carved hall built during the Nayaka rule period . It is found on the east side of the fourth prakaram courtyard . The northern side of this community hall has 40 leaping animals with riders on their back , all carved out of monolithic pillars . Garuda Mandapam is named after the vahana ( vehicle ) of Vishnu , named Garuda . It is on the south side of the third prakaram courtyard . It too is dated to the Nayak rule era . Inside the community hall , on its pillars , are portrait sculptures . In the middle is a free - standing seated Garuda figure , identifiable by his eagle - head , wings and him facing the Vishnu shrine . Kili mandapam is found inside the innermost ( first ) prakaram courtyard . It is next to the Ranganatha sanctum . Here walking elephant balustrades line the steps that lead into the gathering hall . This is dated to the 17th century Hindu rulers . The hall and structural elements are carved with animals , and in its center is a raised square platform with four carved pillars . Ranga Vilasa mandapam is one of the larger community halls designed for large spaces between the pillars for the pilgrim groups and families to sit together and rest . It is covered with Hindu mythology murals and narratives from the Ramayana . The Hall of 1000 pillars ( actually 953 ) is a fine example of a planned theatre - like structure and opposite to it is the `` Sesha Mandap '' . The 1000 - pillared hall made of granite was constructed in the Vijayanagara period ( 1336 -- 1565 ) on the site of the old temple . The most artistic halls that the Nayaks added to the complex is the Sesha Mandap on the east side of the fourth enclosure . The hall is celebrated for the leaping animals carved on to the piers at its northern end . The pillars consists of sculptures of wildly rearing horses bearing riders on their backs and trampling with their hoofs upon the heads of rampant tigers , seem only natural and congruous among such weird surroundings . The great hall is traversed by one wide aisle in the centre for the whole of its greater length , and intersected by transepts of like dimension running across at right angles . There still remain seven side aisles on each side , in which all the pillars are equally spaced out . The Garuda Madapa ( hall of the legendary bird deity of Vishnu , garuda ) located on the south side of the third enclosure is another Nayak addition . Courtly portrait sculptures , reused from an earlier structure , are fixed to the piers lining the central aisle . A free - standing shrine inside the hall contains a large seated figure of garuda ; the eagle - headed god faces north towards the principal sanctum . The Kili mandapa ( Hall of parrot ) is located next to the Ranganatha shrine , in the first enclosure of the temple . Elephant balustrades skirt the access steps that ascend to a spacious open area . This is bounded by decorated piers with rearing animals and attached colonettes in the finest 17th - century manner . Four columns in the middle define a raised dais ; their shafts are embellished with undulating stalks . A Vaishnava devotee in namaste posture Thousand pillar hall A mandapa Garuda mandapa Gopurams ( edit ) Vellai gopurams ( tower ) There are 21 gopurams ( tower gateways ) , among which the towering Rajagopuram ( shrine of the main gateway ) is the tallest temple tower in Asia . The 13 - tiered Rajagopuram was built in 1987 by Ahobhila Matha , a historic Srivaishnava Hindu monastery . This tower dominates the landscape for miles around , while the remaining 20 gopurams were built between the 12th and early 17th centuries . The gopurams have pronounced projections in the middle of the long sides , generally with openings on each of the successive levels . The Vellai gopura ( white tower ) on the east side of the fourth enclosure has a steep pyramidal superstructure that reaches a height of almost 44 metres ( 144 ft ) . The structure of the Rajagopuram remained incomplete for over 400 years . Started during the reign of Achyuta Deva Raya of Vijayanagara Empire , the construction stopped after the fall of Vijayanagara in late 16th century and wars thereafter . The Rajagopuram ( the main gopuram ) did not reach its current height of 73 metres ( 240 ft ) until 1987 , when the 44th Jiyar ( acharya , chief counsellor ) of Ahobila Matha began collecting donations to complete it . The whole structure was constructed in a span of eight years . The Rajagopuram was consecrated on 25 March 1987 . The length and breadth at the base of the Rajagopuram is 166 and 97 feet ( 50.6 and 29.6 m ) , while the length and breadth at the top is 98 and 32 feet ( 29.9 and 9.8 m ) . The 13 glistening copper ' kalasams ' atop the tower weigh 135 kg ( 298 lb ) each , are 3.12 m ( 10 ft 3 in ) high with a 1.56 m ( 5 ft 1 in ) diameter vessel . A 2 - storey gopura A 3 - storey gopura A 4 - storey gopura A 13 - storey gopura A 7 - storey gopura Inscriptions and frescoes ( edit ) The Ranganathaswamy Temple town has over 800 inscriptions , of which nearly 640 are on temple walls and monuments . Many of these relate to gifts and grants by rulers or the elite , while others relate to the temple 's management , scholars , dedication and general operation . The inscriptions have been a source of information about South Indian history , culture , economy and social role . These range from the late 9th century to the rule of Aditya Chola I , to the last historical ones from the 16th century . Others are from the times of Cholas , Nayakas , Pandyas , Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara era . The historic inscriptions at the Ranganathaswamy Temple are in six major Indian languages : Tamil , Sanskrit , Telugu , Kannada , Marathi and Odiya . Further they are in several scripts including Tamil and Grantha . This diversity and the spread of inscription dates suggests that the temple has been an important pilgrimage center to both Tamil and non-Tamil Hindus . Some of the mandapam and corridors of the Temple complex have frescoes , of which some have faded . These narrate Hindu legends and mythologies , or scenes relating to Vaishnava scholars . Granaries , tanks and other monuments ( edit ) The Ranganathaswamy Temple complex includes huge medieval era Kottarams or granaries . These provided food reserves and security to the temple town and supplies to its kitchen serving the needy travelers , pilgrims and local population . The temple has many other structures , participating and supporting various aspects of social life . Some mandapams and temple compounds were devoted to education , both religious and secular such as of musicians and dancers . The temple inscriptions state that its premises had an arokyashala ( hospital ) for those needing medical care . Several 11th and 12th century inscriptions describe a gift of land to support recitation of Hindu texts in the temple and for feeding Sri Vaishnavas . The temple has twelve major water tanks . Of these , the Surya Pushkarini ( sun pool ) and Chandra Pushkarani ( moon pool ) are two of the largest that harvest most of rain water . They have a combined capacity of two million liters of water . The temple has wooden monuments that is regularly maintained and used for festive processions . These have intricate carvings of Hindu legends , and some are plated with silver or gold foils . The most significant of the temple chariots are the Garuda vahana , the Simha vahana , the Yanai vahana , the Kudirai vahana , the Hanumantha vahana , the Yazhi vahana , the Sesha vahana , the Annapakshi vahana , the Otrai vahana and the Prabhai vahana . Significance ( edit ) The hall , located in front of Thayar shrine , where Kambar is believed to have recited his works on Kamba Ramayanam Bhakti movement ( edit ) Ranganathaswamy temple is the only one out of the 108 temples that was sung in praise by all the Azhwars ( Divine saints of Tamil Bhakthi movement ) , having a total of 247 pasurams ( divine hymns ) against its name . Acharyas ( guru ) of all schools of thought -- Advaita , Vishistadvaita and Dvaita recognise the immense significance the temple , regardless of their affiliation . Nalayira Divya Prabhandam is a collection of 4000 hymns sung by twelve azhwars saints spread over 300 years ( from the late 6th to 9th century AD ) and collected by Nathamuni ( 910 -- 990 AD ) . Divya Desams refer to 108 Vishnu temples that are mentioned in Nalayira Divya Prabandham. 105 of these are located in India , 1 in Nepal , while 2 are located outside of the Earthly realms . Divya in Tamil language indicates premium and Desam indicates place or temple . Periyalvar begins the decad on Srirangam with two puranic stories according to which Krishna restored to life the son of his guru Santipini and the children of a brahmin . Thondaradippodi Alvar and Thiruppaana Alvar have sung exclusively on Ranganatha . Andal attained Sri Ranganatha on completion of her Thiruppavai ( a composition of 30 verses ) in Srirangam . In total there are 247 hymns of the 4000 Pasurams dedicated to Ranganthar deity of this temple . Except Madhurakavi Alvar , all the other eleven azhwars have created Mangalasasanam ( praise ) about the Ranganathar in Srirangam . Out of 247 , 35 are by Periyalvar , 10 by Aandaal , 31 by Kulasekara Alvar , 14 by Thirumalisai Alvar , 55 by Thondaradippodi Alvar , 10 by Thiruppaan Alvar , 73 by Thirumangai Alvar , one by Poigai Alvar , 4 by Bhoothathalvar , two by Peyalvar and twelve by Nammalvar . Kambar is a 12th - century Tamil poet who composed Kamba Ramayanam , a work inspired from the epic , Valmiki Ramayana . He is believed to have come to the temple to get the approval of his work from scholars . The Jain scholar Tirunarungundam honoured the work and it resulted in Tamil and Sanskrit scholars approving the work . The open hall where he recited his verse lies close to the Ranganayaki shrine within the temple . The temple was a center for music and dance learning , with many mandapam showing their sculptures . Some of the religious works like Sri Bhashyam by Ramanuja , Gadya Traya ( which is a compilation of three texts called the Saranagati Gadyam , Sriranga Gadyam and the Vaikunta Gadyam ) by Ramanuja , CITEREFK. S. 2002 Sri Renga natha shtakam by Adi Shankaracharya , Paduka Sahasram by Swami Vedanta Desika , Renga raja Stavam and Guna ratna kosham by Sri Parasar bhattar , Renga raja Sthothram by Kurathazhwar , Bhagavad dhyana Sopnam and Abheethi Stavam by Swami Vedanta Desika are works that were exclusively composed in praise of Srirangam temple . Pilgrimage ( edit ) The term Kovil is generally used in Tamil to signify any temple , for many Vaishnavas the term Kovil exclusively refers to this temple , indicating its extreme importance for them ( for saivas and all other Tamil people the term kovil refers to Thillai Natarajar Golden Shrine ( Chidambaram Temple ) ) . The presiding deity Ranganathar is praised in many names by his devotees , including Nam Perumal ( our god in Tamil ) , Azhagiya Manavaalan ( beautiful groom in Tamil ) . The temple is considered in the Alwar traditions as one of the eight Sywayambu Kshetras of Vishnu where presiding deity is believed to have manifested on its own . Seven other temples in the line are Bhu Varaha Swamy temple , Tirumala Venkateswara Temple , and Vanamamalai Perumal Temple in South India and Saligrama , Naimisaranya , Pushkar and Badrinath Temple in North India . Vaishnava scholarship ( edit ) Many of the medieval Sri Vaishanava scholars like Nathamuni , Vedanta Desika and Ramanuja are associated with the temple . Ramanuja was a theologian , philosopher , and scriptural exegete . He is seen by Śrīvaiṣṇavas as the third and most important teacher ( ācārya ) of their tradition ( after Nathamuni and Yamunacharya ) , and by Hindus in general as the leading expounder of Viśiṣṭādvaita , one of the classical interpretations of the dominant Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy . Ramanuja renounced his family life and went to Srirangam to occupy the pontificate -- Srirangam became the stronghold of him and his disciples . Ramanujacharya shrine image in Ranganathaswamy temple . Sri Ramanuja Shrine at The Ranganathasamy Temple in Srirangam The doctrine of Vishishtadvaita philosophy , Sri Bhashyam was written and later compiled by Ramanuja over a period of time in this temple town . During his stay in Srirangam , he is said of have written `` Gadhya Thrayam '' , which is recited in the temple during the ninth day ( Panguni Uttaram ) of the festival of Adi brahmotsavam . The temple is a center for the Vishishtadvaita school where Sanskrit Vedas and Tamil works are preached and taught with great reverence . He attained divinity in Srirangam . His Thaan - ana Thirumeni ( the symbolic body ) is preserved and offered prayers even today after eight centuries . The disciples of Ramanuja got his permission to install three metallic images , one each at Sriperumpudur , Melukote and the third , at Srirangam . The shrine is found in the fourth prakaram ( outer courtyard ) of the temple and the idol is preserved in the temple by applying saffron and camphor every six months in a ritualistic style . He is found seated in the Padmasana ( yogic sitting posture ) , depicting the Gnyana - Mudrai ( symbol of knowledge ) with his right palm . `` Kovil Ozhugu '' is a codification of all temple practices , religious and administrative , shaped and institutionalised by Sri Ramanuja after receiving the due rights from Sri Thiruvarangathamudanar . A stone inscription to this effect is installed in the Arya patal vasal ( main gate before the first precinct ) . Pancharanga Kshetrams ( also called Pancharangams , meaning the `` five Rangams or Ranganathas '' ) is a group of five sacred Hindu temples , dedicated to Ranganatha , a form of the god Vishnu , on the banks of the Kaveri River . The five Pancharanga Kshetrams in the order of their successive locations , on the banks of the Kaveri River are : The Srirangapatnam called the Adi Ranga , the first temple on the banks of the Kaveri River from the upstream side ; the Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam known as Adya Ranga ( the last temple ) , Appalarangam or Koviladi at Tiruppernagar in Tamil Nadu , Parimala Ranganatha Perumal Temple or Mayuram at Indalur , Mayiladuthurai and Vatarangam at Sirkazhi . The Sarangapani temple at Kumbakonam is mentioned in place of Vatarangam in some references . Festivals and routine visits ( edit ) Temple Timings Type of Darshan Ranganthar Shrine Ranganayaki Shrine Viswaroopa seva 6 : 00 - 7 : 15 6 : 30 - 8 : 00 Pooja ( closed for devotees ) 7 : 15 - 9 : 00 8 : 00 - 8 : 45 Darshan 9 : 00 - 12 : 00 8 : 45 - 13 : 00 Pooja ( closed for devotees ) 12 : 00 - 13 : 15 13 : 00 - 15 : 00 Darshan 13 : 15 - 17 : 45 15 : 00 - 18 : 00 Pooja ( closed for devotees ) 17 : 45 - 18 : 45 18 : 00 - 18 : 45 Darshan 18 : 45 - 20 : 45 18 : 45 - 21 : 00 The temple is maintained and administered by the Hindu Religious and Endowment Board of the Government of Tamil Nadu . An Executive officer appointed by the Board manages the temple along with Sri Azhagiya Manavala Perumal Temple , Pundarikakshan Perumal Temple at Thiruvellarai , Sri Vadivazhagiya Nambi Perumal Temple and Mariamman Temple at Anbil . There are three trustees and a chairman for the board of trustees . Annadhanam scheme , which provides free food to devotees , is implemented in the temple by the Board . Under the scheme , free food is offered to two hundred devotees every day in the temple and the expenditure is fully funded by the contributions from devotees . The temple celebrates numerous festivals around the year including processions . These are called utsavam ( celebrations ) . Vaikunta Ekadashi ( edit ) The Paramapada vaasal opens only during the 10 day festival of Vaikunta Ekadasi Devotees during Vaikunta Ekadasi Pagal Pathu ( 10 day time ) and Ra Pathu ( 10 day night time ) festival is celebrated in the month of Margazhi ( December -- January ) for twenty days . The first ten days are referred as Pagal - Pathu ( 10 day day time festival ) and the second half as Ra Pathu ( 10 day night - time festival ) . The first day of Ra pathu is Vaikunta Ekadashi . The eleventh day of each fortnight in Tamil calendar is called ekadasi and the holiest of all ekadasis as per vaishnavite tradition is the Vaikunta Ekadashi . Nammazhwar , one of the 12 azhwars , is believed to have ascended to vaikuntam ( the heavenly abode of Vishnu ) on this day . The devotion of the 9th - century poet , Nammazhwar , and his perceived ascent to heaven are enacted annually . During the festival , through song and dance , this place is affirmed to be Bhoologa Vaikunta ( heaven on earth ) . Araiyar Sevai is a divine colloquim of araiyars , who recite and enact Nalayara Divya Prabanda , the 4000 verses of azhwars ( Vaishnavite poets of the 7th -- 10th century ) . Araiyars are born to Araiyar tradition most prevalent in Sri Vaishnava families in Srirangam , Alwar Thirunagari and Srivilliputhur . The tradition of Araiyar Sevai was started by Nathamuni , a 10th - century Vaishnavite who compiled the works of azhwars . It is believed as per Hindu mythology that 33 crores of gods come down to witness the event . The festival deity is brought to the 1000 - pillared hall on the morning of Vaikunta Ekadashi through the Paramapada Vasal ( gate to paradise ) . Lakhs of pilgrims rush to enter it after the gate is opened and the deity passes through it as it is believed that one who enters here will reach vaikuntam ( heaven ) after death . The gate is open only during the ten days of Ra Pathu ( 10 day night - time festival ) . On the last day of the festival , the poet Nammazhwar is said to be given salvation . The performance is enacted by priests and images in the temple depicts Nammazhwar as reaching heaven and getting liberation from the cycle of life and death . At that point , a member from the crowd of devotees , who are witnessing this passion play , goes up to the centre stage and requests Vishnu to return Nammazhwar to humanity , so that his words and form in the temple will continue to inspire and save the devotees . Following this performance of the salvation of Nammazhwar , the cantors are taken in procession round the temple . Jyestabisheka ( edit ) The annual gold ornament cleaning festival is called Jyestabisheka ( first of anointing ) and is celebrated during the Tamil month of aani ( June -- July ) . The idols of all deities are abluted with water brought in large vessels of gold and silver . Brahmotsavam ( edit ) Brahmotsavam ( Prime festival ) is held during the Tamil month of Panguni ( March -- April ) . The preliminaries like ankurarpanam , rakshabandhanam , bheri thadanam , dhwajarohanam and the sacrificial offerings in the yagasala are gone through as usual . The processions go round the Chitrai street in the evenings . On the second day , the deity is taken to a garden inside the temple . The deity is taken in a palanquin through the river Cauvery to a village on the opposite shore namely Jiyarpuram on the third day . Other festivals ( edit ) The annual temple chariot festival , called Rathothsavam is celebrated during the Tamil month of thai ( January -- February ) and the processional deity , utsavar is taken round the temple in the temple car . Chitra Poornima is a festival based on the mythological incident of Gaj - graha ( elephant crocodile ) . The elephant suffered in the jaws of crocodile and god rescued the elephant . Vasanthothsavam is celebrated during the Tamil month of vaikasi ( May -- June ) which according to inscriptions is celebrated from 1444 AD . See also ( edit ) Chidambaram Nataraja Temple Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram Great Living Chola Temples Meenakshi Temple , Madurai Rangapura Vihara Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ The entire ASI Epigraphia Indica Volume XXIV is dedicated to these inscriptions . Jump up ^ According to Burton Stein , `` ( ... ) the stone and copper inscriptions , the basic historical sources of this period , give more information about temples ( ... ) temples mobilized resources of land and money second only to the state and were therefore capable of financing such projects . '' ( ... ) `` During the Chola period , for example , a series of Srirangam temple inscriptions from the reign of Kulottunga I ( 1070 - 1118 ) describe a gigantic process of redevelopment of a large portion of temple lands . '' Jump up ^ The gopurams , when present , are found in the middle of each side of all seven courtyards allowing the pilgrims and visitors to enter from any of the four direction . In some cases the geographical constraints did not permit addition of a gateway and it is here that the courtyard may have less than four entrances . The gateways are taller on the outer courtyards , with the largest found on the south side of the outermost courtyard . Jump up ^ The reclining form of Vishnu has widespread popularity in India and southeast Asia , but is known by other names such as Ananta or Anantaseshayi or Anantashayana Vishnu . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Roshen Dalal 2010 , pp. 339 - 340 . ^ Jump up to : Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple , Srirangam , UNESCO Jump up ^ Stella Kramrisch 1988 , p. 202 - 204 with footnotes . Jump up ^ David N. Lorenzen 2005 , pp. 52 - 54 , 87 - 93 . ^ Jump up to : Spencer 1978 , pp. 16 - 19 . Jump up ^ Spencer 1978 , pp. 14 - 19 . ^ Jump up to : Hopkins 2002 , pp. 68 - 69 . Jump up ^ Spencer 1978 , pp. 19 - 21 , Quote : `` It was Malik Kafur 's spectacular southern raid of 1310 - 11 AD which resulted in the initial plundering of the Srirangam , Chidambaram , and other famous temples of the Tamil country . '' . Jump up ^ Abdur Rahman 1999 , pp. 377 - 378 . ^ Jump up to : George Michell & Clare Arni 1999 , pp. 76 - 77 . ^ Jump up to : T.S. Parthasarathy ( 1978 ) , Music and Dance in Tamil Literature , Indian Literature , Vol. 21 , No. 4 , pages 137 - 148 ; Quote : `` The hymns of the Divyaprabandham bad also been set to music and were being sung till the 14th century when the sack of Srirangam by Malik Kafur put an end to the practice . '' ^ Jump up to : Mittal & Thursby 2005 , p. 456 . ^ Jump up to : ( a ) VN Hari Ram ( 1961 ) , Services in Srirangam Temple , Proceedings of the Indian History Congress , Volume 24 , pages 89 - 92 ; ( b ) Trouillet , Pierre - Yves ( 2017 ) . `` Hindu Temples and Development of Localities in Tamil Nadu ( South India ) '' . Exploring Urban Change in South Asia . Springer . pp. 311 -- 334 . doi : 10.1007 / 978 - 81 - 322 - 3616 - 0_12 . ISBN 978 - 81 - 322 - 3614 - 6 . Jump up ^ Burton Stein , The Economic Function of a Medieval South Indian Temple , The Journal of Asian Studies , Vol. 19 , pages 163 - 176 ; Burton Stein ( 1961 ) , The state , the temple and agriculture development , The Economic Weekly Annual , pages 179 - 187 Jump up ^ Mittal & Thursby 2005 , p. 457 . Jump up ^ Vater 2010 , p. 40 . Jump up ^ Jones 2004 , p. 4 . Jump up ^ `` NH wise Details of NH in respect of Stretches entrusted to NHAI '' ( PDF ) . Ministry of Road Transport & Highways , Government of India . National Highways Authority of India . p. 2 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 25 February 2009 . Retrieved 17 December 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Thanjavur bus routes '' . Municipality of Thanjavur . Archived from the original on 17 June 2013 . Retrieved 29 December 2012 . Jump up ^ Ambujam Anantharaman ( 2006 ) . Temples of South India . East West . pp. 135 -- 136 . ISBN 978 - 81 - 88661 - 42 - 8 . Jump up ^ P.V. Jagadisa Ayyar ( 1982 ) . South Indian Shrines : Illustrated . Asian Educational Services . pp. 13 -- 14 . ISBN 978 - 81 - 206 - 0151 - 2 . Jump up ^ Sangam literature , Encyclopaedia Britannica Jump up ^ Silappadikaram . Jump up ^ Sircar 1979 , p. 64 . Jump up ^ Ayyar 1991 , p. 462 . Jump up ^ Sundararajan & Mukerji 2003 , pp. 434 - 435 . Jump up ^ Davis , Richard H. ( 2004 ) . `` A Muslim princess in the temples of Viṣṇu '' . International Journal of Hindu Studies . Springer Nature . 8 ( 1 - 3 ) : 137 -- 156 . doi : 10.1007 / s11407 - 004 - 0006 - y . Jump up ^ Hopkins 2002 , pp. 59 - 60 . ^ Jump up to : Ramaswamy 2007 , pp. 301 -- 302 . Jump up ^ George Michell ( 2008 ) , Architecture and art of Southern India , Cambridge University Press , pages 9 - 13 , 16 - 21 Jump up ^ Michael C. Howard ( 2012 ) . Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies . McFarland . pp. 93 -- 94 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7864 - 9033 - 2 . Jump up ^ Jamal Malik ( 2008 ) . Islam in South Asia : A Short History . BRILL Academic . p. 140 . ISBN 90 - 04 - 16859 - 1 . Jump up ^ Hopkins 2002 , p. 69 . Jump up ^ Sundararajan & Mukerji 2003 , p. 434 . Jump up ^ Michell 1995 , pp. 73 - 74 . ^ Jump up to : Michell 1995 , pp. 76 - 77 . ^ Jump up to : George Michell 2013 . Jump up ^ G.J. Bryant 2013 , pp. 58 - 62 , 69 - 70 , 97 - 98 with footnotes . Jump up ^ Hopkins 2002 , pp. 34 - 37 . Jump up ^ Hopkins 2002 , pp. 31 - 37 , 58 - 59 . Jump up ^ Anna L. Dallapiccola 2002 . Jump up ^ Khanna 2003 , p. 197 . Jump up ^ Gray & Hancock 2003 , p. 134 . ^ Jump up to : Bhoothalingam 2011 , pp. 53 - 58 . ^ Jump up to : Michell 1995 , pp. 108 - 109 . ^ Jump up to : Mittal & Thursby 2005 , pp. 456 - 457 . Jump up ^ Kaveri River , Encyclopaedia Britannica Jump up ^ Malcolm 1839 , p. 69 . Jump up ^ Michell 1995 , pp. 73 - 75 . Jump up ^ Madhavan 2007 , pp. 85 -- 86 . Jump up ^ V.N. Hari Rao ( 1967 ) , The Srirangam Temple : Art and Architecture , Sri Venkateswara University Historical Series No. 8 , Tirupati , pages 47 - 51 , 5 - 17 , and unnumbered after Table of Contents Jump up ^ Theodor G. Wyeld ; Sarah Kenderdine ; Michael Docherty ( 2008 ) . Virtual heritage : Virtual Systems and Multimedia . Springer . pp. 78 -- 79 . ISBN 978 - 3 - 540 - 78566 - 8 . Jump up ^ Ambujam Anantharaman ( 2006 ) . Temples of South India . East West . pp. 2 -- 3 , 48 , 135 -- 136 . ISBN 978 - 81 - 88661 - 42 - 8 . ^ Jump up to : George Michell ( 1993 ) . Temple Towns of Tamil Nadu . Marg Publications . pp. 78 -- 89 . ISBN 978 - 81 - 85026 - 21 - 3 . ^ Jump up to : V.N. Hari Rao ( 1967 ) , The Srirangam Temple : Art and Architecture , Sri Venkateswara University Historical Series No. 8 , Tirupati , pages 48 - 51 ^ Jump up to : Michell 1995 , p. 109 . Jump up ^ Sircar 1971 , p. 162 . Jump up ^ Michell 1995 , pp. 108 - 110 . Jump up ^ Malcolm 1839 , p. 70 . Jump up ^ Doniger 1999 , p. 1026 . Jump up ^ Dallapiccola 2007 , p. 78 . Jump up ^ Klein 1895 , p. 89 . Jump up ^ Fergusson 1876 , p. 352 . Jump up ^ Rangachar Vasantha ( 2001 ) . Ahobilam : Sri Narasimha Swamy Temple . Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams . pp. 52 -- 53 . Jump up ^ N Rajendran ( 1993 ) . Epigraphical evidences in the reconstruction of the early history of Tiruchirapalli . Journal of the Epigraphical Society of India . pp. 152 -- 155 . Jump up ^ P.V. Jagadisa Ayyar ( 1982 ) . South Indian Shrines : Illustrated . Asian Educational Services . pp. 462 -- 465 . ISBN 978 - 81 - 206 - 0151 - 2 . Jump up ^ P.R. Srinivasan ( 1982 ) , South Indian Inscriptions Volume XXIV , Archaeological Survey of India , pages xiv - xv ^ Jump up to : Bijit Ghosh and K.C. Mago ( 1974 ) , Srirangam : urban form and pattern of an ancient Indian town , Journal : Ekistics , Vol. 38 , No. 228 ( NOVEMBER 1974 ) , pages 377 - 384 Jump up ^ Archana Verma ( 2017 ) . Temple Imagery from Early Mediaeval Peninsular India . Taylor & Francis . pp. 45 -- 46 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 351 - 54700 - 0 . , Quote : `` Another inscription from the same place registers a gift of land for feeding Sri Vaishnavas . '' Jump up ^ Percy Brown ( 2013 ) . Indian Architecture ( Buddhist and Hindu Period ) . Read . pp. 117 -- 119 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4474 - 9857 - 5 . Jump up ^ Raju Kalidos ( 1988 ) , The Wood Carvings of Tamil Nadu : An Iconographical Survey , The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland , Cambridge University Press , No. 1 ( Vol. 1988 ) , pages 98 - 125 Jump up ^ Mukherjee 1998 , p. 248 . Jump up ^ T. 2002 , p. 53 . Jump up ^ Kanuga 1993 , p. 15 . Jump up ^ Proceedings of the Madras Music conferences , p. 22 . Jump up ^ Lal 2001 , p. 4525 . Jump up ^ Kumar 1997 , p. 77 . Jump up ^ V.K. 2007 , p. 77 . Jump up ^ Symbol . Jump up ^ V. 1974 , p. 22 . Jump up ^ Narasimhachary 2004 , p. 23 . Jump up ^ Dasgupta 1991 , p. 114 . Jump up ^ Narasimhachary 2004 , p. 37 . Jump up ^ Govindāchārya 1906 , p. 208 . Jump up ^ Kapoor 2002 . Jump up ^ Dalal 2011 , p. 339 . Jump up ^ Temple timings . ^ Jump up to : J. 2013 , p. 3 - 5 . Jump up ^ Srirangam temple administration . Jump up ^ Mittal & Thursby 2005 , p. 472 . Jump up ^ Madras District Gazetteers 1907 , pp. 319 - 322 . ^ Jump up to : Narayanan 1994 , pp. 43 -- 44 . ^ Jump up to : Cutler 1987 , p. 187 . Jump up ^ Murdoch 1904 , p. 13 . Jump up ^ Sastri 1988 , pp. 6 - 7 . Jump up ^ Cole 1882 , p. cxx . Jump up ^ Mittal & Thursby 2005 , p. 474 . Jump up ^ Rao 1967 , p. 149 . Bibliography ( edit ) `` Proceedings of the Madras Music conferences '' . The Journal of the Music Academy , Madras . Music Academy ( Madras , India ) . 61 . 1930 . Besant , Annie Wood ( 1931 ) . `` Theosophist Magazine '' . 46 ( 1 ) . Theosophical Publishing House : 830 . S. , Prabhu ( 10 May 2012 ) . `` Symbolising religious unity '' . The Hindu . 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College of Engineering and Technology Mookambigai College of Engineering National College , Tiruchirapalli National Institute of Technology , Tiruchirappalli St. Joseph 's College , Tiruchirapalli Tamil Nadu National Law School Hospitals Ponmalai railway hospital Places of worship Temples Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple , Srirangam Samayapuram Mariamman Temple Thayumanavar Temple , Rockfort Rockfort Ucchi Pillayar Temple Jambukeswarar Temple , Thiruvanaikaval Sri Azhagiya Manavala Perumal Temple Uthamar Kovil Subramaniya Swamy Temple , Kumaravayalur Erumbeeswarar Temple , Thiruverumbur Vekkali Amman Temple Panchavarnaswamy Temple Nandrudayan Vinayaka Temple Kattu Narasimhaperumal Temple , Srirangam Churches Basilica of the Holy Redeemer Christ Church Our Lady of Lourdes Church Mosques Nadirshah Mosque Sport Anna Stadium Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium Culture Aadi Perukku Carnatic music Gem cutting Jallikattu Poochoriyal Samayapuram float festival Trichinopoly cigar Vaikunta Ekadashi Central Tamil Economy BHEL Gandhi Market Golden Rock Railway Workshop Golden Rock Shandy Heavy Alloy Penetrator Project OFT Swamy Jewellery Politics Legislative Assembly constituencies Srirangam Thiruverumbur Tiruchirappalli East Tiruchirappalli West Lok Sabha constituencies Tiruchirappalli Other topics : List of people from Tiruchirappalli Temples in Tiruchirappalli Brahmapureeswarar Temple Erumbeeswarar Temple , Thiruverumbur Gunaseelam Vishnu Temple Jambukeswarar Temple , Thiruvanaikaval Kattu Narasimhaperumal Temple Rockfort Ucchi Pillayar Temple Samayapuram Mariamman Temple Sri Appakkudathaan Perumal Temple Sri Azhagiya Manavala Perumal Temple Sri Pundarikashan Perumal Temple ( Thiruvellarai ) Sri Purushothaman Perumal Temple ( Thirukkarambanoor ) Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple , Srirangam Sri Vadivazhagiya Nambi Perumal Temple ( Thiru Anbil ) Thayumanavar Temple Vayalur Murugan Temple Viralimalai Murugan temple Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ranganathaswamy_Temple,_Srirangam&oldid=835718114 '' Categories : Hindu temples in Tiruchirappalli district Divya Desams Places of worship in Tiruchirappalli Vaishnavism Vishnu temples UNESCO Asia - Pacific Heritage Awards winners Hidden categories : Use Indian English from December 2016 All Wikipedia articles written in Indian English Use dmy dates from December 2016 Coordinates on Wikidata Pages using infobox religious building with unsupported parameters All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from November 2017 Talk Contents About Wikipedia বাংলা Français Română Русский தமிழ் తెలుగు ไทย Українська اردو Edit links This page was last edited on 10 April 2018 , at 10 : 43 . 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what does the cell free dna test for

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Cell-free_fetal_DNA&oldid=835567773

Cell - free fetal DNA - wikipedia Cell - free fetal DNA Jump to : navigation , search Cell - free fetal DNA ( cffDNA ) is fetal DNA which circulates freely in the maternal blood . Maternal blood is sampled by venipuncture . Analysis of cffDNA is a method of non-invasive prenatal diagnosis frequently ordered for pregnant women of advanced maternal age . Contents ( hide ) 1 Background 2 Laboratory methods 2.1 Separation of cffDNA 2.2 Analysis of cffDNA 2.2. 1 Quantitative real - time PCR 2.2. 2 Nested PCR 2.2. 3 Digital PCR 2.2. 4 Shotgun sequencing 2.2. 5 Mass spectrometry 2.2. 6 Epigenetic modifications 2.2. 7 mRNA 3 Applications 3.1 Prenatal sex determination 3.2 Single gene disorders 3.3 Hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn 3.4 Aneuploidy 3.5 Preeclampsia 4 Future perspectives 5 See also 6 References Background ( edit ) Cell free fetal DNA sheds into the maternal blood circulation cffDNA originates from placental trophoblasts . Fetal DNA is fragmented when placental microparticles are shed into the maternal blood circulation ( figure 1 ) . cffDNA fragments are approximately 200 base pairs ( bp ) in length . They are significantly smaller than maternal DNA fragments . The difference in size allows cffDNA to be distinguished from maternal DNA fragments . Approximately 11 to 13.4 percent of the cell - free DNA in maternal blood is of fetal origin . The amount varies widely from one pregnant woman to another . cffDNA is present after five to seven weeks gestation . The amount of cffDNA increases as the pregnancy progresses . The quantity of cffDNA in maternal blood diminishes rapidly after childbirth . Two hours after delivery , cffDNA is no longer detectable in maternal blood . Analysis of cffDNA may provide earlier diagnosis of foetal conditions than current techniques . As cffDNA is found in maternal blood , sampling carries no associated risk of spontaneous abortion . cffDNA analysis has the same ethical and practical issues as other techniques such as amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling . Some disadvantages of sampling cffDNA include a low concentration of cffDNA in maternal blood ; variation in the quantity of cffDNA between individuals ; a high concentration of maternal cell free DNA compared to the cffDNA in maternal blood . New evidence shows that cffDNA test failure rate is higher , fetal fraction ( proportion of fetal versus maternal DNA in the maternal blood sample ) is lower and PPV for trisomies 18 , 13 and SCA is decreased in IVF pregnancies compared to those conceived spontaneously . Laboratory methods ( edit ) A maternal peripheral blood sample is taken by venesection at about ten weeks gestation . Separation of cffDNA ( edit ) Blood plasma is separated from the maternal blood sample using a laboratory centrifuge . The cffDNA is then isolated and purified . In 2007 , a standardized protocol for doing this was written by Legler et al through an evaluation of the scientific literature . The highest yield in cffDNA extraction was obtained with the `` QIAamp DSP Virus Kit '' . Addition of formaldehyde to maternal blood samples increases the yield of cffDNA . Formaldehyde stabilizes intact cells , and therefore inhibits the further release of maternal DNA . With the addition of formaldehyde , the percentage of cffDNA recovered from a maternal blood sample varies between 0.32 percent and 40 percent with a mean of 7.7 percent . Without the addition of formaldehyde , the mean percentage of cffDNA recovered has been measured at 20.2 percent . However , other figures vary between 5 and 96 percent . Recovery of cffDNA may be related to the length of the DNA fragments . Another way to increase the fetal DNA is based on physical length of DNA fragments . Smaller fragments can represent up to seventy percent of the total cell free DNA in the maternal blood sample . Analysis of cffDNA ( edit ) In real - time PCR , fluorescent probes are used to monitor the accumulation of amplicons . The reporter fluorescent signal is proportional to the number of amplicons generated . The most appropriate real time PCR protocol is designed according to the particular mutation or genotype to be detected . Point mutations are analysed with qualitative real time PCR with the use of allele specific probes . insertions and deletions are analyzed by dosage measurements using quantitative real time PCR . cffDNA may be detected by finding paternally inherited DNA sequences via polymerase chain reaction ( PCR ). > Quantitative real - time PCR ( edit ) In 2010 , Hill et al analyzed the sex - determining region Y gene ( SRY ) and the Y chromosome short tandem repeat `` DYS14 '' in cffDNA from 511 pregnancies using a quantitative real - time PCR ( RT - qPCR ) . In 401 of 403 pregnancies where maternal blood was drawn at seven weeks gestation or more , both segments of DNA were found . Nested PCR ( edit ) In 2001 , Al - Yatama et al evaluated the use of nested polymerase chain reaction ( nested PCR ) to determine sex by detecting a Y chromosome specific signal in the cffDNA from maternal plasma . Nested PCR detected 53 of 55 male fetuses . The cffDNA from the plasma of 3 of 25 women with female fetuses contained the Y chromosome - specific signal . The sensitivity of nested PCR in this experiment was 96 percent . The specificity was 88 percent . Digital PCR ( edit ) Microfluidic devices allow the quantification of cffDNA segments in maternal plasma with accuracy beyond that of real - time PCR . Point mutations , loss of heterozygosity and aneuploidy can be detected in a single PCR step . Digital PCR can differentiate between maternal blood plasma and fetal DNA in a multiplex fashion . Shotgun sequencing ( edit ) High throughput shotgun sequencing using tools such as Solexa or Illumina , yields approximately 5 million sequence tags per sample of maternal serum . In 2008 , Fan et al identified aneuploid pregnancies such as trisomy when testing at the fourteenth week of gestation . In 2010 , fetal whole of genome mapping by parental haplotype analysis was completed using sequencing of cffDNA from maternal serum . Chiu et al. in 2010 studied 753 pregnant females , using a 2 - plex massively parallel maternal plasma DNA sequencing and trisomy was diagnosed with z - score greater than 3 . The sequencing gave sensitivity of 100 percent , specificity of 97.9 percent , a positive predictive value of 96.6 percent and a negative predictive value of 100 percent . Mass spectrometry ( edit ) Matrix - assisted laser desorption / ionization - time - of - flight mass spectrometry ( MALDI - TOF MS ) combined with single - base extension after PCR allows cffDNA detection with single base specificity and single DNA molecule sensitivity . DNA is amplified by PCR . Then , linear amplification with base extension reaction ( with a third primer ) is designed to anneal to the region upstream from the mutation site . One or two bases are added to the extension primer to produce two extension products from wild - type DNA and mutant DNA . Single base specificity provides advantages over hybridization - based techniques using TaqMan hydrolysis probes . In 2008 , when assessing the technique , Ding et al found no false positives or negatives when looking for cffDNA to determine fetal sex in sixteen maternal plasma samples . In 2010 , Akolekar et al correctly detected the sex of ninety of ninety - one male foetuses using MALDI - TOF mas spectrometry . The technique had accuracy , sensitivity and specificity of over 99 percent . Epigenetic modifications ( edit ) Differences in gene activation between maternal and fetal DNA can be exploited . epigenetic modifications ( heritable modifications that change gene function without changing DNA sequence ) can be used to detect cffDNA . The hypermethylated RASSF1 A promoter is a universal fetal marker used to confirm the presence of cffDNA . In 2012 , White et al described a technique where cffDNA was extracted from maternal plasma and then digested with methylation - sensitive and insensitive restriction enzymes . Then , real - time PCR analysis of RASSF1A , SRY , and DYS14 was done . The procedure detected 79 out of 90 ( 88 percent ) maternal blood samples where hypermethylated RASSF1A was present . MRNA ( edit ) mRNA transcripts from genes expressed in the placenta are detectable in maternal plasma . In this procedure , plasma is centrifuged so an aqueous layer appears . This layer is transferred and from it RNA is extracted . RT - PCR is used to detect a selected expression of RNA . For example , Human placental lactogen ( hPL ) and beta - hCG mRNA are stable in maternal plasma and can be detected . ( Ng et al. 2002 ) . This can help to confirm the presence of cffDNA in maternal plasma . Applications ( edit ) Prenatal sex determination ( edit ) X-linked genetic disorder The analysis of cffDNA from a sample of maternal plasma allows the determination of fetal sex . Whether the sex of the fetus is male or female allows the determination of the risk of a particular X-linked recessive genetic disorder in a particular pregnancy , especially where the mother is a genetic carrier of the disorder . Most X-linked diseases are evident in males because of the lack of the second X-chromosome that can compensate for the disease allele . Common X-linked recessive disorders include Duchenne muscular dystrophy , fragile X syndrome and haemophilia . In comparison to obstetric ultrasonography which is unreliable for sex determination in the first trimester and amniocentesis which carries a small risk of miscarriage , sampling of maternal plasma for analysis of cffDNA is without risk . The main targets in the cffDNA analysis are the gene responsible for the sex - determining region Y protein ( SRY ) on the Y chromosome and the DYS14 sequence . Congenital adrenal hyperplasia In congenital adrenal hyperplasia , the adrenal cortex lacks appropriate corticosteroid synthesis , leading to excess adrenal androgens and affects female fetuses . There is an external masculinization of the genitalia in the female fetuses . Mothers of at risk fetuses are given dexamethasone at 6 weeks gestation to suppress pituitary gland release of androgens . If analysis of cffDNA obtained from a sample of maternal plasma lacks genetic markers found only on the Y chromosome , it is suggestive of a female fetus . However , it might also indicate a failure of the analysis itself ( a false negative result ) . Paternal genetic polymorphisms and sex - independent markers may be used to detect cffDNA . An high degree of heterozygosity of these markers must be present for this application . Paternity testing Prenatal DNA paternity testing is commercially available . The test can be performed at nine weeks gestation . Single gene disorders ( edit ) Autosomal dominant and recessive single gene disorders which have been diagnosed prenatally by analysing paternally inherited DNA include cystic fibrosis , beta thalassemia , sickle cell anemia , spinal muscular atrophy , and myotonic dystrophy . Prenatal diagnosis of single gene disorders which are due to an autosomal recessive mutation , a maternally inherited autosomal dominant mutation or large sequence mutations that include duplication , expansion or insertion of DNA sequences is more difficult . In cffDNA , fragments of 200 -- 300 bp length involved in single gene disorders are more difficult to detect . For example , the autosomal dominant condition , achondroplasia is caused by the FGFR3 gene point mutation . In 2007 , a study of two pregnancies with a fetus with achondroplasia found a paternally inherited G1138A mutation from cffDNA from a maternal plasma sample in one and a G1138A de novo mutation from the other . In studies of the genetics of Huntington 's chorea using qRT - PCR of cffDNA from maternal plasma samples , CAG repeats have been detected at normal levels ( 17 , 20 and 24 ) . cffDNA may also be used to diagnose single gene disorders. Developments in laboratory processes using cffDNA may allow prenatal diagnosis of aneuploidies such as trisomy 21 ( Down 's syndrome ) in the fetus . Hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn ( edit ) Incompatibility of fetal and maternal RhD antigens is the main cause of Hemolytic disease of the newborn . Approximately 15 percent of Caucasian women , 3 to 5 percent of black Africa women and less than 3 percent of Asian women are RhD negative . Accurate prenatal diagnosis is important because the disease can be fatal to the newborn and because treatment including intramuscular immunoglobulin ( Anti-D ) or intravenous immunoglobulin can be administered to mothers at risk . In 2010 , Cardo et al reported that PCR to detect RHD ( gene ) gene exons 5 and 7 from cffDNA obtained from maternal plasma between 9 and 13 weeks gestation gave a high degree of specificity , sensitivity and diagnostic accuracy ( > 90 percent ) when compared to RhD determination from newborn cord blood serum . In 2013 , Aykute et al found similar results targeting exons 7 and 10 . In 2015 , Svobodova et al reported that droplet digital PCR in fetal RhD determination was comparable to a routine real - time PCR technique . Routine determination of fetal RhD status from cffDNA in maternal serum allows early management of at risk pregnancies while decreasing unnecessary use of Anti-D by over 25 percent . Aneuploidy ( edit ) Sex chromosomes Analysis of maternal serum cffDNA by high - throughput sequencing can detect common fetal sex chromosome aneuploidies such as Turner 's syndrome , Klinefelter 's syndrome and triple X syndrome but the procedure 's positive predictive value is low . Trisomy 21 Fetal trisomy of chromosome 21 is the cause of Down 's syndrome . This trisomy can be detected by analysis of cffDNA from maternal blood by massively parallel shotgun sequencing ( MPSS ) . Another technique is digital analysis of selected regions ( DANSR ) . However , such tests show inconsistent degrees of sensitivity and specificity and therefore may be best used to confirm a positive maternal screening test such as ultrasound markers of the condition. . Trisomy 13 and 18 Analysis of cffDNA from maternal plasma with MPSS looking for trisomy 13 or 18 is possible Factors limiting sensitivity and specificity include the levels of cffDNA in the maternal plasma ; maternal chromosomes may have mosaicism . A number of fetal nucleic acid molecules derived from aneuploid chromosomes can be detected including SERPINEB2 mRNA , clad B , hypomethylated SERPINB5 from chromosome 18 , placenta - specific 4 ( PLAC4 ) , hypermethylated holocarboxylase synthetase ( HLCS ) and c21orf105 mRNA from chromosome 12 . With complete trisomy , the mRNA alleles in maternal plasma is n't the normal 1 : 1 ratio , but is in fact 2 : 1 . Allelic ratios determined by epigenetic markers can also be used to detect the complete trisomies . Massive parallel sequencing and digital PCR for fetal aneuploidy detection can be used without restriction to fetal - specific nucleic acid molecules . ( MPSS ) is estimated to have a sensitivity of between 96 and 100 % , and a specificity between 94 and 100 % for detecting Down syndromeIt can be performed at 10 weeks of gestational age . One study in the United States estimated a false positive rate of 0.3 % and a positive predictive value of 80 % when using cffDNA to detect Down syndrome . Preeclampsia ( edit ) Preeclampsia is a complex condition of pregnancy involving hypertension and proteinuria usually after 20 weeks gestation . It is associated with poor cytotrophoblastic invasion of the myometrium . Onset of the condition between 20 and 34 weeks gestation , is considered `` early '' . Maternal plasma samples in pregnancies complicated by preeclampsia have significantly higher levels of cffDNA that those in normal pregnancies . This holds true for early onset preeclampsia . Future perspectives ( edit ) New generation sequencing may be used to yield a whole genome sequence from cffDNA . This raises ethical questions . However , the utility of the procedure may increase as clear associations between specific genetic variants and disease states are discovered . See also ( edit ) Triple test Quad test References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Alberry , M. , et al. ( 2007 ) . `` Free fetal DNA in maternal plasma in anembryonic pregnancies : confirmation that the origin is the trophoblast '' . Prenatal Diagnosis 27 ( 5 ) : 415 - 418 . Jump up ^ Gupta , A.K. , et al. ( 2004 ) . `` Detection of fetal DNA and RNA in placenta - derived syncytiotrophoblast microparticles generated in vitro '' . Clinical Chemistry 50 ( 11 ) : 2187 - 2190 . Jump up ^ Smets , E.M. ; Visser , A. ; Go , A.T. ; van Vugt , J.M. ; Oudejans , C.B. ( 2006 ) . `` Novel biomarkers in preeclampsia '' . Clinica Chimica Acta : International Journal of Clinical Chemistry 364 ( 1 - 2 ) : 22 - 32 . Jump up ^ Chan , K.C. , et al. ( 2004 ) . `` Size distributions of maternal and fetal DNA in maternal plasma '' . Clinical Chemistry 50 ( 1 ) : 88 - 92 . 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( 2001 ) . `` Detection of Y chromosome - specific DNA in the plasma and urine of pregnant women using nested polymerase chain reaction '' . Prenatal Diagnosis 21 ( 5 ) : 399 - 402 . ^ Jump up to : Zimmermann , B.G. , et al. ( 2008 ) . `` Digital PCR : a powerful new tool for noninvasive prenatal diagnosis ? '' . Prenatal Diagnosis 28 ( 12 ) : 1087 - 1093 . ^ Jump up to : Lo , Y.M. , et al. ( 2007 ) . `` Digital PCR for the molecular detection of fetal chromosomal aneuploidy '' . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104 ( 32 ) : 13116 - 13121 . Jump up ^ Quake , S. ( 2007 ) . `` At the interface of physics and biology '' . BioTechniques 43 ( 1 ) : 19 . Jump up ^ Chiu , R.W. ; Lo , Y.M. ( 2010 ) . `` Pregnancy - associated microRNAs in maternal plasma : a channel for fetal - maternal communication ? '' . Clinical Chemistry 56 ( 11 ) : 1656 - 1657 . ^ Jump up to : Ding , C. ( 2008 ) . `` Maldi - TOF mass spectrometry for analyzing cell - free fetal DNA in maternal plasma '' . Methods in Molecular Biology 444 : 253 - 267 . Jump up ^ Akolekar , R. ; Farkas , D.H. ; VanAgtmael , A.L. ; Bombard , A.T. ; Nicolaides , K.H. ( 2010 ) . `` Fetal sex determination using circulating cell - free fetal DNA ( ccffDNA ) at 11 to 13 weeks of gestation '' . Prenatal Diagnosis 30 ( 10 ) : 918 - 923 . Jump up ^ Tong , Y.K. ; Chiu , R.W. ; Chan , K.C. ; Leung , T.Y. ; Lo , Y.M. ( 2012 ) . `` Technical concerns about immunoprecipitation of methylated fetal DNA for noninvasive trisomy 21 diagnosis '' . Nature Medicine 18 ( 9 ) : 1327 - 1328 ; author reply 1328 - 1329 . Jump up ^ Papageorgiou , E.A. , et al. ( 2011 ) . `` Fetal - specific DNA methylation ratio permits noninvasive prenatal diagnosis of trisomy 21 '' . Nature Medicine 17 ( 4 ) : 510 - 513 . ^ Jump up to : White , H.E. , Dent , C.L. ; Hall , V.J. ; Crolla , J.A. ; Chitty , L.S. ( 2012 ) . `` Evaluation of a novel assay for detection of the fetal marker RASSF1A : facilitating improved diagnostic reliability of noninvasive prenatal diagnosis '' . PLoS ONE 7 ( 9 ) : e45073 . Jump up ^ Ng , E.K. , et al. ( 2002 ) . `` Presence of filterable and nonfilterable mRNA in the plasma of cancer patients and healthy individuals '' . Clinical Chemistry 48 ( 8 ) : 1212 - 1217 . Jump up ^ Baird , P.A. ; Anderson , T.W. ; Newcombe , H.B. ; Lowry , R.B. ( 1988 ) . `` Genetic disorders in children and young adults : a population study '' . American Journal of Human Genetics 42 ( 5 ) : 677 - 693 . Jump up ^ Scheffer , P.G. , et al. ( 2010 ) . `` Reliability of fetal sex determination using maternal plasma '' . Obstetrics and Gynecology 115 ( 1 ) : 117 - 126 . ^ Jump up to : Bustamante - Aragones , A. ; Gonzalez - Gonzalez , C. ; de Alba , M.R. ; Ainse , E. ; Ramos , C. ( 2010 ) . `` Noninvasive prenatal diagnosis using ccffDNA in maternal blood : state of the art '' . Expert Review of Molecular Diagnostics 10 ( 2 ) : 197 - 205 . Jump up ^ Zimmermann , B. ; El - Sheikhah , A. ; Nicolaides , K. ; Holzgreve , W. ; Hahn , S. ( 2005 ) . `` Optimized real - time quantitative PCR measurement of male fetal DNA in maternal plasma '' . Clinical Chemistry 51 ( 9 ) : 1598 - 1604 . Jump up ^ Finning , K.M. ; Chitty , L.S. ( 2008 ) . `` Non-invasive fetal sex determination : impact on clinical practice '' . Seminars in Fetal & Neonatal Medicine 13 ( 2 ) : 69 - 75 . Jump up ^ Markey , C.M. ; Wadia , P.R. ; Rubin , B.S. ; Sonnenschein , C ; Soto , A.M. ( 2005 ) . `` Long - term effects of fetal exposure to low doses of the xenoestrogen bisphenol - A in the female mouse genital tract '' . Biology of Reproduction 72 ( 6 ) : 1344 - 1351 . Jump up ^ Sayres , L.C. ; Cho , M.K. ( 2011 ) . `` Cell - free fetal nucleic acid testing : a review of the technology and its applications '' . Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey 66 ( 7 ) : 431 - 442 . Jump up ^ Hill , M. ; Barrett , A.N. ; White , H. ; Chitty , L.S. ( 2012 ) . `` Uses of cell free fetal DNA in maternal circulation '' . Best Practice & Research : Clinical Obstetrics & Gynaecology 26 ( 5 ) : 639 - 654 . Jump up ^ Norbury , G. ; Norbury , C.J. ( 2008 ) . `` Non-invasive prenatal diagnosis of single gene disorders : how close are we ? '' . Seminars in Fetal & Neonatal Medicine 13 ( 2 ) : 76 - 83 . ^ Jump up to : Li , Y. ; Page - Christiaens , G.C. ; Gille , J.J. ; Holzgreve , W. ; Hahn , S. ( 2007 ) . `` Non-invasive prenatal detection of achondroplasia in size - fractionated cell - free DNA by MALDI - TOF MS assay '' . Prenatal Diagnosis 27 ( 1 ) : 11 - 17 . Jump up ^ ( 2 ) De Die - Smulders , C.E.M. ; De Wert , G.M.W.R. ; Liebaers , I. ; Tibben , A. ; Evers - Kiebooms , G. ( 2013 ) . `` Reproductive options for prospective parents in families with Huntington 's disease : Clinical , psychological and ethical reflections '' . Human Reproduction Update. 19 ( 3 ) : 304 -- 315 . doi : 10.1093 / humupd / dms058 . PMID 23377865 . Jump up ^ Fan , H.C. ; Blumenfeld , Y.J. ; Chitkara , U. ; Hudgins , L. ; Quake , S.R. ( 2008 ) . `` Noninvasive diagnosis of fetal aneuploidy by shotgun sequencing DNA from maternal blood '' . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 105 ( 42 ) : 16266 - 16271 . ^ Jump up to : Cardo L. et al `` Non-invasive fetal RHD genotyping in the first trimester of pregnancy '' Clin Chem Lab Med. 2010 Aug ; 48 ( 8 ) : 1121 - 6 . doi : 10.1515 / CCLM. 2010.234 . Jump up ^ Chinen P.A. et al `` Noninvasive determination of fetal rh blood group , D antigen status by cell - free DNA analysis in maternal plasma : experience in a Brazilian population . '' Am J Perinatol. 2010 Nov ; 27 ( 10 ) : 759 - 62 . doi : 10.1055 / s - 0030 - 1253560 . Epub 2010 Apr 20 . Jump up ^ Okwundu C. and Afolabi B. `` Intramuscular versus intravenous anti-D for preventing Rhesus alloimmunization during pregnancy . '' Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013 Jan 31 ; ( 1 ) : CD007885 . doi : 10.1002 / 14651858. CD007885. pub2 Jump up ^ Ayket A et al `` Determination of fetal rhesus d status by maternal plasma DNA analysis '' Balkan J Med Genet. 2013 Dec ; 16 ( 2 ) : 33 - 8 . doi : 10.2478 / bjmg - 2013 - 0029 . Jump up ^ Svobodova I. et al `` Performance of Droplet Digital PCR in Non-Invasive Fetal RHD Genotyping - Comparison with a Routine Real - Time PCR Based Approach . '' PLoS One . 2015 Nov 12 ; 10 ( 11 ) : e0142572 . doi : 10.1371 / journal. pone. 0142572 . eCollection 2015 . Jump up ^ Papasavva T. et al `` Prevalence of RhD status and clinical application of non-invasive prenatal determination of fetal RHD in maternal plasma : a 5 year experience in Cyprus . '' BMC Res Notes . 2016 Apr 1 ; 9 : 198 . doi : 10.1186 / s13104 - 016 - 2002 - x . Jump up ^ Zhang B. et al `` Noninvasive prenatal screening for fetal common sex chromosome aneuploidies from maternal blood . '' J Int Med Res. 2017 Apr ; 45 ( 2 ) : 621 - 630 . doi : 10.1177 / 0300060517695008 . Epub 2017 Mar 30 . ^ Jump up to : `` Down Syndrome : Current Status , Challenges and Future Perspectives . '' Int J Mol Cell Med. 2016 Summer ; 5 ( 3 ) : 125 -- 133 . PMCID : PMC5125364 Jump up ^ Mersy , E. ; Smits , L.J.M. ; Van Winden , L.A.A.P. ; De Die - Smulders , C.E.M. ; Paulussen , A.D.C. ; MacVille , M.V.E. ; Coumans , A.B.C. ; Frints , S.G.M. ( 2013 ) . `` Noninvasive detection of fetal trisomy 21 : Systematic review and report of quality and outcomes of diagnostic accuracy studies performed between 1997 and 2012 '' . Human Reproduction Update. 19 ( 4 ) : 318 -- 29 . doi : 10.1093 / humupd / dmt001 . PMID 23396607 . Jump up ^ Clark - Ganhart C.A. et al `` Understanding the Limitations of Circulating Cell Free Fetal DNA : An Example of Two Unique Cases . '' J Clin Gynecol Obstet. 2014 May ; 3 ( 2 ) : 38 - 70 . Jump up ^ Wataganara , T. , et al. ( 2003 ) . `` Maternal serum cell - free fetal DNA levels are increased in cases of trisomy 13 but not trisomy 18 '' . Human Genetics 112 ( 2 ) : 204 - 208 . Jump up ^ Chiu , R.W. ; Lo , Y.M. ( 2011 ) . `` Non-invasive prenatal diagnosis by fetal nucleic acid analysis in maternal plasma : the coming of age '' . Seminars in Fetal & Neonatal Medicine 16 ( 2 ) : 88 - 93 . Jump up ^ Noninvasive Prenatal Diagnosis of Fetal Aneuploidy Using Cell - Free Fetal Nucleic Acids in Maternal Blood : Clinical Policy ( Effective 05 / 01 / 2013 ) from Oxford Health Plans Jump up ^ Bianchi , D.W. ; Parker , R.L. ; Wentworth , J. ; Madankumar , R. ; Saffer , C. ; Das , A.F. ; Craig , J.A. ; Chudova , D.I. ; Devers , P.L. ; Jones , K.W. ; Oliver , K. ; Rava , R.P. ; Sehnert , A.J. ( 2014 ) . `` DNA Sequencing versus Standard Prenatal Aneuploidy Screening '' . New England Journal of Medicine . 370 ( 9 ) : 799 -- 808 . doi : 10.1056 / NEJMoa1311037 . PMID 24571752 ... A recent study in the New England Journal of Medicine demonstrated the feasibility of using NIPT in a low risk population . Jump up ^ Henderson J.T. et al `` Preeclampsia Screening : Evidence Report and Systematic Review for the US Preventive Services Task Force '' JAMA. 2017 Apr 25 ; 317 ( 16 ) : 1668 - 1683 . doi : 10.1001 / jama. 2016.18315 ^ Jump up to : Seval M.M. et al `` Cell free fetal DNA in the plasma of pregnant women with preeclampsia '' Clin Exp Obstet Gynecol. 2015 ; 42 ( 6 ) : 787 - 91 . Jump up ^ Lo , Y.M. , et al. ( 1999 ) . `` Increased fetal DNA concentrations in the plasma of pregnant women carrying fetuses with trisomy 21 '' . Clinical Chemistry 45 ( 10 ) : 1747 - 1751 . Jump up ^ Leung , T.N. ; Zhang , J. ; Lau , T.K. ; Chan , L.Y. ; Lo , Y.M. ( 2001 ) . `` Increased maternal plasma fetal DNA concentrations in women who eventually develop preeclampsia '' . 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Jump up ^ Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium ; Clayton , David G. ; Cardon , Lon R. ; Craddock , Nick ; Deloukas , Panos ; Duncanson , Audrey ; Kwiatkowski , Dominic P. ; McCarthy , Mark I. ; Ouwehand , Willem H. ; Samani , Nilesh J. ; Todd ; Donnelly , Peter ; Barrett , Jeffrey C. ; Burton , Paul R. ; Davison , Dan ; Donnelly , Peter ; Easton , Doug ; Evans , David ; Leung , Hin - Tak ; Marchini , Jonathan L. ; Morris ; Spencer , Chris C.A. ; Tobin , Martin D. ; Cardon , Lon R. ; Clayton , David G. ; Attwood , Antony P. ; Boorman , James P. ; Cant , Barbara ; Everson , Ursula ; Hussey , Judith M. ( June 2007 ) . `` Genome - wide association study of 14,000 cases of seven common diseases and 3,000 shared controls '' . Nature . 447 ( 7145 ) : 661 -- 78 . Bibcode : 2007Natur. 447 ... 661B . doi : 10.1038 / nature05911 . PMC 2719288 . PMID 17554300 . Jump up ^ Mailman MD ; Feolo M ; Jin Y ; Kimura M ; Tryka K ; Bagoutdinov R ; Hao L ; Kiang A ; Paschall J ; Phan L ; Popova N ; Pretel S ; Ziyabari L ; Lee M ; Shao Y ; Wang ZY ; Sirotkin K ; Ward M ; Kholodov M ; Zbicz K ; Beck J ; Kimelman M ; Shevelev S ; Preuss D ; Yaschenko E ; Graeff A ; Ostell J ; Sherry ST ( October 2007 ) . `` The NCBI dbGaP database of genotypes and phenotypes '' . Nat . Genet. 39 ( 10 ) : 1181 -- 6 . doi : 10.1038 / ng1007 - 1181 . PMC 2031016 . PMID 17898773 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cell-free_fetal_DNA&oldid=835567773 '' Categories : Blood DNA Obstetrical procedures Hidden categories : All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2017 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Español Italiano Nederlands Edit links This page was last edited on 9 April 2018 , at 13 : 53 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . 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what happened to toby in season 7 the office

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Toby_Flenderson&oldid=822159927

Toby Flenderson - wikipedia Toby Flenderson Jump to : navigation , search ( hide ) This article has multiple issues . Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages ) This article relies too much on references to primary sources . Please improve this by adding secondary or tertiary sources . ( April 2010 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This article describes a work or element of fiction in a primarily in - universe style . Please help rewrite it to explain the fiction more clearly and provide non-fictional perspective . ( April 2010 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Toby Flenderson Paul Lieberstein as Toby Flenderson First appearance `` Diversity Day '' Last appearance `` Finale '' Created by Greg Daniels Portrayed by Paul Lieberstein Information Gender Male Occupation Human Resources Representative , Dunder Mifflin , Scranton Family Unnamed parents ( divorced ) Rory ( brother ) Spouse ( s ) Kathy Becker ( ex-wife ) Significant other ( s ) Amy ( ex-girlfriend ) Pam Halpert ( former unrequited crush ) Nellie Bertram ( love interest ) Children Sasha Flenderson ( daughter ) Religion Roman Catholic Nationality American Toby Flenderson , M.S.W. ( born in 1971 ) is a fictional character on the U.S. comedy television series , The Office . He is portrayed by the show 's writer , director , producer and showrunner Paul Lieberstein , and is an original character with no equivalent in The Office ( UK TV series ) . Contents ( hide ) 1 Overview 2 Biography 3 Relationships 3.1 Michael 3.2 Pam 3.3 Jim 3.4 Kelly and Ryan 3.5 Darryl 3.6 Andy 3.7 Dwight 3.8 Nellie 3.9 Pete and Clark 4 Seasons 1 -- 2 5 Seasons 3 -- 4 6 Seasons 5 -- 6 7 Seasons 7 -- 8 8 Season 9 9 References 10 External links Overview ( edit ) Toby Flenderson is the human resources representative for the Scranton branch of paper distributor Dunder Mifflin / Sabre . Mild - mannered to the point of being physically incapable to voice his opinions or assert himself , Toby can be somewhat mournful about his life choices ( he fell into the field of Human Resources after leaving his training at seminary in order to pursue the woman he 'd later marry and painfully divorce ) . He likes his colleagues , although he is sometimes exasperated by the excessively chatty Kelly Kapoor . He also has a long - standing crush on Pam Halpert , which he almost reveals at the end of Season 4 when he resigns from his position to move to Costa Rica . Toby was intensely despised by branch manager Michael Scott , largely because Michael had no authority over him as Toby reported to corporate headquarters , and because Toby frequently tried to dissuade Michael from many of his ill - conceived and impulsive ideas . Michael sums up his feelings for Toby in the episode `` Casino Night , '' asking , `` Why are you the way that you are ? Honestly every time I try to do something fun or exciting , you make it not that way . I hate so much about the things that you choose to be . '' For Toby 's going away party in `` Goodbye Toby , '' Michael gives him as a gift a rock with a note attached reading `` Suck on This ! '' Shortly after arriving in Costa Rica , Toby suffers a zip - line accident and midway through season 5 , he returns to his old job at Dunder Mifflin , much to Michael 's fury . Biography ( edit ) In his childhood , Toby was forced to testify against both of his parents when the two got divorced . He attended Bishop O'Hara High School and is a Penn State University alumnus . In the Season 5 episode `` Casual Friday , '' a diploma at his cubicle reveals Toby also has a B.S. in Psychology from California Coastal College . The Season 7 episode `` Counseling '' reveals that he has a degree in social work from Temple University . Toby was in a seminary for a year but dropped out because he wanted to have sex with a girl . He followed her back to Scranton , married her and had a young daughter named Sasha . Toby is also divorced ( a fact which Michael constantly and unkindly mentions ) . Toby loves his daughter and went the extra mile in `` Moroccan Christmas '' to buy her one of Dwight 's Princess Unicorn dolls , noting that his ex-wife `` will be so pissed '' and that `` for once , Daddy 's going to be a hero . '' He went to Amsterdam for a week ( or a month ) after his divorce . Toby claims to have no `` passion for HR '' and was only hired at Dunder Mifflin as it was the first job he could find . He joins the others occasionally but only for business matters , such as reviewing the company 's sexual harassment policy and mediating conflict between employees . Toby prefers to let angry employees vent to him , after which they feel better and the conflict eventually settles down and solves itself . This strategy worked virtually trouble - free for years until Michael Scott publicly reads off all listed complaints . Toby is in the unfortunate position of needing to try ( but usually failing ) to enforce corporate policies and rules when Michael disregards them , typified by an incident in which he quashes Michael 's plan to invite Boy Scouts to a Casino Night party : `` Actually , I did n't think it was appropriate to invite children since it 's , uh , you know ... there 's gambling and alcohol ... and it 's in our dangerous warehouse ... it 's a school night , and you know , uh ... Hooters is catering . You know , is that not -- is that enough ? Should I keep going ? '' Toby avoids office activities whenever possible and , like most of the staff , only tolerates Michael . He has reached out to Michael several times despite Michael 's continued abuse . However , he gets along with the rest of the staff and even attends Jim 's barbecue party , playing video games while Michael sings karaoke . When Dwight approached Michael about missing a gift bag during `` A Benihana Christmas , '' Michael immediately suggested stealing it from Toby , much to Toby 's later chagrin , as all the office staff had new robes except for him ( Pam later gave her robe to Toby , and this increased Toby 's unrequited crush on her ) . In addition Michael on numerous occasions attempts to blame Toby for problems that are clearly his own fault such as in `` The Merger '' in which he questions Tony Gardner if the reason he is quitting is because of Toby , though Tony says Toby was in fact kind and helpful and it 's Michael 's management that is the reason . This occurs again notably in `` Classy Christmas '' where Michael himself vandalizes Holly 's Woody doll ( A gift from her boyfriend ) and tries to convince her Toby did it , though Toby fights back , denies it and says the vandalism is something Michael would do . This is evidence that Michael uses Toby as an excuse to hide from the consequences of his own actions . He seems to have plain bad luck in many instances in his life . It seems to be a recurring theme that some sort of tragedy befalls him frequently , if only in a minor sense . He sadly accepts his misfortunes , seeming to accept this way of life as inescapable , which may be the cause of his sad disposition . On some occasions , Toby enjoys some rewards and good fortune , much to his satisfaction ( and to Michael 's annoyance ) . Toby 's favorite movies are Say Anything , The Shining , Annie Hall , and Toy Story 2 . He also likes short stories , mystery novels , and `` old hard - boiled detective '' movies . One of his favorite TV shows is Damages . He once lived in Honolulu for a year and stated in `` Branch Closing '' that he would take severance from the closing , sell his house , and move to Costa Rica . In `` Local Ad , '' it is revealed that he worked in advertising for three years before coming to Dunder Mifflin . Also , according to a deleted scene from the episode `` Launch Party , '' it is stated while Toby is taking a driver 's test that he is colorblind . Toby is also allergic to mushrooms ( `` Survivor Man '' ) . Toby has an ongoing concern about the air quality at the office that borders on an obsession . He worked a recommendation that the air be tested into his goodbye toast in a deleted scene from `` Goodbye , Toby ; '' he ignored the two factions that wanted to use an unexpected surplus for new chairs or a new copier and said the money should go to air testing ( which he called the `` silent killer , '' leading to Michael saying `` You are the silent killer . Go back to the annex . '' ) ; and he put together a meeting to discuss the radon testing kits he was dispersing in `` The Chump . '' Relationships ( edit ) Toby is seen as an awkward and quiet guy in the office . He is often passive when he is teased or when he gets picked on and does not appear to know how to stand up for himself . While members of the office have shown disgust at Michael 's treatment of Toby , for unknown reasons , nobody has ever stood up for Toby when Michael insults him or excludes him from events , but he is generally liked in the office . The others possibly avoid standing up for him as Michael has authority over them ( unlike Toby ) and could potentially punish them for speaking up ( certain episodes have shown that Michael is indeed quick to take offense such as in `` Did I Stutter ? '' ) or possibly because they do not want to suffer the same treatment Toby suffers from Michael . Toby , however , has never asked anyone for help when Michael mistreats him , which is possibly the reason why no one ever stands up for him . Besides Michael , the other staff members treat Toby with respect , for example , after Toby conducts a brief sexual harassment seminar , the staff is left in a good mood and laughing , until Michael comes in and takes over , however there have been others who occasionally like Michael treat him poorly and insult him such as Kevin , Dwight and Jim and in later seasons , Andy and Nellie . Toby himself is occasionally an annoyance to some , such as Jim , but despite this he is considered one of the few intelligent people in the office , being in the `` Finer Things Club '' with Pam and Oscar . His behavior does change somewhat when he meets Nellie ( whom he develops a romance for ) , and he is shown to become somewhat of nuisance to her by being socially awkward and not handling his crush on her with any subtlety ( and also an annoyance to Andy , though this is more of a Michael Scott - like situation where Andy gets angry and frustrated at Toby for doing his HR job at the expense of Andy 's weirder / less legal ideas ) . Michael ( edit ) Michael intensely despised Toby because , according to Michael , his job was to `` make the office fun , while ( Toby 's ) job is to make the office lame '' . Michael 's often - successful self - delusions that he is the life of the party frequently have a light shined on them by Toby 's interactions with him . This is usually not Toby 's intention , but his inability to go along with Michael 's vibe is like a mirror being held up to Michael . It shows him the truth that he is constantly hiding from . In their bitter relationship , Michael is clearly the antagonist and Toby the victim . Michael seems to be completely blind to how harsh his treatment of Toby is and claims that Toby is the bad guy and that he tortures him ( he points this out to Holly in `` Goodbye Toby '' ) , completely ignoring that he verbally puts Toby down on a daily basis while the latter simply does his job and voices his own opinion and attempts to dissuade Michael from ideas that are truly reckless and impulsive and unethical in the office . Even on occasions where Toby offers kindness to Michael such as in `` The Deposition '' and `` Niagara '' , Michael shows nothing but rudeness and hatred . Michael viewed Toby as his sworn enemy and took every opportunity to demean him . As Michael sneers , `` Toby is in HR , which technically means he works for corporate , so he 's really not a part of our family . Also , he 's divorced , so he 's really not a part of his family '' and says that `` Toby Flenderson is everything that is wrong with the paper industry . '' He also stated , `` I hate so much about the things that you choose to be '' ( immediately following the above quote from Toby regarding the Casino Night ) . At various times , Michael has referred to Toby as `` the worst human being ever , '' a `` convicted rapist , '' `` evil snail , '' `` animal rapist , '' `` Satan '' and `` the Antichrist . '' Michael once says that if he `` had a gun with two bullets and was in a room with Hitler , Bin Laden and Toby , ( he ) would shoot Toby twice . '' Michael has physically hurt Toby on a few occasions as well such as throwing a pen at his forehead and checking him while skating . Michael frequently threatened to fire Toby , which he could not do because Toby is not considered a local branch employee , having been hired by the corporate office and then assigned to Scranton . The majority of Michael 's techniques that are questionable bring Toby by his own obligation to confront Michael about how corporate would like him to do his job . Ultimately Toby and Michael represent the conflict between employees and upper management . While Toby is mainly a passive victim to Michael 's abuse who tries his best to remain calm , Toby himself has shown on a few occasions in the series that he enjoys seeing Michael in misery such as when he injures his foot and collapses and struggles in the restroom ( where Michael is disgusted by the idea of Toby helping him instead of Ryan , and Toby gets to mock Michael 's wimpiness and notes with disdain `` you only grilled your foot '' ) and when Toby viciously beats Michael in a game of poker , in which he says he will chase the feeling of taking Michael 's money . Toby has also laughed at Michael 's misfortune on occasion such as in `` The Deposition '' when Toby learns that Michael thinks Ryan is hot and also in `` Koi Pond '' when he learns Michael has fallen into two fountains . Toby once even instructed Pam on how to hit Michael harder after he gave her the opportunity to do so for dating and dumping her mother , showing that he enjoys seeing Michael suffer to a degree . Toby has on occasion stood up to Michael such as in `` Classy Christmas '' when Michael tries to accuse Toby of destroying Holly 's beloved Woody doll to which Toby immediately responds that the vandalism is something that Michael would do , to which everyone agrees . Toby seems to have a strong ability to absorb Michael 's abuse as seen in `` Goodbye Toby '' where he is given a potential opportunity to complain about Michael 's antics and after Michael threatens to kill him ( though he does so in a situation where Holly and Pam would be able to listen to Toby 's issues if he wanted to present them , as they either do n't know how awful Michael has been to him or , in Pam 's case , know it very well ) , Toby claims that everything in the office is fine , and later shrugs to the camera that he has survived Michael 's abuse long enough and that disclosing it is pointless . Toby has never attempted in any way to get Michael punished for his harsh treatment of him ( despite having the power to do so ) and has never gotten angry with him for unknown reasons . This stands in direct contrast to other members of the Office who get angered at Michael for his stupidity and rudeness such as Jim , Pam and notably Stanley . Toby also somewhat seems to be in denial that Michael hates him as seen in `` New Guys '' in which after shooting down his impulsive idea , Andy says to Toby : `` Now I know why Michael hated you so much , '' to which Toby responds `` No , he did n't '' , possibly signifying that Toby does not view Michael 's abuse as hatred . Toby seems to want Michael 's friendship but is too shy to talk to him about it . In `` The Lover , '' Michael opens up to Toby , asking him to keep Pam under control , by giving Toby a hug and calling him a `` good guy . '' Toby says that he is delighted and `` Michael would like me once he got to know me , '' but as soon as Toby fails to keep Pam under control , Michael starts to hate him again . Michael , though , ended up being appreciative of Toby 's efforts to actually help him during their Sabre - mandated counseling sessions ( even if he spent much of the time hurling harsh statements at the HR rep ) , to the point where he decided to talk to Toby instead of simply signing off on a few corrected forms at the sessions ' end . While in `` Take Your Daughter to Work Day , '' Michael ends up bonding with Toby 's daughter Sasha when the employees bring their children into the office . However , later on , Michael becomes withdrawn and sad that he has n't had any children , which Toby senses and ends up being confidant to Michael . Michael inquires about being Sasha 's godfather . Toby simply tells him that she already has one . Michael has on a few occasions realized when his mistreatment of Toby has gone too far such as in `` Women 's Appreciation '' in which he literally asked him to expose his genitals and also in `` Frame Toby '' after attempting to get Toby arrested and fired , possibly showing that Michael 's hatred of Toby has limits . In `` Goodbye , Michael , '' when Michael wants to give everyone in the office a proper goodbye , he somewhat makes up for all the times he has berated and insulted Toby by listening to him without insulting him once , possibly showing that he will miss Toby somewhat . However , his face betrays both his difficulty in doing so and his horror when an appreciative Toby suggests that Michael look up Toby 's brother Rory in Boulder once he 's settled himself in Colorado . This can be viewed as Michael 's final comeuppance for his treatment of Toby as even though he is moving away to Colorado , he will still not escape Toby and will have to endure annoyance from Toby 's brother Rory ( who seems to be virtually identical to him and whom Toby encourages to be friends with Michael ) . Pam ( edit ) Pam and Toby are shown to have a good relationship . Pam has shown much displeasure at Michael 's harsh treatment of Toby . Toby has had a crush on Pam ever since she called off her wedding with Roy and Jim went to Stamford , but he is too shy to tell her his feelings . In `` Cocktails '' Toby spends his whole evening trying to win a stuffed animal duck at a claw machine for her . When he finally wins , Pam gives back the stuffed animal and says `` Do n't you have a daughter ? '' . In `` Dunder Mifflin Infinity '' Toby is the first to find out about Jim and Pam 's relationship , by seeing her kiss him on the cheek in the break room . Upset about Pam 's new relationship , he sends out a memo asking for no `` PDA '' in the office . In the episode `` Business School , '' Pam asks Toby to come to her art show , and he says he ca n't make it because of his daughter 's play . He then gets really upset and yells , `` Damn it ! '' and questions if maybe he does n't have to go to see his daughter 's play and instead could go see Pam 's art show . In `` Night Out , '' Pam thinks that a joke that Toby told was funny , and he gets really excited and touches her awkwardly on the leg . She did not appear to be angered at this . After an awkward silence , Toby announces his move to Costa Rica . In `` Goodbye , Toby '' Pam gives to Toby an office picture of the staff that excludes her ( because she took the picture herself ) for when he leaves for Costa Rica . Toby , unsatisfied by the lack of her presence , shouts at the office staff asking for a camera ( possibly the loudest he 's ever spoken ) . When no one responds , he runs off for an extended amount of time just to find a camera to have a picture of her and him together . Pam also helps Toby take revenge against Michael in this episode after his insulting farewell gift is exposed during a meeting and she gets him to unwillingly give up his watch to Toby , which he does ( Pam potentially may have disclosed Michael 's abuse of Toby if he did n't do what she said ) . At the end of the episode , Pam comments ( though not to Toby ) that she always thought he was kind of cute and that she will miss him a lot . In `` Niagara '' Toby appears to still have feelings for Pam and is happy when they run out on their wedding . He is later disappointed when the wedding is called back on but is seen smiling and clapping after they 're married and run down the aisle . During `` Roy 's Wedding '' , while Jim and Pam are trying to find out if there 's anything they do n't know about each other , Toby correctly answers facts about Pam . Everyone notices him , and Toby , clearly embarrassed , attempts to cover it up . There have been a few occasions when Pam has mistreated Toby somewhat such as hanging up on him on the phone after Toby offered his help and notably in `` Paper Airplane '' after hitting him in the eye with a paper airplane and getting angry at him for crossing ( to which Toby apologizes ) . Pam in response does not apologize and simply asks whether she is still in the contest despite injuring and temporally blinding Toby . In the series finale , while dancing with Pam , Toby began sobbing . Pam questions Toby with `` Is it me ? Is it Nellie ? '' Toby shakes his head , and responds with `` It 's everything . '' Pam then hugs Toby as he weeps . Jim ( edit ) Jim mentions that when he first started working at Dunder Mifflin , he shared a cubicle with Toby and that the two of them got along well . Michael moved them apart because he thought that the two talked too much . In deleted scenes from The Fire and Take Your Daughter to Work Day it 's implied that Toby and Jim are friends and Jim babysits Toby 's daughter on occasion . When Jim becomes Co-Regional Manager with Michael in season six , however , Jim almost begins to mirror Michael 's treatment of Toby somewhat . In `` The Lover '' , when Toby casually says `` Hey Jim '' , a stressed Jim snaps `` Not now Toby ! My God ! '' leaving Toby bewildered and hurt , though it is more likely Jim did this due to being angered upon learning that Michael is dating Pam 's mother behind their backs and also snapped at Michael in the conversation shortly after . In the earlier `` Survivor Man '' , Jim also says about Toby `` He 's great , but sometimes he can be a little bit much , '' showing that he sees Toby as being annoying sometimes . Jim was aware of Toby 's crush on Pam but never seemed very bothered by it . However , Toby would occasionally be bitter towards Jim , as seen in `` Did I Stutter ? '' where he assists Ryan ( now Vice President ) in giving Jim a formal warning for his job performance . During `` Stairmageddon '' , Jim turns to Toby for advice on marriage counselling due to Toby 's past of going to such counselling . Jim is left thoughtful and concerned when Toby notes that Pam is in a very difficult situation of short - term vs. long - term issues with Jim 's work at Athleap . Despite the moments mentioned above , Jim and Toby have a decent relationship . Kelly and Ryan ( edit ) Toby shares the Annex with Kelly , and he is exasperated at being in the close proximity of Kelly and Ryan 's juvenile romantic escapades . Using the excuse that he was allergic to his desk , Toby moved locations to escape Kelly 's constant talking , moving out of the cubicle , albeit only to a desk adjacent to it . Toby later wonders if Michael intentionally moved Ryan to his former area in order to torture him via Ryan and Kelly 's endless fighting , commenting that `` If he did ... genius . '' Kelly stated in a deleted scene from Goodbye , Toby that she was attracted to Toby but could not stand `` his stupid kid '' and was visibly downcast when he announced his plans to leave the office and move to Costa Rica . Toby overall has a good relationship with both Kelly and Ryan and the two have never mistreated him in any way and once even attempted to encourage him to punch Michael in `` Frame Toby '' , possibly showing that they are disgusted at Michael 's harsh treatment of Toby . Darryl ( edit ) In a deleted scene from `` Ben Franklin , '' when warehouse foreman Darryl Philbin is told that Michael has sent Toby home to prevent him from interfering with the hiring of a stripper , Darryl refers to Toby ( `` that red - haired guy with the sad eyes '' ) as a cool guy . While on a trip to the Corporate offices with Darryl and Michael in `` The Negotiation , '' Darryl also offers to let Toby crash for the night at a relative 's house in New York , denying Michael the same opportunity . He also had a nickname for Toby ( `` T - dog '' ) at one point , though their relationship soured when Dwight 's plan to expose Darryl 's worker 's compensation fraud led to embarrassment for all of them and Toby insulted Darryl and his sister . Despite this , the two seem to have a good relationship and Darryl once kindly gave Toby his Christmas doll to give to his daughter Sasha . Andy ( edit ) Toby and Andy did not appear to have any major disputes when Andy was a salesman or during his first year as manager and seemed to have a good relationship . In `` New Guys '' , when Toby shoots down Andy 's intention to make up a cause to fire Nellie Bertram , Andy responds `` now I know why Michael hated you so much '' . Toby appeared dismayed at this . Andy later ridiculed both Toby and Nellie during the slack - lining later in the episode . Andy continued his irritability in `` Work Bus '' when asking Toby `` how are you not murdered every hour '' , suggesting he , like Michael and Jim before him , has inherited the typical manager 's disdain for Toby . Andy was occasionally nasty to Toby on a few other occasions as well and even groped Toby before quitting Dunder Mifflin . Toby appeared aware of Andy 's poor treatment of Erin as a girlfriend , which he pointed out to Nellie in `` Customer Loyalty '' . In the finale , however , after Andy returns with a more positive and friendly attitude , Toby is pleased to hear him ( and several other staff members ) encourage him to join them at the after party in the warehouse , implying the two are now on good terms . Dwight ( edit ) Toby and Dwight appear to have a stable relationship and Dwight does not appear to hate Toby like Michael does , though on a few occasions Dwight has helped Michael make Toby miserable such as trying to get him fired once he returned from his vacation from Costa Rica and stealing a Christmas present from him on Michael 's orders . Dwight also made no attempt to help Toby when he was selling Christmas dolls and ran out just as Toby asked for one for his daughter . Dwight has also on a few occasions laughed at Michael 's insults towards Toby but has also shown some displeasure when Michael takes it too far such as in `` Goodbye Toby , '' where he himself admits that he thought Michael 's idea to give Toby a rock as a goodbye present was over the line . It is likely that Dwight makes Toby miserable due to his loyalty to Michael . The two have gotten along on a few occasions and it is revealed that Dwight complains to Toby all the time about Jim 's pranks against him and once made a deal with him to sign a petition of his in exchange for cookies from Toby 's daughter . Toby and Dwight also share an interest in trains during a conversation while spying on Darryl and Dwight says he is welcome anytime to come to his farm . Toby has on occasion been stern with Dwight such as in `` Casual Friday , '' in which he threatened to write him up if he did n't sit down and has foiled some of Dwight 's dangerous schemes such as leaving weapons in the office and stopping Dwight from wearing dangerous costumes to Halloween ( for which Dwight threatens to kill him ) . In the final episode of the series , Dwight fires Toby alongside Kevin , possibly indicating that he dislikes Toby and that he annoys him to a degree , like his predecessors Michael , Jim , and Andy ( or possibly on orders from Corporate or to prevent him from interfering in his firing of Kevin ) . While Dwight states that he misses Kevin after firing him , he never states the same for Toby . Dwight does , however , invite him to his wedding , possibly showing that he does consider him a friend . Nellie ( edit ) In `` Get the Girl '' Toby introduces himself to Nellie as Tony , to which Pam replies `` You messed up saying your name ? '' He answers her by saying , `` It happens , okay ? '' In `` Dwight Christmas '' , at the office Christmas party , Nellie expressed interest upon hearing that Toby had been a juror in the Scranton Strangler case . He proceeds to bore her , however , with a long , drawn - out account that is implied to have lasted for several hours . Nellie finally leans in close and shushes him . A puzzled Toby then asks if she is about to kiss him . Attempting to save face , Nellie gives him a small kiss , which causes an emboldened Toby to give her a much more passionate kiss . Toby does not appear in the two subsequent episodes , during which the events of the party are not referenced . In `` Customer Loyalty '' , however , he appears very tactile and affectionate towards Nellie , apparently under the impression that the two are now in a relationship . Nellie , for her part , had forgotten the kiss until that point and finds Toby 's affection somewhat awkward . In `` Moving On '' , Nellie gets fed up with Toby 's constant hand - wringing over the possible non-guilt of the convicted Scranton Strangler and pushes him to visit the man in prison ; when the Strangler proves he is the killer and nearly kills Toby himself , Nellie admits Toby was brave and a speechless Toby ( his larynx was injured by the Strangler ) looks happy . However , Nellie later firmly establishes her contempt for Toby and there is no further romantic story - line between them . She is also somewhat rude and insulting to him on a few occasions notably in `` Paper Airplane '' in which she speaks of him as being a loser , however , Nellie 's poor treatment of him could stem from Toby 's awkward and annoying behaviour towards her . When Toby returns to Scranton for the reunion and Angela & Dwight 's wedding , Nellie ( also returning to Scranton from her new home in Poland ) lets the camera crew know she is n't thrilled about seeing Toby again . At the airport , Nellie rebuffs an attempted hug from Toby , snidely brushes aside his comment about a relationship she ended by saying she un-followed him on Facebook and questions him of how long he 's been stalking her ( Toby quietly says anyone can read non-protected tweets ) and declines his offer to share a cab into town . After that point , Toby has no further interactions of any kind with Nellie . Pete and clark ( edit ) After the departure of Kelly and Ryan , Toby appears more excited with the arrival of the two twenty - somethings who are single like himself . He appears to see them as closer friends than they see him but neither of them treats him meanly either . He convinced both of them , along with Kevin and Darryl , to grow moustaches from `` Movember '' , believing this was a bonding activity . He was disappointed when Pete shaved his moustache off after Erin found it off - putting . Toby appears to consider Pete a better fit for Erin than Andy , largely because he does n't appreciate Andy 's belittling treatment of him and also because he never had any romantic interest in Erin . At the documentary reunion , Pete is nice to Toby and is visibly happy when Toby decides to attend an after - party he had been planning to skip . Seasons 1 -- 2 ( edit ) Toby only appears in a few episodes , showing up first in a scene in `` Diversity Day , '' in which he jokes about sitting in an Indian Circle ( to which everyone else laughs ) . Michael , having told many more offensive jokes , is offended by Toby 's joke and tells him that `` This is an environment of welcoming , and you should just get the hell out of here . '' Toby does so and the staff suddenly goes very quiet . This is the first instance in the relationship between the two , Toby trying to be responsible , and Michael trying to demean and undermine him as much as possible . In `` Hot Girl , '' Toby is introduced by Michael to Katy the purse saleswoman ; after Toby and Katy begin talking happily about their high school days , Michael deliberately humiliates Toby by mentioning his divorce and how he once briefly had to live in his car . He also notices the picture of Toby 's daughter on his desk , and refers to her as `` cute '' ; however , this is probably a further attempt to portray Toby , a divorced father , as undesirable . One of Toby 's major appearances was in `` Sexual Harassment , '' where he holds a Sexual Harassment Meeting for the staff , only to be interrupted by Michael and a blow - up doll . Michael then states that everyone is still `` generally quite happy , '' which he thinks is because Toby has not yet had the meeting . In fact , Toby did have the meeting and everyone clapped after he was done , leaving them in a good mood . In a deleted scene of `` Halloween , '' Toby tries to persuade Michael to make a decision as to which employee he must fire . When Michael chooses Toby , Toby replies that he does not report to Michael . When Michael then tries to get Toby to quit , Toby replies that someone else will just take his place . Michael then claims that if he had the authority , he would immediately fire Toby , to which Toby calmly replies , `` I know , Michael . '' In `` Booze Cruise , '' Toby is late arriving at the dock for a company cruise . When Michael orders the ship to leave without him , Toby grins broadly , implying he had planned things in order to miss the event . In `` Take Your Daughter to Work Day , '' Toby 's daughter , Sasha , distracts Michael ; the two actually get along , showing Michael 's friendly side . Toby and Michael have a good conversation about Michael 's desire to have a family : Michael wants to have a biological child , and Toby hints that he should seek out alternatives . When Michael asks if Sasha already has a godfather , Toby quickly replies , `` Yes . '' `` Conflict Resolution '' is by far Toby 's biggest role in the season . Toby shows that he handles inter-office complaints calmly and efficiently , only to see his work undone by Michael 's stupidity . When Dwight threatens to quit unless Michael fires Jim ( because of Jim 's history of pranks against Dwight ) , Michael attempts to resolve the conflict by making vague promises of future action , an approach similar to one Toby had used successfully in the past . Toby covertly shows that he files Dwight 's complaints against Jim in a trash box and that he puts the huge number of complaints against Michael in unmarked boxes that are filed into the vast space of the warehouse . In `` Casino Night , '' Toby tries to convince Michael not to invite Boy Scouts to a company Casino Night . Michael 's response is to demean him in front of everybody . Toby just lets him finish . That night , however , Toby viciously beats Michael at no - limit Texas Hold ' Em , to Michael 's visible irritation . Later , Toby says to the camera , `` I 'm not gon na lie -- it felt good to take money from Michael . I 'm gon na chase that feeling . '' Seasons 3 -- 4 ( edit ) In `` The Convention , '' after finding out that Pam is no longer engaged , Toby makes a couple of attempts to ask her out but ca n't say the words . Michael trashes Toby to Jim and eagerly asks Jim if the HR rep is the reason he left for Stamford . Michael is visibly stung when Jim says no ( he later tells Michael about his declaration of love for Pam ) . In `` The Convict , '' Michael jokingly refers to Toby as a rapist , much to the dismay of those present . Later , Toby convinces Michael to release the office employees from the conference room , whom he had locked in there as punishment for unfavorably comparing Dunder Mifflin to a prison . In `` A Benihana Christmas , '' Michael has Dwight take Toby 's gift bag present of an expensive robe when they run out of enough of them for everyone . Pam later comes over and kindly gives her robe to Toby . In `` Back from Vacation , '' Toby asks Michael about the `` Jamaica Jan Sun Princess '' photo . Michael tries to accuse Toby of stealing the file from him , but Toby says `` nine different people sent it to me , including my ex-wife , and , well , we do n't talk . '' Michael then insults Toby 's divorce again and calls him a perv , but does state for the record that he and Jan do not have a relationship . In `` Phyllis ' Wedding '' Toby is seen with a beautiful woman whom he says he met in the gym , although Kevin believes she is a paid escort . When Phyllis tosses her bouquet , it is Toby 's date that catches it , and then excitedly runs back to Toby and the two share a brief embrace and kiss . Toby is then shown in a talking head as very ecstatic towards the outcome . It is implied that Toby and his date eventually broke up afterwards as this is the only episode where she is seen . In `` Business School '' he tells Pam he can not make it to her art show because his daughter has a play . He then offers to miss his daughter 's play because `` what they do is not art . '' In `` Cocktails '' Toby spends the whole evening trying to win Pam a duck from a claw machine after she comments on how cute it is . When he finally wins it , Pam suggests that he give it to his daughter instead . In `` The Negotiation , '' Toby is forced to listen to Ryan and Kelly bickering nonstop when Michael moves Ryan back to the annex . Toby wonders if Michael did this to punish Toby and that if he did , it was a genius move . Toby goes with Michael and Darryl to New York after Jan says she will not do the contract negotiation unless Toby is there . When Michael repeatedly mentions his and Jan 's relationship at that point , Toby takes notes and Michael insults him , but Toby just says he 's `` preparing for the deposition '' that he thinks will inevitably occur because Michael threatened to withhold sex from a female superior in order to get a modest , scheduled raise , commenting , `` It will be a groundbreaking case when it inevitably goes to trial . '' Additionally , when Darryl says he will stay in New York for the night , he tells Toby he can join him and stay at his relative 's house , pointedly not extending the same offer to Michael . In `` Women 's Appreciation , '' Toby is out of the office at a parent - teacher conference when Phyllis is flashed . When he returns , Michael scoffs at his alibi and seriously asks to see his penis to rule him out as a suspect . Toby turns towards Michael and looks like he 's about to get angry ; Michael then seems to catch himself and admits what he said to Toby was wrong . In `` Beach Games , '' Michael bans Toby from attending the beach event because he wants it to be fun and says it will not be if Toby is there . Toby is visibly upset that he will not get to see Pam in a bikini ( which she ends up not wearing there ) and is seen despondently doing paper work in a deleted scene from the episode . On the Season 3 DVD , Toby gives a series of wraparound interviews . Among other things : He lists the various insulting nicknames Michael has for him , including `` The Devil 's Butthole '' and `` Gargamel '' , noting `` I prefer Toby '' . He describes Michael 's `` invention '' of a safe George Foreman Grill after he burned his foot , which involved putting the Grill inside a bunny cage . He says that his job is not a nightmare because you wake up from nightmares ; it 's more like an unrelenting `` daymare . '' He lists what he would do if he had one day to live , including wanting to `` Burn this place ( The Office ) to the ground '' this makes the interviewer react with horror and / or disbelief which Toby responds to with a confused `` What ? '' . He says , `` HR is n't just a job , it 's a way of life . ( Pause ) But I wish it was just a job . '' In `` Fun Run '' Toby goes against Michael 's theory of an office curse by mentioning he won a drawing at a local pizza place , but Michael insults him and later ignores his statement that you can not ask employees about their religions . Before the race , Dwight puts Imodium in Toby 's drink instead of Ex-Lax and Michael pulls Toby 's shorts down right before the starting gun is fired . Toby later wins the race to cure rabies , beating Michael and accomplishing something noteworthy ; however , no one notices his win , and Kelly does not even bother looking up when he crosses the finish line . Toby then wonders why the 5K course was a straight line instead of a circle that would have returned everyone to the Dunder Mifflin building . In `` Dunder Mifflin Infinity '' after Toby sees Pam kiss Jim he sends out a memo about Public Display of Affection . When Michael accosts Toby about the memo ( thinking it 's about him and Jan having sex in the office ) , Toby tells him , in front of everyone , that it is about Jim and Pam . When they confirm that they are dating everyone is happy , except Toby . Later Pam and Jim visit him to see if they have to sign a `` Love Contract , '' but he tells them to wait and see . In a scene that was added to the episode 's repeat airing on NBC , Toby comes into work with a woman he says is his girlfriend and makes out with her right in front of the reception desk and Pam . In `` Money '' Toby shows that he uses very good grammar when he corrects Michael and clears up a confusion between the usages of the words `` whoever '' and `` whomever '' ( `` who '' is used as a subject , while `` whom '' is used as an object ) . Michael responds by telling Toby to shove a letter opener in his skull . In a deleted scene of `` Local Ad , '' Toby pitches an idea of having a stop motion ad that Michael , of course , puts down although the rest of the office seems to like the idea . When the local ad is being played at the bar , Toby is in the ad , but only briefly . While Michael was shooting the scene of the paper airplane flying out of the hand of Creed towards the conference room window , you see Toby in the conference room packing up whatever work he was finishing . Michael did not want Toby in the video ; however , for a fleeting moment , Toby had managed to unintentionally get a part in the ad . Toby 's distaste for Pam 's relationship with Jim is again brought up in `` Branch Wars '' when Jim is allowed to join `` The Finer Things Club , '' an exclusive organization built up by Pam , Toby , and Oscar , dedicated to discussing civilized culture . During the episode 's final scene , after Jim contributes his ideas on the book being discussed , Toby scrutinizes him very bitterly , hinting again at his disdain for Jim 's success with Pam . His irritation is attributed to the fact that Jim did not read the book , though Oscar and even Pam are also annoyed with Jim 's wisecracking , uninformed behavior . Also in this episode Michael tells Karen she can have Toby instead of Stanley ; when Karen says Toby is not a salesperson , Michael briefly tries to talk up Toby 's ability to learn before saying he ca n't fake it and insulting the HR rep anew . In the episode `` Survivor Man , '' Toby ends up getting on Jim 's nerves . When Jim is named Acting Manager while Michael is off on his `` wilderness adventure '' and starts altering the office 's birthday schedule , Toby asks Jim if he can have a birthday celebration , explaining that Michael deliberately held a party for Toby at 4 : 58 PM on a Friday so no one would attend . Jim agrees but comments that he likes Toby but that the guy is really annoying him , claiming that sometimes Toby can sometimes be a little bit much . Jim 's dismissive , disgusted attitude toward Toby ( whom he has always gotten along with before ) very closely mirrors how Michael treats Toby . It is not clear whether Jim is genuinely fed up with Toby or whether this interplay showed that Jim was beginning to act like Michael . It is also possible that Jim was not annoyed at Toby specifically but at the general reaction to his plan . Jim 's disgusted attitude can also be attributed to the fact that Toby has been treating Jim fairly poorly in previous episodes due to his jealousy of his relationship with Pam . Michael 's hatred for Toby is brought up again in `` The Deposition '' when Michael says he does not want Toby in the deposition and nastily asks if the HR rep is there `` to renew your divorce vows '' ( Toby is also sitting a conspicuous distance from Michael in the uncrowded room being used for the proceedings ) . When the two happen to sit next to each other at lunch , Toby kindly tells Michael that he can relate to Michael 's situation , of Toby 's parents ' divorce . While Toby is talking , Michael pushes Toby 's lunch tray on the floor , then gets up and leaves . Later in the episode , Toby begins to laugh at Michael after learning Michael thinks Ryan is `` hot . '' Also , after Jan 's attorney brings out Michael 's diary , and the head of the deposition says `` Okay , we 'll need ten copies of that diary , '' to which Toby says , `` Make that eleven . '' In a deleted scene , Michael asks Toby if he will tell Meredith that the car accident from Fun Run was Michael 's fault , and Toby nods . In the episode `` Night Out , '' he puts his hand on Pam 's leg and caresses it for a long , awkward moment , which everyone standing around seems to notice , making this the first time the employees see Toby 's possible crush on Pam . Immediately thereafter , realizing what he had just done , he abruptly announces that he is moving to Costa Rica , runs outside to the security fence , scales it , and disappears into the night . This scene was done by a stunt double , as Lieberstein wanted to do it himself but it was decided for insurance reasons to let the stuntman do his work . In `` Did I Stutter ? , '' Toby and Ryan together ( who both have a problem with Jim ; Toby dislikes him for dating Pam and Ryan dislikes him for going over his head ) warn Jim on his job performance , citing specifically his indifference toward his job and use of time ( namely `` goofing off with Dwight '' and `` time spent at Reception '' with Pam ) . Toby then says to the camera that Jim 's time spent with Pam `` has finally caught up to him , '' but he repeats Pam 's name several times when unnecessary . Toby later says , though , that he agrees that Jim has good numbers but Ryan thinks they are not good enough . In the same episode , Toby convinces Michael he needs to deal with Stanley for his open insubordination during a staff meeting , though Michael goes about it a different way because Toby 's method `` did not work because it was stupid . '' Michael also says Toby does not have any friends , but Michael does so in the context of stating that Stanley is Michael 's friend , which is later shown to be completely inaccurate as Stanley despises him for his stupidity and is not afraid to confront Michael about it . It is also shown that Dwight thinks Toby may be Jewish , as Dwight 's org chart shows a blue Star of David with a question mark next to Toby 's name ; Toby did not say what ( if any ) religion he practiced when Michael prodded the staffers to talk about their religious practices in Fun Run . As Toby spent time in a seminary ( as revealed in season five episode `` Casual Friday , '' ) he is most likely a Roman Catholic . In `` Goodbye , Toby '' , he follows through on his earlier plans and quits his job as HR representative to move to Costa Rica . Michael is overjoyed at his departure and plans to throw a lavish goodbye party that reflects this . Both Kelly and Pam say they are sorry he is leaving , with Pam saying in an interview that she thinks he 's kind of cute . Toby also ends up annoying Holly , his replacement , to a degree while showing her around the office and she is somewhat rude to him and claims that he almost bored her to sleep , something which Michael enjoys hearing ( Holly remains oblivious that Michael , in fact , abuses Toby and Michael claims that Toby tortures him ) . Toby faces a cruel exit interview from Michael but the tables are turned when Holly and Pam join the interview . Michael is unable to berate Toby at length as Holly takes over . When Toby is asked ; `` What would you improve about Dunder Mifflin ? , '' Toby claims he has a few ideas . Realizing that Toby has a potential opportunity to reveal and complain about his unethical work behavior and abusive treatment , Michael hides his face and angrily glares at Toby , silently threatening to kill him if he answers the question . Toby does not seem afraid but simply gives a `` things are OK as they are '' answer . Toby later tells the camera that he has survived Michael 's abuse long enough and that disclosing it is pointless . Toby gets revenge when Michael 's insulting farewell gift to him is exposed ( a rock with a note reading : `` Suck on this ! '' ) and Pam gets Michael to unwillingly give up his watch to Toby , which he does , clearly upset . Toby 's main concern on his last day is getting pictures of himself alone with Pam , which he finally does as his party is ending . Michael gets a last dig in by having Hank the security guard escort Toby out of the office as he leaves for his new life in Costa Rica and is still shown to be upset when Toby looks at his new watch . In a deleted scene at his farewell party , Toby refers to an undefined incident involving his sister ; this marks the first time Toby has mentioned having any siblings , although late in season 7 he reveals also having a brother Rory . Seasons 5 -- 6 ( edit ) In season five , Toby is revealed to be in traction in a Costa Rican hospital , with a broken neck , after a zip - line accident on his third day in Costa Rica . He explains that he has yet to see the beach , but expresses some happiness with the camera crew for visiting . He also implies in an earlier talk with Oscar that he is attracted to a woman who is visiting a nearby resort with her husband , thus continuing his tendency to fall for unavailable women à la Pam . In a deleted scene from Baby Shower , Toby can be heard on the speakerphone with Holly , noting that he enjoys his stay at the hospital more than his treatment from Michael at the office . In `` Frame Toby '' it is revealed that Toby had returned to the office for a week without Michael noticing . When the staff tells Michael that Toby is back , Michael thinks it 's a joke until he sees Toby and screams `` No God ! Please No ! No ! '' Michael asks David Wallace to get rid of Toby but the CFO says he can not fire Toby without cause . Michael then attempts to get Toby fired by giving Pam a fake letter to give to Toby , asking him to hug and kiss her no matter how much she resisted , and taunting the HR rep into punching him , but both plans fail . Michael then tries out Dwight 's idea of planting drugs in Toby 's desk ( unknowingly buying basil from a caprese salad from warehouse workers who he thinks sold him marijuana ) . However , he does feel guilty about what he has done and , when the police are investigating the `` drugs , '' Michael tells the police that it 's a mistake and tries to stop them from arresting Toby . This suggests that , while Michael does hate Toby , there are limits to his hatred . Then again , Toby 's reaction to the setup -- that it wasted the cops ' time that could have been used to deal with law enforcement -- inspires more shock and disgust from Michael . He is seen on occasion in the background in the `` Annex '' of the office . When Michael gives his two weeks notice , Toby shows he 's not as resentful towards Michael as Michael is to him in a talking head , referring to him as a movie on an airplane , which is nothing special but something to watch . He was seen breaking up a jam session in the lunch room up between Dwight and Andy who were attempting to impress the new receptionist with guitar and banjo to the song `` Take Me Home , Country Roads '' by John Denver . Toby simply says , `` You have to stop . '' In `` Stress Relief '' , Toby is seen attempting to help the others escape Dwight 's fire drill . In the second part of the episode , during the roasting of Michael , Toby begins to walk to the mike but Michael stops him declaring that only friends are allowed to roast him and Toby agrees and sits back down and laughs with the rest of the audience at Michael being roasted . It is possible Michael stopped Toby from roasting him not only because they are not friends but because Toby would have the worst things to say about him . He is also involved in the episode `` Casual Friday '' where he has a talking head about his beginnings at Dunder Mifflin . He used to be in seminary , but he left because he wanted to have sex with a girl named Kathy and took the HR job at Dunder Mifflin so he could be with her . Kathy is revealed to be the name of his ex-wife , and he does not appear to have a passion for HR . In the same episode , he has to deal with complaints about a too relaxed dress code by Oscar and Meredith . For the first time , he is stern with his employees and enforces HR policy by cancelling Casual Fridays at the office . In the episode `` Gossip '' Michael spreads rumors about various people throughout the Office , including that Toby is a virgin , even though he has a daughter . In the episode `` The Meeting '' , Dwight and Toby investigate a dishonest workman 's compensation claim filed by Darryl , an event which results in Dwight and Darryl filing complaints against each other , leaving Toby to `` drown in a sea of paperwork . '' During the episode , Toby ends up bonding with Dwight when they share an interest in trains , and finds that Dwight is restoring a life size one in his slaughterhouse . Although he does not appear , directly , in the episode The Promotion , Michael and Jim put baked beans on pictures of the employees as a way to decide the raises . Jim then sees a drawn picture of what looks to be a clown with a caption saying `` I 'm an idiot '' and asks Michael who it is , Michael answers , saying it is Toby . Jim reminds Michael that Toby is not part of this and Michael answers `` I just wanted to draw a picture of him '' . In the episode `` Niagara '' , Toby kindly offers Michael the second bed he has in his room but Michael insults him by telling him he will be sleeping alone for the rest of his life and walks away . Toby seems to at least have some feelings left for Pam , as he seems to be happy when reacting to a possibility of Jim and Pam 's wedding being called off . When the wedding does go on , however , he is seen dancing with the others and cheering Jim and Pam on as they walk down the aisle at the ceremony 's end . In the following episode , `` Mafia '' , Oscar comments that with Jim and Pam off on their honeymoon and Toby having `` mentally checked out in June '' he is the only person left to counter insane antics with rational thinking . When hearing of Oscar 's comments Toby casually agrees with him . In the episode `` The Lover '' , Toby is yelled at by both Michael and Jim when he walks in on them just after Michael has told Jim he 's dating Pam 's mom . Later , after Pam blew up at Michael in the conference during an office meeting , Michael comes to Toby desperate to make Pam happy about his relationship with her mother . Toby offers to talk to Pam for Michael and Michael even goes as far as hugging Toby and calls him a good good - guy . Toby is extremely happy at the hope that things will finally change between them that he says `` you know I always knew that if Michael just took the time to get to know me , we would be friends . '' But once Toby is unable to smooth things over , Michael dismisses Toby as a jackass and goes right back to hating him . In the episode `` Koi Pond '' , Toby is present in the meeting where Michael wants to talk about insults in the office and as usual when Toby simply makes a point Michael insults him by calling him a waste of life , though corrects himself claiming that 's what he would like to say but the meeting is an insult free zone . However , when Michael reveals he has fallen into two fountains Toby appears to find this funny and laughs at Michael . After this , he asks for Michael to kick him out of the meeting and Michael tells him to go . In the episode `` Double Date '' , Toby talks to Pam to make sure she plans on hitting Michael off grounds . He then gives Pam some tips on how to punch harder , even going through motions with her on how to do it as Michael watches on from his office , visibly afraid . In the episode `` Secret Santa ' , Toby is called `` Antichrist '' for calling Michael 's Jesus costume inappropriate . In `` The Banker '' Toby is interviewed by an investment banker as he evaluates the branch . Michael tries to have Toby distracted while Dwight impersonates him but Toby appears and makes Dwight leave . Despite knowing of several questionable incidents that have taken place in the office , he does not say anything to the banker . He expresses his torn feelings about this in a talking head . In `` Whistleblower '' , Toby is revealed to have written a few chapters of a mystery novel and receives advice on the plot from Jo Bennett to which he replies in an interview , `` Write your own damn novel ! '' Seasons 7 -- 8 ( edit ) In `` Nepotism '' , as a punishment for physically injuring an employee , Michael is sent to a 6 - hour counselling with Toby . In a deleted scene , Toby tells the camera crew that he finished writing his book over the summer and got four sales out of his self - publishing but is being sued for plagiarism . In `` Counseling '' , Toby does counselling for Michael . They briefly become friends as Michael talks to Toby about his life , but when Michael realizes that Toby is , in fact , counselling him , Michael yells at him . Toby reveals that he has a degree in social work . At the end of the episode , however , he seems to be communicating with Toby civilly , as most of his anger is fixed on Gabe Lewis . In `` Costume Contest '' , Toby dresses up as a hobo . In a deleted scene , while using a Ouija board at the office Hallowe'en party , he mumbles that `` being dead is going to be so relaxing '' , disturbing his co-workers . In `` Christening '' , Toby has trouble entering the church where Jim and Pam 's baby is being christened . After many false starts , he finally enters the chapel and can be seen in front of the altar asking `` Why do you have to be so mean to me ? '' In a deleted scene from WUPHF.com , he 's talking with his daughter via web chat , where he finds out through her that his ex-wife has a new boyfriend . Michael shuts off Toby 's laptop and then proceeds to talk with him about the situation he 's in with Ryan . Toby tries to offer the best advice he can , but as usual , Michael brushes off what he says and then pokes fun at the fact that someone else is banging his wife . In `` Classy Christmas '' Toby has to go on leave so he can report for jury duty . The case turns out to be that of the Scranton Strangler , a fact Toby lets slip out despite his not supposed to be talking about the case . He later says to the camera crew he likes the attention . Michael is visibly disgusted when Toby returns on jury recess to attend the Christmas party and tells the staff to not ask Toby any questions as he will not leave and this will prevent Holly from returning . In the second part of the episode , Michael attempts to frame Toby for vandalizing Holly 's beloved Woody Doll but Toby immediately denies it and flips it around on Michael claiming the vandalism is something he would do , to which everyone agrees to eventually . Toby has a minor role in Michael Scott 's film `` Threat Level Midnight '' as a hostage . When the villain Goldenface ( played by Jim ) , decides to show the hero ( played by Michael Scott ) how serious he is , he decides to kill a hostage , naturally picking Toby . When Goldface shoots Toby 's character , his head explodes in an overly dramatic fashion . However , Michael tells Goldenface that the joke is on him , saying that Toby was a `` wanted animal rapist '' . Toby returns in `` Michael 's Last Dundies '' , where he appears to have lost a considerable amount of weight . In the beginning of the episode , Michael eggs his house in the morning and drives away . Toby is later seen at the Dundies sitting with Jim and Pam . Michael awards Toby with the `` Extreme Repulsiveness '' award ( with Deangelo commenting how mean that is ) . Toby refuses to accept it but is told he has to by the other employees because Michael is leaving . Toby then reluctantly accepts it , but tells Michael he finds the award hateful . He then goes on to say that he 's taking advantage of being up on the platform , and lets everyone know that the jury found The Scranton Strangler guilty and that he is being put to death . However , Toby is now having doubts about the verdict , saying he thinks the Strangler might be innocent , but is interrupted by an `` Oh Yeah '' sound effect from Dwight 's synthesizer . In `` Goodbye , Michael '' , Michael is seen saying goodbye to Toby without insulting him , possibly indicating that he will miss Toby on some level . However , Michael is visibly disgusted when he learns that Toby has a brother , Rory ( played by Paul Lieberstein 's real - life brother Warren ) , who lives in Boulder , Colorado as well . Later , Toby is seen talking to Rory via Skype and tells him he thinks his brother and Michael would `` hit it off in an odd way '' . Rory suggests that he could bring Michael a welcome basket , and asks Toby if Michael likes Jams , but Toby informs him that Michael hates them . In the beginning of `` The Inner Circle '' , Deangelo informs Toby that he is getting a new chair , but Deangelo , trying to be confusing so the staff wo n't `` figure him out '' , tells Toby he does n't care if he likes it . Toby is still grateful . In `` Dwight K. Schrute , ( Acting ) Manager '' , he gets to fill out the gun violence accident form , much to his excitement . After Jo demotes Dwight upon learning of his gun accident , she appoints Toby as one of the search committee members who would be in charge of interviewing candidates for the manager position ( along with Jim and Gabe ) . In `` The List '' , new CEO Robert California makes a list of the people in the office , dividing them between perceived `` winners '' and `` losers '' ; he takes the winners out to lunch . Although Toby is on the list of `` winners '' , he concludes that it must be a mistake , and excuses himself in the middle of lunch . In `` Lotto '' , Toby says in a talking - head interview that if he won the lottery , he would n't change his life at all , except for quitting his job , moving away , and maybe re-entering the dating world . He also says he would spend a lot of time launching his true - crime podcast , `` The Flenderson Files '' . In `` Garden Party '' , Toby arrives at `` Schrute Farms '' and asks Dwight 's cousin , Mose , where to park . Mose states that he is the valet and that Toby has to give him his car . Reluctantly , and after much pressure , Toby lets Mose park his car . It proves to be a bad choice , however , as Mose drives his car straight into a cornfield ( though it is n't damaged , and becomes the first of many cars parked there in odd , Mose - chosen order ) . In `` Spooked '' , Dwight and Robert California 's son Bert hearken back to the days when Toby was continuously mistreated by Michael when they `` prank '' Toby by telling him he 's fired . Toby finds Bert 's treatment of him hurtful -- especially Bert saying he can have Toby fired because he 's the CEO 's kid -- and Dwight finds the whole bit hilarious . In `` Test the Store '' , Toby has a rare substantial role in a Season 8 episode , where he leads a self - defense lecture for the employees after they believe Andy was attacked by a gang and left with a black eye ( Toby and everyone else later find out Andy was punched by a rude 4th - grade girl when he defended Pam from a barrage of tossed pine cones ) . When Toby is n't aggressive enough for Kelly Kapoor 's taste , she stands up and begins threatening and swinging at him , after which Andy defends Toby and gets punched in his other eye . Season 9 ( edit ) In `` New Guys '' , Andy returns from Outward Bound manager training , making him become more `` decisive and confident '' . When Andy tells Toby that he plans to fabricate an excuse to fire Nellie , Toby shoots down the idea as a violation of corporate policy , prompting Andy to tell Toby `` I understand why Michael did n't like you . '' When Andy hosts a motivational exercise involving a tightrope , he insults Toby and Nellie in front of the staff . Since that time , Andy has been rude towards Toby in a manner that echoes Michael Scott 's hatred of his harmless HR rep , though Toby seems much less affected by Andy 's behavior than he was by Michael 's . When Andy went off on his long boat trip , Toby 's time in the last season was devoted to his unrequited romantic interest in Nellie Bertram and his belief that he 'd convicted an innocent man during his jury time on the Scranton Strangler case ( a theory he put to rest when he went to visit the convict in prison and was , in fact , strangled and nearly killed by him ) . In the series finale , it 's revealed that Toby was fired immediately after Dwight fired Kevin Malone ( it 's likely that the Corporate office fired Toby and Dwight simply had the burden of telling him ) and Toby then moved to New York where he 's trying to become a novelist and has six roommates . Toby surprises his former co-workers at the reunion panel when he says that his life feels meaningless now that he 's not being filmed for the documentary anymore . He breaks down in tears while dancing with Pam at Dwight and Angela 's wedding , saying of what 's bad in his life that `` It 's everything ! '' , but he seems cheered a little when the group insists he join them for post-wedding festivities . In a photo gallery NBC released of `` where are they now ? '' info - bits for the characters , it 's revealed that Toby has returned to his destiny by taking on an HR position at a TJ Maxx store . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Kelly , Kevin ( 2006 - 10 - 27 ) . `` TV Squad Visits the Set of : The Office '' . TV Squad . Retrieved 2007 - 02 - 04 . External link in work = ( help ) Jump up ^ Get the Girl Jump up ^ Season 1 Jump up ^ Season 2 Jump up ^ Season 3 Jump up ^ Season 3 DVD Jump up ^ Season 4 Jump up ^ Season 5 Jump up ^ Season 6 Jump up ^ http://www.nbc.com/the-office/video/wondering-about-a-windfall/1361025?auto=true External links ( edit ) www.nbc.com ( hide ) The Office ( U.S. series ) Episodes Seasons 5 6 7 8 9 Webisodes The Accountants Kevin 's Loan The Outburst Blackmail Subtle Sexuality The Mentor The 3rd Floor The Podcast The Girl Next Door Characters Primary Michael Scott Dwight Schrute Jim Halpert Pam Beesly Ryan Howard Andy Bernard Secondary Jan Levinson Roy Anderson Stanley Hudson Kevin Malone Meredith Palmer Angela Martin Oscar Martinez Phyllis Vance Kelly Kapoor Toby Flenderson Creed Bratton Darryl Philbin Erin Hannon Gabe Lewis Holly Flax Robert California Nellie Bertram Pete Miller Clark Green Recurring Todd Packer David Wallace Other Dunder Mifflin Awards Worldwide editions Video game Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Toby_Flenderson&oldid=822159927 '' Categories : The Office ( U.S. TV series ) characters Fictional businesspeople Fictional characters introduced in 2005 Hidden categories : CS1 errors : external links Articles lacking reliable references from April 2010 All articles lacking reliable references Articles that need to differentiate between fact and fiction from April 2010 All articles that need to differentiate between fact and fiction Articles with multiple maintenance issues Pages using deprecated image syntax Pages using infobox character with unknown parameters Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 24 January 2018 , at 19 : 17 . 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where is prokaryotic life found around hydrothermal vents

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&oldid=815886581

Hydrothermal vent - wikipedia Hydrothermal vent Jump to : navigation , search See also : Submarine volcano Marine habitats White smokers emitting liquid carbon dioxide at the Champagne vent , Northwest Eifuku volcano , Marianas Trench Marine National Monument Littoral zone Intertidal zone Estuaries Kelp forests Coral reefs Ocean banks Continental shelf Neritic zone Straits Pelagic zone Oceanic zone Seamounts Hydrothermal vents Cold seeps Demersal zone Benthic zone A hydrothermal vent is a fissure in a planet 's surface from which geothermally heated water issues . Hydrothermal vents are commonly found near volcanically active places , areas where tectonic plates are moving apart at spreading centers , ocean basins , and hotspots . Hydrothermal vents exist because the earth is both geologically active and has large amounts of water on its surface and within its crust . Common land types include hot springs , fumaroles and geysers . Under the sea , hydrothermal vents may form features called black smokers . Relative to the majority of the deep sea , the areas around submarine hydrothermal vents are biologically more productive , often hosting complex communities fueled by the chemicals dissolved in the vent fluids . Chemosynthetic bacteria and archaea form the base of the food chain , supporting diverse organisms , including giant tube worms , clams , limpets and shrimp . Active hydrothermal vents are believed to exist on Jupiter 's moon Europa , and Saturn 's moon Enceladus , and it is speculated that ancient hydrothermal vents once existed on Mars . Contents ( hide ) 1 Physical properties 2 Black smokers and white smokers 3 Biological communities 4 Biological theories 4.1 The deep hot biosphere 4.2 Hydrothermal origin of life 5 Discovery and exploration 6 Distribution 7 Exploitation 8 Conservation 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Physical properties ( edit ) In this phase diagram , the green dotted line illustrates the anomalous behavior of water . The dotted green line marks the melting point and the blue line the boiling point , showing how they vary with pressure ; the solid green line shows the typical melting point behavior for other substances . Hydrothermal vents in the deep ocean typically form along the mid-ocean ridges , such as the East Pacific Rise and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge . These are locations where two tectonic plates are diverging and new crust is being formed . The water that issues from seafloor hydrothermal vents consists mostly of sea water drawn into the hydrothermal system close to the volcanic edifice through faults and porous sediments or volcanic strata , plus some magmatic water released by the upwelling magma . In terrestrial hydrothermal systems , the majority of water circulated within the fumarole and geyser systems is meteoric water plus ground water that has percolated down into the thermal system from the surface , but it also commonly contains some portion of metamorphic water , magmatic water , and sedimentary formational brine that is released by the magma . The proportion of each varies from location to location . In contrast to the approximately 2 ° C ( 36 ° F ) ambient water temperature at these depths , water emerges from these vents at temperatures ranging from 60 ° C ( 140 ° F ) up to as high as 464 ° C ( 867 ° F ) . Due to the high hydrostatic pressure at these depths , water may exist in either its liquid form or as a supercritical fluid at such temperatures . The critical point of ( pure ) water is 375 ° C ( 707 ° F ) at a pressure of 218 atmospheres . However , introducing salinity into the fluid raises the critical point to higher temperatures and pressures . The critical point of seawater ( 3.2 wt . % NaCl ) is 407 ° C ( 765 ° F ) and 298.5 bars , corresponding to a depth of ~ 2,960 m ( 9,710 ft ) below sea level . Accordingly , if a hydrothermal fluid with a salinity of 3.2 wt . % NaCl vents above 407 ° C ( 765 ° F ) and 298.5 bars , it is supercritical . Furthermore , the salinity of vent fluids have been shown to vary widely due to phase separation in the crust . The critical point for lower salinity fluids is at lower temperature and pressure conditions than that for seawater , but higher than that for pure water . For example , a vent fluid with a 2.24 wt . % NaCl salinity has the critical point at 400 ° C ( 752 ° F ) and 280.5 bars . Thus , water emerging from the hottest parts of some hydrothermal vents can be a supercritical fluid , possessing physical properties between those of a gas and those of a liquid . Examples of supercritical venting are found at several sites . Sister Peak ( Comfortless Cove Hydrothermal Field , 4 ° 48 ′ S 12 ° 22 ′ W  /  4.800 ° S 12.367 ° W  / - 4.800 ; - 12.367 , depth 2,996 m or 9,829 ft ) vents low salinity phase - separated , vapor - type fluids . Sustained venting was not found to be supercritical but a brief injection of 464 ° C ( 867 ° F ) was well above supercritical conditions . A nearby site , Turtle Pits , was found to vent low salinity fluid at 407 ° C ( 765 ° F ) , which is above the critical point of the fluid at that salinity . A vent site in the Cayman Trough named Beebe , which is the world 's deepest known hydrothermal site at ~ 5,000 m ( 16,000 ft ) below sea level , has shown sustained supercritical venting at 401 ° C ( 754 ° F ) and 2.3 wt % NaCl . Although supercritical conditions have been observed at several sites , it is not yet known what significance , if any , supercritical venting has in terms of hydrothermal circulation , mineral deposit formation , geochemical fluxes or biological activity . The initial stages of a vent chimney begin with the deposition of the mineral anhydrite . Sulfides of copper , iron , and zinc then precipitate in the chimney gaps , making it less porous over the course of time . Vent growths on the order of 30 cm ( 1 ft ) per day have been recorded . An April 2007 exploration of the deep - sea vents off the coast of Fiji found those vents to be a significant source of dissolved iron . Black smokers and white smokers ( edit ) Deep - sea vent biogeochemical cycle diagram Sound recording from a black smoker . Some hydrothermal vents form roughly cylindrical chimney structures . These form from minerals that are dissolved in the vent fluid . When the superheated water contacts the near - freezing sea water , the minerals precipitate out to form particles which add to the height of the stacks . Some of these chimney structures can reach heights of 60 m . An example of such a towering vent was `` Godzilla '' , a structure on the Pacific Ocean deep seafloor near Oregon that rose to 40 m before it fell over in 1996 . A black smoker or deep sea vent is a type of hydrothermal vent found on the seabed , typically in the bathyal zone ( with largest frequency in depths from 2500 m to 3000 m ) , but also in lesser depths as well as deeper in abyssal zone . They appear as black , chimney - like structures that emit a cloud of black material . Black smokers typically emit particles with high levels of sulfur - bearing minerals , or sulfides . Black smokers are formed in fields hundreds of meters wide when superheated water from below Earth 's crust comes through the ocean floor ( water may attain temperatures above 400 ° C ) . This water is rich in dissolved minerals from the crust , most notably sulfides . When it comes in contact with cold ocean water , many minerals precipitate , forming a black , chimney - like structure around each vent . The deposited metal sulfides can become massive sulfide ore deposits in time . Black smokers were first discovered in 1979 on the East Pacific Rise by scientists from Scripps Institution of Oceanography . They were observed using the deep submergence vehicle ALVIN from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution . Now , black smokers are known to exist in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans , at an average depth of 2100 metres . The most northerly black smokers are a cluster of five named Loki 's Castle , discovered in 2008 by scientists from the University of Bergen at 73 ° N , on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge between Greenland and Norway . These black smokers are of interest as they are in a more stable area of the Earth 's crust , where tectonic forces are less and consequently fields of hydrothermal vents are less common . The world 's deepest known black smokers are located in the Cayman Trough , 5,000 m ( 3.1 miles ) below the ocean 's surface . White smoker vents emit lighter - hued minerals , such as those containing barium , calcium and silicon . These vents also tend to have lower temperature plumes probably because they are generally distant from their heat source . Black and white smokers may coexist in the same hydrothermal field , but they generally represent proximal and distal vents to the main upflow zone , respectively . However , white smokers correspond mostly to waning stages of such hydrothermal fields , as magmatic heat sources become progressively more distant from the source ( due to magma crystallization ) and hydrothermal fluids become dominated by seawater instead of magmatic water . Mineralizing fluids from this type of vents are rich in calcium and they form dominantly sulfate - rich ( i.e. , barite and anhydrite ) and carbonate deposits . Biological communities ( edit ) Life timeline view discuss edit - 4500 -- -- - 4000 -- -- - 3500 -- -- - 3000 -- -- - 2500 -- -- - 2000 -- -- - 1500 -- -- - 1000 -- -- - 500 -- -- 0 -- water Single - celled life photosynthesis Eukaryotes Multicellular life Land life Dinosaurs Mammals Flowers ← Earliest Earth ( − 4540 ) ← Earliest water ← Earliest life ← LHB meteorites ← Earliest oxygen ← Atmospheric oxygen ← Oxygen crisis ← Earliest sexual reproduction ← Ediacara biota ← Cambrian explosion ← Earliest humans h n r o z o i r o r o z o i r h n d n Pongola Huronian Cryogenian Andean Karoo Quaternary Axis scale : millions of years ago . Orange labels : ice ages . Also see : Human timeline and Nature timeline Main articles : Deep sea communities , Earliest known life forms , Geyser § Biology of geysers , and Hot spring § Biota in hot springs Further information : Hyperthermophile and Thermophile Life has traditionally been seen as driven by energy from the sun , but deep - sea organisms have no access to sunlight , so they must depend on nutrients found in the dusty chemical deposits and hydrothermal fluids in which they live . Previously , benthic oceanographers assumed that vent organisms were dependent on marine snow , as deep - sea organisms are . This would leave them dependent on plant life and thus the sun . Some hydrothermal vent organisms do consume this `` rain '' , but with only such a system , life forms would be very sparse . Compared to the surrounding sea floor , however , hydrothermal vent zones have a density of organisms 10,000 to 100,000 times greater . Hydrothermal vent communities are able to sustain such vast amounts of life because vent organisms depend on chemosynthetic bacteria for food . The water from the hydrothermal vent is rich in dissolved minerals and supports a large population of chemoautotrophic bacteria . These bacteria use sulfur compounds , particularly hydrogen sulfide , a chemical highly toxic to most known organisms , to produce organic material through the process of chemosynthesis . The ecosystem so formed is reliant upon the continued existence of the hydrothermal vent field as the primary source of energy , which differs from most surface life on Earth , which is based on solar energy . However , although it is often said that these communities exist independently of the sun , some of the organisms are actually dependent upon oxygen produced by photosynthetic organisms , while others are anaerobic . A dense fauna ( Kiwa anomurans and Vulcanolepas - like stalked barnacles ) near East Scotia Ridge vents Giant tube worms ( Riftia pachyptila ) cluster around vents in the Galapagos Rift The chemosynthetic bacteria grow into a thick mat which attracts other organisms , such as amphipods and copepods , which graze upon the bacteria directly . Larger organisms , such as snails , shrimp , crabs , tube worms , fish ( especially eelpout , cutthroat eel , ophidiiforms and Symphurus thermophilus ) , and octopi ( notably Vulcanoctopus hydrothermalis ) , form a food chain of predator and prey relationships above the primary consumers . The main families of organisms found around seafloor vents are annelids , pogonophorans , gastropods , and crustaceans , with large bivalves , vestimentiferan worms , and `` eyeless '' shrimp making up the bulk of nonmicrobial organisms . Siboglinid tube worms , which may grow to over 2 m ( 6.6 ft ) tall in the largest species , often form an important part of the community around a hydrothermal vent . They have no mouth or digestive tract , and like parasitic worms , absorb nutrients produced by the bacteria in their tissues . About 285 billion bacteria are found per ounce of tubeworm tissue . Tubeworms have red plumes which contain hemoglobin . Hemoglobin combines with hydrogen sulfide and transfers it to the bacteria living inside the worm . In return , the bacteria nourish the worm with carbon compounds . Two of the species that inhabit a hydrothermal vent are Tevnia jerichonana , and Riftia pachyptila . One discovered community , dubbed `` Eel City '' , consists predominantly of the eel Dysommina rugosa . Though eels are not uncommon , invertebrates typically dominate hydrothermal vents . Eel City is located near Nafanua volcanic cone , American Samoa . In 1993 , already more than 100 gastropod species were known to occur in hydrothermal vents . Over 300 new species have been discovered at hydrothermal vents , many of them `` sister species '' to others found in geographically separated vent areas . It has been proposed that before the North American plate overrode the mid-ocean ridge , there was a single biogeographic vent region found in the eastern Pacific . The subsequent barrier to travel began the evolutionary divergence of species in different locations . The examples of convergent evolution seen between distinct hydrothermal vents is seen as major support for the theory of natural selection and of evolution as a whole . Although life is very sparse at these depths , black smokers are the centers of entire ecosystems . Sunlight is nonexistent , so many organisms -- such as archaea and extremophiles -- convert the heat , methane , and sulfur compounds provided by black smokers into energy through a process called chemosynthesis . More complex life forms , such as clams and tubeworms , feed on these organisms . The organisms at the base of the food chain also deposit minerals into the base of the black smoker , therefore completing the life cycle . A species of phototrophic bacterium has been found living near a black smoker off the coast of Mexico at a depth of 2,500 m ( 8,200 ft ) . No sunlight penetrates that far into the waters . Instead , the bacteria , part of the Chlorobiaceae family , use the faint glow from the black smoker for photosynthesis . This is the first organism discovered in nature to exclusively use a light other than sunlight for photosynthesis . New and unusual species are constantly being discovered in the neighborhood of black smokers . The Pompeii worm Alvinella pompejana , which is capable of withstanding temperatures up to 80 ° C ( 176 ° F ) , was found in the 1980s , and a scaly - foot gastropod Crysomallon squamiferum in 2001 during an expedition to the Indian Ocean 's Kairei hydrothermal vent field . The latter uses iron sulfides ( pyrite and greigite ) for the structure of its dermal sclerites ( hardened body parts ) , instead of calcium carbonate . The extreme pressure of 2500 m of water ( approximately 25 megapascals or 250 atmospheres ) is thought to play a role in stabilizing iron sulfide for biological purposes . This armor plating probably serves as a defense against the venomous radula ( teeth ) of predatory snails in that community . In March 2017 , researchers reported evidence of possibly the oldest forms of life on Earth . Putative fossilized microorganisms were discovered in hydrothermal vent precipitates in the Nuvvuagittuq Belt of Quebec , Canada , that may have lived as early as 4.280 billion years ago , not long after the oceans formed 4.4 billion years ago , and not long after the formation of the Earth 4.54 billion years ago . Biological theories ( edit ) Although the discovery of hydrothermal vents is a relatively recent event in the history of science , the importance of this discovery has given rise to , and supported , new biological and bio-atmospheric theories . The deep Hot Biosphere ( edit ) At the beginning of his 1992 paper The Deep Hot Biosphere , Thomas Gold referred to ocean vents in support of his theory that the lower levels of the earth are rich in living biological material that finds its way to the surface . He further expanded his ideas in the book The Deep Hot Biosphere . An article on abiogenic hydrocarbon production in the February 2008 issue of Science journal used data from experiments at the Lost City hydrothermal field to report how the abiotic synthesis of low molecular mass hydrocarbons from mantle derived carbon dioxide may occur in the presence of ultramafic rocks , water , and moderate amounts of heat . Hydrothermal origin of life ( edit ) Main article : Abiogenesis § Deep sea vent hypothesis The chemical and thermal dynamics in hydrothermal vents makes such environments highly suitable thermodynamically for chemical evolution processes to take place . Therefore , thermal energy flux is a permanent agent and contributed to the evolution of the planet , including prebiotic chemistry . Günter Wächtershäuser proposed the iron - sulfur world theory and suggested that life might have originated at hydrothermal vents . Wächtershäuser proposed that an early form of metabolism predated genetics . By metabolism he meant a cycle of chemical reactions that release energy in a form that can be harnessed by other processes . It has been proposed that amino acid synthesis could have occurred deep in the Earth 's crust and that these amino acids were subsequently shot up along with hydrothermal fluids into cooler waters , where lower temperatures and the presence of clay minerals would have fostered the formation of peptides and protocells . This is an attractive hypothesis because of the abundance of CH ( methane ) and NH ( ammonia ) present in hydrothermal vent regions , a condition that was not provided by the Earth 's primitive atmosphere . A major limitation to this hypothesis is the lack of stability of organic molecules at high temperatures , but some have suggested that life would have originated outside of the zones of highest temperature . There are numerous species of extremophiles and other organisms currently living immediately around deep - sea vents , suggesting that this is indeed a possible scenario . Experimental research and computing modeling indicate that the surfaces of mineral particles inside hydrothermal vents have similar catalytic properties to enzymes and are able to create simple organic molecules , such as methanol ( CH OH ) and formic acid ( HCO H ) , out of the dissolved CO in the water . It is thought that alkaline hydrothermal vents ( white smokers ) might be more suitable for emerging life than black smokers due to their pH conditions . Discovery and exploration ( edit ) In 1949 , a deep water survey reported anomalously hot brines in the central portion of the Red Sea . Later work in the 1960s confirmed the presence of hot , 60 ° C ( 140 ° F ) , saline brines and associated metalliferous muds . The hot solutions were emanating from an active subseafloor rift . The highly saline character of the waters was not hospitable to living organisms . The brines and associated muds are currently under investigation as a source of mineable precious and base metals . The chemosynthetic ecosystem surrounding submarine hydrothermal vents were discovered along the Galápagos Rift , a spur of the East Pacific Rise , in 1977 by a group of marine geologists funded by the National Science Foundation . The principal investigator for the submersible study was Jack Corliss of Oregon State University . Corliss , and Tjeerd van Andel from Stanford University first observed and sampled the vents and their ecosystem on February 17 , 1977 , while diving in the DSV ALVIN , a research submersible operated by Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution ( WHOI ) . Other scientists on the research cruise included Richard Von Herzen and Robert Ballard of WHOI , Jack Dymond and Louis Gordon of Oregon State University , John Edmond and Tanya Atwater of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , and Dave Williams of the U.S. Geological Survey . This team published their observations of the vents , organisms , and the composition of the vent fluids in the journal Science . In 1977 , Peter Lonsdale published the first scientific paper on hydrothermal vent life on the seafloor photographed from deep - towed cameras . In 1979 , a team of biologists led by J. Frederick Grassle , at the time at WHOI , returned to the same location to investigate the biological communities discovered two year earlier . High temperature hydrothermal vents , the `` black smokers '' , were discovered in spring 1979 by a team from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography using the submersible ALVIN . The RISE expedition explored the East Pacific Rise at 21 ° N with the goals of testing geophysical mapping of the sea floor with the ALVIN and finding another hydrothermal field beyond the Galápagos Rift vents . The expedition was led by Fred Spiess and Ken Macdonald and included participants from the U.S. , Mexico and France . The dive region was selected based on the discovery of sea floor mounds of sulfide minerals by the French CYAMEX expedition in 1978 . Prior to dive operations , expedition member Robert Ballard located near - bottom water temperature anomalies using a deeply towed instrument package . The first dive was targeted at one of those anomalies . On Easter Sunday April 15 , 1979 during a dive of ALVIN to 2600 meters , Roger Larson and Bruce Luyendyk found a hydrothermal vent field with a biological community similar to the Galápagos vents . On a subsequent dive , William Normark and Thierry Juteau discovered the high temperature vents emitting black mineral particle jets from chimneys ; the black smokers . Following this Macdonald and Jim Aiken rigged a temperature probe to ALVIN to measure the water temperature at the black smoker vents . This observed the highest temperatures then recorded at deep sea hydrothermal vents ( 380 ± 30 ° C ) . Analysis of black smoker material and the chimneys that fed them revealed that iron sulfide precipitates are the common minerals in the `` smoke '' and walls of the chimneys . In 2005 , Neptune Resources NL , a mineral exploration company , applied for and was granted 35,000 km2 of exploration rights over the Kermadec Arc in New Zealand 's Exclusive Economic Zone to explore for seafloor massive sulfide deposits , a potential new source of lead - zinc - copper sulfides formed from modern hydrothermal vent fields . The discovery of a vent in the Pacific Ocean offshore of Costa Rica , named the Medusa hydrothermal vent field ( after the serpent - haired Medusa of Greek mythology ) , was announced in April 2007 . The Ashadze hydrothermal field ( 13 ° N on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge , elevation - 4200 m ) was the deepest known high - temperature hydrothermal field until 2010 , when a hydrothermal plume emanating from the Beebe site ( 18 ° 33 ′ N 81 ° 43 ′ W  /  18.550 ° N 81.717 ° W  / 18.550 ; - 81.717 , elevation - 5000 m ) was detected by a group of scientists from NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution . This site is located on the 110 km long , ultraslow spreading Mid-Cayman Rise within the Cayman Trough . In early 2013 , the deepest known hydrothermal vents were discovered in the Caribbean at a depth of almost 5,000 metres ( 16,000 ft ) . Oceanographers are studying the volcanoes and hydrothermal vents of the Juan de Fuca mid ocean ridge where tectonic plates are moving away from each other . Hydrothermal vents and other geothermal manifestations are currently being explored in the Bahía de Concepción , Baja California Sur , Mexico . Distribution ( edit ) Hydrothermal vents tend to be distributed along the Earth 's plate boundaries , although they may also be found at intra-plate locations such as hotspot volcanoes . As of 2009 there were approximately 500 known active submarine hydrothermal vent fields , with about half visually observed at the seafloor and the other half suspected from water column indicators and / or seafloor deposits . The InterRidge program office hosts a global database for the locations of known active submarine hydrothermal vent fields . Distribution of hydrothermal vents . This map was created by making use of the InterRidge ver. 3.3 database . Rogers et al. ( 2012 ) recognized at least 11 biogeographic provinces of hydrothermal vent systems : Mid-Atlantic Ridge province , East Scotia Ridge province , northern East Pacific Rise province , central East Pacific Rise province , southern East Pacific Rise province , south of the Easter Microplate , Indian Ocean province , four provinces in the western Pacific . Exploitation ( edit ) Hydrothermal vents , in some instances , have led to the formation of exploitable mineral resources via deposition of seafloor massive sulfide deposits . The Mount Isa orebody located in Queensland , Australia , is an excellent example . Many hydrothermal vents are rich in cobalt , gold , copper , and rare earth metals essential for electronic components . Hydrothermal venting on the Archean seafloor is considered to have formed Algoma - type banded iron formations which have been a source of iron ore . Recently , mineral exploration companies , driven by the elevated price activity in the base metals sector during the mid-2000s , have turned their attention to extraction of mineral resources from hydrothermal fields on the seafloor . Significant cost reductions are , in theory , possible . Two companies are currently engaged in the late stages of commencing to mine seafloor massive sulfides . Nautilus Minerals is in the advanced stages of commencing extraction from its Solwarra deposit , in the Bismarck Archipelago , and Neptune Minerals is at an earlier stage with its Rumble II West deposit , located on the Kermadec Arc , near the Kermadec Islands . Both companies are proposing using modified existing technology . Nautilus Minerals , in partnership with Placer Dome ( now part of Barrick Gold ) , succeeded in 2006 in returning over 10 metric tons of mined SMS to the surface using modified drum cutters mounted on an ROV , a world first . Neptune Minerals in 2007 succeeded in recovering SMS sediment samples using a modified oil industry suction pump mounted on an ROV , also a world first . Potential seafloor mining has environmental impacts including dust plumes from mining machinery affecting filter - feeding organisms , collapsing or reopening vents , methane clathrate release , or even sub-oceanic land slides . A large amount of work is currently being engaged in by both the above - mentioned companies to ensure that potential environmental impacts of seafloor mining are well understood and control measures are implemented , before exploitation commences . Attempts have been made in the past to exploit minerals from the seafloor . The 1960s and 70s saw a great deal of activity ( and expenditure ) in the recovery of manganese nodules from the abyssal plains , with varying degrees of success . This does demonstrate however that recovery of minerals from the seafloor is possible , and has been possible for some time . Interestingly , mining of manganese nodules served as a cover story for the elaborate attempt in 1974 by the CIA to raise the sunken Soviet submarine K - 129 , using the Glomar Explorer , a ship purpose built for the task by Howard Hughes . The operation was known as Project Azorian , and the cover story of seafloor mining of manganese nodules may have served as the impetus to propel other companies to make the attempt . Conservation ( edit ) The conservation of hydrothermal vents has been the subject of sometimes heated discussion in the Oceanographic Community for the last 20 years . It has been pointed out that it may be that those causing the most damage to these fairly rare habitats are scientists . There have been attempts to forge agreements over the behaviour of scientists investigating vent sites but although there is an agreed code of practice there is as yet no formal international and legally binding agreement . 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Jump up ^ Rogers , Alex D. ; Tyler , Paul A. ; Connelly , Douglas P. ; Copley , Jon T. ; James , Rachael ; Larter , Robert D. ; Linse , Katrin ; Mills , Rachel A. ; Garabato , Alfredo Naveira ; Pancost , Richard D. ; Pearce , David A. ; Polunin , Nicholas V.C. ; German , Christopher R. ; Shank , Timothy ; Boersch - Supan , Philipp H. ; Alker , Belinda J. ; Aquilina , Alfred ; Bennett , Sarah A. ; Clarke , Andrew ; Dinley , Robert J.J. ; Graham , Alastair G.C. ; Green , Darryl R.H. ; Hawkes , Jeffrey A. ; Hepburn , Laura ; Hilario , Ana ; Huvenne , Veerle A.I. ; Marsh , Leigh ; Ramirez - Llodra , Eva ; Reid , William D.K. ; Roterman , Christopher N. ; Sweeting , Christopher J. ; Thatje , Sven ; Zwirglmaier , Katrin ( 2012 ) . `` The Discovery of New Deep - Sea Hydrothermal Vent Communities in the Southern Ocean and Implications for Biogeography '' . PLOS Biology . 10 ( 1 ) : -- 1001234 . doi : 10.1371 / journal. pbio. 1001234 . ISSN 1545 - 7885 . Jump up ^ Perkins , W.G. ( 1984 ) . `` Mount Isa silica dolomite and copper orebodies ; the result of a syntectonic hydrothermal alteration system '' . Economic Geology. 79 ( 4 ) : 601 -- 637 . doi : 10.2113 / gsecongeo. 79.4. 601 . ^ Jump up to : We Are About to Start Mining Hydrothermal Vents on the Ocean Floor . Nautilus ; Brandon Keim. 12 September 2015 . Jump up ^ Ginley , S. ; Diekrup , D. ; Hannington , M. ( 2014 ) . `` Categorizing mineralogy and geochemistry of Algoma type banded iron formation , Temagami , ON '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved 2017 - 11 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` The dawn of deep ocean mining '' . The All I Need . 2006 . Jump up ^ `` Nautilus Outlines High Grade Au - Cu Seabed Sulphide Zone '' ( Press release ) . Nautilus Minerals . 25 May 2006 . Archived from the original on 29 January 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Neptune Minerals '' . Retrieved August 2 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Birney , K. ; et al. `` Potential Deep - Sea Mining of Seafloor Massive Sulfides : A case study in Papua New Guinea '' ( PDF ) . University of California , Santa Barbara , B . Jump up ^ `` Treasures from the deep '' . Chemistry World . Royal Society of Chemistry . January 2007 . Jump up ^ Devey , C.W. ; Fisher , C.R. ; Scott , S. ( 2007 ) . `` Responsible Science at Hydrothermal Vents '' ( PDF ) . Oceanography. 20 ( 1 ) : 162 -- 72 . doi : 10.5670 / oceanog. 2007.90 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2011 - 07 - 23 . Jump up ^ Johnson , M. ( 2005 ) . `` Oceans need protection from scientists too '' . Nature . 433 ( 7022 ) : 105 . Bibcode : 2005Natur. 433 ... 105J . doi : 10.1038 / 433105a . PMID 15650716 . Jump up ^ Johnson , M. ( 2005 ) . `` Deepsea vents should be world heritage sites '' . MPA News . 6 : 10 . Jump up ^ Tyler , P. ; German , C. ; Tunnicliff , V. ( 2005 ) . `` Biologists do not pose a threat to deep - sea vents '' . Nature . 434 ( 7029 ) : 18 . Bibcode : 2005Natur. 434 ... 18T . doi : 10.1038 / 434018b . PMID 15744272 . Further reading ( edit ) Van Dover CL ; Humphris SE ; Fornari D ; Cavanaugh CM ; Collier R ; Goffredi SK ; Hashimoto J ; Lilley MD ; Reysenbach AL ; Shank TM ; Von Damm KL ; Banta A ; Gallant RM ; Gotz D ; Green D ; Hall J ; Harmer TL ; Hurtado LA ; Johnson P ; McKiness ZP ; Meredith C ; Olson E ; Pan IL ; Turnipseed M ; Won Y ; Young CR 3rd ; Vrijenhoek RC ( 2001 ) . `` Biogeography and ecological setting of Indian Ocean hydrothermal vents '' . Science . 294 ( 5543 ) : 818 -- 23 . Bibcode : 2001Sci ... 294 ... 818V . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1064574 . PMID 11557843 . Van Dover ; Cindy Lee ( 2000 ) . The Ecology of Deep - Sea Hydrothermal Vents . Princeton University Press . ISBN 0 - 691 - 04929 - 7 . Beatty JT , Overmann J , Lince MT , Manske AK , Lang AS , Blankenship RE , Van Dover CL , Martinson TA , Plumley FG ( 2005 ) . `` An obligately photosynthetic bacterial anaerobe from a deep - sea hydrothermal vent '' . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . 102 ( 26 ) : 9306 -- 10 . Bibcode : 2005PNAS ... 102.9306 B . doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 0503674102 . PMC 1166624 . PMID 15967984 . Glyn Ford and Jonathan Simnett , Silver from the Sea , September / October 1982 , Volume 33 , Number 5 , Saudi Aramco World Accessed 17 October 2005 Ballard , Robert D. , 2000 , The Eternal Darkness , Princeton University Press . http://www.botos.com/marine/vents01.html#body_4 Anaerobic respiration on tellurate and other metalloids in bacteria from hydrothermal vent fields in the eastern pacific ocean Andrea Koschinsky ; Dieter Garbe - Schönberg ; Sylvia Sander ; Katja Schmidt ; Hans - Hermann Gennerich ; Harald Strauss ( August 2008 ) . `` Hydrothermal venting at pressure - temperature conditions above the critical point of seawater , 5 ° S on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge '' . Geology. 36 ( 8 ) : 615 -- 618 . doi : 10.1130 / G24726A. 1 . Retrieved 18 June 2010 . Catherine Brahic ( 4 August 2008 ) . `` Found : The hottest water on Earth '' . New Scientist . Retrieved 18 June 2010 . Josh Hill ( 5 August 2008 ) . `` ' Extreme Water ' Found at Atlantic Ocean Abyss '' . The Daily Galaxy . Retrieved 18 June 2010 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hydrothermal vents . Ocean Explorer ( www.oceanexplorer.noaa.gov ) - Public outreach site for explorations sponsored by the Office of Ocean Exploration . Hydrothermal Vents Video - The Smithsonian Institution 's Ocean Portal Vent geochemistry a good overview of hydrothermal vent biology , published in 2006 ( PDF ) Images of Hydrothermal Vents in Indian Ocean - Released by National Science Foundation How to Build a Hydrothermal Vent Chimney NOAA , Ocean Explorer YouTube Channel Aquatic ecosystem topics Aquatic ecosystems -- general and freshwater components General Acoustic ecology Adaptation Agent - based models Algal bloom Anoxic waters Aquatic animals ( Insects Mammals ) Aquatic plants Aquatic science Benthos Biodiversity research Bioluminescence Biomass Biomonitoring Cascade effect Colored dissolved organic matter Camouflage and mimicry Dead zone Ecohydrology Ecosystems Eutrophication Fisheries science Food chain Food web GIS and aquatic science Hydrobiology Hypoxia Isotope analysis Microbial ecology Microbial food web Microbial loop Nekton Neuston Particle Pelagic zone Photic zone Phytoplankton Plankton Pleuston Predation Productivity Ramsar Convention Respiration Schooling Sediment trap Siltation Spawning Substrate Thermal pollution Toxicology Trophic level Water column Zooplankton More ... 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where did the last name bias come from

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Nominative_determinism&oldid=835403044

Nominative determinism - wikipedia Nominative determinism Jump to : navigation , search Nominative determinism is the hypothesis that people tend to gravitate towards areas of work that fit their names . The term was first used in the magazine New Scientist in 1994 , after the magazine 's humorous Feedback column noted several studies carried out by researchers with remarkably fitting surnames . These included a book on polar explorations by Daniel Snowman and an article on urology by researchers named Splatt and Weedon . These and other examples led to light - hearted speculation that some sort of psychological effect was at work . Since the term appeared , nominative determinism has been an irregularly recurring topic in New Scientist , as readers continue to submit examples . Nominative determinism differs from the related concept aptronym , and its synonyms aptonym , namephreak , and Perfect Fit Last Name , in that it focusses on causality . `` Aptronym '' merely means the name is fitting , without saying anything about why it has come to fit . The idea that people are drawn to professions that fit their name was suggested by psychologist Carl Jung , citing as an example Sigmund Freud who studied pleasure and whose surname means `` joy '' . A few recent empirical studies have indicated that certain professions are disproportionately represented by people with appropriate surnames ( and sometimes given names ) , though the methods of these studies have been challenged . One explanation for nominative determinism is implicit egotism , which states that humans have an unconscious preference for things they associate with themselves . An alternative explanation is genetic : a person might be named Smith or Taylor because that was originally their occupation , and they would pass on their genes to their descendants , including an aptitude for activities involving strength in the case of Smith , or dexterity in the case of Taylor . Contents ( hide ) 1 Background 2 Definition 3 Research 3.1 Theoretical framework 3.2 Empirical evidence 4 References 4.1 Footnotes 4.2 Notes 4.3 Sources 4.3. 1 Bibliography 4.3. 2 Online sources Background ( edit ) Before people could gravitate towards areas of work that matched their names , many people were given names that matched their area of work . The way people are named has changed over time . In pre-urban times people were only known by a single name -- for example , the Anglo - Saxon name Beornheard . Single names were chosen for their meaning or given as nicknames . In England it was only after the Norman conquest that surnames were added , although there were a few earlier bynames that were not hereditary , such as Edmund Ironside . Surnames were created to fit the person , mostly from patronyms ( e.g. , John son of William becomes John Williamson ) , occupational descriptions ( e.g. , John Carpenter ) , character or traits ( e.g. , John Long ) , or location ( e.g. , John from Acton became John Acton ) . Names were not initially hereditary ; only by the mid-14th century did they gradually become so . Surnames relating to trades or craft were the first to become hereditary , as the craft often persisted within the family for generations . The appropriateness of occupational names has decreased over time , because tradesmen did not always follow their fathers : an early example from the 14th century is `` Roger Carpenter the pepperer '' . Another aspect of naming was the importance attached to the wider meaning contained in a name . In 17th - century England it was believed that choosing a name for a child should be done carefully . Children should live according to the message contained in , or the meaning of their names . In 1652 William Jenkyn , an English clergyman , argued that first names should be `` as a thread tyed about the finger to make us mindful of the errand we came into the world to do for our Master '' . In 1623 , at a time when Puritan names such as Faith , Fortitude and Grace were appearing for the first time , English historian William Camden wrote that names should be chosen with `` good and gracious significations '' , as they might inspire the bearer to good actions . With the rise of the British Empire the English naming system and English surnames spread across large portions of the globe . By the beginning of the 20th century , Smith and Taylor were two of the three most frequently occurring English surnames ; both were occupational , though few smiths and tailors remained . When a correspondence between a name and an occupation did occur , it became worthy of note . In an 1888 issue of the Kentish Note Book magazine a list appeared with `` several carriers by the name of Carter ; a hosier named Hosegood ; an auctioneer named Sales ; and a draper named Cuff '' . Since then , a variety of terms for the concept of a close relationship between name and occupation have emerged . The term aptronym is thought to have been coined in the early 20th century by the American newspaper columnist Franklin P. Adams . Linguist Frank Nuessel coined aptonym , without an `` r '' , in 1992 . Other synonyms include euonym , Perfect Fit Last Name ( PFLN ) , and namephreak . In literary science a name that particularly suits a character is called a charactonym . Notable authors who frequently used charactonyms as a stylistic technique include Charles Dickens ( e.g. , Mr. Gradgrind , the tyrannical schoolmaster ) and William Shakespeare ( e.g. , the lost baby Perdita in The Winter 's Tale ) . Unlike nominative determinism , the concept of aptronym and its synonyms do not say anything about causality , i.e. why the name has come to fit . Because of the potentially humorous nature of aptronyms a number of newspapers have collected them . San Francisco Chronicle columnist Herb Caen reported irregularly on reader - submitted gems , including substitute teacher Mr. Fillin , piano teacher Patience Scales , and the Vatican 's spokesman on the evils of rock ' n roll , Cardinal Rapsong . Similarly , the journalist Bob Levey on occasion listed examples sent in by readers of his column in The Washington Post : a food industry consultant named Faith Popcorn , a lieutenant called Sergeant , and a tax accountant called Shelby Goldgrab . Dutch newspaper Het Parool had an irregularly featured column called `` Nomen est omen '' with Dutch examples . Individual name collectors have also published books of aptronyms . Onomastic scholar R.M. Rennick called for more verification of aptronyms appearing in newspaper columns and books . Lists of aptronyms in science , medicine , and law are more reliable as they tend to be drawn from easily verifiable sources . Definition ( edit ) Nominative determinism , literally `` name - driven outcome '' , is the hypothesis that people tend to gravitate towards areas of work which reflect their names . The name fits because people , possibly subconsciously , made themselves fit . Nominative determinism differs from the concept of aptronyms in that it focusses on causality . The term has its origin in the `` Feedback '' column of the British magazine New Scientist in 1994 . A series of events raised the suspicion of its editor , John Hoyland , who wrote in the 5 November issue : We recently came across a new book , Pole Positions -- The Polar Regions and the Future of the Planet , by Daniel Snowman . Then , a couple of weeks later , we received a copy of London Under London -- A Subterranean Guide , one of the authors of which is Richard Trench . So it was interesting to see Jen Hunt of the University of Manchester stating in the October issue of The Psychologist : `` Authors gravitate to the area of research which fits their surname . '' Hunt 's example is an article on incontinence in the British Journal of Urology by A.J. Splatt and D. Weedon . We feel it 's time to open up this whole issue to rigorous scrutiny . You are invited to send in examples of the phenomenon in the fields of science and technology ( with references that check out , please ) together with any hypotheses you may have on how it comes about . Feedback editors John Hoyland and Mike Holderness subsequently adopted the term nominative determinism as suggested by reader C.R. Cavonius . The term first appeared in the 17 December issue . Even though the magazine tried to ban the topic numerous times over the decades since , readers kept sending in curious examples . These included the U.S. Navy spokesman put up to answer journalists ' questions about the Guantanamo Bay detention camp , one Lieutenant Mike Kafka ; authors of the book The Imperial Animal Lionel Tiger and Robin Fox ; and the UK Association of Chief Police Officers ' spokesman on knife crime , Alfred Hitchcock . As used in New Scientist the term nominative determinism only applies to work . In contributions to other newspapers New Scientist writers have stuck to this definition , with the exception of editor Roger Highfield in a column in the Evening Standard , in which he included `` key attributes of life '' . Prior to 1994 other terms for the suspected psychological effect were used sporadically . Onomastic determinism was used as early as 1970 by Roberta Frank . German psychologist Wilhelm Stekel spoke of `` Die Verpflichtung des Namens '' ( the obligation of the name ) in 1911 . Outside of science , cognomen syndrome was used by playwright Tom Stoppard in his 1972 play Jumpers . In Ancient Rome the predictive power of a person 's name was captured by the Latin proverb `` nomen est omen '' , meaning the name is a sign . This saying is still in use today in English and other languages such as French , German , Italian , Dutch , and Slovenian . New Scientist coined the term nominative contradeterminism for people who move away from their name , creating a contradiction between name and occupation . Examples include Andrew Waterhouse , a professor of wine , would - be doctor Thomas Edward Kill , who subsequently changed his name to Jirgensohn , and the Archbishop of Manila , Cardinal Sin . The synonym inaptronym is also sometimes used . Research ( edit ) Theoretical framework ( edit ) The first scientists to discuss the concept that names had a determining effect were early 20th - century German psychologists . Wilhelm Stekel spoke of the `` obligation of the name '' in the context of compulsive behaviour and choice of occupation ; Karl Abraham wrote that the determining power of names might be partially caused by inheriting a trait from an ancestor who was given a fitting name . He made the further inference that families with fitting names might then try to live up to their names in some way . In 1952 Carl Jung referred to Stekel 's work in his theory of synchronicity ( events without causal relationship that yet seem to be meaningfully related ) : We find ourselves in something of a quandary when it comes to making up our minds about the phenomenon which Stekel calls the `` compulsion of the name '' . What he means by this is the sometimes quite gross coincidence between a man 's name and his peculiarities or profession . For instance ... Herr Feist ( Mr Stout ) is the food minister , Herr Rosstäuscher ( Mr Horsetrader ) is a lawyer , Herr Kalberer ( Mr Calver ) is an obstetrician ... Are these the whimsicalities of chance , or the suggestive effects of the name , as Stekel seems to suggest , or are they `` meaningful coincidences '' ? Jung listed striking instances among psychologists -- including himself : `` Herr Freud ( Joy ) champions the pleasure principle , Herr Adler ( Eagle ) the will to power , Herr Jung ( Young ) the idea of rebirth ... '' In 1975 psychologist Lawrence Casler called for empirical research into the relative frequencies of career - appropriate names to establish if there is an effect at work or whether we are being `` seduced by Lady Luck '' . He proposed three possible explanations for nominative determinism : one 's self - image and self - expectation being internally influenced by one 's name ; the name acting as a social stimulus , creating expectations in others that are then communicated to the individual ; and genetics -- attributes suited to a particular career being passed down the generations alongside the appropriate occupational surname . In 2002 the researchers Pelham , Mirenberg , and Jones explored Casler 's first explanation , arguing that people have a basic desire to feel good about themselves and behave according to that desire . These automatic positive associations would influence feelings about almost anything associated with the self . Given the mere ownership effect , which states that people like things more if they own them , the researchers theorised that people would develop an affection for objects and concepts that are associated with the self , such as their name . They called this unconscious power implicit egotism . Uri Simonsohn suggested that implicit egotism only applies to cases where people are nearly indifferent between options , and therefore it would not apply to major decisions such as career choices . Low - stakes decisions such as choosing a charity would show an effect . Raymond Smeets theorised that if implicit egotism stems from a positive evaluation of the self , then people with low self - esteem would not gravitate towards choices associated with the self , but possibly away from them . A lab experiment confirmed this . Empirical evidence ( edit ) Igor Judge , a former judge Those with fitting names give differing accounts of the effect of their name on their career choices . Igor Judge , former Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales , said he has no recollection of anyone commenting on his destined profession when he was a child , adding `` I 'm absolutely convinced in my case it is entirely coincidental and I ca n't think of any evidence in my life that suggests otherwise . '' James Counsell on the other hand , having chosen a career in law just like his father , his sibling , and two distant relatives , reported having been spurred on to join the bar from an early age and he can not remember ever wanting to do anything else . Sue Yoo , an American lawyer , said that when she was younger people urged her to become a lawyer because of her name , which she thinks may have helped her decision . Weather reporter Storm Field was not sure about the influence of his name ; his father , also a weather reporter , was his driving force . Psychology professor Lewis Lipsitt , a lifelong collector of aptronyms , was lecturing about nominative determinism in class when a student pointed out that Lipsitt himself was subject to the effect since he studied babies ' sucking behaviour . Lipsitt said `` That had never occurred to me . '' Church of England vicar Reverend Michael Vickers , who denied being a Vickers had anything to do with him becoming a vicar , suggesting instead that in some cases `` perhaps people are actually escaping from their name , rather than moving towards their job '' . I remember as a child people saying to me `` of course you are going to be a barrister because of your name '' . How much is down to the subconscious is difficult to say , but the fact that your name is similar may be a reason for showing more interest in a profession than you might otherwise . Any link in adult eyes may seem trivial but to someone in their formative years starting to think about their career it 's possible it may have an effect . -- James Counsell , barrister . While reports by owners of fitting names are of interest , some scientists have questioned their value in deciding whether nominative determinism is a real effect . Instead , they argue that the claim that a name affects life decisions is an extraordinary one that requires extraordinary evidence . To select only those cases that seem to give evidence for nominative determinism is to ignore those that do not . Analysis of large numbers of names is therefore needed . In 2002 Pelham , Mirenberg , and Jones analysed various databases containing first names , surnames , occupations , cities and states . In one study they concluded that people named Dennis gravitate towards dentistry . They did this by retrieving the number of dentists called Dennis ( 482 ) from a database of US dentists . They then used the 1990 Census to find out which male first name was the next most popular after Dennis : Walter . The likelihood of a US male being called Dennis was 0.415 % and the likelihood of a US male being called Walter was 0.416 % . The researchers then retrieved the number of dentists called Walter ( 257 ) . Comparing the relative frequencies of Dennis and Walter led them to their conclusion that the name Dennis is over-represented in dentistry . However , in 2011 , Uri Simonsohn published a paper in which he criticized Pelham et al. for not considering confounding factors and reported on how the popularity of Dennis and Walter as baby names has varied over the decades . Given Walter was a relatively old - fashioned name it was far more likely for Pelham et al. to find people named Dennis to have any job , not just that of dentist , and people named Walter to be retired . Simonsohn did indeed find a disproportionally high number of Dennis lawyers compared to Walter lawyers . Aware of Simonsohn 's critical analyses of their earlier methods , Pelham and Mauricio published a new study in 2015 , describing how they now controlled for gender , ethnicity , and education confounds . In one study they looked at census data and concluded that men disproportionately worked in eleven occupations whose titles matched their surnames , for example , baker , carpenter , and farmer . In 2009 Michalos reported the results of an analysis of the occurrences of people with the surname Counsell registered as independent barristers in England and Wales versus those with the name in England and Wales as whole . Given the low frequency of the name in England and Wales as a whole he expected to find no one registered , but three barristers named Counsell were found . In 2015 researchers Limb , Limb , Limb and Limb published a paper on their study into the effect of surnames on medical specialisation . They looked at 313,445 entries in the medical register from the General Medical Council , and identified surnames that were apt for the speciality , for example , Limb for an orthopaedic surgeon , and Doctor for medicine in general . They found that the frequency of names relevant to medicine and to subspecialties was much greater than expected by chance . Specialties that had the largest proportion of names specifically relevant to that specialty were those for which the English language has provided a wide range of alternative terms for the same anatomical parts ( or functions thereof ) . Specifically , these were genitourinary medicine ( e.g. , Hardwick and Woodcock ) and urology ( e.g. , Burns , Cox , Ball ) . Neurologists had names relevant to medicine in general , but far fewer had names directly relevant to their specialty ( 1 in every 302 ) . Limb , Limb , Limb and Limb did not report on looking for any confounding variables . In 2010 Abel came to a similar conclusion . In one study he compared doctors and lawyers whose first or last names began with three - letter combinations representative of their professions , for example , `` doc '' , `` law '' , and likewise found a significant relationship between name and profession . Abel also found that the initial letters of physicians ' last names were significantly related to their subspecialty . For example , Raymonds were more likely to be radiologists than dermatologists . Two separate studies by Krajick and Neimi in 2005 , both analysing large samples of names of scientists , showed 1.35 % of geologists having names referring to their field , and in political science , 1.26 % . As for Casler 's third possible explanation for nominative determinism , genetics , researchers Voracek , Rieder , Stieger , and Swami found some evidence for it in 2015 . They reported that today 's Smiths still tend to have the physical capabilities of their ancestors who were smiths . People called Smith reported above - average aptitude for strength - related activities . A similar aptitude for dexterity - related activities among people with the surname Tailor , or equivalent spellings thereof , was found , but it was not statistically significant . In the researchers ' view a genetic - social hypothesis appears more viable than the hypothesis of implicit egotism effects . References ( edit ) Footnotes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Even the Romans , whose naming system is generally assumed to have used three names , started out with a single name , e.g. , Romulus . Over the course of fourteen centuries this then first evolved to two names , to three names ( e.g. , Marcus Tullius Cicero , where Marcus is the praenomen , Tullius the nomen gentilicium , and Cicero the cognomen ) , back to two names , and finally one name again . Jump up ^ Ancient Roman fathers passed on their cognomen to their children as well . According to Gaius Plinius Secundus , better known as Pliny the Elder , cognomina derived from occupations were initially taken from agriculture -- for example , Cicero means chickpea . Ergo , Marcus Tullius Cicero , the orator , was a descendent of a grower of chickpeas , although it is also said the cognomen was given for the shape of the nose being similar to that of a chickpea . Jump up ^ Over time many surnames in patrilineal systems go extinct , sometimes leaving a few to dominate , depending on factors such as number of male children , immigration and merging women 's surnames with their spouses upon marriage . A Korean surname has a 43 % chance of being either Kim , Lee or Park . The Galton -- Watson process models mathematically how much chance a surname has to survive . Under constant assumptions of 1 in 3 chance of 0 , 1 or 2 sons , there is a 67 % chance that by the fourth generation the surname has died out . Jump up ^ Others have extended the area of influence ; for example researchers Keaney et al. entitled their study into the relationship between people called Brady and those who had pacemakers inserted for bradycardia `` The Brady Bunch ? New evidence for nominative determinism in patients ' health '' . Jump up ^ Over the years New Scientist has reported on other variations on the theme , including onomatopoeic nominative determinism ( e.g. , European Space Agency chief mission scientist Bernard Foing ) , nominative indeterminism ( to explain the existence of hundreds of scientific articles whose authors include a Wong and a Wright ) , and occupational preferentialism ( the hypothesis that one 's work influences one 's taste , for example policemen liking Constable 's paintings ) . Jump up ^ Studies have shown that most people like the name given to them . Extensive research also has found a strong effect called the name - letter effect : when given the choice between letters , people significantly prefer the ones from their own name . Jump up ^ Confounding variables have also played a role in research into monogrammic determinism : in 1999 Christenfeld , Phillips , and Glynn concluded that people who have positive monograms ( e.g. , ACE or VIP ) live significantly longer than those with negative initials ( e.g. , PIG or DIE ) . This conclusion was based on analysis of thousands of California death certificates between 1969 and 1995 . Morrison & Smith subsequently pointed out that this was an artifact of grouping data by age at death . Frequency of initials changing over time could be a confounding variable . Indeed when grouping the same data by birth year , they found no statistically significant relationship between initials and longevity . Jump up ^ Initially Pelham and colleagues defended their methods in a rebuttal Simonsohn assessed as also lacking in diligence . Notes ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Weekley 1914 , p. 2 . ^ Jump up to : Fowler 2012 , p. 11 . ^ Jump up to : Weekley 1914 , p. 68 . Jump up ^ Salway 1994 , p. 124 -- 126 . Jump up ^ Weekley 1914 , p. 71 . Jump up ^ McKinley 1990 , pp. 25 -- 34 . Jump up ^ Weekley 1914 , p. viii . ^ Jump up to : Weekley 1914 , p. 143 . Jump up ^ Salway 1994 , p. 127 . Jump up ^ Wilson 2003 , p. 10 . Jump up ^ McKeown 2010 , p. 22 . Jump up ^ Smith - Bannister 1997 , p. 11 . Jump up ^ Jenkyn 1652 , p. 7 . Jump up ^ Camden 1984 , p. 43 . Jump up ^ Fowler 2012 , p. 14 . Jump up ^ American Council of Learned Societies 1998 , p. 180 . Jump up ^ Weekley 1914 , p. 43 -- 44 . Jump up ^ Ratzan 2004 , p. 120 -- 122 . ^ Jump up to : Feedback 2000 . Jump up ^ Safire 2004 , p. 18 . Jump up ^ Nuessel 1992 . Jump up ^ Room 1996 , p. 40 . ^ Jump up to : Levey 1985 . Jump up ^ Conrad 1999 , p. 16 . Jump up ^ Merriam - Webster 1995 , p. 229 . Jump up ^ Lederer 2010 , p. 67 . Jump up ^ Cavill 2016 , p. 365 . ^ Jump up to : Michalos 2009 , p. 16 . Jump up ^ Conrad 1999 , p. 16 -- 17 . Jump up ^ Levey 2000 . Jump up ^ Hoekstra 2011 , p. 45 . Jump up ^ Dickson 1996 . Jump up ^ Hoekstra 2001 . Jump up ^ Rennick 1982 , p. 193 . ^ Jump up to : Keaney et al. 2013 . Jump up ^ Bennett 1992 . Jump up ^ Alter 2013 , p. 7 . Jump up ^ Snowman 1993 . Jump up ^ Trench 1993 . Jump up ^ Hunt 1994 , p. 480 . Jump up ^ Splatt & Weedon 1977 . ^ Jump up to : Feedback 1994a . Jump up ^ Alter 2013 , p. 230 . ^ Jump up to : Feedback 2015 . Jump up ^ Feedback 2004 . Jump up ^ Feedback 2005 . Jump up ^ Feedback 2007 . Jump up ^ Feedback 1994b . Jump up ^ Highfield 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Colls 2011 . Jump up ^ Telegraph staff 2011 . Jump up ^ Frank 1970 , p. 25 . ^ Jump up to : Stekel 1911 , p. 110 . Jump up ^ Stoppard 1972 , p. 52 . ^ Jump up to : Michalos 2009 , p. 17 . Jump up ^ Fibbi , Kaya & Piguet 2003 , p. 0 . Jump up ^ Schaffer - Suchomel 2009 , p. 1 . Jump up ^ Gerber 2006 , p. 0 . Jump up ^ Hoekstra 2001 , p. 1 . Jump up ^ Duša & Kenda 2011 , p. 0 . Jump up ^ Feedback 2014b . Jump up ^ Slovenko 1983 , p. 227 . Jump up ^ Feedback 1996 . Jump up ^ Feedback 2006 . Jump up ^ Feedback 2014a . Jump up ^ Feedback 1999 . Jump up ^ Nunn 2014 . Jump up ^ Flugel 1930 , p. 208 . Jump up ^ Abraham 1979 , p. 31 . Jump up ^ Jung 1972 , p. 27 . ^ Jump up to : Jung 1972 , p. 15 . Jump up ^ Casler 1975 , p. 472 . Jump up ^ Joubert 1985 , p. 983 . Jump up ^ Nuttin 1985 , p. 353 . Jump up ^ Pelham , Mirenberg & Jones 2002 , p. 479 . Jump up ^ Simonsohn 2011 , p. 46 . Jump up ^ Smeets 2009 , p. 11 . ^ Jump up to : Michalos 2009 , p. 18 . Jump up ^ Silverman & Light 2011 . Jump up ^ Nelson . Jump up ^ Cole 2001 . Jump up ^ Nevid & Rathus 2009 , p. 202 . Jump up ^ Smeets 2009 , p. 14 . Jump up ^ Danesi 2012 , p. 84 . Jump up ^ Bateson & Martin 2001 , p. 124 . Jump up ^ Pelham , Mirenberg & Jones 2002 , p. 479 -- 480 . Jump up ^ Simonsohn 2011 , p. 23 . Jump up ^ Christenfeld , Phillips & Glynn 1999 . Jump up ^ Morrison & Smith 2005 . Jump up ^ Pelham & Carvallo 2011 , p. 25 . Jump up ^ Simonsohn 2011b , p. 31 . Jump up ^ Pelham & Mauricio 2015 , p. 692 . Jump up ^ Limb et al. 2015 , p. 24 -- 26 . Jump up ^ Abel 2010 , p. 65 . Jump up ^ Krajick 2005 , p. 15 . Jump up ^ Neimi 2005 , p. 13 . Jump up ^ Voracek et al. 2015 . Sources ( edit ) Bibliography ( edit ) Abel , Ernest L. ( 2010 ) . `` Influence of Names on Career Choices in Medicine '' . Names : A Journal of Onomastics. 58 ( 2 ) : 65 -- 74 . doi : 10.1179 / 002777310X12682237914945 . Abraham , Karl ( 1979 ) . `` On determining the power of names ( 1911 ) '' . Clinical Papers and Essays on Psychoanalysis . London : Karnac Books . pp. 31 -- 32 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 78181 - 144 - 3 . Alter , Adam ( 2013 ) . Drunk Tank Pink : And Other Unexpected Forces That Shape How We Think , Feel , and Behave . London : Penguin Press . ISBN 978 - 1 - 78074 - 264 - 9 . American Council of Learned Societies ( 1998 ) . Surnames in the United States Census of 1790 : An Analysis of National Origins of the Population . Baltimore , Maryland : Genealogical Publishing Company . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8063 - 0004 - 7 . Bateson , Patrick ; Martin , Paul ( 2001 ) . Design for a Life : How Biology and Psychology Shape Human Behavior . New York : Touchstone . ISBN 978 - 0 - 684 - 86933 - 9 . Bennett , H.J. ( 1992 ) . `` A piece of my mind . Calling Dr Doctor '' . JAMA. 268 ( 21 ) : 3060 . doi : 10.1001 / jama. 268.21. 3060 . PMID 1306061 . Camden , William ( 1984 ) . Dunn , R.D. , ed . Remains Concerning Britain . Toronto : University of Toronto Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8020 - 2457 - 2 . Casler , Lawrence ( 1975 ) . `` Put the Blame on Name '' . Psychological Reports . 36 ( 2 ) : 467 -- 472 . doi : 10.2466 / pr0. 1975.36. 2.467 . Cavill , Paul ( 2016 ) . `` Language - based approaches to names in literature '' . In Hough , Carole . The Oxford Handbook of Names and Naming . Oxford Handbooks in Linguistics Series . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 965643 - 1 . Christenfeld , N. ; Phillips , D.P. ; Glynn , L. M. ( 1999 ) . `` What 's in a name : Mortality and the power of symbols '' . Journal of Psychosomatic Research . 47 ( 3 ) : 241 -- 254 . doi : 10.1016 / S0022 - 3999 ( 99 ) 00035 - 5 . PMID 10576473 . Cole , Kristen ( 9 February 2001 ) . `` Is work calling your name ? '' . George Street Journal . 25 ( 17 ) . Archived from the original on 6 December 2003 . CS1 maint : BOT : original - url status unknown ( link ) Conrad , Barnaby ( 1999 ) . The World of Herb Caen : San Francisco 1938 -- 1997 . San Francisco : Chronicle Books . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8118 - 2575 - 7 . Danesi , Marcel ( 2012 ) . Linguistic Anthropology : A Brief Introduction . Toronto : Canadian Scholars ' Press . ISBN 978 - 1 - 55130 - 489 - 2 . Dickson , Paul ( 1996 ) . What 's in a name ? : Reflections of an Irrepressible Name Collector . Springfield , Massachusetts : Merriam - Webster . ISBN 978 - 0 - 87779 - 613 - 8 . Duša , Zdravko ; Kenda , Marjetka ( 2011 ) . Nomen est omen : Čiginj in njegova imena ( in Slovenian ) . Volče , Slovenia : Myra Locatelli . ISBN 978 - 961 - 92522 - 5 - 3 . Flugel , Ingeborg ( 1930 ) . `` On the significance of names '' . British Journal of Medical Psychology . 10 ( 2 ) : 208 -- 213 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 2044 - 8341.1930. tb01017. x . Feedback ( 5 November 1994a ) . `` Feedback '' . New Scientist ( 1950 ) . Archived from the original on 24 September 2016 . Feedback ( 17 December 1994b ) . `` Feedback '' . New Scientist ( 1956 ) . Archived from the original on 26 September 2016 . Feedback ( 16 November 1996 ) . `` Feedback '' . New Scientist ( 2056 ) . 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Journal of Personality and Social Psychology . 101 ( 1 ) : 1 -- 24 . doi : 10.1037 / a0021990 . PMID 21299311 . Simonsohn , Uri ( 2011b ) . `` In defense of diligence : A rejoinder to Pelham and Carvallo ( 2011 ) '' . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology . 101 ( 1 ) : 31 -- 33 . doi : 10.1037 / a0023232 . Slovenko , R. ( 1983 ) . `` The Destiny Of A Name '' . Journal of Psychiatry and Law . 11 ( 2 ) : 227 -- 270 . Smeets , Raymond ( 2009 ) . On the Preference for Self - related Entities : The Role of Positive Self - associations in Implicit Egotism Effects . Nijmegen , the Netherlands : UB Nijmegen . ISBN 978 - 90 - 90 - 24290 - 3 . Smith - Bannister , Scott ( 1997 ) . Names and Naming Patterns in England , 1538 -- 1700 . Oxford : Clarendon Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 820663 - 7 . Snowman , Daniel ( 1993 ) . Pole Positions : Polar Regions and the Future of the Planet . London : Hodder & Stoughton . ISBN 978 - 0 - 340 - 54068 - 8 . Splatt , A.J. ; Weedon , D. ( 1977 ) . `` The Urethral Syndrome : Experience with the Richardson Urethroplasty '' . British Journal of Urology. 49 ( 2 ) : 173 -- 176 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1464 - 410X. 1977. tb04095. x . PMID 870138 . Stekel , Wilhelm ( 1911 ) . `` Die Verpflichtung des Namens '' . Zeitschrift für Psychotherapie und medizinische Psychologie ( in German ) . 3 : 110 -- 114 . Stoppard , Tom ( 1972 ) . Jumpers . London : Faber & Faber . ISBN 978 - 0 - 571 - 14569 - 0 . Trench , Richard ( 1993 ) . London Under London : A Subterranean Guide ( 2 ed . ) . London : John Murray . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7195 - 5288 - 5 . Voracek , Martin ; Rieder , Stephan ; Stieger , Stefan ; Swami , Viren ( 2015 ) . `` What 's in a Surname ? Physique , Aptitude , and Sports Type Comparisons between Tailors and Smiths '' . PLoS ONE . 10 ( 7 ) : 699 -- 702 . Bibcode : 2015PLoSO ... 1031795V . doi : 10.1371 / journal. pone. 0131795 . PMC 4498760 . PMID 26161803 . Weekley , Ernest ( 1914 ) . The Romance of Names ( PDF ) . London : John Murray . Wilson , Stephen ( 2003 ) . The Means Of Naming : A Social History . London : Routledge . ISBN 978 - 1 - 135 - 36836 - 4 . Online sources ( edit ) Colls , Tom ( 20 December 2011 ) . `` When the name fits the job '' . BBC Radio 4 . Archived from the original on 13 September 2016 . Retrieved 12 September 2016 . Highfield , Roger ( 24 March 2011 ) . `` The name game - the weird science of nominative determinism '' . The Evening Standard . Archived from the original on 28 September 2016 . Retrieved 12 September 2016 . Hoekstra , Hans ( 16 April 2011 ) . `` Nomen est omen '' ( PDF ) . Het Parool ( in Dutch ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 1 October 2016 . Retrieved 12 September 2016 . Levey , Bob ( 20 November 1985 ) . `` Bob Levey 's Washington '' . The Washington Post . Retrieved 12 September 2016 . Levey , Bob ( 29 August 2000 ) . `` Bob Levey 's Washington '' . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on 23 September 2016 . 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Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nominative_determinism&oldid=835403044 '' Categories : Names Semantics Cognitive biases Employment Hidden categories : Featured articles Use dmy dates from October 2016 CS1 maint : BOT : original - url status unknown CS1 Slovenian - language sources ( sl ) CS1 French - language sources ( fr ) CS1 Italian - language sources ( it ) CS1 German - language sources ( de ) CS1 Dutch - language sources ( nl ) Talk Contents About Wikipedia Čeština Edit links This page was last edited on 8 April 2018 , at 14 : 11 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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who is lost to the expedition while they are in drepanum

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Drepana&oldid=803791691

Battle of Drepana - wikipedia Battle of Drepana Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( September 2014 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Battle of Drepana Part of the First Punic War Date 249 BC Location Off Drepana ( modern Trapani ) , Sicily Result Carthaginian victory Belligerents Carthage Roman Republic Commanders and leaders Adherbal Publius Claudius Pulcher Strength About 120 ships About 120 ships Casualties and losses None 93 ships captured or sunk First Punic War Messana Agrigentum Lipari Islands Mylae Sulci Tyndaris Cape Ecnomus Aspis Adys Tunis Cape Hermaeum Panormus 1st Drepana Lilybaeum 2nd Drepana Mt Ercte 1st Mt Eryx 2nd Mt Eryx Aegates Islands The naval Battle of Drepana ( or Drepanum ) took place in 249 BC during the First Punic War near modern Trapani , western Sicily between the fleets of Carthage and the Roman Republic . Contents ( hide ) 1 Prelude 2 Actions and consequences 3 Aftermath 4 References 5 Notes 6 See also 7 External links Prelude ( edit ) The string of Roman naval victories , such as Mylae and Ecnomus , gave them the confidence to make a direct attack on the Carthaginian stronghold of Lilybaeum governed by Himilco . The city was blockaded by a fleet commanded by the year 's consuls Publius Claudius Pulcher and Lucius Junius Pullus . However , despite the acquired Roman naval experience , the Carthaginians were still superior in open sea manoeuvring . A small squadron led by a commander named Hannibal , son of Hamilcar , managed to break the siege in broad daylight and deliver supplies to the garrison of Lilybaeum . In the night , Hannibal left the city carrying the useless cavalry horses and sailed to the harbour of Drepana , before the Romans knew what was happening . The success of the enterprise was so stunning that the Carthaginians repeated it several times . For the Romans , this was more than a humiliation : it was annulling the whole effect of the siege , since the garrison was being fed and kept in contact with Carthage . Something had to be done . Shortly after , a brave sailor , identified as Hannibal the Rhodian , openly defied the Roman fleet by sailing around the fleet in order to spy on the town and relay the news of the goings on inside of Lilybaeum to the Carthaginian Senate and the Carthaginian commander at the battle , Adherbal . Actions and consequences ( edit ) Pulcher , the senior consul , then decided to launch a surprise attack on the harbour of Drepana , where the defiant ships were garrisoned . The fleet sailed north from Lilybaeum in a moonless night . Carthaginian scouts did not spot the Roman ships but low visibility conditions compromised the battle formation . When they reached Drepana at sunrise , the fleet was scattered in a long , disorganized line with Pulcher 's ship in the rear . Punic scouts saw the clumsy approach and the advantage of surprise was lost . Meanwhile , on the flagship , some sources state that Pulcher , as the senior magistrate in command , took the auspices before battle , according to Roman religious requirements . The prescribed method was observing the feeding behaviour of the sacred chickens , on board for that purpose . If the chickens accepted the offered grain , then the Roman gods would be favourable to the battle . However , on that particular morning of 249 BC , the chickens refused to eat -- a horrific omen . Confronted with the unexpected and having to deal with the superstitious and now terrified crews , Pulcher quickly devised an alternative interpretation . He threw the sacred chickens overboard , saying , `` Let them drink , since they do n't wish to eat . '' ( Latin `` Bibant , quoniam esse nolunt . ) However , it is not entirely clear if this actually occurred . The contemporary historian Polybius fails to mention it , instead crediting the victory to the superior maneuverability of the Carthaginian warships , making the incident of drowning the chickens at least dubious , although the auspices almost certainly would have been taken . In the harbour , the Carthaginians did not wait to see what the Romans intended . Adherbal had similar , though less controversial , quick thoughts and ordered the evacuation of Drepana before the blockade was unavoidable . Carthage 's ships thus sailed out of Drepana , passing south of the city and around two small islands in the coast to the open sea . Seeing his plan for a surprise attack fail , Pulcher ordered his fleet to regroup into battle formation . However , by then , everything was against him . The coast of Sicily was at his back and the Punic fleet ready for battle at his front . Adherbal saw a chance for victory and ordered his right flank to attack the rear-most Roman ships . The result was an utter Roman defeat , with almost all the ships commanded by Pulcher sunk . Aftermath ( edit ) Publius Claudius Pulcher managed to escape and returned to Rome in shame , where he faced charges of treason . Unlike the Carthaginians , Romans did not execute generals for incompetence ( cf . Hannibal Gisco ) ; what brought Pulcher to the court was an accusation of sacrilege due to the chicken incident . He was convicted and sentenced to exile , with his political career finished . In the same year , Hamilcar Barca ( general Hannibal 's father ) led a successful campaign in Sicily and a storm mostly destroyed the other half of the Roman fleet , commanded by consul Junius Paullus . The situation was so desperate that Aulus Atilius Calatinus was appointed dictator and sent to the island to control the land warfare . The Drepana defeat so demoralized the Romans that they waited seven years before building another fleet . References ( edit ) The Fall of Carthage , by Adrian Goldsworthy , Cassel The Rise of the Roman Empire , by Polybius Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Cicero , M. Tullius . De natura deorum . Perseus Digital Library . p. 2.7 . Retrieved 17 February 2016 . The comment is reported in indirect discourse , so the Latin here reflects what Pulcher 's actual words would have been . ) Jump up ^ Lazenby , J.F. ( 1996 ) . The First Punic War : A Military History . Stanford : Stanford University Press . pp. 133 -- 134 . ISBN 0 - 8047 - 2674 - 4 . See also ( edit ) Drepana Siege of Drepana External links ( edit ) Sheridan , Paul ( 2015 - 11 - 08 ) . `` The Sacred Chickens of Rome '' . Anecdotes from Antiquity . Retrieved 2015 - 11 - 17 . ( hide ) Punic Wars First Punic War Messana Agrigentum Lipari Islands Mylae Sulci Tyndaris Cape Ecnomus Aspis Adys Tunis Cape Hermaeum Panormus 1st Drepana 1st Lilybaeum 2nd Drepana Mount Ercte 1st Mt . Eryx 2nd Mt . Eryx Aegates Mercenary War Utica Bagradas River Hamilcar 's victory with Naravas Carthage `` The Saw '' Tunis Second Punic War Saguntum Crossing of the Alps Lilybaeum Rhone Ticinus Trebia Cissa Lake Trasimene Ebro River Ager Falernus Geronium Cannae 1st Nola Dertosa 2nd Nola Decimomannu 3rd Nola 1st Beneventum Syracuse 1st Tarentum 1st Capua 2nd Beneventum Silarus 1st Herdonia Upper Baetis 2nd Capua 2nd Herdonia Numistro Asculum 2nd Tarentum Baecula Grumentum Metaurus New Carthage Ilipa Guadalquivir Carteia Crotona Utica Great Plains Cirta Po Valley Zama Third Punic War Lake Tunis 1st Nepheris Port of Carthage 2nd Nepheris Carthage Military history Coordinates : 38 ° 01 ′ 00 '' N 12 ° 31 ′ 00 '' E  /  38.0167 ° N 12.5167 ° E  / 38.0167 ; 12.5167 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Drepana&oldid=803791691 '' Categories : Naval battles of the First Punic War Trapani 249 BC 240s BC conflicts Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from September 2014 All articles needing additional references Coordinates on Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Български Català Deutsch Español Français Italiano עברית ქართული Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Türkçe 9 more Edit links This page was last edited on 4 October 2017 , at 17 : 31 . 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https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Field-effect_transistor&oldid=819437468

Field - effect transistor - wikipedia Field - effect transistor Jump to : navigation , search `` FET '' redirects here . For other uses , see FET ( disambiguation ) . The field - effect transistor ( FET ) is a transistor that uses an electric field to control the electrical behaviour of the device . FETs are also known as unipolar transistors since they involve single - carrier - type operation . Many different implementations of field effect transistors exist . Field effect transistors generally display very high input impedance at low frequencies . The conductivity between the drain and source terminals is controlled by an electric field in the device , which is generated by the voltage difference between the body and the gate of the device . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Basic information 3 More about terminals 3.1 Effect of gate voltage on current 3.1. 1 n - channel 3.1. 2 p - channel 3.2 Effect of source / drain voltage on channel 4 Composition 5 Types 6 Advantages 7 Disadvantages 8 Failure Modes 9 Uses 10 Source - gated transistor 11 See also 12 References 13 External links History ( edit ) Main article : History of the transistor The field - effect transistor was first patented by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld in 1926 and by Oskar Heil in 1934 , but practical semiconducting devices ( the junction field - effect transistors ( JFETs ) ) were developed later after the transistor effect was observed and explained by the team of William Shockley at Bell Labs in 1947 , immediately after the 20 - year patent period eventually expired . The first type of JFET was the static induction transistor ( SIT ) , invented by Japanese engineers Jun - ichi Nishizawa and Y . Watanabe in 1950 . The SIT is a type of JFET with a short channel length . The metal -- oxide -- semiconductor field - effect transistor ( MOSFET ) , which largely superseded the JFET and had a profound effect on digital electronic development , was invented by Dawon Kahng and Martin Atalla in 1959 . Basic information ( edit ) See also : Charge carrier § Majority and minority carriers FETs can be majority - charge - carrier devices , in which the current is carried predominantly by majority carriers , or minority - charge - carrier devices , in which the current is mainly due to a flow of minority carriers . The device consists of an active channel through which charge carriers , electrons or holes , flow from the source to the drain . Source and drain terminal conductors are connected to the semiconductor through ohmic contacts . The conductivity of the channel is a function of the potential applied across the gate and source terminals . The FET 's three terminals are : source ( S ) , through which the carriers enter the channel . Conventionally , current entering the channel at S is designated by I . drain ( D ) , through which the carriers leave the channel . Conventionally , current entering the channel at D is designated by I. Drain - to - source voltage is V . gate ( G ) , the terminal that modulates the channel conductivity . By applying voltage to G , one can control I . More about terminals ( edit ) Cross section of an n - type MOSFET All FETs have source , drain , and gate terminals that correspond roughly to the emitter , collector , and base of BJTs . Most FETs have a fourth terminal called the body , base , bulk , or substrate . This fourth terminal serves to bias the transistor into operation ; it is rare to make non-trivial use of the body terminal in circuit designs , but its presence is important when setting up the physical layout of an integrated circuit . The size of the gate , length L in the diagram , is the distance between source and drain . The width is the extension of the transistor , in the direction perpendicular to the cross section in the diagram ( i.e. , into / out of the screen ) . Typically the width is much larger than the length of the gate . A gate length of 1 μm limits the upper frequency to about 5 GHz , 0.2 μm to about 30 GHz . The names of the terminals refer to their functions . The gate terminal may be thought of as controlling the opening and closing of a physical gate . This gate permits electrons to flow through or blocks their passage by creating or eliminating a channel between the source and drain . Electron - flow from the source terminal towards the drain terminal is influenced by an applied voltage . The body simply refers to the bulk of the semiconductor in which the gate , source and drain lie . Usually the body terminal is connected to the highest or lowest voltage within the circuit , depending on the type of the FET . The body terminal and the source terminal are sometimes connected together since the source is often connected to the highest or lowest voltage within the circuit , although there are several uses of FETs which do not have such a configuration , such as transmission gates and cascode circuits . Effect of gate voltage on current ( edit ) I -- V characteristics and output plot of a JFET n - channel transistor . Simulation result for right side : formation of inversion channel ( electron density ) and left side : current-gate voltage curve ( transfer characteristics ) in an n - channel nanowire MOSFET . Note that the threshold voltage for this device lies around 0.45 V . FET conventional symbol types The FET controls the flow of electrons ( or electron holes ) from the source to drain by affecting the size and shape of a ' conductive channel ' created and influenced by voltage ( or lack of voltage ) applied across the gate and source terminals . ( For simplicity , this discussion assumes that the body and source are connected . ) This conductive channel is the `` stream '' through which electrons flow from source to drain . N - channel ( edit ) In an n - channel ' depletion - mode ' device , a negative gate - to - source voltage causes a depletion region to expand in width and encroach on the channel from the sides , narrowing the channel . If the active region expands to completely close the channel , the resistance of the channel from source to drain becomes large , and the FET is effectively turned off like a switch ( see right figure , when there is very small current ) . This is called ' pinch - off ' , and the voltage at which it occurs is called the ' pinch - off voltage ' . Conversely , a positive gate - to - source voltage increases the channel size and allows electrons to flow easily ( see right figure , when there is a conduction channel and current is large ) . In an n - channel ' enhancement - mode ' device , a conductive channel does not exist naturally within the transistor , and a positive gate - to - source voltage is necessary to create one . The positive voltage attracts free - floating electrons within the body towards the gate , forming a conductive channel . But first , enough electrons must be attracted near the gate to counter the dopant ions added to the body of the FET ; this forms a region with no mobile carriers called a depletion region , and the voltage at which this occurs is referred to as the threshold voltage of the FET . Further gate - to - source voltage increase will attract even more electrons towards the gate which are able to create a conductive channel from source to drain ; this process is called inversion . P - channel ( edit ) In a p - channel ' depletion - mode ' device , a positive voltage from gate to body creates a depletion layer by forcing the positively charged holes to the gate - insulator / semiconductor interface , leaving exposed a carrier - free region of immobile , negatively charged acceptor ions . Conversely , in a p - channel ' enhancement - mode ' device , a conductive region does not exist and negative voltage must be used to generate a conduction channel . Effect of source / drain voltage on channel ( edit ) For either enhancement - or depletion - mode devices , at drain - to - source voltages much less than gate - to - source voltages , changing the gate voltage will alter the channel resistance , and drain current will be proportional to drain voltage ( referenced to source voltage ) . In this mode the FET operates like a variable resistor and the FET is said to be operating in a linear mode or ohmic mode . If drain - to - source voltage is increased , this creates a significant asymmetrical change in the shape of the channel due to a gradient of voltage potential from source to drain . The shape of the inversion region becomes `` pinched - off '' near the drain end of the channel . If drain - to - source voltage is increased further , the pinch - off point of the channel begins to move away from the drain towards the source . The FET is said to be in saturation mode ; although some authors refer to it as active mode , for a better analogy with bipolar transistor operating regions . The saturation mode , or the region between ohmic and saturation , is used when amplification is needed . The in - between region is sometimes considered to be part of the ohmic or linear region , even where drain current is not approximately linear with drain voltage . Even though the conductive channel formed by gate - to - source voltage no longer connects source to drain during saturation mode , carriers are not blocked from flowing . Considering again an n - channel enhancement - mode device , a depletion region exists in the p - type body , surrounding the conductive channel and drain and source regions . The electrons which comprise the channel are free to move out of the channel through the depletion region if attracted to the drain by drain - to - source voltage . The depletion region is free of carriers and has a resistance similar to silicon . Any increase of the drain - to - source voltage will increase the distance from drain to the pinch - off point , increasing the resistance of the depletion region in proportion to the drain - to - source voltage applied . This proportional change causes the drain - to - source current to remain relatively fixed , independent of changes to the drain - to - source voltage , quite unlike its ohmic behavior in the linear mode of operation . Thus , in saturation mode , the FET behaves as a constant - current source rather than as a resistor , and can effectively be used as a voltage amplifier . In this case , the gate - to - source voltage determines the level of constant current through the channel . Composition ( edit ) FETs can be constructed from various semiconductors , with silicon being by far the most common . Most FETs are made by using conventional bulk semiconductor processing techniques , using a single crystal semiconductor wafer as the active region , or channel . Among the more unusual body materials are amorphous silicon , polycrystalline silicon or other amorphous semiconductors in thin - film transistors or organic field - effect transistors ( OFETs ) that are based on organic semiconductors ; often , OFET gate insulators and electrodes are made of organic materials , as well . Such FETs are manufactured using a variety of materials such as silicon carbide ( SiC ) , gallium arsenide ( GaAs ) , gallium nitride ( GaN ) , and indium gallium arsenide ( InGaAs ) . In June 2011 , IBM announced that it had successfully used graphene - based FETs in an integrated circuit . These transistors are capable of about 2.23 GHz cutoff frequency , much higher than standard silicon FETs . Types ( edit ) Depletion - type FETs under typical voltages : JFET , poly - silicon MOSFET , double-gate MOSFET , metal-gate MOSFET , MESFET . Depletion Electrons Holes Metal Insulator Top : source , bottom : drain , left : gate , right : bulk . Voltages that lead to channel formation are not shown . The channel of a FET is doped to produce either an n - type semiconductor or a p - type semiconductor . The drain and source may be doped of opposite type to the channel , in the case of enhancement mode FETs , or doped of similar type to the channel as in depletion mode FETs . Field - effect transistors are also distinguished by the method of insulation between channel and gate . Types of FETs include : The JFET ( junction field - effect transistor ) uses a reverse biased p -- n junction to separate the gate from the body . The MOSFET ( metal -- oxide -- semiconductor field - effect transistor ) utilizes an insulator ( typically SiO ) between the gate and the body . The MNOS Metal - Nitride - Oxide - Semiconductor transistor utilizes an nitride - oxide layer insulator between the gate and the body . The DGMOSFET ( Dual-gate MOSFET ) , a FET with two insulated gates . The DEPFET is a FET formed in a fully depleted substrate and acts as a sensor , amplifier and memory node at the same time . It can be used as an image ( photon ) sensor . The FREDFET ( fast - reverse or fast - recovery epitaxial diode FET ) is a specialized FET designed to provide a very fast recovery ( turn - off ) of the body diode . The HIGFET ( heterostructure insulated gate field - effect transistor ) is now used mainly in research . The MODFET ( modulation - doped field - effect transistor ) is a high - electron - mobility transistor using a quantum well structure formed by graded doping of the active region . The TFET ( tunnel field - effect transistor ) is based on band - to - band tunneling . The IGBT ( insulated-gate bipolar transistor ) is a device for power control . It has a structure akin to a MOSFET coupled with a bipolar - like main conduction channel . These are commonly used for the 200 -- 3000 V drain - to - source voltage range of operation . Power MOSFETs are still the device of choice for drain - to - source voltages of 1 to 200 V . The HEMT ( high - electron - mobility transistor ) , also called a HFET ( heterostructure FET ) , can be made using bandgap engineering in a ternary semiconductor such as AlGaAs . The fully depleted wide - band - gap material forms the isolation between gate and body . The ISFET ( ion - sensitive field - effect transistor ) can be used to measure ion concentrations in a solution ; when the ion concentration ( such as H , see pH electrode ) changes , the current through the transistor will change accordingly . The BioFET ( Biologically sensitive field - effect transistor ) is a class of sensors / biosensors based on ISFET technology which are utilized to detect charged molecules ; when a charged molecule is present , changes in the electrostatic field at the BioFET surface result in a measurable change in current through the transistor . These include EnFETs , ImmunoFETs , GenFETs , DNAFETs , CPFETs , BeetleFETs , and FETs based on ion - channels / protein binding . The MESFET ( metal -- semiconductor field - effect transistor ) substitutes the p -- n junction of the JFET with a Schottky barrier ; and is used in GaAs and other III - V semiconductor materials . The NOMFET is a nanoparticle organic memory field - effect transistor . The GNRFET ( graphene nanoribbon field - effect transistor ) uses a graphene nanoribbon for its channel . The VeSFET ( vertical - slit field - effect transistor ) is a square - shaped junctionless FET with a narrow slit connecting the source and drain at opposite corners . Two gates occupy the other corners , and control the current through the slit . The CNTFET ( carbon nanotube field - effect transistor ) . The OFET ( organic field - effect transistor ) uses an organic semiconductor in its channel . The DNAFET ( DNA field - effect transistor ) is a specialized FET that acts as a biosensor , by using a gate made of single - strand DNA molecules to detect matching DNA strands . The QFET ( quantum field effect transistor ) takes advantage of quantum tunneling to greatly increase the speed of transistor operation by eliminating the traditional transistor 's area of electron conduction . Advantages ( edit ) One advantage of the FET is its high gate to main current resistance , on the order of 100 MΩ or more , thus providing a high degree of isolation between control and flow . Because base current noise will increase with shaping time , a FET typically produces less noise than a bipolar junction transistor ( BJT ) , and is thus found in noise sensitive electronics such as tuners and low - noise amplifiers for VHF and satellite receivers . It is relatively immune to radiation . It exhibits no offset voltage at zero drain current and hence makes an excellent signal chopper . It typically has better thermal stability than a BJT . Because they are controlled by gate charge , once the gate is closed or opened , there is no additional power draw , as there would be with a bipolar junction transistor or with non-latching relays in some states . This allows extremely low - power switching , which in turn allows greater miniaturization of circuits because heat dissipation needs are reduced compared to other types of switches . Disadvantages ( edit ) It has a relatively low gain -- bandwidth product compared to a BJT . The MOSFET has a drawback of being very susceptible to overload voltages , thus requiring special handling during installation . The fragile insulating layer of the MOSFET between the gate and channel makes it vulnerable to electrostatic discharge or changes to threshold voltage during handling . This is not usually a problem after the device has been installed in a properly designed circuit . FETs often have a very low ' on ' resistance and have a high ' off ' resistance . However the intermediate resistances are significant , and so FETs can dissipate large amounts of power while switching . Thus efficiency can put a premium on switching quickly , but this can cause transients that can excite stray inductances and generate significant voltages that can couple to the gate and cause unintentional switching . FET circuits can therefore require very careful layout and can involve trades between switching speed and power dissipation . There is also a trade - off between voltage rating and ' on ' resistance , so high voltage FETs have a relatively high ' on ' resistance and hence conduction losses . Failure modes ( edit ) FETs are relatively robust , especially when operated within the temperature and electrical limitations defined by the manufacturer ( proper derating ) . However , modern FET devices can often incorporate a body diode as part of the overall functionality . If the characteristics of the body diode are not taken into consideration , the FET can experience slow body diode behavior , where a parasitic transistor will turn on and allow high current to be drawn from drain to source when the FET is off . Uses ( edit ) The most commonly used FET is the MOSFET . The CMOS ( complementary metal oxide semiconductor ) process technology is the basis for modern digital integrated circuits . This process technology uses an arrangement where the ( usually `` enhancement - mode '' ) p - channel MOSFET and n - channel MOSFET are connected in series such that when one is ON , the other is OFF . In FETs , electrons can flow in either direction through the channel when operated in the linear mode . The naming convention of drain terminal and source terminal is somewhat arbitrary , as the devices are typically ( but not always ) built symmetrically from source to drain . This makes FETs suitable for switching analog signals between paths ( multiplexing ) . With this concept , one can construct a solid - state mixing board , for example . A common use of the FET is as an amplifier . For example , due to its large input resistance and low output resistance , it is effective as a buffer in common - drain ( source follower ) configuration . IGBTs are used in switching internal combustion engine ignition coils , where fast switching and voltage blocking capabilities are important . Source - gated transistor ( edit ) Source - gated transistors are more robust to manufacturing and environmental issues in large - area electronics such as display screens , but are slower in operation than FETs . See also ( edit ) Chemical field - effect transistor FET amplifier FlowFET Multigate device , especially FinFET References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Junction Field - Effect Devices , Semiconductor Devices for Power Conditioning , 1982 Jump up ^ 1960 - Metal Oxide Semiconductor ( MOS ) Transistor Demonstrated - The Silicon Engine Computer History Museum Jump up ^ Jacob Millman ( 1985 ) . Electronic devices and circuits . Singapore : McGraw - Hill International . p. 397 . ISBN 0 - 07 - 085505 - 6 . ^ Jump up to : Millman ( 1985 ) . Electronic devices and circuits . Singapore : McGraw - Hill . pp. 384 -- 385 . ISBN 0 - 07 - 085505 - 6 . Jump up ^ C Galup - Montoro ; Schneider MC ( 2007 ) . MOSFET modeling for circuit analysis and design . London / Singapore : World Scientific . p. 83 . ISBN 981 - 256 - 810 - 7 . Jump up ^ Norbert R Malik ( 1995 ) . Electronic circuits : analysis , simulation , and design . Englewood Cliffs , NJ : Prentice Hall . pp. 315 -- 316 . ISBN 0 - 02 - 374910 - 5 . Jump up ^ RR Spencer ; Ghausi MS ( 2001 ) . Microelectronic circuits . Upper Saddle River NJ : Pearson Education / Prentice - Hall . p. 102 . ISBN 0 - 201 - 36183 - 3 . Jump up ^ A.S. Sedra ; K.C. Smith ( 2004 ) . Microelectronic circuits ( Fifth ed . ) . New York : Oxford . p. 552 . ISBN 0 - 19 - 514251 - 9 . Jump up ^ PR Gray ; PJ Hurst ; SH Lewis ; RG Meyer ( 2001 ) . Analysis and design of analog integrated circuits ( Fourth ed . ) . New York : Wiley . pp. § 1.5. 2 p. 45 . ISBN 0 - 471 - 32168 - 0 . Jump up ^ IBM creates first graphene based integrated circuit Jump up ^ Lin , Y. - M. ; Valdes - Garcia , A. ; Han , S. - J. ; Farmer , D.B. ; Sun , Y ; Wu , Y ; Dimitrakopoulos , C. ; Grill , A ; Avouris , P & Jenkins , K.A. ( 2011 ) . `` Wafer - Scale Graphene Integrated Circuit '' . Science . 332 : 1294 -- 1297 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1204428 . PMID 21659599 . Jump up ^ Flexible graphene transistor sets new records - physicsworld.com Jump up ^ freepatentsonline.com , HIGFET and method - Motorola Jump up ^ Ionescu , A.M. ; Riel , H. ( 2011 ) . `` Tunnel field - effect transistors as energy - efficient electronic switches '' . Nature . 479 ( 7373 ) : 329 -- 337 . doi : 10.1038 / nature10679 . PMID 22094693 . Jump up ^ Poghossianb , Arshak ( 2002 ) . `` Recent advances in biologically sensitive field - effect transistors ( BioFETs ) '' . Analyst. 127 : 1137 -- 1151 . doi : 10.1039 / B204444G . Jump up ^ sciencedaily.com Jump up ^ Sarvari H , et al. ( 2011 ) . `` Frequency analysis of graphene nanoribbon FET by Non-Equilibrium Green 's Function in mode space '' . Physica E : Low - dimensional Systems and Nanostructures. 43 ( 8 ) : 1509 -- 1513 . doi : 10.1016 / j. physe. 2011.04. 018 . Jump up ^ Jerzy Ruzyllo ( 2016 - 09 - 15 ) . Semiconductor Glossary : A Resource for Semiconductor Community . World Scientific . pp. 244 -- . ISBN 978 - 981 - 4749 - 56 - 5 . Jump up ^ physics.lbl.gov Jump up ^ Allen Mottershead ( 2004 ) . Electronic devices and circuits . New Delhi : Prentice - Hall of India . ISBN 81 - 203 - 0124 - 2 . Jump up ^ Slow Body Diode Failures of Field Effect Transistors ( FETs ) : A Case Study , https://www.dfrsolutions.com/hubfs/Resources/Slow_Body_Diode_Failures.pdf?t=1513022462214 Jump up ^ `` Source - gated transistors for order - of - magnitude performance improvements in thin - film digital circuits '' External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Field - effect Transistors . PBS The Field Effect Transistor Junction Field Effect Transistor CMOS gate circuitry Winning the Battle Against Latchup in CMOS Analog Switches Field Effect Transistors in Theory and Practice The Field Effect Transistor as a Voltage Controlled Resistor Transistor amplifiers Bipolar junction transistor : Common emitter Common collector Common base Field - effect transistor : Common source Common drain Common gate Multiple transistors : Darlington transistor Sziklai pair Cascode Long - tailed pair Electronic components Semiconductor devices Avalanche diode Transistor Tetrode transistor Pentode transistor Memistor Memristor Bipolar junction transistor ( BJT ) FinFET CMOS MOSFET JFET Field - effect transistor ( FET ) Quantum circuit Constant - current diode ( CLD , CRD ) Darlington transistor DIAC Diode Heterostructure barrier varactor Insulated-gate bipolar transistor ( IGBT ) Integrated circuit ( IC ) Light - emitting diode ( LED ) Photodetector Photodiode PIN diode Schottky diode Silicon controlled rectifier ( SCR ) Thyristor TRIAC Unijunction transistor ( UJT ) Varicap Zener diode Voltage regulators Linear regulator Low - dropout regulator Switching regulator Buck Boost Buck -- boost Split - pi Ćuk SEPIC Charge pump Switched capacitor Vacuum tubes Acorn tube Audion Beam tetrode Barretter Compactron Diode Fleming valve Nonode Nuvistor Pentagrid ( Hexode , Heptode , Octode ) Pentode Photomultiplier Phototube Tetrode Triode Vacuum tubes ( RF ) Backward - wave oscillator ( BWO ) Cavity magnetron Crossed - field amplifier ( CFA ) Gyrotron Inductive output tube ( IOT ) Klystron Maser Sutton tube Traveling - wave tube ( TWT ) Cathode ray tubes Beam deflection tube Charactron Iconoscope Magic eye tube Monoscope Selectron tube Storage tube Trochotron Video camera tube Williams tube Gas - filled tubes Cold cathode Crossatron Dekatron Ignitron Krytron Mercury - arc valve Neon lamp Nixie tube Thyratron Trigatron Voltage - regulator tube Adjustable Potentiometer digital Variable capacitor Varicap Passive Connector audio and video electrical power RF Electrolytic detector Ferrite Fuse resettable Resistor Switch Thermistor Transformer Varistor Wire Wollaston wire Reactive Capacitor types Ceramic resonator Crystal oscillator Inductor Parametron Relay reed relay mercury switch LCCN : sh85048099 GND : 4131472 - 4 NDL : 01150221 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Field-effect_transistor&oldid=819437468 '' Categories : Transistor types FETs Hidden categories : Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia বাংলা Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца ) ‎ Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Estremeñu فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Basa Jawa Қазақша Latviešu Lietuvių Македонски Монгол Nederlands 日本 語 Polski Português Română Русский Seeltersk Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 9 January 2018 , at 10 : 51 . 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where does ba fly to in new zealand

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Air_New_Zealand&oldid=815551724

Air New Zealand - Wikipedia Air New Zealand Jump to : navigation , search Air New Zealand IATA ICAO Callsign NZ ANZ NEW ZEALAND Founded 26 April 1940 ; 77 years ago ( 26 April 1940 ) ( as TEAL ) Commenced operations 1 April 1965 Hubs Auckland Airport Christchurch International Airport Wellington International Airport Focus cities Los Angeles International Airport Sydney Airport Frequent - flyer program Airpoints Alliance Star Alliance Subsidiaries Air New Zealand Link Fleet size 56 ( excl . subsidiaries ) Destinations 52 ( incl . subsidiaries ) Parent company New Zealand Government ( 53 % ) Traded as NZX : AIR ; ASX : AIZ Headquarters Wynyard Quarter , Auckland City , New Zealand Key people Christopher Luxon , CEO Revenue NZ $ 5,231 million ( 2016 ) Operating income NZ $1,542 million ( 2016 ) Profit NZ $463 million ( 2016 ) Total assets NZ $7,251 million ( 2016 ) Total equity NZ $2,108 million ( 2016 ) Employees 10,527 ( June , 2016 ) Website airnewzealand.com Air New Zealand Limited ( NZX : AIR ) is the flag carrier airline of New Zealand . Based in Auckland , the airline operates scheduled passenger flights to 21 domestic and 31 international destinations in 19 countries around the Pacific Rim and the United Kingdom . The airline has been a member of the Star Alliance since 1999 . Air New Zealand originated in 1940 as Tasman Empire Airways Limited ( TEAL ) , a company operating trans - Tasman flights between New Zealand and Australia . TEAL became wholly owned by the New Zealand government in 1965 , whereupon it was renamed Air New Zealand . The airline served international routes until 1978 , when the government merged it and the domestic New Zealand National Airways Corporation ( NAC ) into a single airline under the Air New Zealand name . Air New Zealand was privatised in 1989 , but returned to majority government ownership in 2001 after near bankruptcy due to a failed tie up with Australian carrier Ansett Australia . In the 2015 financial year to June , Air New Zealand carried 14.29 million passengers . Air New Zealand 's route network focuses on Australasia and the South Pacific , with long - haul services to eastern Asia , the Americas and the United Kingdom . It was the last airline to circumnavigate the world with flights to Heathrow via both Los Angeles and via Hong Kong . The latter ended in March 2013 when Air New Zealand stopped Hong Kong -- London flights , in favour of a codeshare agreement with Cathay Pacific . The airline 's main hub is Auckland Airport , located near Mangere in the southern part of the Auckland urban area . Air New Zealand is headquartered in a building called `` The Hub '' , located 20 km ( 12 mi ) from Auckland Airport , in Auckland 's Wynyard Quarter . Air New Zealand currently operates a fleet of Airbus A320 , Boeing 777 and Boeing 787 aircraft . Air New Zealand 's regional subsidiaries , Air Nelson and Mount Cook Airline , operate additional domestic services using turboprop aircraft . Air New Zealand was awarded Airline of the Year in 2010 and 2012 by the Air Transport World Global Airline Awards . In 2014 , Air New Zealand was ranked the safest airline in the world by JACDEC . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Merger with Ansett 1.2 21st century 2 Corporate affairs and identity 2.1 Head office 2.2 Subsidiaries 2.2. 1 Operations subsidiaries 2.2. 2 Technical subsidiaries 2.3 Sponsorships 2.4 Brand and livery 2.4. 1 Special liveries 3 Destinations 3.1 Codeshare agreements 4 Fleet 5 Cabin 5.1 Long - haul international 5.1. 1 Business Premier 5.1. 2 Pacific Premium Economy 5.1. 3 Premium Economy Spaceseat 5.1. 4 Pacific Economy 5.1. 5 Economy SkyCouch 5.1. 6 In - flight entertainment and magazine 5.2 Tasman and Pacific 5.3 Domestic 6 Services 6.1 Air New Zealand Lounge 6.2 Airpoints 7 Advertising and promotion 7.1 Nothing to hide campaign 7.2 All Blacks Safety Video 7.3 Rico 7.4 Mile High Madness 7.5 The Hobbit 7.6 The Bear Essentials 7.7 Safety Old School Style 7.8 Men in Black 8 Incidents and accidents 9 Controversies 9.1 Outsourcing maintenance 9.2 Minor seating policy 9.3 Qantas code - share 10 Alternative propulsion 11 See also 12 References 13 External links History ( edit ) This section appears to be slanted towards recent events . Please try to keep recent events in historical perspective and add more content related to non-recent events . ( December 2013 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) A Douglas DC - 8 at Sydney Airport in the early 1970s . Air New Zealand was an early operator of the DC - 8 . Note the pre-1973 livery with the Southern Cross on the tail . The McDonnell Douglas DC - 10 was first delivered in 1973 , and were the first Air NZ aircraft to feature the now ubiquitous koru logo . Main article : History of Air New Zealand Air New Zealand began as TEAL ( Tasman Empire Airways Limited ) in 1940 , operating Short Empire flying boats on trans - Tasman routes . Following World War II , TEAL operated weekly flights from Auckland to Sydney , and added Wellington and Fiji to its routings . The New Zealand and Australian governments purchased 50 % stakes in TEAL in 1953 , and the airline ended flying boat operations in favour of land - based turboprop airliners by 1960 . In 1965 , TEAL became Air New Zealand -- the New Zealand government having purchased Australia 's 50 % stake in the carrier . With the increased range of the Douglas DC - 8s the airline 's first jet aircraft , Air New Zealand began transpacific services to the United States and Asia with Los Angeles and Honolulu added as destinations in 1965 . The airline further acquired wide - body McDonnell Douglas DC - 10 airliners in 1973 . The DC - 10s introduced the new koru - inspired logo for the airline , which remains to this day . In 1978 , the domestic airline National Airways Corporation ( NAC ) and its subsidiary Safe Air were merged into Air New Zealand to form a single national airline , further expanding the carrier 's operations . As a result , NAC 's Boeing 737 and Fokker F27 aircraft joined Air New Zealand 's fleet alongside its DC - 8 and DC - 10 airliners . The merger also resulted in the airline having two IATA airline designators : TE from Air New Zealand and NZ from NAC . TE continued to be used for international flights and NZ for domestic flights until 1990 , when international flights assumed the NZ code . In 1981 , Air New Zealand introduced its first Boeing 747 airliner , and a year later initiated service to London via Los Angeles . The five 747 - 200s owned by Air New Zealand were all named after ancestral Maori canoes. 1985 saw the introduction of Boeing 767 - 200ER airliners to fill the large size gap between the Boeing 737 and 747 ( the DC - 8 and DC - 10 had been withdrawn by 1983 ) . In 1989 the airline was privatised with a sale to a consortium headed by Brierley Investments Ltd. ( with remaining stakes held by Qantas , Japan Airlines , American Airlines , and the New Zealand government ) . The New Zealand air transport market underwent deregulation in 1990 , prompting Air New Zealand to acquire a 50 % stake in Ansett Australia in 1995 . In March 1999 , Air New Zealand became a member of the Star Alliance . From 1999 through 2000 , Air New Zealand became embroiled in an ownership battle over Ansett with co-owner News Limited over a possible sale of the under - performing carrier to Singapore Airlines . Merger with Ansett ( edit ) Further information : History of Air New Zealand # Ansett collapse In 2000 , Air New Zealand announced that it had chosen instead to acquire the entirety of Ansett Australia ( increasing its 50 % stake in the carrier to 100 % ) for A $680 million from News Corporation Ltd . Business commentators believe this to have been a critical mistake , as Ansett 's fleet , staffing levels and infrastructure far outweighed that of Air New Zealand . Subsequently , both carriers ' profitability came under question , and foreign offers to purchase the Air New Zealand Group were considered . In September 2001 , plagued by costs it could not possibly afford , the Air New Zealand / Ansett Group neared collapse . A failed attempt at purchasing Virgin Blue was the final straw , and on 12 September , out of both time and cash , Air New Zealand placed Ansett Australia into voluntary administration , following which Ansett was forced to cease operations . Air New Zealand announced a NZ $1.425 billion operating loss . 21st century ( edit ) Air New Zealand added the Boeing 777 to its fleet in 2004 . As of 2014 , the 777 - 200ER and the larger - 300ER formed the core of the airline 's long - haul fleet . In October 2001 , Air New Zealand was re-nationalised under a New Zealand government NZ $885 million rescue plan ( with the government taking a 76.5 % stake ) , and subsequently received new leadership . This act was the only thing that spared Air New Zealand from also going into administration , without which it too would likely would have been grounded . In 2002 , Air New Zealand reconfigured its domestic operations under a low - cost airline business plan , and the New Zealand government weighed ( and later refused ) a proposal from Qantas to purchase a one - fifth stake in the carrier . Air New Zealand returned to profitability in 2003 , reporting a net profit of $ NZ165. 7 million for that year . The carrier saw increasing profits through 2004 and 2005 . In 2004 , the airline announced a comprehensive relaunch of its long - haul product , featuring the introduction of new seats in its business , premium economy , and economy class cabins . In 2003 , Air New Zealand added the Airbus A320 airliner to its fleet for use on short - haul international flights . In 2005 , the airline received its first Boeing 777 aircraft ( -- 200ER variant ) , and placed orders for the Boeing 787 Dreamliner in 2004 . The airline later was announced as the launch customer for the - 9 variant of the 787 . On 21 December 2010 , the New Zealand government approved an alliance between Air New Zealand and Australian airline Virgin Blue ( now named Virgin Australia ) , which allowed both airlines to expand operations between Australia and New Zealand with codeshares for trans - Tasman and connecting domestic flights ; and reciprocal access to frequent flyer programmes and airport lounges . Air New Zealand subsequently purchased a 26 % shareholding in Virgin Australia Holdings ( Virgin Australia 's parent company ) to cement the relationship . By October 2016 Air New Zealand sold its remaining stake in Virgin Australia to investors and the Nasham Group . In 2011 , Air New Zealand introduced the Boeing 777 - 300ER airliner , as well as the Economy Skycouch , a set of three economy class seats that could be converted into a flat multi-purpose surface by raising the leg rests . After a four - year delay , Air New Zealand took delivery of its first Boeing 787 - 9 on 9 July 2014 . On 12 September 2014 , the airline withdrew the Boeing 747 after 33 years of service , leaving Air New Zealand with a completely twin - engined jet fleet . In November 2013 the New Zealand Government reduced its share in Air New Zealand from 73 % to 53 % as part of its controversial asset sales programme . It made $365 million from this deal . Corporate affairs and identity ( edit ) `` The Hub '' , Air New Zealand head office 36 ° 50 ′ 42 '' S 174 ° 45 ′ 12 '' E  /  36.84492 ° S 174.75332 ° E  / - 36.84492 ; 174.75332 Air Nelson Saab 340 A ( no longer operated ) at Auckland Airport Zeal320 logo Head office ( edit ) The Air New Zealand head office , `` The Hub , '' is a 15,600 square metres ( 168,000 sq ft ) office park located at the corner of Beaumont and Fanshawe streets in the Western Reclamation Precinct 2 , Auckland City ; it includes two connected six - level buildings . The facility consists of a lot of glass to allow sunlight and therefore reduce electricity consumption . The building does not have cubicle walls . Lights automatically turn on at 7 : 30 A.M. and turn off at 6 P.M. Sensors throughout the building can turn on lights if they detect human activity , and turn off lights if human activity is not detected for 15 minutes . The buildings cost $60 million New Zealand dollars to build and develop . From late September to early October 2006 the airline moved 1,000 employees from four buildings in the Auckland CBD and other buildings elsewhere . The company previously had its head office in the Quay Tower in the CBD . In its history the airline had its head office in Airways House on Customs Street East . Subsidiaries ( edit ) Operations subsidiaries ( edit ) The following are operations subsidiaries of Air New Zealand Limited : Air New Zealand Cargo Air New Zealand has two wholly owned subsidiary regional airlines -- Air Nelson and Mount Cook Airline -- that serve secondary destinations in New Zealand . Together they make up Air New Zealand Link . On 26 August 2016 a third wholly owned subsidiary that operated under the Air New Zealand Link brand , Eagle Airways , ceased operations . Air Nelson is based in Nelson , operating Bombardier Q300s . Flight numbers are in the NZ8000 series . Mount Cook Airline is based in Christchurch , operating ATR 72 - 500 and ATR 72 - 600 turboprop aircraft . Flight numbers are in the NZ5000 series . Subsidiary company Zeal320 was introduced to help combat increasing labour costs . Zeal320 operated Air New Zealand 's trans - Tasman fleet of Airbus A320 - 200 aircraft under the Air New Zealand brand . On 31 July 2006 , flights were re-numbered to the NZ700 - 999 series for trans - Tasman services , and NZ1000 series for domestic services . All of Air New Zealand 's A320 - 200s were registered to Zeal320 until 26 November 2008 , when ownership of the fleet was transferred back to Air New Zealand . However , staff that worked the A320 - 200 fleet were still employed by this subsidiary . This was a source of contention within the airline group in which these employees were paid at a lower scale than their mainline counterparts . Continued industrial action by staff employed in this subsidiary during 2009 permanently delayed a proposed low - cost carrier airline as a successor to Freedom Air that would have also employed the Airbus A320 on domestic routes to counter Jetstar Airways , also operating in New Zealand . As of mid-2014 , a non-operations company named Zeal320 is registered as active with the New Zealand Companies Office , but this entity does not employ any crew . Technical subsidiaries ( edit ) The following are technical operations subsidiaries of Air New Zealand : Air New Zealand Engineering Services Christchurch Engine Centre ( 50 % ) In June 2015 , Air New Zealand confirmed the sale of its Safe Air engineering subsidiary to the Australian arm of Airbus . Sponsorships ( edit ) Air New Zealand was the title sponsor of the Air New Zealand Cup domestic rugby union club competition through the 2009 season . The airline remains a major sponsor of New Zealand rugby , including the New Zealand national rugby union team , known as the All Blacks . The airline also sponsors the Air New Zealand Wine Awards and World of Wearable Arts ; and partners with New Zealand 's Department of Conservation and Antarctica New Zealand . Brand and livery ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( December 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Air New Zealand 's `` Pacific Wave '' , introduced in 1996 The logo used by Air New Zealand from 1996 to 2012 Air New Zealand 's koru tail symbol , seen on Boeing 737 - 300 aircraft ZK - NGM The Air New Zealand symbol is a Māori koru , a stylised representation of a silver fern frond unfolding . A redesigned logo was unveiled on 21 March 2006 . The `` Pacific Wave '' fuselage stripes were removed from short - haul aircraft in 2009 , simplifying the overall livery , and was in the process of also being removed from long haul aircraft before the logo was changed again . On 27 March 2006 , Air New Zealand embarked on a changeover to a new brand identity , involving a new Zambesi - designed uniform , new logo , new colour scheme and new look check - in counters and lounges . The new uniforms featured a colour palette mirroring the greenstone , teal , schist and slate hues of New Zealand ; sea and sky ( a Māori motif created by Derek Lardelli ) fabric woven from merino wool ; and curves inspired by the airline 's logo symbol , the koru . A greenstone colour replaces the blue Pacific Wave colour , inspired by the colour of the pounamu , the prized gemstone found in New Zealand . The Air New Zealand Koru was woven through all Air New Zealand 's signage and products . Later in 2009 staff were involved in testing fabrics and cuts of uniforms . `` ' It would be fair to say that the lessons from the development and introduction of the current uniform have been taken on board , '' said the airline 's CEO after widespread public and staff criticism . A rebranding was announced in July 2012 . Ditching the teal and green colours that had represented the airline since its beginnings as Tasman Empire Airways ( TEAL ) in 1939 , black was adopted as the brand colour in a joint effort between the airline , New Zealand design agency Designworks and renowned Kiwi typographer Kris Sowersby ; as well as a new logo typeface . The tails of the aircraft and the typeface changed to black , while the rest of the fuselage remained white . Then CEO Rob Fyfe said of the rebranding : `` Black has resonated well with our customers and staff who identify with it as the colour of New Zealand and a natural choice for our national airline . It inspires pride , is part of our Kiwi identity and a symbol of Kiwi success on the world stage . '' The airline began using black as its corporate colour ahead of a sponsorship campaign with NZ 's rugby union team , the All Blacks , in 2011 . Soon after the first few aircraft were painted in the scheme another new livery was announced on 12 June 2013 . In conjunction with a NZ $ 20 million Memorandum of Understanding with the national tourism agency Tourism New Zealand for joint marketing , TNZ granted permission for Air New Zealand to use the `` New Zealand Fern Mark '' , a standard fern logo used and managed by Tourism NZ and NZ Trade and Enterprise for international promotion , in its livery . Two new liveries were unveiled . The first is predominantly white with a black strip running downwards on the rear fuselage from the tail , adorned with a koru logo in white , to disappear downwards just aft of the junction of the wings with the fuselage . The black and white fern mark adorns the fuselage . This livery is used on most of the fleet . A select number have an all black livery with the fern in silver , including the airline 's first Boeing 787 - 9 . Extensive consumer surveys by Air New Zealand revealed 78 percent people believed the Fern Mark fits with the airline 's brand and represents New Zealand . The first aircraft to be painted in this livery was rolled out on 24 September 2013 . Special liveries ( edit ) Air New Zealand 747 - 400 ZK - SUJ in `` Airline to Middle Earth '' livery Airbus A320 ZK - OAB at Auckland wearing the All Blacks livery Boeing 777 - 300ER ZK - OKP with `` The Airline of Middle - earth '' livery at Brisbane Airport In 1973 , the first of the airline 's McDonnell Douglas DC - 10 - 30s arrived with 1974 British Commonwealth Games `` NZ74 '' logo on both sides of the forward fuselage beneath the cabin windows . In 1984 , pictures of the Buckingham Palace horse guards with ' London , Here We Come ' were placed on the side of the hump of the airline 's new Boeing 747 - 200Bs when Air New Zealand was allowed to fly the Los Angeles -- London leg of the trans - Pacific route in its own name . A special livery featuring an image of the All Blacks front row of Carl Hoeft , Anton Oliver and Kees Meeuws and a black tail was used on the Boeing 747 - 400 aircraft used to transport the team to the 1999 Rugby World Cup . Two other aircraft were wore the special All Blacks scheme : a Boeing 737 - 200QC and a Saab 340 of Air Nelson ; both these aircraft retained their blue teal tail colours . In 1999 , one Boeing 737 - 300 was painted in a ' New Millennium ' livery depicting celebrations and the America 's Cup regatta that was to be held in 2000 . In 2002 and 2003 Air New Zealand marked its position as `` the official airline to Middle Earth '' by decorating three aircraft with The Lord of the Rings imagery , applied as giant decals . The decal material was described in airline publicity as being as thin as clingfilm and weighing more than 60 kilograms ( 130 lb ) . The imagery featured actors from the film trilogy The Lord of the Rings against backdrops of New Zealand locations used in the films . In 2008 , one of the airline 's Boeing 737 - 300s was painted into a lime green Air New Zealand ' Holidays ' livery . During 2011 and 2012 , two aircraft -- an Airbus A320 and a Boeing 777 - 300ER -- were painted in an All Blacks - inspired livery . The aircraft were completely black , with a silver fern motif covering the aft section of the fuselage . Some Air New Zealand Link aircraft were also decorated in the scheme : an ATR 72 - 600 operated by Mount Cook Airline ; and two Beechcraft 1900Ds operated by now - defunct subsidiary Eagle Airways . In November 2012 , Boeing 777 - 300ER ZK - OKP was repainted in the new `` black - tail '' livery and fitted with a 830 m ( 8,900 sq ft ) decal promoting the premiere and release of the first film in The Hobbit trilogy . The decal took six days and 400 man - hours to install . In December 2013 , ahead of the premiere of the second part of the Hobbit trilogy , The Desolation of Smaug , Air New Zealand applied two 54 - metre long images of the dragon Smaug on the sides of a Boeing 777 - 300ER . Destinations ( edit ) Further information : Air New Zealand destinations Air New Zealand destinations ( September 2017 ) Air New Zealand and its subsidiaries serves 21 domestic destinations and 31 international destinations in nineteen countries and territories across Asia , Europe , North America , South America and Oceania . Air New Zealand serves only five of the domestic destinations ; subsidiaries serve the remaining 16 destinations . Air New Zealand operates five fifth freedom routes ( i.e. between two non-New Zealand destinations ) , the most notable being the daily Los Angeles -- London Heathrow service , operating as an extension of one of its Auckland -- Los Angeles services . The airline operates weekly flights from Rarotonga to Sydney and Los Angeles , in addition to flights connecting via Auckland . In 2012 -- after securing a contract from the Australian government -- Air New Zealand launched twice - weekly services from Sydney and Brisbane to Norfolk Island on its A320 aircraft , complementing its existing direct services from Auckland . The airline also serves eight summer charter destinations in Japan from Auckland . Codeshare agreements ( edit ) Air New Zealand has codeshare agreements with the following airlines : Aerolíneas Argentinas Air Canada Air China Air India Air Rarotonga Air Tahiti Nui Aircalin Alaska Airlines All Nippon Airways Asiana Airlines Cathay Pacific Etihad Airways Fiji Airways Lufthansa SilkAir Singapore Airlines South African Airways Thai Airways Turkish Airlines United Airlines Virgin Atlantic Virgin Australia Fleet ( edit ) Main article : Air New Zealand fleet Air New Zealand 's Airbus A320s operate short - haul routes , both domestically and internationally . Air New Zealand was the launch customer for the Boeing 787 - 9 Dreamliner , shown here landing at its launch destination Perth Airport in Australia ; the first was delivered to the airline in July 2014 . As of 5 December 2017 , Air New Zealand and its wholly owned subsidiaries operate a total of 106 aircraft . The mainline fleet consists of 56 aircraft : 30 Airbus A320 jet aircraft for domestic and short - haul international flights , and eight Boeing 777 - 200ER , seven Boeing 777 - 300ER and eleven Boeing 787 - 9 Dreamliner jet aircraft for long - haul flights . Air New Zealand 's subsidiaries operate turboprop aircraft on regional domestic services . Two types of aircraft are used , each belonging to a single subsidiary . Mount Cook Airline operates 27 ATR 72 aircraft between major cities and towns . The 23 Air Nelson - operated Bombardier Q300s operate other routes alongside Mount Cook Airline , including to some smaller centres . A third subsidiary , Eagle Airways , operated smaller turboprops but ceased operations in 2016 . Cabin ( edit ) Long - haul international ( edit ) Boeing 777 - 200ER cabin with mood lighting Business Premier flatbed seat On 28 June 2004 , Air New Zealand released details of the upgrade to its long - haul product , which was aimed to turn around the profitability of its international services . Every seat on its Boeing 747 aircraft was equipped with a personal LCD screen with audio video on demand ( AVOD ) . First class was removed , with an upgraded business class and a new premium economy section installed . In January 2010 , Air New Zealand released details of its new `` Kupe '' long - haul product for its new 777 - 300ER aircraft which arrived later that year , as well as on its 787 - 9 aircraft . Changes included an improved Business Premier and Economy class product , a new Premium Economy cabin , and the introduction of the Economy SkyCouch . Business Premier ( edit ) Business Premier is the highest available class on Air New Zealand flights , available on both 777 variants and the 787 aircraft . The seating is configured in a herringbone layout in a 1 - 2 - 1 configuration on the 777s and 1 - 1 - 1 on the 787 , allowing direct access for every passenger to an aisle . Each seat is 22 inches ( 560 mm ) wide leather and comes with an ottoman footrest that doubles as a visitor seat . The seat converts to a full length ( 79.5 in or 2,020 mm ) lie - flat bed , for which a pillow , duvet and sheet are provided . Business Premiere cabins can lie flat 6 feet 6 inches i.e. the longest in any airline . Long Haul Business Class : Pitch 79.5 inches Width 22 inches Seat Type Lie Flat , Short Haul Business Class : Pitch 50 inches , Seat Width 22 inches , Seat Type Angle Lie Flat . Each seat comes with a large tray table , multiple stowage bins , a cocktail tray , a bottle holder , in - seat power , three reading lights , and an AVOD system with a 10.4 - inch monitor . There is a slightly uprated seat on the 777 - 300ER and 787 - 9 , with lighter cream leather and purple trimmed seats . The in flight entertainment has also been improved , giving each seat USB and iPod connectivity , and a larger 12.1 - inch ( 777 - 300ER ) or 11.0 - inch ( 787 - 9 ) touchscreen monitor . Pacific Premium Economy ( edit ) Pacific Premium Economy is in a dedicated cabin , which shares lavatories with the Business Premier cabin , available on the Boeing 777 - 200ER , Boeing 787 - 9 , and some Boeing 777 - 300ER aircraft . The class has the same mood lighting , dining and wine selection and in - seat power as the Business Premier cabin . The newly refurbished seats are wider with a 9 - inch recline and extendable leg rests with a 2 - 4 - 2 configuration on the 777 variants , and a 2 - 3 - 2 configuration on the 787 - 9 . Following positive reviews and high demand after its introduction , Air New Zealand re-launched its Pacific Premium cabin with added business class services , including priority check - in , priority baggage handling and the same baggage allowance as Business Premier ( priority baggage handling and extra baggage allowance do not apply for passengers with connecting flights to other airlines ) . Seat pitch is approximately 41 in ( 1,000 mm ) . Premium Economy Spaceseat ( edit ) Premium Economy Spaceseats Air New Zealand 's Premium Economy Spaceseat is only available on the 777 - 300ER . Designed by Air New Zealand in consultation with US design studio IDEO , the new Premium Economy cabin uses a 2 - 2 - 2 seating configuration . The central pair of Spaceseats are slightly angled for those travelling with a colleague or partner , and the two arm rests can form a single table for shared in - flight dining . The pairs of outboard Spaceseats on either side are angled to enhance privacy for solo flyers . The seats are built around a hard shell so the passenger in front can not recline into the space of the person sitting behind . Instead , the seat slides forward and angles up as it reclines into the shell , similar to an armchair . The Spaceseat will be phased out in 2017 during the refurbishment of the 777 - 300ER fleet . It will be replaced with the Pacific Premium Economy Product as found on other Air New Zealand long - haul aircraft . Pacific Economy ( edit ) Pacific Economy on 777 - 300ER Pacific Economy is available on all aircraft , in a 3 - 3 - 3 configuration on the 787 , and a 3 - 4 - 3 configuration on the 777 - 200ER and the 777 - 300ER aircraft . The seats have a pitch of 31 to 34 inches ( 790 to 860 mm ) , have a 6 - inch recline , and have a flexible edge seat base to provide more leg support when reclined . Each seat has its own AVOD entertainment system , with a 9 - inch screen on the 787 and 777 - 200ER , and a 10.6 - inch touchscreen on the 777 - 300ER . On the various aircraft , economy seats also have USB , iPod and power connections , a cup - holder and trinket tray , and a headrest designed to allow a special sleep pillow to attach to it , preventing it from slipping downwards during sleep . Economy SkyCouch ( edit ) The Economy SkyCouch is available on the 787 - 9 , 777 - 200ER and 777 - 300ER . It is a set of three Economy class seats on the window rows of the cabin that have armrests that retract into the seat back , and full leg rests that individually and manually can be raised to horizontal to form a flat surface extending to the back of the seats in front . It is largely designed for families for use as a flat play surface , and for couples , who on purchasing the middle seat for 25 % more each , can use it as a flat sleeping surface . Each SkyCouch seat is equipped with the same basic facilities as a standard Pacific Economy seat . The Skycouch is only available on routes longer than 6 hours duration ; where the aircraft are used on shorter routes , the leg rests are locked out and the Skycouch seats act as regular economy seats . The SkyCouch has earned the nickname `` cuddle class '' by media reporting on the innovative seating , from the ability for couples to curl up and `` cuddle '' together on the 74 cm × 155 cm ( 29 in × 61 in ) flat surface . Concerns were raised almost immediately over the couch potentially being a new way to join the mile high club . Air New Zealand responded that public displays of affection of that level would not be tolerated in its aircraft . The airline even released a billboard advertisement entitled `` The Economy SkyCouch activity guide '' , suggesting `` spoons '' ( hugs ) were allowed , but `` forks '' ( sexual activity ) were not . In - flight entertainment and magazine ( edit ) Forward 747 - 400 Business cabin with personal entertainment 777 - 300ER bar - style galley with KiaOra screen and tasting area Air New Zealand offers audio video on demand in all classes on international services on its aircraft . The AVOD system , branded KiaOra , features multiple channels of video , audio , music , and games . Passengers can start and stop programs , plus rewind and fast - forward as desired . It is a gate - to-gate in - flight entertainment experience : passengers can start their entertainment as soon as they board the aircraft , and continue until they arrive at the gate of their destination , maximising play time , which is especially useful for its short - haul Tasman and Pacific Island flights . Gate - to-gate in - flight entertainment is not available on certain seats in economy ( such as the bulkhead and emergency exit row seats ) . AVOD screen size varies : Business Premier : 10.4 in ( 260 mm ) Pacific Premium Economy : 8.4 in ( 210 mm ) Pacific Economy : 8.4 in ( 210 mm ) KiaOra , the airline 's in - flight magazine , was removed from international flights from March 2009 . It is now only in seat backs on domestic and trans - Tasman services , however it can still be found in the inflight magazine racks on international flights . As a guide on international services , there is now a brief publication named Entertainment Magazine detailing the entertainment available on the flight , which also contains the buy on board ' in - Bites ' menu . Tasman and Pacific ( edit ) In response to increasing competition from low cost carriers , namely Jetstar Airways , Air New Zealand replaced its cabin and service on short - haul international routes to Australia ( `` Tasman '' ) and the Pacific Islands ( `` Pacific '' ) with a new `` Seats to Suit '' service in 2010 . Introduced on the Christchurch - Sydney route from 18 August 2010 , the new service was rolled out on all routes on 17 November 2010 . All international Airbus A320 aircraft were refitted with an all - economy cabin that supports four options of service . Long - haul Boeing 777 and 787 aircraft also operate on these routes . Business class meal There are four options , building on each other : Seat -- the basic option , consisting of a seat , one cabin bag up to 7 kg , tea , coffee and water , and AVOD entertainment including TV shows , music and games . Seat + Bag -- the Seat option plus one checked bag up to 23 kg . Works -- the Seat + Bag option plus movies included on AVOD entertainment , an in - flight meal , non-alcoholic and alcoholic drinks , and the ability to request a specific seat . Children receive a kids activity pack . This option is identical to the previous Economy option . Works Deluxe -- the Works option plus priority check - in and baggage , and extra checked bag up to 23 kg , lounge access ( where available ) . On the A320 , passengers are guaranteed an empty middle seat next to them . On flights operated by the 777 and 787 , Premium Economy replaces Works Deluxe . Air New Zealand has reintroduced Space+ seats on the Trans - tasman routes , with 35 inches of pitch in the first three rows of the A320s . These are only available to Works or Works Deluxe passengers , and only Airpoints Gold Elite and Gold members of Air New Zealand 's Airpoints frequent flyer programme are allocated these seats . The AVOD system consists of an 8.4 - inch screen . In addition , the AVOD screens allow ordering of drinks and snacks , to be delivered to the seat by cabin crew members . Works and Works Deluxe passengers get complimentary drinks after their meal , while drinks for Seat and Seat + Bag passengers , and snacks for all passengers are available for purchase using a credit card or a voucher purchased at the airport prior to boarding . Airpoints Gold and Gold Elite are entitled to an additional carry - on bag up to 7 kg on all options . Airpoints Gold , Gold Elite and Koru members are entitled to an additional checked bag up to 23 kg on all options except Seat . Domestic ( edit ) Air New Zealand domestic services are operated in a single class all - economy configuration . Seating forward of the over-wing emergency exits on A320 aircraft are Space+ seats , with a larger pitch between seats , but otherwise are effectively economy seats . From July 2014 , Air New Zealand has four domestic fare options , each building on the previous option : Seat -- the basic option , consisting of a seat , one cabin bag up to 7 kg , and tea / coffee / water and snacks ( depending on aircraft ) Seat + Bag -- the Seat option , plus one checked bag up to 23 kg FlexiTime -- the Seat + Bag option , plus the option to request a specific seat prior to check - in ( Airpoints Gold / Elite and Koru members can request a seat regardless of fare option ) , and the ability to change to an earlier or later flight on the same day and route for no extra cost ( subject to availability ) . FlexiPlus -- the FlexiTime option , plus an extra checked bag up to 23 kg , and the ability to change a flight to a different date without a change fee ( if the new flight is more expensive , the difference must be paid ) . Only FlexiPlus is refundable ; all other options are non-refundable . FlexiPlus passengers , along with Airpoints and Koru members , get priority over the Space+ seating . All domestic passengers are offered tea , coffee or water . Passengers on turboprop aircraft are also offered a biscuit , while those on A320 flights are offered a choice of snacks , including vege crisps , muesli bars , and biscuits . Hard lollies are handed out to passengers on the descent . On flights before 9 am on A320 aircraft , muesli and muffins are offered , as well as morning newspapers , and on flights between 4 : 30 pm and 7 : 00 pm , beer and wine are offered to passengers ( provided they are 18 years or over ) , as well as Lemon & Paeroa , cheese , crackers and grapes , and bagel crisps and hummus . Services ( edit ) Air New Zealand lounge ( edit ) Main article : Koru Lounge Air New Zealand Koru Lounge in Wellington Air New Zealand self check - in kiosks , Wellington The Air New Zealand Lounge is the name for Air New Zealand 's network of airline lounges around the world . Members of Air New Zealand Koru programme may access the lounges , and also get valet parking , priority wait listing , exclusive check - in , extra checked in baggage , and preferred seating . Airpoints ( edit ) Airpoints is Air New Zealand 's frequent - flyer programme . Members earn Airpoints Dollars , which they can redeem at face value on any fare on Air New Zealand ticketed and operated flights . Members can attain status tiers , with increasing privileges ranging from Silver to Gold , then Elite , by accumulating their Status Points , which are earned separately from Airpoints Dollars . Airpoints Gold and Airpoints Elite have the same recognition as Star Alliance Gold status and benefits across the Star Alliance network . Airpoints Silver status is equivalent to Star Alliance Silver . Airpoints members receive Status Points for almost every Air New Zealand flight , as well as many other flights with its Star Alliance partners . Status Points enable members to reach a higher status faster . Status Points will still be granted even on discount fares ( such as Smart Saver and grabaseat fares ) that normally do not earn Airpoints Dollars . Advertising and promotion ( edit ) Nothing to Hide campaign ( edit ) On 10 May 2009 , Air New Zealand launched a TV advertising campaign , Nothing to hide . The campaign featured more than ninety Air New Zealand staff , eight of whom were chosen for starring roles and who swapped their real uniforms for a body painted version . Chief Executive Officer Rob Fyfe made a cameo appearance in full body paint . The campaign was designed to differentiate Air New Zealand from low - cost competitors that levy additional charges if a passenger wants to check a bag or have refreshments . Air New Zealand has airfares that include baggage allowances and refreshments . The TV commercial was accompanied by a new in - flight safety video using the same theme . The safety video , titled Bare Essentials , was shown on all Boeing 737 - 300 - operated flights . It featured a pilot and four cabin staff , including William Coxhead , a regular in Air New Zealand safety videos . Another version was released later , this time for the Airbus A320 . The TV ad and in - flight safety video both used the track `` Under My Skin '' by New Zealand singer Gin Wigmore . The campaign website Nothing To Hide contained both videos complete with bloopers and behind the scenes most of which are still on YouTube . On YouTube the in - flight safety video gathered over 7 million views by the start of 2013 . The campaign was reported by international networks such as CNN and the BBC . In late 2009 Air New Zealand started to put up billboard ads showing a body - painted staff member walking into a carwash , ready to go down a water slide , or even ready to jump off a diving board . All Blacks safety video ( edit ) Air New Zealand produced a humorous safety video in 2010 , promoting the New Zealand national rugby union team , the All Blacks . One scene involved safety video regular William Coxhead requesting a peck on the cheek from All Black Richard Kahui after seeing a female flight attendant do the same , only for Kahui to chicken out . The scene was cut in December 2010 after Air New Zealand drew criticism from some LGBT groups . Rico ( edit ) From 2010 to 2011 Air New Zealand had a very successful online campaign using a puppet called Rico . Rico had an active presence on Air New Zealand 's YouTube page , his own Twitter and Facebook feeds , and attracted both a devoted fan base and controversy . On the surface , he was an ambassador for the company and a world traveller often providing tips and worldly advice but deliberate problems with his accent ( possibly meant to be Peruvian ) made him too risque for normal media . His online videos often included famous guests including Snoop Dogg , David Hasselhoff , and Lindsay Lohan . Air New Zealand seemingly killed him off late in 2011 ( actually tying his fictional homicide to another marketing campaign based on Cluedo ) . Mile high Madness ( edit ) In 2011 , Air New Zealand created an air safety video based on a fitness show format starring Richard Simmons . The video featured William Coxhead , a regular in Air New Zealand safety videos . The Hobbit ( edit ) In November 2012 , Air New Zealand released a mock in - flight safety video featuring hobbits , dwarves and orcs , as part of a cross-promotion with the first part of director Sir Peter Jackson 's upcoming film adaptation of The Hobbit . Sir Peter himself makes a cameo in the clip . The video featured William Coxhead , a regular in Air New Zealand safety videos . The company followed it up in November 2013 , with Just another day in Middle - earth # airnzhobbit , featuring Dean O'Gorman , who plays Fili in the Hobbit trilogy , and the voice of co-star Sylvester McCoy . Another safety video , titled The Most Epic Safety Video Ever Made , was published in October 2014 . It features well known actors and collaborators from the film franchise , including Peter Jackson and Elijah Wood . The Bear Essentials ( edit ) In February 2013 , Air New Zealand released an in - flight safety video to promote its partnership with the New Zealand Department of Conservation . The video featured Man v Wild star Bear Grylls , performing antics he is known for from his television show , including jumping into a river with a life jacket and eating glow worms . The video uses natural features to represent fixtures and safety equipment on the aircraft , such as a hole in a hill as overhead lockers , and a cave with glow worms to be the emergency lighting . The video featured William Coxhead , a regular in Air New Zealand safety videos . Safety Old School Style ( edit ) American TV veterans Betty White and Gavin MacLeod , co-stars on The Mary Tyler Moore Show in the 1970s , reunited in the airline 's in - flight safety video . Released in October 2013 , it was set in a retirement resort . Men in black ( edit ) In August 2015 , Air New Zealand released a Men in Black themed in - flight safety video . The video featured a parody of the song `` Men in Black '' performed by Stan Walker and New Zealand national rugby union team ( ALL Blacks ) member Israel Dagg with appearances by All Blacks members Richie McCaw , Dan Carter , Kieran Read , Keven Mealamu and Sam Whitelock ; All Blacks coach Steve Hansen ; former international rugby players Martin Johnson , David Campese and Agustín Pichot ; Rip Torn reprising his role as Agent Zed from the first two Men in Black films ; and Frank the Pug . Incidents and accidents ( edit ) Main article : List of Air New Zealand accidents and incidents Controversies ( edit ) Outsourcing maintenance ( edit ) On 19 October 2005 , Air New Zealand proposed outsourcing most of its heavy maintenance on its long - haul aircraft and engines , which would result in about 600 job losses , mostly in Auckland . Air New Zealand said that there were larger maintenance providers that could provide maintenance work more cheaply due to their large scale . The proposal was estimated to save $100 million over five years and came after many attempts to attract contracts to service other airlines ' longhaul aircraft . Eventually , a union proposal to save some of the remaining jobs was accepted . The proposal included shift and pay changes ( most of them pay cuts ) which would allow about 300 engineers in Auckland to keep their jobs . 200 were made redundant or resigned . Minor seating policy ( edit ) Main article : Airline sex discrimination policy controversy In November 2005 , it was revealed that Air New Zealand ( along with Qantas and British Airways ) had a policy of not seating adult male passengers next to unaccompanied children . The policy came to light following an incident in 2004 when a man who was seated next to a young boy on a Qantas flight in New Zealand was asked to change seats with a female passenger . A steward informed him that `` it was the airline 's policy that only women were allowed to sit next to unaccompanied children '' . Air New Zealand later said it had a similar policy to Qantas . Qantas code - share ( edit ) On 12 April 2006 , Air New Zealand and Qantas announced that they had signed a code - share agreement for their trans - Tasman routes and would file for authorisation from the New Zealand Ministry of Transport and the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission . The airlines maintained that they were making losses on Tasman routes due to too many empty seats , and that a codeshare would return the routes to profitability . Critics , particularly Wellington International Airport , Christchurch Airport and Melbourne Airport , argued that the codeshare would lead to reduced passenger choice and higher airfares , and that cities such as Auckland and Sydney would benefit immensely through economic activity services would bring . On 15 November 2006 Air New Zealand announced it was withdrawing its application after a draft decision by the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission to not approve the code - sharing agreement . Alternative propulsion ( edit ) In the effort to develop an aviation biofuel , Air New Zealand and Boeing researched the jatropha plant to see if it was a viable green alternative to conventional fuel . A two - hour test flight , using a 50 - 50 mixture of the new biofuel with Jet A-1 feeding a Rolls Royce RB - 211 engine of one of the airline 's 747 - 400s , was completed on 30 December 2008 . The engine was then removed to be scrutinised and studied to identify any differences between the jatropha blend and regular Jet A1 . No effects to performances were found . The use of jatropha has been identified as a possible future fuel but large tracts of low quality land needed to grow the plant would have to be found without impeding other agricultural uses . See also ( edit ) New Zealand portal Companies portal Aviation portal Air transport in New Zealand List of airports in New Zealand List of airlines of New Zealand Transport in New Zealand References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Air New Zealand Limited ( 104799 ) -- Companies Office '' . Ministry of Business , Innovation and Employment . Retrieved 7 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Air NZ profit soars 40pc '' . New Zealand Herald . 27 Feb 2014 . Retrieved 27 March 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Airline Membership '' . IATA . Archived from the original on 12 October 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Air New Zealand Announces New Chief Executive Officer '' . Scoop.co.nz. 19 June 2012 . Retrieved 30 June 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Air New Zealand Annual Financial Results 2016 ( PDF ) ( Report ) . Air New Zealand . 26 August 2016 . Retrieved 13 March 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Air New Zealand : Facts & Figures '' . Star Alliance . Archived from the original on 24 November 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Investor Updates '' . Retrieved 23 August 2016 . Jump up ^ http://www.airnewzealand.co.nz/monthly-operating-data >. retrieved 27 December 2015 Jump up ^ `` Does any one airline fly all the way around the world ? '' . Travel-nation.co.uk . Retrieved 30 June 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Air NZ cuts Hong Kong - London service The National Business Review '' . Nbr.co.nz . Retrieved 17 June 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Directory : World Airlines '' . Flight International . 27 March 2007 . p. 64 . Jump up ^ `` We 're committed to our environment Archived 14 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine ... '' Air New Zealand . 21 ( 23 / 29 ) . Retrieved 26 August 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Awarded ATW Airline of the Year 2010 '' . Archived from the original on 17 May 2012 . Jump up ^ Walker , Karen ( 10 January 2012 ) . `` ATW names Air New Zealand 2012 Airline of the Year '' . Air Transport World . Retrieved 10 January 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Safety Ranking 2014 '' JACDEC `` . www.jacdec.de . Retrieved 2016 - 05 - 14 . ^ Jump up to : `` Air New Zealand History '' ( PDF ) . Air New Zealand . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 21 June 2007 . Retrieved 28 February 2007 . Jump up ^ `` History - About Air New Zealand '' . www.airnewzealand.com.sg . Air New Zealand Singapore . Retrieved 10 December 2017 . Jump up ^ Brian Gaynor ( 2001 - 09 - 15 ) . `` Ambition flies in the face of reality '' . New Zealand Herald . Jump up ^ Marianne Beisheim ; Ernst Ulrich Von Weizsacker ; Oran R. Young ; Matthias Finger ( 2005 ) . Limits to Privatization : How to Avoid Too Much of a Good Thing . Earthscan . p. 103 . ISBN 1 - 84407 - 177 - 4 . Jump up ^ `` Air NZ sells remaining stake in Virgin Australia '' . Scoop. 12 October 2016 . Retrieved 13 March 2016 . Jump up ^ Bradley , Grant ( 12 September 2014 ) . `` Queen of the Skies takes her last Air NZ flight '' . The New Zealand Herald . Retrieved 12 September 2014 . Jump up ^ O'Sullivan , Matt ( 20 November 2013 ) . `` NZ government sells 20 % of Air New Zealand for $324 million '' . The Sydney Morning Herald . Retrieved 10 December 2017 . Jump up ^ Taylor , Colin . `` Big piece of Viaduct for little guys . '' The New Zealand Herald . Saturday 21 October 2006 . Retrieved 5 March 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Gibson , Anne . `` Air NZ readies for headquarters shift . '' The New Zealand Herald . Monday 14 August 2006 . Retrieved 26 August 2009 . Jump up ^ Pae , Peter . `` Air New Zealand touts being green , quirky . '' Los Angeles Times . 10 October 2008 . 3 . Retrieved 26 August 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Directory : World Airlines . '' Flight International . 16 -- 22 March 2004 . 70 . `` Quay Tower , 29 Customs Street West , Private Bag 92007 , Auckland , 1020 , New Zealand '' Jump up ^ `` World Airline Directory . '' Flight International . 10 April 1969 . 557 . `` Head Office : Airways House . 101 - 3 Customs Street East . Auckland . New Zealand . '' Jump up ^ NZ CAA list of registered Airbus A320s . Retrieved 28 November 2008 . Jump up ^ `` ZEAL 320 LIMITED ( 354376 ) Registered '' . 14 August 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Welcome to TAE '' . Retrieved 30 June 2013 . Jump up ^ van den Bergh , Roeland ( 22 June 2015 ) . `` Air New Zealand sells Blenheim 's Safe Air to Airbus '' . Stuff.co.nz . Retrieved 16 July 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Air New Zealand Cup '' . Air New Zealand . 2009 . Archived from the original on 19 August 2006 . Jump up ^ `` ITM Cup the new prize of national provincial rugby '' ( Press release ) . New Zealand Rugby Union . 15 March 2010 . Archived from the original on 18 July 2011 . Retrieved 21 May 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Air New Zealand Wine Awards '' . Air New Zealand . 2009 . Archived from the original on 16 October 2008 . Jump up ^ Antons , Christoph ( 2009 ) . Traditional Knowledge , Traditional Cultural Expressions , and Intellectual Property Law in the Asia - Pacific Region . Kluwer Law International . p. 285 . ISBN 9789041127211 . Retrieved 10 December 2017 . Jump up ^ Bruce Drum ( 19 November 2009 ) . `` Air New Zealand finishes removing the Pacific Wave from its Airbus A320s '' . Blog.seattlepi.com . Retrieved 30 June 2013 . Jump up ^ McNabb , Denise ( 4 May 2009 ) . `` Fyfe memo reveals Air NZ revamp '' . The Dominion - Post . Fairfax New Zealand . Retrieved 4 May 2009 . Jump up ^ `` NEWS : Air New Zealand 's Distinctive Aircraft Tails Go Black '' . The Flying Social Network . 20 July 2012 . Archived from the original on 28 July 2012 . Retrieved 17 June 2013 . Jump up ^ `` 3rd Level New Zealand : Air New Zealand -- the new black look '' . 3rdlevelnz.blogspot.co.nz. 2 June 2013 . Retrieved 17 June 2013 . Jump up ^ Steve L ( 18 May 2013 ) . `` 3rd Level New Zealand : New Air NZ Airbus in Black and White Scheme '' . 3rdlevelnz.blogspot.co.nz . Retrieved 17 June 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Air New Zealand and Tourism New Zealand enter into new $20 million partnership '' . Tourism New Zealand . 11 June 2013 . Archived from the original on 7 July 2013 . Retrieved 17 June 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Air New Zealand and Tourism New Zealand Enter Into New $20 Million Partnership '' . The Flying Social Network . 11 June 2013 . Archived from the original on 19 June 2013 . Retrieved 17 June 2013 . Jump up ^ Rendel , David G.A. ( 1975 ) . Civil aviation in New Zealand : an illustrated history . Reed . p. 67 . ISBN 9780589009052 . Retrieved 10 December 2017 . Jump up ^ Air New Zealand -- Official airline to Middle - earth ( press release ) 14 December 2002 Jump up ^ Return of Aragorn and Legolas : Air New Zealand Debuts Newest Flying Billboard Archived 19 February 2006 at the Wayback Machine . 19 November 2003 Jump up ^ `` Air NZ reveals plans for black jet -- nzherald.co.nz '' . New Zealand Herald . 22 September 2010 . Retrieved 22 September 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Air NZ celebrates four more years with the All Blacks '' . Scoop.co.nz . Air New Zealand . 21 October 2011 . Retrieved 22 October 2011 . Jump up ^ Bradley , Grant ( 31 October 2012 ) . `` Air NZ gets the keys to new plane '' . The New Zealand Herald . Retrieved 1 November 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Air New Zealand 's Beech 1900D painted all black -- flightglobal.com '' . Flight Global Blogs. 10 January 2012 . Retrieved 14 June 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Air New Zealand pins hopes on Hobbit payoff '' . Television New Zealand . 24 November 2012 . Retrieved 25 November 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Air New Zealand renews agreements to operate long haul Cook Islands services '' . Air New Zealand . 25 March 2014 . Archived from the original on 14 December 2014 . Retrieved 14 December 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Air NZ boosts charter flights to Japan '' . The New Zealand Herald . Jump up ^ `` Profile on Air New Zealand '' . CAPA . Centre for Aviation . Archived from the original on 2016 - 10 - 31 . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 31 . Jump up ^ `` Operating Fleet '' . Air New Zealand . Retrieved 8 October 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Air New Zealand welcomes arrival of first premium heavy 787 - 9 '' . Australian Aviation . Retrieved 11 October 2017 . Jump up ^ http://www.airfleets.net/flottecie/Air%20New%20Zealand.htm Jump up ^ `` Air New Zealand Business Class Seats review '' . waytofly.com . Jump up ^ `` Air New Zealand 777 - 300 '' . Retrieved 20 January 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Air New Zealand 777 seat map '' . Airrreview . Retrieved 30 September 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Air New Zealand Limited ( NS ) '' . Retrieved 23 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Economy SkyCouch -- Air New Zealand '' . Archived from the original on 5 December 2010 . Retrieved 12 November 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Seat features -- Economy SkyCouch -- Air New Zealand : Future Taking Flight '' . Retrieved 12 November 2010 . Jump up ^ Slade , Maria ( 27 January 2010 ) . `` Welcome to cuddle class '' . The New Zealand Herald . Retrieved 12 November 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Airlines to introduce ' cuddle class ' '' . news.com.au. 11 October 2010 . Archived from the original on 20 October 2010 . Retrieved 12 November 2010 . Jump up ^ Gordon , Sarah ( 26 January 2010 ) . `` From ' cattle ' to ' cuddle ' class : Air New Zealand offers beds in economy '' . The Daily Mail . London . Archived from the original on 5 November 2010 . Retrieved 12 November 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Air New Zealand 's ' cuddle class ' raises ' mile high ' concerns '' . One India News . 1 February 2010 . Retrieved 12 November 2010 . Jump up ^ The Economy SkyCouch Activity Guide at Air New Zealand 's official Facebook page . Retrieved 12 November 2010 . Jump up ^ `` In - flight Entertainment '' . Air New Zealand . Jump up ^ `` Air New Zealand Inflight magazine '' . Retrieved 20 January 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Air New Zealand Inflight food menu '' . Retrieved 20 January 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` The choice is all yours : New Tasman and Pacific service -- Air New Zealand '' . Archived from the original on 5 December 2010 . Retrieved 10 November 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Air New Zealand overview '' . Retrieved 20 January 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Air New Zealand Space+ seat '' . Retrieved 20 January 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Air NZ Status Points '' . Air New Zealand . 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Air New Zealand 's `` Nothing to Hide '' TV Ad Campaign goes live '' ( Press release ) . Air New Zealand . 10 May 2009 . Archived from the original on 17 July 2009 . Retrieved 16 March 2013 . Jump up ^ Air NZ staff have nothing to hide . Air New Zealand . Jump up ^ `` Air NZ Bare Essentials of Safety in - flight video '' . Youtube.com. 22 June 2009 . Retrieved 30 June 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Safety In - flight -- the Bare Essentials '' . Air New Zealand . 26 June 2009 . Archived from the original on 6 December 2010 . Retrieved 12 November 2010 . Jump up ^ YouTube -- Bare Essentials of Safety from Air New Zealand for our A320 aircraft Archived 16 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` Nothing To Hide And Bare Essentials Make Headlines Around The World '' . Voxy. 6 July 2009 . Retrieved 16 March 2013 . Jump up ^ All Blacks appear in Air New Zealand safety video . NineMSN. 2010 . Archived from the original on 29 October 2013 . Jump up ^ Air New Zealand -- 777 - 200 Safety Video ( All Blacks ) . Jump up ^ `` Air NZ cuts gay kiss from in - flight safety film '' . The New Zealand Herald . 13 December 2010 . Retrieved 27 October 2013 . Jump up ^ Kirby , Mary . `` The Airline Strategy Awards '' ( PDF ) . The Airline Strategy Awards . Retrieved 2 December 2011 ... d has achieved remarkable success with online videos featuring Rico , a puppet with a penchant for sexual innuendo that started life as a brand ambassador ... Jump up ^ `` Air New Zealand -- Happy Hour '' . Air New Zealand . YouTube . Retrieved 2 December 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Rico 's Travels '' . Retrieved 2 December 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Rico 's Travels '' . Retrieved 2 December 2011 . Jump up ^ Meng - Yee , Carolyne ( 23 January 2011 ) . `` Staff are appalled by Air NZ 's sleazeball mascot '' . NZ Herald . NZ Herald . Retrieved 2 December 2011 . The puppet mascot peddling Air New Zealand to the world is a sleazy pervert , say embarrassed airline staff . Jump up ^ Jones , Nicholas ( 25 June 2011 ) . `` Air NZ brings the Hoff , Lohan on board '' . NZ Herald . NZ Herald . Retrieved 2 December 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Air NZ kills off controversial puppet Rico '' . NZ Herald . NZ Herald . 1 December 2011 . Retrieved 2 December 2011 . `` Air New Zealand 's furry mascot has passed away while hosting a celeb - packed house - warming party in his Los Angeles mansion , '' a press release issued today said . Jump up ^ `` Mile High Madness with Richard Simmons '' . Retrieved 16 March 2013 . Jump up ^ Mile - high Madness with Richard Simmons ! . Air New Zealand . Jump up ^ `` Air New Zealand has a Hobbit makeover '' . 3 News NZ. 1 November 2012 . Jump up ^ An Unexpected Briefing . Air New Zealand . 31 October 2012 . Jump up ^ Air New Zealand releases new Middle - earth video . 3 News NZ. 20 November 2013 . Jump up ^ The Most Epic Safety Video Ever Made . Air New Zealand . 22 October 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Air NZ does it again : Bear Grylls stars in latest comedic safety video '' . Sydney Morning Herald . 27 February 2013 . Retrieved 16 March 2013 . Jump up ^ The Bear Essentials of Safety . South Island , New Zealand : Air New Zealand . 26 February 2013 . Jump up ^ Safety Old School Style . United States : Air New Zealand . 9 October 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Air NZ teams up with All Blacks for new safety video '' . stuff.co.nz . August 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Men In Black Safety Defenders '' . Air New Zealand . August 12 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Air NZ engineers accept deal '' . The New Zealand Herald . 24 February 2006 . Jump up ^ `` Airline Bars Men From Lone Children '' . peterellis.org.nz. 29 November 2009 . Retrieved 31 July 2010 . Jump up ^ Thomson , Ainsley ( 29 November 2005 ) . `` Ban on men sitting next to children '' . The New Zealand Herald . Retrieved 31 July 2010 . Jump up ^ International air carriage competition Archived 29 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` Qantas Airways Ltd & Air New Zealand Ltd -- Authorisations '' . Accc.gov.au . Retrieved 30 June 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Air NZ sees biofuel salvation in jatropha '' . Carbonpositive.net. 6 June 2008 . Archived from the original on 11 December 2008 . Retrieved 31 July 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Vegetable oil tested on NZ flight '' . BBC News . 31 December 2008 . Archived from the original on 31 December 2008 . Retrieved 31 December 2008 . 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last episode of two and a half charlie

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Of_Course_He%27s_Dead&oldid=819149294

Of Course he 's Dead - wikipedia Of Course he 's Dead Jump to : navigation , search This article 's lead section does not adequately summarize key points of its contents . Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article . Please discuss this issue on the article 's talk page . ( December 2017 ) `` Of Course He 's Dead '' Two and a Half Men episode Episode no . Season 12 Episode 15 / 16 Directed by James Widdoes Written by Chuck Lorre Lee Aronsohn Don Reo Jim Patterson Original air date February 19 , 2015 ( 2015 - 02 - 19 ) Guest appearance ( s ) Angus T. Jones as Jake Harper Melanie Lynskey as Rose April Bowlby as Kandi Jennifer Taylor as Chelsea Melni Courtney Thorne - Smith as Lyndsey McElroy Maggie Lawson as Ms. McMartin Emmanuelle Vaugier as Mia Missi Pyle as Dolores Pasternak Judy Greer as Bridget Schmidt Sophie Winkleman as Zoey Hyde - Tottingham Pierce Arnold Schwarzenegger as Lt. Wagner John Stamos as himself Christian Slater as himself Episode chronology ← Previous `` Do n't Give a Monkey a Gun '' Next → -- Two and a Half Men ( season 12 ) List of Two and a Half Men episodes `` Of Course He 's Dead '' is the series finale of the long - running sitcom Two and a Half Men . The series ran for twelve seasons , and the final episode aired on February 19 , 2015 . The hour - long program marks the 261st and 262nd half - hour episodes of the series . The episode brought in the show 's highest audience since April 2013 , with 13.52 million viewers tuning in to the finale . Former cast members Angus T. Jones , April Bowlby , and Jennifer Taylor all made cameo appearances in the episode . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot 2 Production 3 Vanity card 4 Reception 4.1 Ratings 4.2 Critical reception 4.3 Charlie Sheen 's reaction 5 References 6 External links Plot ( edit ) Alan ( Jon Cryer ) receives a letter that Charlie has $2.5 million in unclaimed royalties . He needs Charlie 's death certificate to claim the money , but can not find one and realizes his only proof is Rose 's ( Melanie Lynskey ) word . Evidence that Charlie may be alive mounts after the royalty money is claimed by an unknown party , and Alan and Evelyn ( Holland Taylor ) receive threatening messages . Meanwhile , Jenny ( Amber Tamblyn ) receives a check for $100,000 along with an apology note , and a package addressed to Charlie arrives at the house , containing his whiskey , cigars , and a knife he used when he chased Alan around the house . Several women from Charlie 's past , including Mia ( Emmanuelle Vaugier ) , Chelsea ( Jennifer Taylor ) and Dolores Pasternak ( Missi Pyle ) , are shown receiving checks and personalized apology letters . Meanwhile , Rose is shown holding a captive in her basement . After the unknown captive escapes , Rose returns to the beach house to inform Alan and Walden ( Ashton Kutcher ) that Charlie is alive and to explain the entire story . While in Paris , Rose caught Charlie in bed with a hooker , a mime , and a goat . When Charlie caught up with her at the train station , she tried to avenge his infidelity by pushing him into the path of an oncoming train , but the goat ended up taking the fall instead . Rose returned to the United States , taking with her a bound and gagged Charlie , and she kept him captive inside her basement until he escaped . After hearing this , Evelyn and Rose go into hiding , while Walden , who also receives a threatening message , decides to go to the police with Alan , where they talk to Lieutenant Wagner ( Arnold Schwarzenegger ) . They later return to the house and find life - size cardboard cutouts of themselves wearing nooses . Fearing for his life , Alan calls Judith ( Marin Hinkle ) , Kandi ( April Bowlby ) and Lyndsey ( Courtney Thorne - Smith ) to tell each how much they have meant to him . Similarly , Walden calls Bridget ( Judy Greer ) and Zoey ( Sophie Winkleman ) to apologize for how he behaved with each of them . All the women feign emotion while being generally dismissive , and Lyndsey is shown in a pawn shop selling Alan 's engagement ring behind his back . Jake Harper ( Angus T. Jones ) drops by and informs Alan and Walden that he left the Army and is now married and living in Japan . He mentions having received a $250,000 check and a note saying `` I 'm alive '' , but did not figure out who sent the letter . Jake then gambled with the money in Las Vegas , yielding $2.5 million in winnings . After Jake leaves , Alan and Walden are contacted by Wagner , who informs them that he has captured Charlie , but the camera reveals that the man is actually Christian Slater , dressed in clothing similar to Charlie 's . Alan , Walden , and Berta ( Conchata Ferrell ) , now believing that Charlie is in jail , celebrate by relaxing in lounge chairs while smoking Charlie 's cigars and drinking his whiskey , when they see a helicopter carrying a grand piano , similar to the one Charlie used to play , approaching the house . The three ponder if Wagner caught the right man , but quickly brush it off . Charlie , shown only from the back , approaches the beach house and rings the bell , but before anyone answers the door he is killed when the helicopter drops the piano on him . The camera then pulls back to reveal the series ' set and Chuck Lorre , sitting in the director 's chair . He says `` Winning ! '' , just before a second grand piano falls on him . Production ( edit ) Prior to the finale , there was much speculation over whether former star Charlie Sheen would reprise his role as Charlie Harper . CBS had not announced who would guest star on the episode . At the Television Critics Association 's winter press tour on January 15 , 2015 , Chuck Lorre spoke about the show and had nothing but praise for Sheen , saying , `` It would be inappropriate to not acknowledge the extraordinary success we had with Charlie and how grateful I am , we all are , to his contributions . And there 's nothing but great feelings for the eight - and - a-half years we worked together . But how to wrap the show up , it 's tricky . It 's a tricky - it 's a sticky wicket . Because , in a way , the show morphed into something else entirely for the last four years , and it 's something we love , and we want to honor both . So , how to honor both has been the challenge of this finale . The other challenge is how to get people watching it without telling them what it is , '' he explained . He said he wanted the finale to honor both eras of the show , and that there were `` no wounds , '' following what happened with Sheen , saying `` What happened , happened . And I 'm grateful for the time we enjoyed working together and I 'm very grateful Ashton came along and kept the lights on . What do I got to complain about ? I 'm so blessed . '' When asked about the finale and the possibility of Sheen 's return , creator Chuck Lorre responded `` I think viewers will be very , very satisfied with the finale . That 's all I 'm going to say . '' Further teasing as to Sheen 's return was given with the reveal of the episode 's title , `` Of Course He 's Dead '' . CBS President Nina Tassler said that Lorre had planned a `` mystery sandwich '' for the final episode . The episode was taped on February 6 , 2015 and aired on February 19 , 2015 . It took two weeks to film . Lorre approached the finale with the intention of doing `` everything we could to make a finale worth watching . '' Jon Cryer revealed that while shooting for the finale , `` there was a shoot day when they conspicuously called me and said , ' You 're not in it . ' I was like , What ? What 's happening that day ? '' Cast members were not even allowed to read the whole script and did not see the episode in its entirety until its airdate . According to Cryer , filming for the episode was very emotional , and the finale is unlike any finale he 's ever seen before . The animated flashback sequence that filled in the gaps between season 8 and season 9 was created by an outside company from Warner Bros. Unusually for sitcoms shot in front of a live studio audience , the episode was shot out of sequence , it was just a couple of scenes , rather than the usual full episode , in order to shield surprises . Chuck Lorre told the audience members that , `` You probably wo n't know what we 're doing . '' Even Lorre got emotional when introducing the episode to the audience , `` It 's been an unbelievable experience . I 'm getting a little ... So , I 'm going to stop . '' Each scene was clapped with the slate by former and current executive producers , including Lorre and Lee Aronsohn . Ashton Kutcher said that the episode felt more like an early episode of the show from its first two or three seasons , pointing to the involvement of Lorre and Aronsohn with Don Reo and Jim Patterson saying , `` I felt their presence in the writing , there was a little different bite to it . '' More than 100 people who work on the show crowded onto its living room set for a group photo . Lorre said that everybody `` had a blast making it '' , and that the finale was `` an attempt to acknowledge everything that we 've been through and everything that people have come to expect from the show '' . He said that no expense was spared for the finale as they did n't need to worry about the budget as they were ending the show anyway and so producers just went `` for it '' . In order to prevent plot details and secrets from being leaked , guest actors were only given the pages they were involved in and certain lines were watermarked . Before 2011 , the idea of how the show might end was envisioned as a teary sendoff of Jake to college . The show was shot on Warner Brothers Stage 26 , which was renamed `` The Two and a Half Men Stage '' . Lorre subsequently revealed in his vanity card that Sheen had been offered a cameo where he would walk up to the door of the beach house , give a rant about the dangers of drug use ( for ordinary people ) and his own invincibility , at which point his character would be killed by a falling piano . Sheen declined and the scene was filmed with a stand - in , shot from behind , and without dialogue . When discussing the infamous last scene , Lorre said that deciding to put himself in the final shot `` felt like comedically the right thing to do . It 's like ' Nobody gets out of here alive ' may be the theme of this series . The proposition that anybody wins in something like this is ridiculous . That would have felt uncomfortable to me . So the second piano felt like the right thing to do '' . Vanity card ( edit ) Chuck Lorre 's signature vanity card , shown at the end of the episode , was as follows : I know a lot of you might be disappointed that you did n't get to see Charlie Sheen in tonight 's finale . For the record , he was offered a role . Our idea was to have him walk up to the front door in the last scene , ring the doorbell , then turn , look directly into the camera and go off on a maniacal rant about the dangers of drug abuse . He would then explain that these dangers only applied to average people . That he was far from average . He was a ninja warrior from Mars . He was invincible . And then we would drop a piano on him . We thought it was funny . He did n't . Instead , he wanted us to write a heart - warming scene that would set up his return to primetime TV in a new sitcom called The Harpers starring him and Jon Cryer . We thought that was funny too . Reception ( edit ) Ratings ( edit ) `` Of Course He 's Dead '' was a 60 - minute episode that originally aired on February 19 , 2015 on CBS . The finale was viewed by 13.52 million viewers and received a 3.2 rating / 9 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 3.2 percent of all 18 - to 49 - year - olds , and 9 percent of all 18 - to 49 - year - olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a significant increase , of over four million viewers , in the ratings from the previous episode , `` Do n't Give a Monkey a Gun '' . It also ranks as the highest rated episode of the season , as well as the highest - rated episode for the series since the tenth season entry `` Bazinga ! That 's from a TV Show '' , which was viewed by 13.71 million viewers and received a 3.9 / 12 % share . The episode ranked second in its timeslot , being beaten by the ABC drama series Scandal . Critical reception ( edit ) `` Of Course He 's Dead '' received mixed reviews , with praise for the premise , cameo cast and meta - humor , but had criticism for the rushed season finale and anti-climax . Entertainment Weekly found it to be a good piece of television , `` some of the unrelenting boldness inherent in the self - referential nature has to be applauded '' . They praised its unapologetic overtly self - referential meta approach : `` Two and a Half Men never beat around the bush with its humor , with its awareness of what the audience thought of its actors . The finale celebrates that with being one of the most meta episodes of television ever devised ; like it or not , Two and a Half Men wo n't apologize for ending that way '' . Overall they thought `` ' Of Course He 's Dead ' is certainly one of the most fascinating finales to air . '' IGN gave it a 3.5 out of 10 , saying : `` I do n't think I could come up with a worse ending than a faceless Charlie Harper walking up to the front doorstep of Alan 's home , a grand piano falling on his head , and then a pull - out to Chuck Lorre sitting in his director 's chair and turning around to say , ' Winning ! ' -- and then a grand piano falling on his head ... '' . They did however praise the clever meta - humor . Time , on the other hand , gave a positive review of the finale , saying : `` Its bawdy , sentimentality - free goodbye was a funny and deeply weird hour of score - setlling , fourth - wall - breaking , hugs - and - tears - denying TV '' . Overall they felt `` the show went out not with a ' Farewell , old friend ' but with a ' See you in hell ! ' . Was it appropriate ? Classy ? I just know I laughed '' . Corey Barker of TV.Com gave the episode a positive review . He thought `` it was a legitimately funny episode of television that toyed with viewers ' expectations all the way up until the last millisecond '' , as to whether or not Charlie Sheen would appear , which is what the episode was teasingly building up to . He argued that `` it sure was fascinating . And for Two and a Half Men , that 's a very fitting way to go out '' . He believed `` Of Course He 's Dead '' to be more creative and clever than the show ever was : `` For a sitcom that I never found to be creative or even clever , Two and a Half Men peppered its final hour with some really amusing -- if obvious -- moments '' . He also thought that the fact Sheen never showed up `` made the finale 's self - aware trolling even more successful . '' HollywoodLife gave a positive review , saying they `` were still laughing through the entire hour finale of the sitcom '' . They also enjoyed the self - referential jokes at the expense of the actors and show itself . Daniel Fienberg of HitFix gave a mixed review , saying : `` The only people who lost were fans who watched an hour of the Two and a Half Men finale waiting for Charlie Sheen only to see a body double get flattened by a baby grand . '' However , he did `` chuckle a couple times . '' Variety gave a negative review of the episode , saying : `` Diving into the business side of the show so relentlessly felt seriously misguided -- and more than a little defensive '' , and that `` while the sendoff addressed a certain kind of ' Winning ' , in the grand pantheon of series finales this was n't even close to serving up a winner . Zap2it.com felt that it was `` a funny series finale '' , but was disappointed that Sheen did n't appear . Michael Hewitt gave the episodes a positive review saying , `` Now , that 's how you do a finale . '' He believed the show closed ' in style ' . Todd VanDerWerff of Vox gave a positive review : `` You almost had to admire its sheer willingness to follow its vision off the cliff ... it 's an utterly bonkers episode of television '' . In the end he had much respect for the episode , saying : `` I was never a huge fan of Two and a Half Men , but I am struck with a weird respect for this episode , which realized it was in a hole and just kept digging . Most American sitcoms end with big group hugs and couples reuniting . But the Two and a Half Men finale is an utterly whacked - out tribute to the series it caps . It gives absolutely no shits , and it 's kind of glorious . '' Charlie Sheen 's reaction ( edit ) Charlie Sheen , former star of Two and a Half Men , did not enjoy the episode and launched yet another attack on Lorre , going so far as to threaten him saying , `` That 's just him . I do n't care anymore . I do n't care if he lives or dies . Does n't matter . Does n't matter . Seriously , it does n't even matter . To go that low and be that immature and that completely unevolved and that stupid ? In my face , Really ? You must feel safe , motherfucker . You must feel safe where you live . Damn ! '' . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Of Course He 's Dead -- Part One and Part Two '' . The Futon Critic . Retrieved February 15 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` It 's really ending : ' Two and a Half Men ' gets series finale date '' . Entertainment Weekly 's EW.com . Retrieved February 23 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory , ' ' Scandal ' , ' Two and a Half Men ' & ' How To Get Away With Murder ' Adjusted Up - Ratings '' . TVbytheNumbers . Retrieved February 23 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Rick Kissell ( February 20 , 2015 ) . `` ' Two and a Half Men ' Series Finale Draws More Than 13 Million Viewers '' . Variety . Retrieved February 23 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Michael O'Connell ( February 20 , 2015 ) . `` TV Ratings : ' Two and a Half Men ' Finale Swells , ' Odd Couple ' Starts Strong '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Jump up ^ `` Thursday ratings : Two and a Half Men dominates with finale '' . Digital Spy . Retrieved February 23 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Boedeker , Hal ( February 15 , 2015 ) . `` ' Two and a Half Men , ' ' Mentalist ' end runs '' . Orlando Sentinel . Retrieved February 15 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Hibberd , James ( January 15 , 2015 ) . `` Chuck Lorre praises Charlie Sheen era : ' Two and a Half Men ' finale to honor the show 's past '' . Entertainment Weekly 's EW.com . Retrieved February 23 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Craig Byrne . `` Chuck Lorre Honored As The Two and a Half Men Finale Approaches '' . ksitetv.com . Retrieved February 23 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Hinckley , David ( February 15 , 2015 ) . `` CBS ' successful sitcom ' Two and a Half Men ' bids farewell after 12 seasons '' . New York Daily News . Retrieved February 15 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Will Charlie Sheen Take Part in the ' Two and Half Men ' Finale ? : People.com '' . PEOPLE.com . Jump up ^ `` Listings - TWO AND A HALF MEN on CBS '' . thefutoncritic.com . Retrieved February 23 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` CBS executive says ' Two and a Half Men ' plans surprises for finale ; will Sheen be one ? '' . www.vancouversun.com . Retrieved February 23 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Producer Chuck Lorre shines on as ' Two and a Half Men ' goes dark '' . Pittsburgh Post-Gazette . February 18 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Ashton Kutcher out of a job as Two And A Half Men comes to an end ... with final episode to screen in February '' . Mail Online . London . December 6 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Cynthia Littleton ( February 20 , 2015 ) . `` Two and a Half Men Finale : Charlie Sheen , Chuck Lorre and Angus T. Jones - Variety '' . Variety . ^ Jump up to : Amber Dowling ( February 18 , 2015 ) . `` ' Two and a Half Men ' Series Finale Sheen Lorre Interview - The Hollywood Reporter '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Jump up ^ Reiher , Andrea ( February 12 , 2015 ) . `` ' Two and a Half Men 's ' Jon Cryer ' conspicuously ' left out of a day of series finale shooting '' . Zap2it . Retrieved June 24 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` ' Two and a Half Men ' Stars Get Serious About Series Finale ( Sorta ) '' . Entertainment Tonight . Jump up ^ `` Jon Cryer on the Incredibly Long Life and ' Absolutely Crazy ' Finale of Two and a Half Men '' . AdWeek . Jump up ^ Bill Keveney , USA TODAY ( 18 February 2015 ) . `` Tears mix with laughter as ' Two and a Half Men ' ends '' . USA TODAY . ^ Jump up to : `` CLP - Vanity Card # 491 '' . ChuckLorre.com . Retrieved February 20 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Emily Longeretta . `` ( WATCH ) ' Two And A Half Men ' Final Scene -- Watch Chuck Lorre Kill Charlie Sheen - Hollywood Life '' . Hollywood Life . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( February 20 , 2015 ) . `` Thursday Final Ratings : ' The Big Bang Theory , ' ' Scandal ' , ' Two and a Half Men ' & ' How To Get Away With Murder ' Adjusted Up '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 20 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( April 9 , 2013 ) . `` TV Ratings Broadcast Top 25 : NCAA Basketball Tops Week 28 Viewing Among Adults 18 - 49 ; ' The Big Bang Theory ' Wins With Total Viewers '' . TV by the Numbers . Zap2it . Retrieved April 17 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Dornbush , Jonathon ( February 19 , 2015 ) . `` ' Two and a Half Men ' series finale react : A winning end - EW.com '' . ew.com . Jump up ^ `` Two and a Half Men : `` Of Course He 's Dead '' Review `` . IGN . Jump up ^ James Poniewozik ( February 20 , 2015 ) . `` Review , Two and a Half Men finale '' . TIME.com . Jump up ^ `` Two and a Half Men Series Finale Review : Conspicuous in His Absence '' . TV.com . CBS Interactive . Jump up ^ Emily Longeretta . `` ' Two And A Half Men ' Series Finale Recap -- Charlie Sheen Killed By Chuck Lorre - Hollywood Life '' . Hollywood Life . Jump up ^ `` Two and a Half Men series finale recap - The Truth About Charlie '' . HitFix . Jump up ^ Brian Lowry ( February 20 , 2015 ) . `` ' Two And a Half Men ' Finale Laughs All the Way to the Bank TV Review - Variety '' . Variety . Jump up ^ Andrea Reiher ( 20 February 2015 ) . `` ' Two and a Half Men ' series finale : Charlie Sheen 's spirit lives on - Zap2it - News & Features '' . Zap2it . Jump up ^ `` ' Two and Half Men ' closes in style '' . The Orange County Register . Jump up ^ `` The Two and a Half Men finale 's 11 most bonkers moments , in GIF form '' . Vox . Jump up ^ `` Charlie Sheen threatens Chuck Lorre for his Two And A Half Men finale diss - Daily Mail Online '' . Mail Online . London . March 10 , 2015 . Jump up ^ David Stout ( March 11 , 2015 ) . `` Charlie Sheen Vents Over the ' Two and a Half Men ' Finale '' . TIME.com . Jump up ^ `` Charlie Sheen -- Chuck Lorre Was Stupid to Diss Me ... Watch Your Back Motherf * * * er '' . TMZ . External links ( edit ) `` Of Course He 's Dead '' on IMDb `` Of Course He 's Dead '' at TV.com ( hide ) Two and a Half Men Characters Charlie Harper Alan Harper Walden Schmidt Seasons 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Episodes `` Fish in a Drawer '' `` That Darn Priest '' `` Nice to Meet You , Walden Schmidt '' `` People Who Love Peepholes '' `` Nangnangnangnang '' `` Of Course He 's Dead '' Related articles Awards and nominations Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Of_Course_He%27s_Dead&oldid=819149294 '' Categories : 2015 American television episodes American television series finales Two and a Half Men episodes Hidden categories : Wikipedia introduction cleanup from December 2017 All pages needing cleanup Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from December 2017 All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify Tv.com template using numeric id Talk Contents About Wikipedia Español Edit links This page was last edited on 7 January 2018 , at 19 : 10 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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land between the lakes national recreation area dover tn

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Land_Between_the_Lakes_National_Recreation_Area&oldid=815700063

Land Between the Lakes National Recreation area - wikipedia Land Between the Lakes National Recreation area Jump to : navigation , search Land Between the Lakes National Recreation Area IUCN category V ( protected landscape / seascape ) Satellite photography Show map of Kentucky Show map of Tennessee Show map of the US Show all Location Lyon and Trigg counties in Kentucky and Stewart County in Tennessee , USA Nearest city Paducah , Kentucky Coordinates 36 ° 51 ′ 25 '' N 88 ° 04 ′ 29 '' W  /  36.85694 ° N 88.07472 ° W  / 36.85694 ; - 88.07472 Coordinates : 36 ° 51 ′ 25 '' N 88 ° 04 ′ 29 '' W  /  36.85694 ° N 88.07472 ° W  / 36.85694 ; - 88.07472 Area roughly 170,000 acres ( 688 km ) Established 1963 Governing body United States Forest Service Website Land Between the Lakes National Recreation Area Some of the structures of `` The Homeplace '' . Aerial view of Kentucky Lake and Lake Barkley , with the Land Between the Lakes at the lower left The Land Between the Lakes National Recreation Area is a United States National Recreation Area located in Kentucky and Tennessee between Lake Barkley and Kentucky Lake . The area was designated a national recreation area by President John F. Kennedy in 1963 . The recreation area was originally managed by the Tennessee Valley Authority but jurisdiction has since been transferred to the United States Forest Service . It was designated as a UNESCO Biosphere reserve in 1991 , but was withdrawn from the program as of June 14 , 2017 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Geography 2 History 3 References 4 Further reading 5 External links Geography ( edit ) The Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers flow very close to each other in the northwestern corner of Middle Tennessee and Western Kentucky , separated by a rather narrow and mostly low ridge . The area of land that separates the two bodies of water by only a few miles became known as `` Between the Rivers '' since at least the 1830s or 1840s . After the Cumberland River was impounded in the 1960s and a canal was constructed between the two lakes , Land Between the Lakes became the largest inland peninsula in the United States . Downstream from this area , the courses of the two rivers diverge again , with the mouth of the Cumberland emptying into the Ohio River approximately 4 mi ( 7 km ) from that of the Tennessee . History ( edit ) Government first began to have a major impact on the area when the Confederate government built Fort Henry on the banks of the Tennessee , ostensibly to protect the upper reaches of that river from Union gunboats ; initially , Kentucky had declared its neutrality in the American Civil War . When Fort Henry fell in early 1862 , there was little more Civil War action in the area , which was judged to be too devoid of valuable war resources to deserve much attention from either side , and it went back to its somewhat isolated ways . The next major event in the area , other than calls for men to fight in the Spanish -- American War and World War I , was the formation of the Tennessee Valley Authority as part of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt 's New Deal . The site of the last dam downstream on the Tennessee was to be Gilbertsville , Kentucky . The resulting impoundment , completed in the early 1940s , Kentucky Lake , flooded some of the low - lying land on the western side of the area , resulting in the condemnation of land and the forced removal of some area farmers . This was very unpopular with some of those affected , while others seemed happy to get an opportunity to sell their land and start a new life in a less remote area . A plan was developed shortly after this to use the United States Army Corps of Engineers to dam the Cumberland in such a way that the two lakes would be at the same elevation , and the two streams could then be connected by a canal without the need for any locks . This would considerably lessen the shipping distances for goods going to ports on the Gulf of Mexico for products leaving the Cumberland Valley . This was completed in the 1960s and the resulting impoundment was referred to as Lake Barkley , after Alben W. Barkley , a Kentuckian who had served as Vice President under President Harry S. Truman . The plan called for a new dam and the evacuation of the entire former `` Between the Rivers '' area , not all of which was to be flooded . The area was to become Land Between the Lakes National Recreation Area -- a TVA experiment designed to show a multiple - use approach to recreational lands . Unlike a national park , there were to be areas where hunting would be allowed . Over time , many other attractions were to be developed , such as a bison range , and a recreated 1850 - style farm called `` The Homeplace '' , complete with an on - site staff simulating life on the farm in period costume and working it using period agricultural techniques . ( Both of these attractions were added in the 1970s . ) The road through the Tennessee portion was renamed from State Route 49 to `` The Trace '' , which is what many roads and paths were called in pioneer times ( it is short for `` Buffalo Trace '' that many winding roads have been called since they seem to follow the winding path of buffalo or bison ) . Land Between The Lakes National Recreation Area Many area residents resented the condemnation of their lands , especially when it was explained to them that most of the area was not to be flooded but rather to become a park . The former settlements of Tharpe , Tennessee ; Model , Tennessee ; and Golden Pond , Kentucky , were forcibly abandoned . The remains of a former iron furnace , manned in the 1850s by slave labor , are about all that remains of Model . Golden Pond was replaced by the headquarters of the area and retained as the postal address for it . There is a museum , a planetarium , and an environmental education area there . The area has many miles of hiking trails , many boat ramps , an off - road vehicle area , many campgrounds , and group lodges and a few cabins ; most attractions require a user fee . The 700 - acre ( 280 ha ) `` Elk & Bison Prairie '' enclosure was developed beginning in the 1970s with prescribed burns to encourage the expansion of the remnant patches of native prairie which had been crowded out by oak and hickory forests over the previous 150 years due to a lack of fire or grazing animals . The area was regularly burned and reseeded with grasses , and then elk ( from Elk Island National Park of Canada ) and bison were added to the landscape . In 1996 the `` Elk & Bison Prairie '' was officially inaugurated and is now open to driving tours where visitors see a typical 18th century landscape . In the 1990s , the directors of the TVA decided to get out of most activities requiring direct taxpayer funding . In 1998 , the TVA transferred operation of the area to the U.S. Forest Service of the United States Department of Agriculture . Bison photographed at LBL Elk and Bison Prairie References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Biosphere Reserve Information : Land Between The Lakes '' . UNESCO . March 30 , 2005 . Retrieved June 14 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` 23 new sites added to UNESCO 's World Network of Biosphere Reserves '' . UNESCO . June 14 , 2017 . Retrieved June 14 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Nickell , David ( May -- August 2007 ) . `` Between the Rivers : A Socio - historical Account of Hegemony and Heritage '' . Humanity & Society . 31 : 164 -- 209 . Retrieved 2008 - 03 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` Elk & Bison Prairie '' . Land Between The Lakes National Recreation Area . Jump up ^ `` Elk and Bison Prairie - Grand Rivers Blog '' . Archived from the original on 2015 - 05 - 24 . Jump up ^ `` The Elk & Bison Prairie Story '' . Land Between The Lakes National Recreation Area . Further reading ( edit ) Ronald A. Foresta . The Land Between the Lakes : A Geography of the Forgotten Future ( University of Tennessee Press ; 2013 ) 308 pages ; scholarly study External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Land Between The Lakes National Recreation Area . Land Between the Lakes National Recreation Area travel guide from Wikivoyage www.LandBetweenTheLakes.US - U.S. Forest Service official site National Recreation Areas of the United States Administered by the National Park Service Amistad Big South Fork Bighorn Canyon Boston Harbor Islands Chattahoochee River Chickasaw Curecanti Delaware Water Gap Gateway Gauley River Glen Canyon Golden Gate Lake Chelan Lake Mead Lake Meredith Lake Roosevelt Mississippi Ross Lake Santa Monica Mountains Whiskeytown - Shasta - Trinity Administered by the US Forest Service Allegheny Arapaho Ed Jenkins Flaming Gorge Grand Island Hells Canyon Jemez Land Between The Lakes Moosalamoo Mount Baker Mount Hood Mount Rogers Oregon Dunes Pine Ridge Rattlesnake Sawtooth Smith River Spring Mountains Spruce Knob - Seneca Rocks Whiskeytown - Shasta - Trinity White Rocks Winding Stair Mountain Administered by the Bureau of Land Management White Mountains Protected areas of Tennessee Federal National Parks Great Smoky Mountains National Park National Historical Parks & Sites Andrew Johnson National Historic Site Cumberland Gap National Historical Park Manhattan Project National Historical Park National Military Parks Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park Fort Donelson National Battlefield Fort Donelson National Cemetery Shiloh National Cemetery Shiloh National Military Park Stones River National Battlefield Stones River National Cemetery National Recreation Areas Big South Fork National River and Recreation Area Land Between the Lakes National Recreation Area National Trails System Appalachian National Scenic Trail Natchez Trace National Scenic Trail Overmountain Victory National Historic Trail Trail of Tears National Historic Trail National Forests Cherokee National Forest National Wildlife Refuges Chickasaw Cross Creeks Hatchie Lake Isom Lower Hatchie Reelfoot Tennessee Wilderness Areas Bald River Gorge Big Frog Big Laurel Branch Citico Creek Cohutta Gee Creek Joyce Kilmer - Slickrock Little Frog Mountain Pond Mountain Sampson Mountain Unaka Mountain Other Protected Areas Foothills Parkway Gatlinburg Bypass Natchez Trace Parkway Obed Wild and Scenic River State East Tennessee State Parks Big Ridge Booker T. Washington Cove Lake Cumberland Mountain David Crockett Birthplace Fall Creek Falls Fort Loudoun Frozen Head Harrison Bay Hiwassee / Ocoee Indian Mountain Justin P. Wilson Cumberland Trail Norris Dam Panther Creek Red Clay Roan Mountain Rocky Fork Seven Islands Sycamore Shoals Warriors ' Path Middle Tennessee State Parks Bicentennial Capitol Mall Bledsoe Creek Burgess Falls Cedars Of Lebanon Cordell Hull Birthplace Cummins Falls David Crockett Dunbar Cave Edgar Evins Fall Creek Falls Harpeth River Henry Horton Johnsonville Long Hunter Montgomery Bell Mousetail Landing Old Stone Fort Pickett Port Royal Rock Island Sgt . Alvin C. York South Cumberland Standing Stone Tims Ford West Tennessee State Parks Big Cypress Tree Big Hill Pond Chickasaw Fort Pillow Meeman - Shelby Forest Nathan Bedford Forrest Natchez Trace Paris Landing Pickwick Landing Pinson Mounds Reelfoot Lake T.O. Fuller State Forests Bledsoe Cedars of Lebanon Chickasaw Chuck Swan Franklin John Tully Lewis Lone Mountain Martha Sundquist Natchez Trace Pickett Prentice Cooper Scott Standing Stone Stewart State Natural Areas Auntney Hollow Barnett 's Woods Bays Mountain Beaman Park Big Bone Cave Campbell Bend Barrens Carroll Cabin Barrens Glade Mr. and Mrs. Harry Lee Carter Chimneys Colditz Cove Couchville Cedar Glade Crowder Cemetery Barrens Devils Backbone Dry Branch Duck River Complex Elsie Quarterman Cedar Glade Falling Water Falls Fate Sanders Barrens Flat Rock Cedar Glade & Barrens Gattinger 's Cedar Glade & Barrens Ghost River Grundy Forest Hampton Creek Cove Hawkins Cove Hicks Gap Hill Forest Honey Creek House Mountain Hubbard 's Cave John & Hester Lane Cedar Glades John Noel at Bon Aqua Langford Branch Laurel - Snow Lost Creek Lucius Burch Jr . Forest Manus Road Cedar Glade May Prairie North Chickamauga Creek Gorge Overbridge Old Forest Ozone Falls Piney Falls Pogue Creek Powell River Radnor Lake Riverwoods Roundtop Mountain Rugby Savage Gulf Sequatchie Cave Short Mountain Short Springs Sneed Road Cedar Glade Stillhouse Hollow Falls Stinging Fork Falls Stones River Cedar Glade & Barrens Sunk Lake Sunnybell Cedar Glade Taylor Hollow Twin Arches Vesta Cedar Glade Vine Cedar Glade Virgin Falls Walker Branch Walls of Jericho Walterhill Floodplain Washmorgan Hollow Watauga River Bluffs William B. Clark William R. Davenport Refuge Wilson School Road Window Cliffs Other Catoosa Wildlife Management Area Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation ( web ) - Tennessee Department of Agriculture ( web ) Protected areas of Kentucky Federal National Parks Mammoth Cave National Historical Parks Abraham Lincoln Birthplace Cumberland Gap NPS National Recreation Areas Big South Fork National Military Park Fort Donelson National Battlefield National Forests Daniel Boone George Washington and Jefferson USFS National Recreation Areas Land Between the Lakes National Wildlife Refuges Clarks River Ohio River Islands Reelfoot State State Resort Parks Barren River Lake Buckhorn Lake Blue Licks Battlefield Carter Caves Cumberland Falls Dale Hollow Lake General Butler Greenbo Lake Jenny Wiley Kenlake Kentucky Dam Village Lake Barkley Lake Cumberland Natural Bridge Pennyrile Forest Pine Mountain Rough River Dam State Historic Sites Big Bone Lick Boone Station Butler - Turpin House Dr. Thomas Walker Isaac Shelby Cemetery Jefferson Davis Old Mulkey Meetinghouse Perryville Battlefield Waveland White Hall Wickliffe Mounds William Whitley House State Recreation Parks Carr Creek Columbus - Belmont Dawkins Line Rail Trail E.P. `` Tom '' Sawyer Fishtrap Lake Fort Boonesborough General Burnside Grayson Lake Green River Lake John James Audubon Kincaid Lake Kingdom Come Lake Malone Levi Jackson Wilderness Road Lincoln Homestead Mineral Mound My Old Kentucky Home Nolin Lake Old Fort Harrod Paintsville Lake Pine Mountain Trail Taylorsville Lake Yatesville Lake State Forests Dewey Lake Kentenia Kentucky Ridge Knobs Olympia Pennyrile Tygarts State Nature Preserves Axe Lake Swamp Bad Branch Falls Brigadoon Bat Cave and Cascade Caverns Beargrass Creek Blackacre Blue Licks Jesse Stuart JJ Audubon Natural Bridge Six Mile Island Tom Dorman Other Breaks Interstate Park Kentucky Horse Park Kentucky State Nature Preserves Commission Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Land_Between_the_Lakes_National_Recreation_Area&oldid=815700063 '' Categories : IUCN Category V Reservoirs in Kentucky Reservoirs in Tennessee Protected areas of Lyon County , Kentucky National Recreation Areas of the United States Protected areas of Stewart County , Tennessee Protected areas of Trigg County , Kentucky Biosphere reserves of the United States Protected areas established in 1963 Dover , Tennessee Landforms of Lyon County , Kentucky Landforms of Stewart County , Tennessee Landforms of Trigg County , Kentucky Bison herds Hidden categories : Coordinates on Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2010 Articles with unsourced statements from April 2015 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikivoyage Add links This page was last edited on 16 December 2017 , at 14 : 36 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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who published alexander and the terrible horrible no good very bad day

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Alexander_and_the_Terrible,_Horrible,_No_Good,_Very_Bad_Day&oldid=836285813

Alexander and the Terrible , Horrible , no good , Very bad Day - wikipedia Alexander and the Terrible , Horrible , no good , Very bad Day Jump to : navigation , search For the film , see Alexander and the Terrible , Horrible , No Good , Very Bad Day ( film ) . Alexander and the Terrible , Horrible , No Good , Very Bad Day Author Judith Viorst Illustrator Ray Cruz Country United States Language English Genre Children 's Publication date June 16 , 1972 Pages 32 ISBN 0 - 689 - 30072 - 7 Alexander and the Terrible , Horrible , No Good , Very Bad Day , published in 1972 , is an ALA Notable Children 's Book written by Judith Viorst and illustrated by Ray Cruz . It has also won a George G. Stone Center Recognition of Merit , a Georgia Children 's Book Award , and is a Reading Rainbow book . Viorst followed this book up with two sequels , Alexander , Who Used to be Rich Last Sunday ISBN 978 - 0 - 689 - 30602 - 0 , and Alexander , Who 's Not ( Do You Hear Me ? I Mean It ! ) Going to Move ISBN 0 - 689 - 31958 - 4 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot 2 TV adaptation 2.1 Cast 3 Other media 4 Characters 5 Cultural references 6 References Plot ( edit ) From the moment Alexander wakes up , things just do not go his way . As he gets up , the chewing gum that was in his mouth the night before ends up in his hair , he trips on the skateboard and drops his sweater in the sink while the water is running . His brothers Nick and Anthony find prizes in their breakfast cereal boxes at breakfast time , while Alexander finds nothing but breakfast cereal . In the carpool on the way to school , he does n't get a window seat . At school , his teacher , Mrs. Dickens , says she likes Phillip Parker 's picture of a car rather than Alexander 's picture of the invisible castle ( which is actually just a blank sheet of paper ) . At singing time , she says that Alexander sang too loud and at counting time , she says that Alexander skipped the number 16 . Then Alexander says that no one needs the number 16 ( `` Who needs sixteen ? '' ) . Then at recess , Alexander 's best friend , Paul says that Alexander is no longer his best friend . He says that Phillip is his first best friend and Albert is his second best friend . But Alexander is only his third . Then Alexander tells Paul that he hopes he sits on a tack . He also says to Paul that the next time when he gets a double decker strawberry ice cream cone , the ice cream falls off the cone part and it lands somewhere in Australia . At lunch , Phillip has two cupcakes for dessert and Albert has a Hershey bar with almonds . And for Paul , his mother let him have a jelly roll with coconut sprinkles . But since Alexander 's mother forgot to put in dessert , there is no dessert in his lunch bag . After school , Alexander 's mother takes both Alexander and his brothers Nick and Anthony to the dentist . The dentist Dr. Fields finds a cavity only in Alexander . He tells him he has a cavity and says he will see him next week and fix it . On the way down , the elevator door closes on Alexander 's foot . Anthony pushes him into a mud puddle , and when Alexander cries because of the mud Nick says he is a crybaby . Then he punches Nick in response for saying cry baby . And at last , their mother comes back with the car . She then scolds Alexander for being muddy and fighting Nick . At the shoe store , Alexander wanted blue shoes with red stripes , but they 're out of Alexander 's choice of sneakers , so his mother has to buy him plain white ones , which he refuses to wear . At his father 's office , he makes a mess of things when he fools around with everything there ( the copying machine , the books , and the telephone ) . He tells Alexander to not play with his phone , but Alexander calls Australia . Then , the father gets to the point where he tells the family to stop picking him up from work . At home , they have lima beans for dinner ( which he hates ) , Alexander watches kissing on TV ( which he also hates ) , his bath - time is worst ( the water being too hot , getting soap in his eyes , and his marble going down the drain ) , but the worst of all , he 's forced to wear his railroad train pajamas ( which he also hates ) . At bedtime , his Mickey Mouse nightlight burns out , he bites his tongue , Nick takes back a bed pillow he said Alexander could keep , and the cat says he wants to sleep with Anthony ( but not Alexander ) . In the end , Alexander says he is having a terrible , horrible , no good very bad day . His mother says to him that some days are like that , especially in Australia . A running gag throughout the book is Alexander repeating several times that he wants to move to Australia because he thinks it 's better there . It ends with his mother 's assurance that everybody has bad days , even those who live there . In the Australian and New Zealand versions , he wants to move to Timbuktu instead . Alexander says tomorrow things must not get any worse . TV adaptation ( edit ) On Saturday , January 13 , 1990 , the book was adapted into a 30 - minute animated musical television special that aired on HBO and Klasky Csupo in the United States . While the special is mostly true to the book , the following differences are : Aside from the running gag of Alexander making references to Australia , the producers added another running gag in the special : he searches everywhere for his favorite yo - yo , a purple glow - in - the - dark one . Dad has no mustache and has brown hair instead of blonde . Nick has blonde hair instead of brown and wears glasses . Anthony has brown hair instead of blonde . The cat , unnamed in the book , is named Timothy . Phillip Parker is white instead of black and wears no glasses . Albert Moyo is black instead of white . This special features 11 more bad things for Alexander : He opens a drawer too far , making it land on his right foot . He spills cereal on the floor while searching for a free prize . He falls off of the seat when the carpool stops by his school . His friends will not let him play Monkey in the Middle . He sings `` roll '' and `` Mary Lee '' while his class sings `` Row , Row , Row Your Boat '' . His friends tease him multiple times when he draws a picture of an invisible castle , sings his song loudly and incorrectly , skips the number 16 , gets no dessert , and explains why he refuses to play ball with them after school . His friends close the doors on him after school . He was forced by the dentist , Dr. Fields , to sit still for 30 seconds for messing around with the toothpaste , dental chair , and tray . His brothers pretend to be in pain when Alexander hops due to the elevator door closing on his foot . The shoe salesman turns down his alternate choice of sneakers ( green ones ) . He is forced by his father to sit out on the couch for a time - out for playing with the copying machine and knocking the books off his father 's desk . The special also includes 4 good things to show the audience that even a bad day can have something good in it : Alexander 's friends ask him if he wants to play ball with them before Alexander refuses . Anthony and Nick make up for what they did to Alexander while waiting for their mom to pick up the car . Mom finds Alexander 's favorite yo - yo in the closet while turning off the bedroom light . Before the end credits , Timothy ( the cat ) changes his mind and sleeps with Alexander while talking about how Mom says everybody has bad days , even in Australia . Although mentioned , the three following bad things are not shown in the special : The family has lima beans for dinner . Alexander watching kissing on TV . Alexander 's bath making the evening worse . The special also included three original songs : `` So much to do , so little time in the morning '' `` If I could be the only child '' `` I 've had a terrible , horrible , no good , very bad day '' Cast ( edit ) Danny Tamberelli as Alexander ( speaking voice ) Todd Defreitas as Alexander ( singing voice ) Joey Rigel as Nick Devon Michaels as Anthony Linda Wallem as Mom Steve Barton as Dad Stephanie Maddin as Mrs. Dickens William Bogert as Dr. Fields Skip Hinnant as Shoe Salesman Ashley Carin as Classmate # 1 Erin Torpey as Classmate # 2 Buddy Smith as Classmate # 3 Daniel Riefsnyder as Classmate # 4 Z . Wright as Classmate # 5 Other media ( edit ) In 1998 , Viorst and the Kennedy Center joined together to turn the book into a musical production . Charles Strouse wrote the music , Viorst wrote the script and lyrics , and the musical score was composed by Shelly Markham . The productions have been performed around the country . Other characters in it are Audrey , Becky , and many others . In 2004 , a stage adaptation was run at the B Street Theatre . A film adaptation was released in 2014 . Characters ( edit ) Alexander and his two older brothers , Anthony and Nick , are based on Viorst 's own three sons of the same names . But the film changed Nick to Emily , replacing the brother with a sister , and adds Trevor as well . Cultural references ( edit ) The phrase `` terrible , horrible , no good , very bad ... '' has become an Internet meme , often used by bloggers , and sometimes by mainstream media , to criticize , or characterize setbacks for , an individual or political movement . The phrase is also used in the Stephen King miniseries Kingdom Hospital by the orderlies Abel and Christa . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : The Kennedy Center ( 2007 ) . `` Alexander and the Terrible , Horrible , No Good , Very Bad Day '' . The Kennedy Center . Retrieved December 22 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Scott Bernarde ( 2007 ) . `` I resolve to forget fishing in 2007 '' . Atlanta Journal Constitution . Retrieved December 22 , 2007 . ^ Jump up to : Laurel Graeber ( October 24 , 2003 ) . `` Just One Of Those Days '' . The New York Times . Retrieved December 22 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Hispania News ( 2006 ) . `` Alexander and the Terrible , Horrible , No Good , Very Bad Day '' . Hispania News . Retrieved December 22 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Mary - Liz Shaw ( 2007 ) . `` Grandmother learns lesson in flexibility '' . Milwaukee Journal Sentinel . Archived from the original on May 31 , 2008 . Retrieved December 22 , 2007 . Jump up ^ http://www.newsweek.com/blogs/the-gaggle/2010/05/03/dick-cheney-s-terrible-horrible-no-good-very-bad-day.html Jump up ^ Patrick Gavin ( 2013 - 05 - 16 ) . `` Obama 's week ? ' Horrible , no good ' '' . Retrieved 2013 - 05 - 16 . Jump up ^ `` Political Commentary and Opinion - Washington Examiner '' . Washington Examiner . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexander_and_the_Terrible,_Horrible,_No_Good,_Very_Bad_Day&oldid=836285813 '' Categories : American picture books 1972 children 's books Books adapted into films Hidden categories : Pages to import images to Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Simple English Edit links This page was last edited on 13 April 2018 , at 20 : 32 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia

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from what perspective is the singer describing specific events in the song of what a wonderful world

https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=What_a_Wonderful_World&oldid=822330910

What a Wonderful World - wikipedia What a Wonderful World Jump to : navigation , search For the Sam Cooke song , see Wonderful World ( Sam Cooke song ) . For other uses , see Wonderful World ( disambiguation ) . This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( November 2013 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) `` What a Wonderful World '' Single by Louis Armstrong from the album What a Wonderful World B - side `` Cabaret '' Released October 18 , 1967 Format 7 '' Recorded August 16 , 1967 Genre Traditional pop jazz Length 2 : 21 Label ABC 10982 , HMV Songwriter ( s ) Bob Thiele ( as George Douglas ) George David Weiss Producer ( s ) Bob Thiele Louis Armstrong singles chronology `` Mi va de cantare '' ( 1967 ) `` What a Wonderful World '' ( 1967 ) `` Hello Brother '' ( 1968 ) `` Mi va de cantare '' ( 1967 ) `` What a Wonderful World '' ( 1967 ) `` Hello Brother '' ( 1968 ) `` What a Wonderful World '' is a pop ballad written by Bob Thiele ( as `` George Douglas '' ) and George David Weiss . It was first recorded by Louis Armstrong and released in 1967 as a single , which topped the pop charts in the United Kingdom . Thiele and Weiss were both prominent in the music world ( Thiele as a producer and Weiss as a composer / performer ) . Armstrong 's recording was inducted in the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1999 . The publishing for this song is controlled by Memory Lane Music Group , Carlin Music Corp. and BMG Rights Management . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Charts and certifications 2.1 Peak positions 2.2 Certifications 3 Notable versions 4 Appearances in film and television 4.1 Film 4.2 Television 4.3 Sources 5 References 6 External links History ( edit ) This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( September 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The song was initially offered to Tony Bennett , who turned it down . Thereafter , it was offered to Louis Armstrong . George Weiss recounts in the book Off the Record : Songwriters on Songwriting by Graham Nash that he wrote the song specifically for Louis Armstrong . Weiss was inspired by Armstrong 's ability to bring people of different races together . The song was not initially a hit in the United States , where it sold fewer than 1,000 copies because ABC Records head Larry Newton did not like the song and therefore did not promote it , but was a major success in the United Kingdom , reaching number one on the UK Singles Chart . In the United States , the song hit No. 116 on the Billboard Bubbling Under Chart . It was also the biggest - selling single of 1968 in the UK where it was among the last pop singles issued by HMV Records before becoming an exclusive classical music label . The song made Louis Armstrong the oldest male to top the UK Singles Chart , at sixty - six years and ten months old . Armstrong 's record was broken in 2009 when a remake of `` Islands in the Stream '' recorded for Comic Relief -- which included the 68 - year - old Tom Jones -- reached number one in that chart . Tony Bennett did go on to record `` What A Wonderful World '' several times , as in 2003 with k.d. lang , paying homage to Bennett 's friend , Armstrong . ABC Records ' European distributor EMI forced ABC to issue a What a Wonderful World album in 1968 ( catalogue number ABCS - 650 ) . It did not chart in the United States , due to ABC not promoting it , but charted in the UK where it was issued by Stateside Records with catalogue number SSL 10247 and peaked on the British chart at No. 37 . The song gradually became something of a standard and reached a new level of popularity . In 1978 , Armstrong 's 1967 recording was featured in the closing scenes of the first series of BBC radio 's cult hit , The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy , and was repeated for BBC 's 1981 TV adaptation of the series . In 1988 , Armstrong 's recording appeared in the film Good Morning , Vietnam ( despite the film being set in 1965 -- two years before it was recorded ) and was re-released as a single , hitting No. 32 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in February 1988 . The single charted at number one for the fortnight ending June 27 , 1988 on the Australian chart . It is also the closing song for the 1995 movie 12 Monkeys . In 2001 , rappers Ghostface Killah , Raekwon and The Alchemist released `` The Forest , '' a song that begins with three lines of lyric adapted from `` What a Wonderful World '' , altered to become `` an invitation to get high '' on marijuana . The rappers and their record company , Sony Music Entertainment , were sued by the owners of `` What a Wonderful World , '' Abilene Music . The suit was thrown out of court after Judge Gerard E. Lynch determined that the altered lyric was indisputably a parody , transforming the uplifting original message to a new one with a darker nature . By April 2014 , Louis Armstrong 's 1967 recording had sold 2,173,000 downloads in the United States after it was released digitally . Charts and certifications ( edit ) Peak positions ( edit ) Chart ( 1967 / 68 ) Peak position Australia 29 Austria ( Ö3 Austria Top 40 ) Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Flanders ) 6 Denmark Germany ( Official German Charts ) 6 Ireland Netherlands ( Single Top 100 ) 15 Netherlands ( MediaMarkt ) 14 New Zealand 15 Norway ( VG - lista ) 6 Switzerland ( Schweizer Hitparade ) 7 U.K. Singles Chart U.S. Billboard Hot 100 116 U.S. Adult Contemporary ( Billboard ) 12 Chart ( 1976 ) Peak position Italy ( FIMI ) 11 Chart ( 1988 ) Peak position Australia ( ARIA ) Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Flanders ) 7 Belgium ( VRT Top 30 Flanders ) Canada ( RPM Magazine ) 13 Ireland 30 Netherlands ( Single Top 100 ) 5 Netherlands ( MediaMarkt ) New Zealand 8 Poland 22 U.S. ( Billboard ) 32 U.S. Adult Contemporary ( Billboard ) 7 U.S. ( Radio & Records ) 37 U.S. ( Cashbox ) 37 U.S. ( Rock on the Net - ARC Weekly Top 40 ) 28 Certifications ( edit ) Region Certification Italy ( FIMI ) Gold Notable versions ( edit ) 1967 : Louis Armstrong , million selling original version 1989 : Roy Clark , on his album of the same name ( peaked at No. 73 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart ) 1992 : Nick Cave , single sung with Shane MacGowan , in 2005 also published on the album B - Sides & Rarities 1993 : Israel Kamakawiwo'ole , Hawaiian ukulele version ( medley with `` Somewhere Over the Rainbow '' ) on the album Facing Future ( sold over 2.5 million copies in the U.S. and Canada alone ) 1999 : Anne Murray , on her platinum release of the same name , which also spawned a book and video ( the album reached No. 1 on the US CCM chart , No. 4 on the US Country chart , and No. 38 on the top 200 ) 2002 : Joey Ramone 's posthumous version was used for the ending credits of Michael Moore 's film Bowling for Columbine 2002 : Da Vinci 's Notebook ended their album Brontosaurus with an a cappella version 2003 : Sarah Brightman . Harem album 2004 : Céline Dion recorded the song for her album Miracle 2004 : Rod Stewart recorded a version of the song with Stevie Wonder for Stewart 's album Stardust : The Great American Songbook , Volume III ( released in the United States as the lead single from the album and by early 2005 reached No. 13 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart 2007 : Foxygen covered the song on their self - produced first album Jurrassic Exxplosion Phillipic 2007 : Katie Melua , singing with Eva Cassidy 's version to raise money for the Red Cross ( reached No. 1 in the UK chart in December 2007 ) 2008 : Ministry , along with other cover songs on their album Cover Up 2009 : The Clarks 's version was recorded for their album Restless Days . This version was also featured on The Simpsons 's Season 27 premiere , Every Man 's Dream . And it 's also used after every Home win for the Pittsburgh Penguins at PPG Paints Arena 2010 : Ziggy Marley 's version on The Disney Reggae Club 2012 : Pat Byrne reached No. 3 in the Irish Singles Chart after appearing on The Voice of Ireland 2012 : Playing For Change , the music charity , recorded this song featuring Grandpa Elliott 2015 : Tiago Iorc 's version was recorded to be used as the opening theme of the Brazilian telenovela Sete Vidas 2013 : Renée Geyer on her album Swing ( 2013 ) 2016 : Tally Koren 's version was recorded to be used in her album `` A Love Song for You '' Appearances in film and television ( edit ) This media section uses IMDb for verification . IMDb may not be a reliable source for film and television information and is generally only cited as an external link . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . Please help by replacing IMDb with third - party reliable sources . ( February 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Film ( edit ) Title Performer Year Source Arjun Reddy ( Telugu Movie ) Background Music 2017 Geostorm ( trailer ) Sharon Van Etten & Juggernaut Kid 2017 Range 15 Louis Armstrong 2016 Finding Dory Louis Armstrong 2016 Un gallo con muchos huevos Louis Armstrong 2015 Mein Salzburg Louis Armstrong 2015 Back to the Sea Louis Armstrong 2012 Journey 2 : The Mysterious Island ( a little different version of the song ) Dwayne Johnson 2012 1 and 2 New Year 's Eve Louis Armstrong 2011 Head Over Heels Louis Armstrong Harold and Kumar Escape from Guantanamo Bay Louis Armstrong 2008 Madagascar Louis Armstrong 2005 Swing Girls Louis Armstrong Freaky Friday Joey Ramone 2003 Bowling for Columbine Louis Armstrong 2002 Meet Joe Black Louis Armstrong 1998 Madeline Louis Armstrong 1998 Wrestling with Alligators Louis Armstrong 1998 12 Monkeys Louis Armstrong 1995 The Kennedy Years ( JFK Remembered ) Louis Armstrong Ciao , Professore ! Louis Armstrong Good Morning , Vietnam Louis Armstrong Chicken Little ( teaser trailer only ) Louis Armstrong 2005 The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy ( trailer only ) Louis Armstrong 2005 Television ( edit ) Series Episode Performer Year Source The OA Champion Sharon Van Etten & Juggernaut Kid 2016 MythBusters The Reunion Special Louis Armstrong 2016 Childhood 's End # 1.1 Joseph William Morgan 2015 The Simpsons Every Man 's Dream The Clarks 2015 Strictly Come Dancing Week 9 Results Louis Armstrong 2014 Inspector George Gently The Lost Child Louis Armstrong 2012 The Mentalist Blinking Red Light Louis Armstrong 2011 An Idiot Abroad Karl Comes Home Louis Armstrong So You Think You Can Dance ( Canada ) Top 8 Perform Louis Armstrong 2009 The Simpsons The Good , the Sad and the Drugly Louis Armstrong 2009 20 to 1 Greatest Songs of All Time Louis Armstrong 2006 Life on Mars # 1.6 Louis Armstrong 2006 House , MD DNR Louis Armstrong 2005 Hinter Gittern Fahrte aufgenommen Louis Armstrong Racheengel Louis Armstrong 2001 Lust & Suhne Louis Armstrong 2001 Hahn im Korb Louis Armstrong 1999 Die Lugners # 1.9 Louis Armstrong 2003 # 1.3 Louis Armstrong 2003 Dawson 's Creek Hopeless Louis Armstrong 2001 Gilmore Girls Rory 's Birthday Parties Louis Armstrong 2000 The King of Queens Head First Louis Armstrong 1998 Cybill Cybill Discovers the Meaning of Life Louis Armstrong 1995 Vamp Louis Armstrong 1991 Florida Lady Lauf dem Leben nicht davon Louis Armstrong Twin Peaks # 2.7 Louis Armstrong 1990 The Green Man Louis Armstrong 1990 Moonlighting A Womb with a View Louis Armstrong The Hitch Hikers Guide to the Galaxy # 1.6 Louis Armstrong 1981 The Muppet Show Don Knotts ( # 2.1 ) Rowlf ( Jim Henson ) 1977 Sources ( edit ) Internet Movie Database Jim Henson 's Red Book References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Rice , Jo ( 1982 ) . The Guinness Book of 500 Number One Hits ( 1st ed . ) . Enfield , Middlesex : Guinness Superlatives Ltd. p. 117 . ISBN 0 - 85112 - 250 - 7 . Jump up ^ `` What A Wonderful World '' . The Pop History Dig . Retrieved 2013 - 04 - 21 . Jump up ^ `` Sundance Channel : Video : : SPECTACLE : Season 1 - Episode 5 ( clip ) '' . SundanceChannel.com . Archived from the original on 2010 - 01 - 07 . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 25 . Jump up ^ Black , Johnny ( 2006 ) . Singles : Six Decades of Hot Hits & Classic Cuts . Thunder Bay Press . p. 97 . ISBN 978 - 1592236510 . Jump up ^ `` 45 Discography for HMV Records - UK - POP series 1001 - 1617 '' . Globaldogproductions.info . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 25 . Jump up ^ `` ABC - Paramount Album Discography , Part 6 '' . Bsnpubs.com . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 25 . ^ Jump up to : Chang , Samantha ( November 1 , 2003 ) . `` Court : Ghostface Rap Was ' Fair Use ' '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media . 115 ( 44 ) : 22 . ISSN 0006 - 2510 . Jump up ^ Kohn , Al ; Kohn , Bob ( 2010 ) . Kohn on music licensing ( 4 ed . ) . Aspen Publishers . pp. 1647 -- 1648 . ISBN 0735590907 . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 25 . Jump up ^ Grein , Paul ( April 16 , 2014 ) . `` Chart Watch : `` Happy '' tops 4M `` . Yahoo ! Music . Yahoo ! . Jump up ^ `` Go - Set Australian Charts '' . Go - Set . Retrieved 9 August 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Austriancharts.at -- Louis Armstrong -- What a Wonderful World '' ( in German ) . Ö3 Austria Top 40 . Retrieved March 17 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` Ultratop.be -- Louis Armstrong -- What a Wonderful World '' ( in Dutch ) . Ultratop 50 . Retrieved March 17 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Danske Hitlister.dk '' . Danske Hitlister.dk . Retrieved 9 August 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Offiziellecharts.de -- Louis Armstrong -- What a Wonderful World '' . GfK Entertainment Charts . Retrieved March 17 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Irish Charts - All there is to know '' . ^ Jump up to : `` Dutchcharts.nl -- Louis Armstrong -- What a Wonderful World '' ( in Dutch ) . Single Top 100 . Retrieved March 17 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` MediaMarkt Top 40 '' . Retrieved 9 August 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Norwegiancharts.com -- Louis Armstrong -- What a Wonderful World '' . VG - lista . Retrieved March 17 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Swisscharts.com -- Louis Armstrong -- What a Wonderful World '' . Swiss Singles Chart . Retrieved March 17 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Hit Parade Italia - Indice per Interprete : S '' ( in Italian ) . Hit Parade Italia . Retrieved 5 August 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Australian-charts.com -- Louis Armstrong -- What a Wonderful World '' . ARIA Top 50 Singles . Retrieved March 17 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` What A Wonderful World -- LOUIS ARMSTRONG '' ( in Dutch ) . Top 30 . Archived from the original on 9 April 2012 . Retrieved 4 August 2014 . Hoogste notering in de top 30 : 1 Jump up ^ `` Rock on the Net '' . Retrieved 9 August 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Italian single certifications -- Louis Armstrong -- What a Wonderful World '' ( in Italian ) . Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana . Retrieved March 17 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Whitburn , Joel ( 2013 ) . Hot Country Songs 1944 -- 2012 . Record Research , Inc. p. 78 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 89820 - 203 - 8 . Jump up ^ Grein , Paul ( 2010 - 09 - 24 ) . `` Chart Watch Extra : Songs From The Last Century '' . Nielsen Business Media . Yahoo ! Music . Retrieved 2012 - 03 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` Rod Stewart - Chart history '' . Billboard . Retrieved 2016 - 08 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Playing For Change '' . Jump up ^ `` Abertura de Sete Vidas traz pequenas cenas que remetem a nossa memória afetiva '' . Globo.com. 2015 - 03 - 09 . Retrieved 2015 - 07 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` Louis Armstrong '' . IMDb . Retrieved 2015 - 09 - 11 . Jump up ^ `` 5 / 25 / 1977 -- ' Don Knotts ( MS ) ' '' . Retrieved 2016 - 04 - 30 . External links ( edit ) How political is What A Wonderful World ? BBC News article about history and meaning of song Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics Barrueco & Balles Music play What a Wonderful World Preceded by `` Congratulations '' by Cliff Richard UK number one single Louis Armstrong version 24 April 1968 ( for 4 weeks ) Succeeded by `` Young Girl '' by Gary Puckett & The Union Gap Preceded by `` Bleeding Love '' by Leona Lewis UK Singles Chart number - one single ( Katie Melua & Eva Cassidy version ) December 16 , 2007 - December 22 , 2007 Succeeded by `` When You Believe '' by Leon Jackson Louis Armstrong Biography Recordings Films , broadcasts , and literature Awards Civil Rights proponent Top Ten singles Muskrat Ramble ( 1926 ) Hotter than That West End Blues ( 1928 ) Ai n't Misbehavin ' ( 1929 ) Chinatown , My Chinatown ( 1932 ) You Can Depend on Me All of Me Love , You Funny Thing Sweethearts on Parade Body and Soul ( 1932 ) Hobo , You Ca n't Ride This Train ( 1933 ) I 'm in the Mood for Love / You Are My Lucky Star ( 1935 ) Public Melody Number One ( 1937 ) When the Saints Go Marching In ( 1939 ) You Wo n't Be Satisfied ( Until You Break My Heart ) ( 1946 ) When We Are Dancing ( 1951 ) What a Wonderful World ( 1968 ) Albums Satchmo at Pasadena ( 1951 ) Louis Armstrong Plays W.C. Handy ( 1955 ) Louis Armstrong at the Crescendo , Vol. 1 ( 1955 ) Louis and the Angels ( 1957 ) Hello , Dolly ! ( 1964 ) Struttin ' ( 1996 ) Bing & Satchmo The Complete Ella Fitzgerald & Louis Armstrong on Verve The Great Summit Hot Fives & Sevens Louis and the Good Book Satchmo In Style With Ella Fitzgerald Armstrong - Fitzgerald history Ella and Louis ( 1956 ) Ella and Louis Again ( 1957 ) Porgy and Bess ( 1957 ) With Duke Ellington Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington : The Great Summit / Complete Sessions ( 1961 ) Other collaborations Louis Armstrong Meets Oscar Peterson ( 1957 ) The Real Ambassadors ( 1961 ) Songs Willie the Weeper West End Blues ( 1928 ) Ai n't Misbehavin ' When the Saints Go Marching In Mack the Knife ( 1956 ) Autumn in New York On My Way ( 1959 ) Uncle Satchmo 's Lullaby ( 1959 ) Hello , Dolly ! ( 1964 ) What a Wonderful World ( 1967 ) We Have All the Time in the World ( 1969 ) Alexander 's Ragtime Band April in Paris Back Home Again in Indiana Basin Street Blues Big Butter and Egg Man Blue Turning Grey Over You Blueberry Hill C'est si bon Ca n't We Be Friends ? Cheek to Cheek Cold , Cold Heart Cool Yule Dippermouth Blues Do You Know What It Means to Miss New Orleans ? Dream a Little Dream of Me East of the Sun ( and West of the Moon ) El Choclo Everybody Loves My Baby Frankie and Johnny Georgia on My Mind Get Together Gone Fishin ' The Gypsy in My Soul Heebie Jeebies Hello , Dolly ! Hey Lawdy Mama High Society Calypso I Get Ideas I Wonder I 've Got the World on a String It 's Been a Long , Long Time Jeepers Creepers A Kiss to Build a Dream On ( Up A ) Lazy River Let 's Call the Whole Thing Off Let 's Do It , Let 's Fall in Love Moon River Moonlight in Vermont Muggles Muskrat Ramble Nobody Knows the Trouble I 've Seen Now You Has Jazz On a Little Bamboo Bridge On My Way On the Sunny Side of the Street Pennies from Heaven Potato Head Blues Red Sails in the Sunset Rockin ' Chair Saint Louis Blues Shine Skokiaan Sometimes I Feel Like a Motherless Child St. James Infirmary Blues Standing on the Corner ( Blue Yodel No. 9 ) Stardust Stars Fell on Alabama Takes Two to Tango That Lucky Old Sun That 's My Desire There Must Be Somebody Else They All Laughed Uncle Satchmo 's Lullaby La Vie en rose When It 's Sleepy Time Down South When You 're Smiling Willow Weep for Me Winter Wonderland Zip - a-Dee - Doo - Dah Compilation albums Louis Armstrong Hot Five and Hot Seven Sessions ( 1925 -- 28 ) Related Louis Armstrong House Louis Armstrong Stadium Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport Discography Jazz Portal Anne Murray Studio albums What About Me This Way Is My Way Honey , Wheat and Laughter Straight , Clean and Simple Talk It Over in the Morning Anne Murray / Glen Campbell Annie Danny 's Song Love Song Highly Prized Possession Keeping In Touch Together There 's a Hippo in My Tub Let 's Keep It That Way New Kind of Feeling I 'll Always Love You Somebody 's Waiting Where Do You Go When You Dream The Hottest Night of the Year A Little Good News Heart over Mind Something to Talk About Harmony As I Am You Will Yes I Do Croonin ' Anne Murray What a Wonderful World Country Croonin ' I 'll Be Seeing You Anne Murray Duets : Friends & Legends Christmas albums Christmas Wishes Anne Murray Christmas The Season Will Never Grow Old Best of the Season My Christmas Favorites What a Wonderful Christmas Anne Murray 's Christmas Album Icon : Christmas Compilations Snowbird Country A Country Collection Anne Murray 's Greatest Hits Country Hits Songs of the Heart Love Songs Greatest Hits Volume II From Springhill to the World The Very Best of Anne Murray 15 of the Best Her Greatest Hits and Finest Performances Now & Forever The Best ... So Far An Intimate Evening with Anne Murray Ultimate Collection All of Me 10 Great Songs : Inspirational Classics Icon No. 1 singles `` Snowbird '' `` Sing High , Sing Low '' `` A Stranger in My Place '' `` It Takes Time '' `` Talk It Over in the Morning '' `` I Say a Little Prayer / By the Time I Get to Phoenix '' `` Cotton Jenny '' `` Danny 's Song '' `` What About Me '' `` A Love Song '' `` He Thinks I Still Care '' `` Son of a Rotten Gambler '' `` You Wo n't See Me '' `` You Needed Me '' `` I Just Fall in Love Again '' `` Shadows in the Moonlight '' `` Broken Hearted Me '' `` Daydream Believer '' `` Lucky Me '' `` I 'm Happy Just to Dance with You '' `` Could I Have This Dance '' `` Blessed Are the Believers '' `` We Do n't Have to Hold Out '' `` It 's All I Can Do '' `` Another Sleepless Night '' `` Hey ! Baby '' `` Somebody 's Always Saying Goodbye '' `` A Little Good News '' `` Just Another Woman in Love '' `` Nobody Loves Me Like You Do '' ( with Dave Loggins ) `` Time Do n't Run Out on Me '' `` Now and Forever ( You and Me ) '' Other songs `` Thirsty Boots '' `` Put Your Hand in the Hand '' `` Night Owl '' `` Robbie 's Song for Jesus '' `` Everything 's Been Changed '' `` Send a Little Love My Way '' `` Just One Look '' `` Day Tripper '' `` Uproar '' `` Sunday Sunrise '' `` The Call '' `` Golden Oldie '' `` Things '' `` Walk Right Back '' `` That 's Not the Way ( It 's S'posed to Be ) '' `` I Do n't Think I 'm Ready for You '' `` Who 's Leaving Who '' `` Are You Still in Love with Me '' `` Anyone Can Do the Heartbreak '' `` Perfect Strangers '' `` If I Ever Fall in Love Again '' ( with Kenny Rogers ) `` Feed This Fire '' `` Bluebird '' `` I Can See Arkansas '' `` Make Love to Me '' `` The Wayward Wind '' `` Born to Be with You '' `` Over You '' `` That 's What My Love Is For '' `` That 's the Way It Goes '' `` What a Wonderful World '' Related articles Discography Capitol Records `` Tears Are Not Enough '' Book : Anne Murray Katie Melua Studio albums Call Off the Search Piece by Piece Pictures The House Secret Symphony Ketevan In Winter Compilation albums The Katie Melua Collection Live albums Live at the O2 Arena Singles `` The Closest Thing to Crazy '' `` Call Off the Search '' `` Crawling up a Hill '' `` Nine Million Bicycles '' `` I Cried for You '' / `` Just Like Heaven '' `` Spider 's Web '' `` It 's Only Pain '' `` Shy Boy '' `` If You Were a Sailboat '' `` Mary Pickford '' `` If the Lights Go Out '' `` Toy Collection '' `` Two Bare Feet '' `` The Flood '' `` A Happy Place '' `` To Kill You with a Kiss '' `` Gold in them Hills '' `` The Bit That I Do n't Get '' `` Better Than a Dream '' `` Moonshine '' `` The Walls of the World '' `` Forgetting All My Troubles '' `` I Will Be There '' Other singles `` What a Wonderful World '' ( with Eva Cassidy ) Related Discography Dramatico CeCe Peniston Discography Awards Studio albums Finally Thought ' Ya Knew Good News in Hard Times I 'm Movin ' On Remix albums Finally / We Got a Love Thang : Remix Collection Remix Collection Compilations The Best Of Essential The Millennium Collection : The Best Of EPs CeCe Peniston Singles `` Finally '' `` We Got a Love Thang '' `` Keep On Walkin ' '' `` Crazy Love '' `` Inside That I Cried '' `` I 'm in the Mood '' `` I 'm Not Over You '' `` Keep Givin ' Me Your Love '' `` Hit by Love '' `` Movin ' On '' `` Before I Lay ( You Drive Me Crazy ) '' `` Somebody Else 's Guy '' `` I Like It '' `` Nobody Else '' `` He Loves Me 2 '' `` Lifetime to Love '' `` My Boo '' `` Reminiscin '' `` For My Baby '' `` Eternal Lover '' `` Deeper Love '' `` You Are the Universe '' `` I 'm Feelin ' U '' `` Above Horizons '' `` Nothing Can Stop Me '' Download `` Shame Shame Shame '' `` Still I '' `` In Love with a DJ '' `` Stoopid ! '' `` Celebrate '' `` You 've Never Seen '' `` All My Love '' `` Get to Steppin '' `` Let 's Go All Night '' `` Without You '' `` Love Do n't Take Over '' `` Sick '' Promotional singles `` Hitmix '' `` Searchin ' '' `` House Party '' `` I Know You Want Me '' `` I Ca n't Go for That '' Other songs `` How I Got Over '' `` He 's Got the Whole World in His Hands '' `` Precious Memories '' `` Oh Happy Day '' `` Christmas Song '' `` What a Wonderful World '' `` Runnin ' Away '' Related Divas of Disco Book Israel Kamakawiwoʻole Studio albums Ka ' Ano'i ( 1990 ) Facing Future ( 1993 ) E Ala E ( 1995 ) N Dis Life ( 1996 ) Compilation albums Alone in IZ World ( 2001 ) Wonderful World ( 2009 ) Songs `` Over the Rainbow '' `` What a Wonderful World '' `` Kaleohano '' `` Somewhere Over the Rainbow / What a Wonderful World '' Related Mākaha Sons Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=What_a_Wonderful_World&oldid=822330910 '' Categories : Songs about happiness 1967 singles 1968 singles 2000 singles Songs written by George David Weiss Louis Armstrong songs Anne Murray songs Eva Cassidy songs Roy Clark songs UK Singles Chart number - one singles Number - one singles in Australia Pop ballads 1960s ballads 1967 songs ABC Records singles His Master 's Voice singles Songs from animated films Hidden categories : CS1 Italian - language sources ( it ) CS1 Dutch - language sources ( nl ) Articles needing additional references from November 2013 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2017 Articles with hAudio microformats Articles needing additional references from September 2017 Singlechart usages for Austria Singlechart usages for Flanders Singlechart usages for Germany2 Singlechart usages for Dutch100 Singlechart usages for Norway Singlechart usages for Switzerland Singlechart usages for Australia Certification Table Entry usages for Italy Articles lacking reliable references from February 2016 All articles lacking reliable references Articles sourced by IMDb from February 2016 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Alemannisch Чӑвашла Deutsch Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Livvinkarjala 日本 語 Polski Português Русский Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 January 2018 , at 19 : 27 . 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