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HowItsMade

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{ "things": [ "Wood Garage Doors", "Sand and Salt Spreaders", "Animatronic Dinosaurs" ] }

[ "A garage door is more than just a functional component of a house.", "It's part of the curb appeal, especially when the garage is prominently located at the front of the home.", "Garage doors are made from a variety of materials, wood being the high-end option.", "A wood garage door is pricier than standard steel, aluminum, or vinyl panel doors.", "But they offer the most design flexibility.", "Wood can be customized to any style and painted or stained any color.", "Western red cedar, mahogany, and hemlock are popular choices because they hold up particularly well outdoors.", "Garage doors start with the core structure.", "For the core surface, they use exterior-grade plywood so that the indoor-facing side of the core can be stained to match the decorative wood on the outdoor side.", "They build the core's internal structure out of finger-jointed yellow pine.", "Finger-jointed means each piece is made of several short, connected pieces.", "It is structurally stronger and less prone to twisting and bowing than a solid piece of wood.", "They build a core for each section of the garage door.", "The core structures can be designed to accommodate windows or other unique features.", "They insulate every core structure with pieces of polystyrene.", "This helps keep the garage warmer in the winter and cooler in the summer.", "Now they run two sheets of exterior-grade plywood through a machine that coats the top and bottom with glue.", "They lay the sheets onto a core structure and place a second core structure on top of the first.", "They repeat this process until they've stacked up enough core structures required for the door they are making.", "They put the stack into a press for a half-hour.", "The press applies 130,000 pounds while the glue cures.", "Then they load each section onto a machine, which cuts it to the width required.", "The machine also makes a lip to direct rain away from the door so that water doesn't run back into the garage.", "When a core section has windows, they cut the openings for them with a router.", "Using a template as a guide, they drill holes through the front of the core.", "With a countersink tool, they cut a wide opening around each hole.", "They insert \"t\" nuts into the holes.", "This enables hardware to be mounted on the inside of the garage door.", "At this point, the connected core sections can function as a structurally sound garage door.", "However, there's still aesthetic work left to do.", "The plywood on the front of the door serves as a blank canvas.", "They glue decorative wood trim to the front door to produce the design specified in the customer's order.", "For this door, they're using african mahogany.", "They've already cut pieces to the required dimensions, with tongue-and-groove edges that enable adjoining pieces to connect.", "Once the glue dries, they cut off the excess wood with a router.", "Then they sand the surface and prepare the wood to be stained or painted.", "They line up the remaining core section and glue on the corresponding wood trim.", "They secure the wood trim to the core with nails.", "After cutting off the last pieces of excess wood, they install the glass for the windows.", "The dealer will install the hardware upon delivery.", "Prior to installation, either the dealer or the customer will stain or paint the wood the desired color.", "Sand-and-salt spreaders were developed in the united states in the middle of the 20th century.", "Before that, crews kept winter roads safe by shoveling sand and salt from trucks.", "Things got easier when mechanical spreaders took over the heavy lifting.", "Winter storm brewing?", "Sand-and-salt spreaders have it covered.", "They distribute salt to melt the ice and sand for traction.", "They start with two big sheets of stainless steel.", "Computer-driven plasma torches carve the steel into the four panels that will be used to build the hopper.", "Next, the operator transfers the panels to another computerized machine.", "This one has numerous punch tools.", "They cut holes for nuts, bolts, bearings, and other components.", "Then it's over to a hydraulic press brake.", "It bends the bottom of the hopper panel to create a wide rim.", "This wide rim adds rigidity to the part.", "The team flips the hopper panel around so the press brake can bend the top.", "Computerized stops control the location of each bend.", "A worker clamps the hopper panel in a fixture to prop it up while he welds ribbed supports to the outside.", "He adds two or three ribs to each side panel, depending on the size of the spreader.", "Once all the ribs have been welded, a team joins the four hopper panels together.", "They clamp a bar across one end to square up the structure.", "Once it's aligned, they weld the spreader hopper at the seams.", "These tight seams create a rugged structure that will hold up under the burden of heavy road salt or sand.", "Now a worker builds the steel chute that the sand or salt will flow through.", "He attaches several brackets to the inside and outside of the chute.", "These brackets are for the adjustable steel flaps that direct the flow of salt onto the highway.", "Here he installs the adjuster bar for one of the flaps.", "He swings the flap to confirm it moves freely.", "A pin is inserted in the adjuster bar to set the flap at the desired spacing.", "He attaches a bearing to each side of the chute.", "He slides a long steel shaft through the bearings until it protrudes from the bottom.", "He secures the shaft to the bearings...", "And mounts a flexible plastic spinner to the protruding shaft.", "This spinner will spread the road salt or sand evenly across the road.", "Customers on tighter budgets sometimes choose salt spreaders made of mild steel instead of stainless.", "They spray a dry powder coat onto these units.", "Then they roll the part into an oven to bake it on.", "This durable finish will protect the hoppers from corrosion and general wear.", "Now back to the stainless-steel spreader.", "The team fastens a gearbox to the side of the hopper.", "It will drive the conveyer that delivers salt or sand to the chute.", "A worker temporarily powers the gearbox with a drill to assist in the installation of the conveyer.", "He pushes the conveyor forward until the gearbox takes over.", "He installs a feed gate at the opening and screws the lever to the side of the hopper.", "They stockpile hoppers, chutes, and motors separately until an order is placed.", "This allows the customer to choose individual components before the final assembly.", "For example, the customer way want a specific gas motor, or they may choose a hydraulic one.", "Once they've bolted the chute to the hopper, this sand-and-salt spreader is ready for an icy highway.", "It can spread material thick or thin, depending on the road conditions.", "Dinosaurs have long been extinct.", "But animatronics make models look, sound, and move like the real thing.", "Developed by walt disney in the 1960s, this technique is a combination of art and technology.", "The slit eyes, rows of sharp fangs, and a long, purposeful snout all look stunningly real.", "With his razor-sharp claws, this velociraptor figure looks ready to leap right at you.", "First, a designer uses 3-d sculpting software to create a detailed digital model of the raptor.", "Key features, such as the size, shape, and number of the teeth are thoroughly documented.", "The art director approves a small-scale 3-d printed model of the figure before an industrial robotic arm sculpts the full-size figure in four-pound foam.", "The density of the foam allows for very precise styling.", "An artist adds details by hand.", "He uses precision sculpting tools to draw wrinkles and lines.", "He brushes melted clay on top of the foam to bring out details and give more realism to the sculpture.", "The clay needs to solidify before the sculpture can be molded.", "A figure finisher prepares a mixture of monomer and polymer that is commonly used to make acrylic teeth.", "He pours the mixture into a mold shaped like the jaw of the raptor.", "He places the mold in a vacuum chamber.", "He seals the vacuum-chamber lid and starts the vacuum pump.", "The vacuum pump will lower the pressure inside, forcing air bubbles out from the acrylic mixture.", "This process makes for an even and consistent casting.", "These are sharp and strong velociraptor fangs.", "The figure finisher separates the teeth by hand, then takes a dremel tool to file down the excess around the base.", "The acrylic teeth accurately reproduce the shape of the predator's fangs.", "The figure finisher places the teeth back in the jaw mold.", "Massive teeth up to an inch long fill the reptile's ferocious mouth.", "The figure finisher covers the teeth with flesh-colored dental acrylic to form the gums and palate of the creature.", "Once the mold is filled with acrylic, he puts it in a vacuum chamber, where the gums and palate cure.", "During the vacuuming process, the gums and teeth bond together to form a complete velociraptor denture.", "To make the reptile's eyeballs, he places a transparent sheet in a vacuum thermoforming system.", "The vacuformer heats the plastic to make it malleable.", "The figure finisher pushes the sheet down on an eyeball shape and activates a vacuum pump.", "Thermoformed eyeballs come in various shapes and sizes.", "Now a plastics technician prepares the fiberglass mold.", "He uses a chopper gun to cover the inside of the plastic mold with flexible fiberglass strands.", "The technician bonds the strands together with resin.", "Once the resin has cured, the hard fiberglass shell takes the shape of the initial foam sculpture.", "Using a jigsaw, a worker cuts the shell at various articulation points.", "This will allow the figure to move seamlessly once it's assembled on its animated mechanical structure.", "The technician applies a primer coat with a spray gun.", "This shell will house the mechanical components, animating the dinosaur's long tail, its strong upper body and neck, the birdlike head, the handlike front limb, and its powerful hind legs.", "An encounter with a life-size animated dinosaur is quite an experience.", "An elaborate range of advanced special-effects techniques and animatronic technology brings them to life.", "A technician covers the fiberglass inner shell with a ripstop fabric lining.", "It will support and reinforce the silicone skin.", "She installs zippers on the liner to easily take off or put on the skin.", "The liner fits tightly over the fiberglass and takes the shape of the inner shell.", "Technicians use liquid-silicone rubber to make the figure's skin.", "One technician connects a tube to the shell's mold-injection port while the other technician operates a high-pressure injector.", "The machine pumps silicone into the mold.", "The silicone cures inside the mold for a few hours.", "Then a technician unfastens the bolts that are holding the shell tightly closed.", "Technicians take the silicone skin out of the injection shell mold.", "They inspect the skin to make sure there are no defects and that it mimics the features of the initial foam sculpture.", "They take the skin off the inner shell for manual touch-ups.", "A technician cleans up the edges of the skin by trimming off small silicone strips called flashing.", "With small precision scissors, she meticulously trims off all the flashing to make clean, seamless joints.", "A figure finisher inserts the molded acrylic denture to check its fit in the lower jaw skin.", "He checks the fit of the thermoformed eyeball between the skin and the shell.", "A character painter uses an airbrush to paint the skin with silicone paint.", "He adds multiple layers of paint, giving the finish much more detail and realism.", "A machinist mills a mechanical part for the metal frame.", "Thousands of stainless-steel and aluminum pieces need machining.", "He bores out holes for bearings inside each shaft.", "Each piece can be customized to suit virtually any design and assembly requirement.", "An electronics engineer tests a control card.", "Each animated component of the figure is controlled by a card like this one.", "The electronics engineer connects the card to an oscillator tester to verify that the cylinder responds accurately to the electronic-input signal.", "A program on the card allows precise control over the motion of the cylinder.", "The cylinders create motion, while the aluminum frame functions as the skeleton supporting the movement.", "An animator assembles various parts into the mechanical assembly.", "He connects a cylinder to the metal frame.", "Each cylinder is dedicated to a specific function in the mechanical assembly.", "This cylinder activates a finger in the hand assembly, allowing it to curl up in a smooth, seamless motion.", "The animator attaches the hand assembly to the arm, bolts it on at the elbow, and screws claws on the tip of each finger.", "The full frame of the figure is assembled on a test bench.", "A hydraulics-and-plumbing engineer opens the compressed-air valve, which powers the pneumatic cylinders.", "The show controller runs random programs to test the response of the animatronic dinosaur.", "They check air-pressure variations in the hydraulic-cylinder tubes, as well as electronic direction and amplitude commands.", "A creative director finally puts his seal of approval on the figure.", "A lot of effort goes into making such a complex machine look like a living creature." ]

{ "things": [ "Car Tires", "Silk", "Art Conservation", "Scuba Tanks" ] }

[ "Historically, wheels were made of metal or wood.", "With the invention of air filled car tires in the early part of the 20th century, the ride was revolutionized.", "The inflated rubber tires could better absorb the bumps on the road and the addition of tread gave the invention serious traction.", "Car tires have come a long way in the last century.", "The modern summer tire is made of 10 to 15 different components, which include natural and synthetic rubber, chemical additives, and carbon black-- a pigment.", "Giant blenders mix these ingredients under heat and tremendous pressure.", "There are various formulations for different parts of the tire.", "In each case, the result is gummy rubber dough, which machinery then rolls into sheets to await further kneading and processing.", "Polyester fabric unrolls into a machine called a calender.", "The calender is equipped with rollers that apply warm rubber to both sides of the fabric.", "This produces a rubberized fabric that will be used to reinforce the tire.", "This fabric ply is needed because rubber alone isn't sturdy enough to make a tire.", "Numerous cotton cords now spin off bobbins simultaneously.", "Machinery pulls them onto the warm, rubberized fabric.", "They land on a bit of an angle and adhere.", "This cording creates channels that provide pathways for venting air during the actual tire building.", "Making rubber for tread requires three different rubber formulations.", "Extruders shape the three streams of rubber and then they enter a die that forms them into one.", "Mini paint rollers apply different colored stripes.", "It's a coding system for identification of the ingredients during processing.", "To avoid tension, the system creates slack in the feed.", "A blade slices the tread rubber to length.", "Next, many steel cables uncoil at once to make the bead-- the part of the tire that gives it the strength it needs to stay on the wheel rim.", "Machinery arranges the cables in the desired configuration and encases them in rubber.", "More equipment rolls the bead material into hoops sized to fit the wheel rim.", "They're now ready to build the tire.", "Using a special rotating drum, a worker arranges the two bead hoops on it.", "Next up is an airtight piece of rubber that will act as an inner tube followed by the corded ply.", "Inflated bladders roll the rubber around the bead on both sides and then retract.", "A server applies side walls to the beads.", "Little rollers fold the side walls over the beads.", "This completes the inner part, or skeleton, of the tire.", "They assemble the outer layer separately beginning with strips of rubber embedded with steel cord.", "The system wraps this rubber around a second tire-building drum.", "Next up are narrow strips of rubber ply.", "The computerized system winds them with just the right amount of tension for a graduated effect.", "They're now ready for the last layer-- the tread rubber.", "Machinery applies it to the ply.", "It's time for the two tire fabrications to become one.", "A transfer ring collects the assembly and transfers it to the inner part.", "Compressed air inflates the tire to shape it and all the sticky layers adhere together.", "The machine rolls the edge of the tread rubber over the side walls.", "They now have what's known in the industry as a green tire-- an uncured tire without tread pattern.", "Next, it's into a mold to bake and shape the tire.", "The two parts of the mold come together like a waffle iron.", "Inside, hot steamy bladders expand to shape the tire and transfer the tread pattern to it.", "This specific tread pattern is designed for summer tires.", "This cutout of a car tire demonstrates how all the layers have been fused together.", "The time in the hot, pressurized mold has caused the rubber to vulcanize-- a chemical reaction that transforms it from a weak and sticky substance to one that's strong and elastic.", "A worker trims excess rubber.", "After final inspections confirm the tire shape is uniform and geometrically correct, the tire is ready for shipment.", "It's time for the rubber to hit the road.", "Silk fabric originated in china at least 5,000 years ago and became a coveted luxury.", "Silk thread is produced by silkworms when they make their cocoons.", "Sericulture, or commercially breeding silkworms for silk production, is practiced in several asian countries.", "From home goods to accessories and clothing, there are few textiles as elegant and luxurious, or as prized throughout the ages, as silk.", "It's hard to believe this beautiful fabric comes from worms.", "The female silkworm lays up to 400 eggs in one shot then promptly dies.", "Each egg, about two weeks later, hatches into a larva.", "The larva feeds on fresh mulberry leaves continuously, increasing its body weight 10,000 fold and growing to a length of about three inches.", "Then, as it enters the pupa phase of its life cycle, it excretes liquid raw silk from salivary glands in its mouth.", "When that liquid silk contacts with the air, it hardens into a single thread.", "Pupating larva winds that thread around itself into a thick, cozy cocoon.", "Normally, the pupa inside becomes a moth and the cocoon breaks as it emerges.", "However, this severs the continuous silk thread.", "So to keep the thread intact, they boil the cocoon for about three minutes to kill the pupa inside before it transforms into a moth.", "Boiling the cocoons also makes the wound thread easier to unravel by melting away most of the sericin-- the gelatinous protein that binds it.", "To harvest the silk, they take threads from 30 to 50 cocoons at a time.", "They feed them all together through a hole in the bamboo stick onto a hand-operated reel.", "Then, slowly and carefully, they turn the reel, unraveling the cocoons.", "As the thread passes together through the stick, the remaining sericin glues them together forming a single, thicker thread.", "The silk threads coming together are so fine-- only about one one-hundredth of a millimeter in diameter-- that it takes 2,000 to 3,000 cocoons to produce a pound of silk thread.", "Unraveling cocoons is a time-consuming process, because a single thread can be as long as nine professional soccer fields.", "To make this feather-like silk thread easier to handle, they weigh it down with sand before rolling it into a bundle.", "Next, they wash away the sand and remaining sericin, then bleach the thread so it will uniformly absorb the synthetic dye.", "It's critical to monitor the ratio of dye to hot water, as well as water temperature and soaking time, as all these factors combined effect the quality of the color.", "After rinsing away the excess dye with lukewarm water, they hang the thread to dry.", "They mount the bundles of dry, dyed silk thread on a big machine, which transfers them to smaller rollers.", "Those rollers then go on an automated machine, which transfers the thread to small bobbins.", "To craft silk fabric, weavers will pass bobbins of thread horizontally between vertical threads on a traditional, hand-operated loom.", "Another machine, meanwhile, winds thread around spools.", "A worker then installs a set number of spool threads on a mechanism, which aligns them vertically on the loom parallel to each other.", "Fabric that's about three feet wide typically requires 4,000 vertical threads.", "By stepping on the loom's foot pedal, the weaver repeatedly raises every second vertical thread, and with a tug of a cord, passes a shuttle containing a bobbin of thread horizontally in between.", "This intertwining of horizontal and vertical threads weaves the silk fabric.", "To create a pattern, the weaver uses multiple shuttles containing threads of different colors, thicknesses, and textures.", "Some patters, such as an intricate weave called brocade, are so intricate that even the most experienced weavers produce just two to six inches of fabric per day.", "Now, that's wearable art.", "A centuries-old painting is actually easier to restore than a decades-old painting.", "For hundreds of years, artists used pure oil paints, but by the 20th century, artists began using different types of paint, making restoration more challenging.", "A traditional painting is typically oil on canvas, protected with a layer of natural resin varnish.", "Over time, a linen canvas can become brittle, distort, and sometimes tear.", "Varnish yellows and dirt and dust accumulate, rendering the once-vibrant painting dark and dull and in dire need of professional conservation.", "The conservation process is multi-faceted.", "They have to strip away any previous restoration, then perform a new restoration, yet make it entirely reversible to allow for future restoration.", "The conservators begin with spot tests to observe how different colors in the painting react to cleaning.", "They dip a cotton swap in mild detergent and rub gently, testing for discolored varnish and any previous restoration.", "When all that's done, they swab on some solvent to neutralize the detergent residue.", "Next, they spray the back of the canvas with water and lie the painting on a vacuum hot table.", "The heat turns the moisture to steam, which relaxes the paint and linen as the vacuum pulls the bumps and puckers flat.", "If the canvas isn't structurally sound, they apply adhesive, a synthetic backing, then a new linen canvas.", "With thermometers monitoring the temperature, the heat activates the adhesive and the vacuum draws everything taut against the hot table, bonding old linen to new.", "And the conservators can turn their attention to the artwork.", "They begin by mixing a cleaning solution-- 1% chemical-grade ammonia, 20% strong detergent, and 79% water.", "They dip a swab in the cleaning solution and another in the solvent.", "Working a small area at a time, they gently glide the cleaning-solution swab over the surface.", "It's critical not to rub, as any abrasion could harm the painting.", "Next, they gently roll the solvent swab over the same area to neutralize the cleaning-solution residue.", "They repeat the solution-solvent procedure area by area until they've removed surface dirt from the entire painting.", "Then they start all over again, this time removing old, yellowed varnish, embedded dirt, and previous restoration.", "The cleaning completed, they can now address the tears and damages.", "Using a small pallet knife, they fill the cavities of the tear with gesso, material that's used as a background for paintings.", "This gesso is reversible, meaning it can easily be removed, if required, during a future restoration.", "Once the gesso dries, they wipe away the excess with a damp cloth, leaving a repair that's flush with the surrounding surface.", "Then they seal the gesso with varnish.", "This creates a barrier between the existing paint layer and the one they're about to add, making it removable for future restoration.", "They retouch the repaired area, expertly matching colors to the original and blending them seamlessly with the surrounding area.", "This process, called inpainting, is where the conservators' fine-art training is put to the test.", "Rather than use oil paints, they mix pigments with acrylic resin.", "This produces paint that looks just like oils but is removable with mild solvents in the event of a future restoration.", "They brush varnish over the inpainting so that the sheen matches that of the surrounding area.", "And now, the final step.", "They spray the entire painting with a light coat of removable synthetic varnish that doesn't yellow over time.", "This evens out and protects the surface.", "Once the varnish cures, the painting goes back into its frame, just the way the artist intended.", "Underwater exploration was a shallow experience until scuba tanks were developed in the middle of the 20th century.", "Filled with compressed air and attached to a breathing regulator, scuba tanks enable divers to stay underwater longer.", "This invention took diving to a whole new level.", "Scuba tanks are a way to bottle the air we breathe and take it with us underwater.", "To make aluminum scuba tanks, they start with solid, cylindrical chunks called slugs.", "The aluminum-alloy slugs tumble around in a perforated, rotating drum, which takes them through a series of chemical baths.", "The baths clean and treat the surface of the aluminum to prepare the slugs for forming.", "The operator loads the slugs into a feeder system that serves them up one at a time to a hydraulic extrusion press.", "An extrusion piston forces the slug into a die inside the press.", "It hollows and stretches the slug into the shape of a scuba tank.", "It takes about 1,300 tons of force to transform a solid, short chunk of aluminum into a longer, hollow cylinder.", "The shaping process itself generates heat, making the aluminum softer and more malleable.", "The press establishes the outer diameter of the tank, the inner one, and the base.", "The process takes just 20 seconds.", "The freshly formed cylinder now spins as a roller applies a lubricant to the open end.", "The machine ejects the cylinder.", "Then it's over to the hydraulic neck press.", "This press forces the opening of the tank into a die to narrow it substantially.", "This establishes the basic shape of the scuba-tank neck.", "It still needs more work, but first, the tank shape must be firmed up.", "They heat treat and then quench the scuba tanks in cool water.", "The shock of the rapid cooling hardens the aluminum.", "Back to the neck now.", "A spinning, computerized cutter shortens it.", "Then, another cutter moves in.", "Filings fly as it carves excess metal from the outside of the scuba-tank neck.", "A computerized drill widens the neck hole and cuts a pocket for an o ring seal.", "The next tool carves a thread into the inside wall of the neck.", "The threaded profile will allow for connections to an air-fill-up valve and to a breathing regulator.", "Every scuba tank undergoes a test to measure tank expansion under pressure.", "They fill each scuba tank with water and place it in a test jacket that's also filled with water.", "Testing equipment increases the pressure in the scuba tank, and the tank expands, placing water from the test jacket.", "By measuring the displaced water, they determine the rate of tank expansion, and if it's acceptable, the tank moves on.", "A scuba tank now spins against a sanding belt.", "This sanding gives the exterior a brushed finish, which some divers prefer.", "They etch the serial number and other information onto the upper part of the tank.", "For a more colorful look, the factory applies a vibrant, translucent powder coat to the brushed finish.", "The finish is purely aesthetic.", "Aluminum doesn't rust, so a natural finish would weather underwater conditions as well as the powder coat.", "They bake on the powder coat, giving the tanks a glossy look.", "These aluminum scuba tanks are now ready to take the pressure.", "Life is sure to be one underwater adventure after another." ]

{ "things": [ "Rubber Gloves", "Soap Carvings", "Aircraft Cabinets", "Motorcycle Brake Locks" ] }

[ "It was an american nurse's sensitivity to an antiseptic that led to the development of medical rubber gloves.", "The year was 1890, and the hospital was johns hopkins in baltimore.", "Sympathetic to the nurse's plight, the chief of surgery asked a rubber company to develop protective gloves.", "Around the world, healing hands wear rubber gloves to stop the spread of germs and save lives.", "To make them, they need a lot of hands, the kind made from ceramic or aluminum.", "They'll serve as molds.", "First, they need to remove residue from the last rubber-glove production, so they do a thorough washing in soapy water...", "And then in bleach.", "They must remove every speck of residue because even the smallest contaminate could lodge in the latex rubber gloves and create holes.", "Leaving the bleach, the ceramic hands twirl into round, revolving brushes.", "Their bristles scour the surface and the hard to reach areas between the ceramic fingers.", "After this thorough scrubbing, the hand molds dive into a tub of hot water.", "It's the last cleaning before production begins.", "As they exit the tub, the hands swivel on the rail carrier to drip dry.", "Still slightly damp and spinning, the hand molds head into a chemical bath, which forms a film on the surface.", "It's a critical coating because liquid rubber won't adhere to bare ceramic, but it will to this substance.", "The ceramic molds now reach into warm, liquid rubber, which has been enhanced for extra strength.", "The liquid rubber reacts with the chemical coating on the hands and becomes gel-like.", "Coated with the rubber gel, the hands spin to shake off any drops as they head into an oven.", "Under intense heat, the rubber dries to the hand form.", "It also undergoes a chemical process called vulcanization that makes rubber stronger and elastic.", "After a wash and dry, the gloves spin through brushes which roll up the cuffs.", "This cuff roll, called the bead, has a specific purpose.", "It makes it easier to pull the rubber glove off the mold.", "Workers grab the gloves by the beads to peel them off the ceramic forms.", "These particular medical gloves were molded from synthetic rubber for people who can't wear natural latex rubber due to allergies.", "These synthetic rubber gloves are a bit stickier than the natural latex ones, and they must be removed by hand.", "However, the natural latex gloves come off much more easily.", "Bursts of pressurized air blow these gloves off the ceramic forms.", "At a test station, a worker now stretches and inflates each medical glove to check for weak spots and holes.", "Even a pinhole leak would be cause for rejection.", "Next, they take a sample glove from every batch and pump water into it, again checking for leaks.", "If the sample glove is watertight, they approve the entire batch for shipment.", "They color code gloves for strength.", "These orange cleaning gloves are thick and reusable.", "Others, like the medical gloves, are for limited use and disposable.", "Each rubber formulation is customized for color, strength, and other characteristics.", "It has taken a lot of fake hands and real ones to make rubber gloves, and it all happens very fast.", "They manufacture 200 rubber gloves a minute at this factory.", "That's about 12,000 gloves per hour.", "They pack them up in batches of 100.", "A cornstarch solution applied earlier keeps them from sticking together in the box.", "Later, that starch will also act as a lubricant to allow the gloves to slide easily onto hands.", "And with all that, these rubber gloves are ready to protect the public.", "In northern thailand, the tradition of carving elaborate flowers from soap began in the 1930s with farm workers who were looking for a creative outlet.", "In their hands, pieces of soap became little works of art.", "And in the process, they carved out a niche market for soap flowers.", "Today in thailand, there's a thriving tourist trade in floral soap carvings.", "These awesome blossoms are far too delicate for scrub-up duty.", "They're made to be admired.", "Infused with fruit powders, they also add fragrance to a room.", "The carvers start by making their own soap.", "Glycerin made of animal fats and oils is the main ingredient.", "Other ingredients include fruit powder...", "Water...", "Food coloring-- in this case, yellow-- fragrance...", "And vegetable oil.", "He mixes the vegetable oils with the water as he heats the ingredients slowly.", "He then adds the glycerin chunks to a separate bucket of hot water.", "The glycerin melts on contact, and he whisks it to disperse it in the water.", "He now pours the glycerin mixture in to the water and oil.", "Using an electric mixer, he blends the ingredients, adding water as needed to achieve the desired consistency.", "He blends the mango fruit powder into the soap mixture.", "A dash of yellow coloring reflects the aroma of the soap-- mango.", "He adds a mango fragrance formulation to enhance the powdered fruit scent.", "That completes this aromatic liquid-soap mixture.", "He transfers it to a square pan lined with plastic.", "After a few hours, the soap solidifies into a big yellow bar.", "He pries the hardened soap and the plastic liner away from the pan and flips it over.", "The soap slab lands on the workbench.", "He peels the plastic liner off.", "Now, using a device similar to a paper cutter, he slices the soap into long, uniform bars.", "He stacks them in piles of three.", "He cuts the stacks of long bars crosswise, producing small soap squares the size of brownies.", "Each soap bar will be transformed into a beautiful flower.", "This takes artistic vision and skill.", "The artist has many years of experience and carves with an expert hand.", "As he scoops out chunks, the broad and distinctive petals of an orchid take shape.", "He discards the broad base, and from a simple soap bar, a flower has bloomed.", "He dips the carving in water to improve the adhesion of water-based paint.", "He partially submerges the carving in paint, giving it a two-toned look.", "The artist selects color combinations for their visual impact, and authenticity is not essential.", "He brushes mauve paint onto the orchid's central column to accentuate it.", "He extends the brush strokes to the petals.", "These brush strokes mimic the look of veins.", "With this colorful artistry, the soap carving seems to come to life.", "He dips a toothbrush in paint and flicks his thumb across the bristles to spray flecks onto the center column.", "With that final splash of color, the carving is complete.", "He glues it to the base of a decorative box.", "The box both protects the carving and adds to the presentation.", "Taking the lid off reveals a surprise.", "The carving could be any flower in any color.", "But the most amazing thing of all is that it's been carved from soap.", "The world of private-passenger aircraft is all about comfort and luxury.", "Big corporations send their top executives to travel in jets with well-appointed interiors.", "And the world's super-wealthy spare no expense making their private planes as lavish as their homes.", "Just like building or renovating a house, you can choose all the decorative finishings of your new aircraft-- everything from the floor covering and seat fabric to the style, wood type, and color of the cabinetry.", "It's critical not to weigh the aircraft down, so cabinets can't be made from particle board.", "Even plywood is far too heavy.", "The solution-- panels made of honeycomb-shaped hard paper sandwiched between fiberglass sheets, strong like particle board, but 1/4 the weight.", "Computerized machines cut the panels to shape and drill holes for threaded inserts, into which bolts and screws for hinges and handles will fasten.", "After refining the holes with hand tools, workers hold the inserts in the holes with tape while they inject epoxy glue to bond the inserts permanently.", "The panels adjoin with a tongue and groove system, so computerized machines cut the edges accordingly.", "The material is fibrous, so the cut edges are rough.", "Workers smooth them before gluing and assembling.", "Certain panel surfaces are too hard to access after assembly, so they receive their decorative wood veneer facade before being cut to shape.", "These pieces are covered in a protective film to prevent damaging the veneer during assembly.", "Once a unit is assembled, workers make sure it's square.", "They also verify the dimensions.", "Meanwhile, an automated belt sander preps the veneer.", "Veneer is wood that's been sliced into thin sheets.", "For these cabinet facades, these sheets are a mere 0.04 inches thick.", "The most typical choices are walnut, ebony, cherry, and birch.", "Workers disassemble the unit to access each component for veneering.", "They lay the component on the back of the veneer sheet and trace it.", "Then they follow the pencil line with a fine-tooth veneer saw.", "Next, they spray contact cement on the component surface and the veneer's underside.", "A plastic sheet in between prevents contact until the veneer is correctly positioned.", "After pressing down the veneer, they place the component in a vacuum bag and suction out the air.", "This flattens the veneer evenly over the entire surface.", "Eight hours later, the component comes out of the vacuum bag, and with a router, they trim the veneer flush all around.", "Then they glue the edges with epoxy and apply strips of hardwood to match the facade.", "The epoxy cures in a couple of hours, at which point they sand the edges to remove any excess glue.", "Now they reinstall the component and measure to make sure the surrounding gaps are precisely 0.06 inches.", "Should some tweaking be required, they simply sand edges or adjust hinges.", "They disassemble yet again and touch up any imperfections that sanding the edges caused.", "Once the touch-up paint is dry, they spray on the first of nine coats of lacquer.", "Each coat has to dry overnight.", "They sand it twice before applying the next coat, first with an orbital sander, then with a sanding block to remove any waves in the lacquer left by the orbital sander.", "After the last coat of lacquer dries, they do a final sanding with a very fine grit paper.", "Then, using a wool pad and polishing compound, they polish the surface to a reflective, high-gloss finish.", "Workers now reassemble the components for the last time.", "They install the fixtures and accessories, the decorative hardware, and everything electrical.", "The cabinetry unit is finished.", "Not only does the luxurious look fit a multi-million-dollar private aircraft, it's also, as they say in tech terms, plug and play.", "You just install and plug it into the aircraft, and everything runs-- no additional wiring required.", "A motorcycle can be rolled into a truck or van and be gone in a minute, leaving an empty space and an angry owner.", "To help put the brakes on this parking-lot theft, there are portable locks for brakes.", "With the brakes in full lock down, the bike can't be rolled away.", "When it's time for a pit stop, a disc-brake lock takes some of the worry out of leaving a coveted motorbike unguarded.", "Simply clip it onto the motorbike's brake rotor, turn the key, and the wheels won't budge.", "Equipped with an alarm, this handy gadget can also alert bystanders of a crime in progress.", "Before they manufacture the lock, they cut the keys.", "There are two for each lock.", "The employee inserts two blank key blades into milling machines that carve eight different notches into them.", "The combination of notches is one of over a million possible key codes.", "The machine prints the key-code information onto a card.", "In the meantime, the employee inserts the keys into a slot, and little brushes inside clean them.", "The assembler slips the matching keys onto a ring along with the key-code card to keep them all together.", "She installs batteries to power lights in the key grip.", "To make a lock to match the keys, the worker refers to the key-code card to select notched brass wafers.", "She stacks them in an assembly unit so that the notches in the wafers match the bits cut into the key blade.", "She places the lock cylinder above the wafers and activates a spring that lifts them into the cylinder.", "She flips the cylinder and removes it from the assembly device, then caps the cylinder, encasing the wafers.", "She tries a key and confirms it's a match.", "She brushes grease into two niches in the cylinder.", "She inserts locking bars into each one.", "The grease holds them in place as she slides a steel sleeve over the cylinder.", "She tries the key again to confirm the assembly functions.", "For extra protection, she encases the cylinder in a hard lock body.", "She plugs the open end and secures the metal plug with two pins.", "She now inserts bolts in the lock.", "In operation, these bolts will be pushed into the brake disc to lock it.", "A metal sliding cover protects the key hole when not in use.", "The installer adds a plastic mechanism to slide it open and closed more easily.", "They now have a completed lock bolt.", "They assemble the outer lock body.", "The two parts come together to form a slot to fit over the brake disc.", "Using a custom measuring tool, the employee confirms that the hole for the lock mechanism is the correct size.", "She then slides an applicator for lubricant into that hole.", "It releases the lubricant, and she distributes it more evenly.", "She slots steel balls into compartments in the lock mechanism.", "When the lock is engaged, these balls will protrude and keep it engaged.", "She pops the locking bolt into the outer casing.", "She permanently secures it with a plastic spring, snapping it into place between the steel casing and the lock.", "Another application of lubricant, and the motorcycle brake lock is ready for an alarm system.", "The alarm has been pre-assembled at another factory.", "It fits into a tray-like compartment of the casing.", "With the help of a mechanized tool, she press-fits the alarm to the casing.", "She slides a plastic dowel into the lock to confirm the alarm mechanism and gauges.", "She replaces the section of the casing that was removed for the alarm installation and secures it with a screw.", "She polishes the lock against a revolving wheel with little brushes.", "She rubs some oil on it, and the metal gleams.", "Now complete, this motorbike brake-disc lock looks pretty, just don't mess with it." ]

{ "things": [ "Ice Cream Treats", "Wooden Golf Clubs", "Aircraft Wings", "Car Battery Recycling" ] }

[ "Today on \"how it's made,\" ice-cream treats...", "Wooden golf clubs...", "Aircraft wings...", "And car-battery recycling.", "Before refrigeration, ice cream was a handmade luxury.", "Ingredients went into a mixing bowl inside a tub filled with ice and saltwater.", "The salt helped the ice absorb heat, cooling the mixture to below freezing.", "In the 1920s, commercial freezers made mass production possible, and the ice cream industry was born.", "To make ice-cream treats, you first have to make the ice cream.", "It all begins with fresh cream.", "The factory stores it in refrigerated silos set just a few degrees above freezing.", "The silos feed a high-speed mixer that blends the cream with other ingredients.", "The main dry ingredients are powdered skim milk and plant-based stabilizers and emulsifiers.", "Stabilizers prevent the ice cream from crystallizing, and emulsifiers allow the mix to bond with air during the whipping process.", "The other ingredients are sugar and corn syrup.", "After about three minutes of mixing, a pumping system moves the mixture into pasteurization tanks and heats it to 162 degrees for half an hour, killing any bacteria and activating the stabilizers.", "Then the factory homogenizes the mixture, a process that breaks up the fat globules, giving the ice cream a smooth texture.", "The mixture is cooled, and concentrated vanilla flavoring is added.", "Then the concoction is chilled and whipped for about 15 seconds.", "Whipping blends the mix with air, transforming it from a liquid to a soft solid.", "Without air, the finished product would come out looking like frozen milk rather than ice cream.", "The ice-cream sandwich wafers are made of chocolate-cake ingredients.", "A filling machine feeds two lines of wafers toward an injection pipe.", "Just as two wafers come together, the machine injects a third of a cup of vanilla ice cream in between.", "The pipe's head fits the ice cream into a rectangular slab that fits perfectly between the wafers.", "All this happens at a rate of 140 ice-cream sandwiches per minute.", "As the sandwiches move on to packaging, the filling is still ice cold from the freezing phase, so there is no threat of a meltdown.", "The packaging system raises each sandwich into a wrapper, then folds and tucks the ends.", "The next machine counts the sandwiches and inserts them into boxes.", "Once sealed, the boxes go directly into a storage freezer at minus 22 degrees.", "On another line, ice-cream cone production is under way.", "A feeder drops prewrapped sugar cones into holders on a conveyor belt.", "Sprayers coat the insides with a chocolaty layer, which adds flavor and creates a barrier between the cones and ice cream, so the cone remains crispy until you eat it.", "Next, nozzles squirt in the ice-cream filling.", "One production line, two flavors.", "One row of cones gets vanilla ice cream, the other row chocolate.", "Now for a tasty surprise in the cone's core, an injection of liquid caramel.", "This factory also makes ice-cream cones with chocolate and strawberry sauce inside.", "Next, a chocolate-flavored liquid topping.", "Then the crunchy finishing touch, a layer of chocolaty coated puffed rice.", "Finally, the cones move under a lid dispenser that applies a wax-coated paper lid to each one.", "A heating element instantly melts the wax, sealing the lids to the cone's paper sleeve.", "From here, the ice-cream cones go into boxes, then straight into the freezer, ready to take a licking.", "Up next, the forgotten art of wooden golf clubs.", "High-tech metal clubs rule today's golf courses.", "But don't count wooden clubs out of the game yet.", "Wooden golf clubs are all about tradition.", "Golfers have played with them for centuries.", "And some players still prefer the look and feel of these finely crafted clubs.", "Go with the grain, and your golf game could be on the upswing.", "Each club head starts with a log of persimmon wood, which is a type of ebony.", "It's sliced into quarters, and the lower quality center section is discarded.", "Each quarter is cut down into a workable shape and size.", "Then it's locked into this duplicating machine.", "A more sculpted piece of wood, called a \"master model,\" is placed overhead.", "A wheel traces the contours of the master model and guides a blade below so that it carves the rough chunk of wood into a duplicate of the master model.", "The first master model is swapped out for a more refined version, and, again, the blade below copies the shape.", "The duplicate stub is cut off, and it gets a light sanding.", "Next, using a spinning cutter, a generous slot is carved into the face of the club head.", "Heavy-duty glue is spread in the slot, and then it's plugged with an insert made of rigid plastic.", "This reinforcement will protect the club head from the force of the golf ball.", "The overlap is trimmed off, and the head is sanded until the plastic insert blends seamlessly with the wood.", "Next, a router is used to carve an hourglass shape into the bottom of the golf-club head.", "This slot will hold the sole plate, which will add weight and protect the bottom of club.", "The club head can't be more than three grams off the target weight.", "After factoring the weight of the sole plate that's still to be installed, this club head gets a lead pellet to make it a little heavier.", "An extra hole is drilled in case more lead needs to be added later.", "Then the lead pellet is press-fit to the club head.", "Adhesive is slathered into the slot.", "Then the stainless-steel sole plate is installed.", "Again, sanding smoothes away any bumps or grooves.", "A drill bores a hole in the neck of the golf-club head, and a glue-coated metal sleeve slides into that hole.", "Then the neck is tapered with a sanding belt.", "A jeweler saw is used to score the face of the golf-club head.", "These lines are critical, because they help give the ball spin.", "The club head gets a dip in water-based stain that soaks into the wood but doesn't penetrate the metal sole plate.", "Then, things get messy, as a pasty substance is rubbed all over the golf-club head, plugging the open pores of the persimmon wood.", "It's a crucial step that will insure a mirror finish down the line.", "The head is numbered to identify it as a fairway club.", "And then the sole plate gets a good scrubbing with steel wool to get rid of any fingerprints.", "Five coats of polyurethane are sprayed on.", "Next, the glue-covered end of the shaft is pushed into the sleeve and the club head.", "The club's weight is fine-tuned with the addition of some pulverized lead into the extra hole drilled earlier.", "For a player to hit balls accurately, each club in the set has to feel as if it's the same weight.", "So, there's one more weigh-in before this wooden golf club is up to par.", "Finally, it's time to hit the links with a club that lives up to tradition.", "Coming up, crafting the wings that give us flight.", "Aircraft wings provide the lift that takes us to the skies.", "They're designed to be very strong and very light.", "Producing them requires a strategic balance of old-school production methods and high-tech computer-assisted design.", "The wing's frame is made up of three main components, the rear spar, the main spar, and the ribs.", "The ribs are crafted from aircraft-grade aluminum.", "It's corrosion resistant and has great strength, allowing it to resist extreme wind pressure.", "A computer-guided stamping machine punches small holes for rivets and control cables.", "It also stamps larger holes to reduce overall weight.", "Workers break attachments called microjoints and extract the ribs.", "Each rib now goes onto a metal-and-rubber forming die.", "A hydraulic press applies 150 tons of pressure, stamping the rib to the die shape.", "Using a grinder, workers smooth out the sharp edges left behind by the stamping process.", "Then they peel off the plastic film that protected the ribs from scratches.", "The factory uses the same process to construct the main spar.", "The spars run the entire length of the wing.", "It takes even more pressure this time-- 222 tons-- to bend the spars into shape.", "That's because this aluminum is three times thicker than that used for the ribs.", "To ensure they've aligned the ribs perfectly for riveting, workers push spring clamps into the spar.", "These hold the ribs in position.", "They hand drill holes for larger rivets and smooth out the sharp edges with a deburring drill.", "Then, using a pneumatic riveting gun and bucking bar, they rivet the ribs to the main spar.", "A tiny bucking bar is required for some of the tighter spaces.", "The completed airframe now goes onto a positioning rack, where it will get an aluminum covering they call the wing skin.", "Workers use spring clamps to position the top skin onto the airframe.", "They use the same procedure for the leading-edge wing nose.", "Once everything's clamped together, workers permanently rivet the assembly.", "Meanwhile, welders fuse the wing's fuel tank using an argon gas torch, which contains fewer contaminants than the typical acetylene torch.", "They fit the tank into the wing chamber, then secure it by bolting steel belts on to the spars.", "Now they position the tank's covering plate and screw it onto the wing.", "These holes are for fuel lines and control cables, which run the entire length of the wing.", "Finally, the wingtip is fitted and bolted on to the wing.", "It's made of a lightweight fiberglass-and-plastic composite.", "The completed wing is now ready to be bolted on to the aircraft body.", "This wing weighs in at a mere 175 pounds.", "But it's certainly no lightweight when it comes to strength.", "It can withstand nearly 5,500 pounds of wind pressure.", "When we return, turning trash into treasury at a car-battery recycling plant.", "Car batteries may die, but that doesn't mean it's the end of the road for their components.", "These lead-acid batteries are routinely recycled.", "This keeps toxic materials out of landfills and gives those old car batteries a lot more mileage.", "This battery may be toast, but it's not trash, because dead car batteries are jump-starting a major recycling industry.", "Pallets of old batteries are tipped on to a conveyor belt.", "It takes them up into an enclosed machine that has over 30 rotating hammers.", "They smash the old batteries to bits, and then a screen filters out the lead-acid paste.", "The broken bits of lead and plastic tumble into a vat of water.", "The lead and other metals sink, while the lighter plastic pieces float to the surface-- a convenient way to sort and separate the battery components.", "Once the plastic pieces have been cleaned, a machine blows them into the back of a truck.", "They'll be taken to a plastic-recycling plant and turned into pellets that will eventually be used in the production of new car batteries.", "A worm screw now moves the lead and other metals to another part of the plant for further processing.", "Remember that lead-acid paste screened out of the smashed-up batteries earlier?", "The acid has been neutralized and turned into water.", "This press squeezes the water out so all that remains is a lead paste.", "It's removed and added to the pile of lead and other metals.", "The water from the deacidification process contains some metallic residues, so it's treated with chemicals that cause the contaminants to precipitate, then settle into a sludge on the bottom of the tanks.", "Workers sample the water to make sure the particles are settling properly.", "They pump out the sludge, then filter the water, which now meets regulatory standards and can be poured down the drain.", "The sludge goes into that big pile of lead and other metals.", "A few shovels full of refined coal are added to the pile as a processing aid.", "Then the battery solids head up a conveyor into a revolving drier.", "The metals spend 20 minutes in here to remove any excess moisture.", "Then it's into a furnace for 10 hours.", "The lead melts into a liquid, and the other metals float to the surface, allowing them to be skimmed off.", "The molten lead goes into a steel kettle, where it's mixed with caustic soda.", "This cause some remaining contaminants to float to the surface for easy removal.", "The liquid lead is now fairly pure, so it's time to pour.", "The lead is pumped into bar-shaped molds, and any lingering impurities are skimmed off.", "Below, a constant spray of ice-cold water chills the molds, and the lead hardens into bars in just four minutes.", "The conveyor winds downward, and the bars are tapped free of their molds.", "There's enough lead in one of these bars to make three car batteries.", "They'll be remelted and molded into battery components.", "And the final product is as good as new...", "Proving that recycling can give old car batteries new life while keeping dangerous substances out of our landfills." ]

{ "things": [ "Aerospace Fasteners", "Cactus Pear Puree", "Lab Reactors" ] }

[ "today on \"how it's made\"-- aerospace fasteners.", "Cactus pear puree.", "And lab reactors an aircraft must be able to withstand extreme conditions and stress, so it's critical that the fasteners holding the parts of the aircraft together are made to precise technical specifications from high-strength corrosion-resistant materials.", "This company manufactures fasteners for all types of aircraft.", "These screws and bolts are made of aerospace-grade stainless steel.", "It arrives from the steel mill as coil.", "Certain fasteners are coated with copper, which acts as a lubricant, and the company further lubricates them with powdered soaps and other chemicals.", "This prevents the coil from catching as this drawing machine pulls it through a round die.", "Wire from the drawing machine enters this bolt-forming machine.", "First, it heats the wire and cuts pieces called blanks.", "Each blank then passes through five different dies, each of which progressively shapes it into a bolt.", "This t-bolt is made from a different type of high-grade stainless steel that doesn't require extra copper lubrication.", "The coil goes through the same process as the smaller bolt we just saw.", "However, this bolt-forming machine is much larger and uses four dies rather than five to shape the t-bolt.", "All fasteners must pass several quality-control checks throughout the manufacturing process.", "In this particular test, the factory measures the bolt's head length and diameter and checks the results against the technical specifications.", "When the fasteners come off the forming machines, they have sharp edges called burrs, so they have to go for a spin in a deburring machine.", "This one is pretty low-tech but highly effective.", "Fasteners made of certain types of stainless steel are sent to an outside plant for heat treatment, which strengthens them.", "Fasteners made from copper-lubricated stainless steel soak in a bath of nitric acid for about 20 minutes to dissolve the copper without harming the stainless steel.", "Workers thoroughly rinse the fasteners with water, then dry them off by spinning them at high speed.", "The final step is to form threads on the body of the fasteners.", "Forming threads adds even more strength.", "That's because this factory does that using a process called thread rolling.", "Rather than use machining equipment, which cuts threads into the shank, a process that removes steel and can weaken the bolt, this thread-rolling machine rolls one bolt at a time between two dies, which forms the thread pattern.", "This process doesn't remove any material, and compressing the steel to form threads actually increases its strength and ability to handle stress during flight.", "The threads undergo a thorough quality-control inspection.", "A technician uses a precision gauge to measure them.", "Next, he uses ring gauges.", "If the fastener screws into the no-go gauge, the dimensions are wrong.", "If it screws into the go gauge, they're correct.", "This optical imagining system measures the fastener, analyzes the form, spacing and ankles of the threads, then sends the data to the company's computer system.", "That system can trace every single fastener back to the batch of steel from which it was made.", "Another quality-control test measures tensile strength, how much pull force the fastener can withstand before breaking.", "In yet another test, technicians cut the fasteners into pieces, mount them onto a bake-like puck and polish them, then examine them under a digital microscope.", "Among other characteristics, they analyze the steel's grain size and structure.", "This type of stainless steel has a high nickel and chromium content, making it resistant to extreme temperatures and corrosion.", "Another test assesses how hard the steel is according to an international standard known as the rockwell hardness scale.", "Such rigorous testing is imperative for safety as these fasteners are what hold aircraft together.", "It's a fruit known by many names-- cactus pear, cactus fruit and prickly pear.", "It grows on several species of cacti, which are native to parts of north, central and south america.", "Some growers, in addition to selling the fruit, produce a puree, which they sell as a flavoring.", "Prickly pear martini, anyone?", "Cactus pear fruit is high in fiber and rich in vitamins and minerals.", "It's sweet and delicious eaten as-is or as a natural flavoring in foods and beverages.", "In the salinas valley in california, the cactus pear harvest begins around late august and continues through early april.", "The fruit is ripe when its skin begins turning red.", "The harvesters wear thick leather gloves to protect their hands from the thorns and safety glasses to shield their eyes from loose thorns that blow through the air.", "Tractors haul the cactus pears to the processing plant.", "The fruit first passes over brushes and into a vacuum that removes loose dirt, then through a shower of chlorinated water, which kills off bacteria.", "The fruit enters a cold-air dryer for about 5 seconds, then passes through a hot-air dryer for 20 seconds.", "The fruit exits completely dry.", "A quality-control team removes any with bruises or other cosmetic defects and transfers those cactus pears to the puree line.", "The fruit that passes inspection falls into what's called a singulator, a machine that lines them up in single file.", "The singulator deposits each cactus pear into a cup on a computer-guided weigh-and-sort machine, which classifies each fruit by size, then applies the grower's price code sticker.", "The fruit then travels on the conveyor belt that leads to the padded tub designated for its weight classification.", "A worker stationed at the tub packs the cactus pears into a lined shipping box.", "Another worker removes any less-than-perfect fruit that managed to slip through the previous checks.", "Those also go to the puree line.", "On the puree line, the dumper drops the cactus pears onto a conveyor-belt system, which transports them to the crusher.", "The machine crushes the fruit, separating the skins and flesh, mashing the flesh into puree and extracting the sweet magenta-colored juice.", "From the crusher, the pressed skins drop onto the vibrating shaker while the puree and juice flow through it into a tank below.", "The shaker separates any puree still caught in the skins.", "The skins drop into a bin and are hauled off to be used as compost or sold as animal feed.", "Once the tank is filled to capacity with about 400 pounds of puree, a pump transfers it to a large hopper.", "A worker releases puree from the hopper to the finisher.", "The finisher's fine screens trap the seeds while letting the puree pass through to a holding tank below.", "The seeds are sold to businesses that press them into oil for cosmetic and hair products.", "From the holding tank, the deseeded puree passes through a second finisher with even finer filters.", "Then it flows into a tank for pasteurization, which kills off any remaining bacteria.", "The puree is finally ready.", "A worker fills a drum, which is double-lined with plastic bags.", "She draws four 1-cup samples from each drum for quality-control tracking.", "Once a drum contains 400 pounds of puree, the worker zip-ties each bag separately, closes the drum with a lid, safety-seals the lid with a lock, then puts the drum in the freezer.", "The cactus pear puree is sold frozen to the food and beverage industry, which uses it to flavor many products, from ice cream, sorbet, and gelato to flavored water, wine, tequila, and brandy.", "Lab reactors are vessels of discovery.", "Inside these enclosed glass systems, chemical and biological reactions happen.", "Useful for developing many products, including medications like cancer drugs, they can also be used to produce these products on a small scale.", "A lab reactor is basically a sophisticated blender.", "During mixing, it also heats or cools ingredients to start a chemical reaction, and there are ports for attachments like a condenser.", "Making lab reactors starts with solid glass rods.", "The rods are sometimes a bit crooked, so a worker heats and moves them across rollers to straighten them.", "Grinding wheels round their shape to more precise contours, and a wet sanding smooths the surface.", "The operator measures the outer diameter of each rod.", "A worker heats one end of the rod and forms a rim using a special tool.", "He applies dabs of liquid glass just below the rim.", "This creates nubs for properly situating the blade hub on the main shaft.", "To make the reactor's inner wall, he scores a wide glass tube and exposes the score line to a flame and then water.", "Another worker heats the top end.", "He supports the glass with a wide paddle until it's malleable enough to shape.", "A forming tool gives it a wide lip that will serve as the opening of the reactor.", "He aims a flame at the newly formed flange to smooth out any imperfections.", "He slides a larger glass vessel over the flask, then fuses them at both ends.", "This creates a hollow jacket through which liquids will be pumped to heat or cool the contents of the flask.", "A different worker cuts another glass tube to length.", "He scores it lightly and again exposes it to fire and water to break it along the etched line.", "He shapes the tube into a port for the outside of the reactor jacket.", "He'll make two of these ports.", "They'll be used to circulate heating and cooling liquids.", "Using the torch, a worker softens a spot on the reactor jacket.", "With tweezers, he pulls away the softened glass, creating a hole for the port to be installed.", "After inserting a ceramic holder in the port, he fuses it to the hole on an angle.", "Once the seam solidifies, the port will be an intrinsic part of the lab-reactor vessel.", "Abrasive wheels grind another glass tube to make it perfectly round.", "This tube will be part of a drainage valve.", "An employee then begins work on the rest of the drainage valve assembly.", "He forms an internal thread for a plug.", "And after cutting it shorter, another worker creates a flange on the other end.", "He burns a hole in the side of the valve tube.", "The drainage tubing, now also cut shorter, is ready to be attached to the rest of the valve.", "He heats the connecting points, and they melt and meld together.", "Since we last saw it, the reactor vessel has received a base.", "A worker burns a hole in that base and fuses the drainage valve onto it.", "Another employee then places the reactor vessel in a special fixture and checks that it sits level.", "She adds specific amounts of water incrementally, beginning with 2 cups.", "She draws a line on the outside of the reactor vessel to indicate the amount inside.", "This will provide a reference for affixing a scale.", "Using the markings as a guide, she applies the ceramic scale.", "They'll become part of the glass when the vessel is baked and slowly cooled.", "Stay tuned for a lot more, as this lab reactor comes together to create a stir.", "Making a lab reactor is done for science.", "Precision is important because these reactors will be used to develop new drugs, cosmetics and a range of chemical materials.", "They can also serve as little factories, producing small batches of products.", "A lab reactor needs sturdy impeller blades to generate an effective chemical reaction.", "An automated milling tool cuts a notch in a disk made from strong chemically resistant plastic.", "Another system carves screw threads into a hub made of the same material.", "A tool bores a hole in the center for the insertion of what's called the agitator shaft.", "The operator smooths the threads with fine sandpaper and then assembles the blades to the hub.", "Next is the condenser.", "It's an attachment through which vapor will travel to be transformed into a liquid.", "The worker twists the softened glass tube around a rod to form the coil.", "Another worker inserts a linear glass tube in the center of the coil.", "She melts glass near the bottom to seal the center tube to the coil.", "Moving to the top, she heats the glass and, with tweezers, pulls a bit from the end of the coil to pry it open.", "With a pick, she opens it up a little more.", "She uses a graphite reaming tool to shape the glass opening into a more flared profile.", "The condenser body takes shape, and the worker forms a joint on the end.", "He inserts a standard joint to test the fit.", "The coil can now be inserted into the condenser body.", "Another worker fuses the condenser wall to the coil and burns holes in the glass wall to connect hose attachments.", "She exposes the seam to a less focused flame to bring down the temperature slowly.", "The next worker creates a joint for the lower end of the condenser.", "This joint will be used to connect the condenser to the reactor.", "Once the basic taper profile has been achieved, grinding tools size it more precisely.", "When the connector joint has been cut to length, the worker attaches it to the base of the condenser.", "Another glass fabricator makes more joints, one of which will connect the condenser to the reactor lid, or head, as it's known in the industry.", "He keeps the glass tube long for easy handling and then cuts it to the correct length.", "The worker now seals the center joint to a hole in the reactor lid.", "He burns holes in the reactor head for other connectors.", "As the glass balloons up, he pulls it away to fully open the hole.", "With all the connectors fused to the reactor head, a worker grinds the base of its flange against an abrasive wheel to make it perfectly even.", "An employee then applies decals to the head.", "These indicate the brand and the connector size.", "The decals will be baked into the glass during its final heating.", "He places all the parts in the annealing oven.", "The temperature gradually ramps up to 1,040 degrees fahrenheit and slowly cools.", "This final annealing removes internal stresses and strengthens the glass.", "An inspector scrutinizes the head with a tool to confirm that the connector joints are in proper alignment and positioned at the correct angle.", "Workers install the vessel on a stand, insert the shaft and blades, attach the head and connect the condenser.", "To simulate how it works, a technician pours liquid into the reactor.", "He adds colorful plastic solids that will show up better for this demonstration.", "He activates the impeller blades.", "These blades are designed to lift solids to the top, and they do that effectively.", "He also runs cooling liquids through the condenser.", "In practice, the cool coil will cause vapors from the vessel to convert back to a liquid.", "This lab reactor is now ready to be a lifesaver." ]

{ "things": [ "Honey", "Fiber Optics", "Bricks", "Pipe Organs" ] }

[ "Today on \"how it's made\"...", "Honey...", "Fiber optics...", "Bricks...", "And pipe organs.", "It's winnie the pooh's favorite treat.", "It's sweet and sticky.", "And it's produced by an industrious insect, whose miniature society is one of the most sophisticated in the animal kingdom.", "It all begins in a field, where worker honeybees suck nectar from flower blossoms, such as clover.", "They store it in their honey sack, then return to the hive, where other worker bees suck it out and chew it, breaking down the nectar's complex sugars into two simple sugars called glucose and fructose.", "The bees then deposit the nectar into the cells of the wax honeycombs they've built.", "They fan it with their wings until most of its water content evaporates in the warm air of the beehive.", "What's left is thick and gooey honey.", "The bees then cap each honey-filled cell with beeswax.", "That's when the beekeeper steps in.", "Bees will sting if taken by surprise, so the beekeeper sprays the hive with smoke from burning pine needles, a scented warning that foreigners are about to enter the hive.", "Inside the hive are wooden frames hanging side by side, each holding a honeycomb.", "A hive can house hundreds of thousands of bees, all descendants of the prolific grand pooh-bah of beedom, the queen bee.", "She's the big one in the middle.", "The queen bee lays up to 2,000 eggs a day, creating the work force needed to feed and protect the colony.", "But the beekeeper tricks the colony's defenders.", "He replaces the hive's cover with a device called a bee escape, that smells like cherries.", "Bees dislike the scent, so most fly to the bottom sections of the hive.", "Another warning spray, and the beekeeper removes the bee escape.", "Now he can escape with the honeycombs.", "Inside the honey factory, they put the honeycomb frames on what's called an uncapping machine.", "Like a razor, it shaves the wax caps off the honey-filled cells of the combs.", "They scrape off the remnants manually.", "Then they set the frames on another machine called a honey extractor.", "It spins the honeycombs until all the honey is forced out of the cells.", "Afterwards, they filter the honey to remove any pieces of wax capping that slipped through.", "Then the honey is ready for bottling.", "Some beehives contain smaller frames, designed to produce honey that isn't extracted from the honeycomb.", "Workers remove the frame and cut the honeycomb into pieces as is with a heated knife.", "That seals the wax around the honey inside.", "You eat it, wax and all.", "The beeswax lining of the honeycomb goes to make candles, furniture polish, lipsticks, and other products.", "When producers have more liquid honey than they can sell, they simply let it granulate, develop sugar crystals, and turn hard and white.", "Then, when the orders come in, they return it to its original liquid form by heating it to 130 degrees.", "They vacuum-clean the jars...", "Then fill them.", "One beehive can yield up to seven pounds of honey in a single day.", "That's much more than the bees need for themselves.", "The surplus is what we end up eating.", "Honey production today is both efficient and humane.", "For centuries, the only way to harvest honey from hives had been to kill the bees.", "Then, in 1851, an american beekeeper invented a way to get the honey, yet spare the bees.", "His method, with the removable honeycomb frames, is the one we still use today.", "American researchers have invented a plastic that repairs itself when broken.", "Just apply heat-- a simple hair dryer will do-- and the break automatically mends itself.", "This could solve a longtime problem in electronics, because when components heat up and cool down, they weaken the plastic around them.", "Every time you talk on the phone or go on the internet, what you say or type travels to its destination through fiber optics, voice and data gets transmitted via pulses of light through hair-thin glass fibers.", "Those fibers start out as large glass tubes.", "First, workers unwrap the tubes.", "Then they submerge them in a corrosive bath of hydrofluoric acid that removes any oil residues.", "Then they set a tube into each end of a lathe.", "As the tubes spin, they're heated with a hydrogen-oxygen flame.", "When the glass turns white, it's getting close to hitting peak temperature.", "At about 3,500 degrees, the two tubes fuse together.", "They put this new, longer tube onto another lathe.", "As the tube spins, they inject a mixture of chemical gases inside, while a traversing burner heats everything up.", "The gas mixture contains liquid forms of silicon-- an abundant chemical element found in nature-- and germanium, a chemical element similar to tin that's used as a semiconductor in transistors and other electronic devices.", "As the gases heat, they undergo a chemical reaction that leaves a white soot on the inside of the glass tube.", "The heat fuses the soot, forming what will eventually become the core of the optical fiber.", "The glass tube itself will form the fiber's covering.", "When there's enough fused soot, they turn up the heat until the soot itself turns into glass.", "Then they heat the glass tube enough to soften it, and to soften the new glass inside.", "The intense heat eventually makes the tube collapse on itself to form a solid rod.", "The internal structure of the optical fiber has been achieved.", "But it's in the form of a big, bulky rod called a preform, so the next step is to thin it out.", "First, they excise the preform from the uncollapsed section of the glass tube.", "Then they install it vertically into the drawing tower, which will draw out the final shape.", "The drawing tower's oven heats one end of the preform to 3,600 degrees.", "The glass softens.", "Gravity helps pull it down, like honey dripping from a spoon.", "Then, using a glob of glass as a weight, they stretch the soft glass and keep stretching it until they've formed a thin glass fiber.", "A series of pulleys measures the tension on the fiber as it's being drawn.", "A special monitor makes sure the fiber's precisely the right diameter-- just .", "005 of an inch.", "Then the fiber passes through u.v. lamps that bake on an acrylic coating to protect against dust and other contaminants.", "Finally, the fiber is rolled onto a drum.", "From here, it's either shipped out as is or put into a cable.", "Fiber-optic cables are expensive to produce, but they're smaller and lighter than traditional copper cables.", "They carry more information and need fewer repeaters to keep the signal from deteriorating.", "And, unlike copper cables, they're immune to electromagnetic interference.", "They're also hard to tap without being detected.", "And all this is made possible by a complicated process based on a very simple principle-- light traveling through glass.", "Those three little pigs knew what they were doing when they built that brick house.", "Not only are bricks wolf-proof, they're also fireproof, pest-resistant, and weather-resistant.", "No wonder they're one of the world's oldest building materials.", "Bricks are often made of shale, a lightweight rock that splits easily into thin layers.", "Quarry machines dig 16 inches down to expose the shale to the elements for 2 years.", "This weakens it, making it easier to process once it gets to the factory.", "A 4-foot-high stone wheel with a steel tire grinds the shale into powder.", "It grinds up 50 tons of shale per hour.", "A screen sifts out any pieces that need more grinding.", "The powder goes to the pug mill that mixes it with water.", "This makes a thick paste that will go through the extrusion machine next.", "The extruder forces the paste through a rectangular opening to form one long, continuous piece called a slug.", "At the same time, it shaves off the crustier top layer to expose what will become the face of the brick.", "If this gray shale mixture is fired as is, it will naturally produce a red brick.", "To engineer a different color, they coat the slug in sand mixed with an oxide mineral such as zinc or iron.", "Next, they texture the surface with a textured roller.", "This is just one of many popular designs.", "Then a large knife comes down like a guillotine and slices the slug into 5-foot lengths.", "You might be wondering where those three holes came from.", "Well, remember how the paste goes through the extruder to form the slug?", "Inside are three pins.", "They make three holes designed to decrease the brick's weight.", "Out of each 5-foot length, they cut 20 3-inch bricks.", "The ones on the ends are uneven, so they go back into the mix to make new slugs.", "Next comes the delicate job of stacking these newly minted bricks-to-be.", "A machine first separates them.", "Then, using inflating bags, it grasps them, raises them...", "Then stacks them.", "Meanwhile, the water in the bricks is starting to evaporate.", "To hasten that process, the bricks go into a dryer for two days.", "The dryer gets its hot air from the heat generated by the kiln, where the bricks go next for firing.", "The kiln is really a giant oven.", "It bakes the bricks at 1,900 degrees.", "1 1/2 days later, the bricks are ready.", "The transfer machine takes them out of the kiln.", "But before they go to market, a technician does a quality check.", "He weighs and measures a sample to see if it meets the design specifications.", "Bricks are supposed to absorb some water, but not too much.", "Yet, if they repel water completely, they'll also repel the wet mortars the masons use to stick the bricks together.", "So to test absorbancy, the technician breaks a brick in half.", "He weighs it before and after soaking it in water for 24 hours.", "By comparing the weights, he can see how much water the brick has absorbed.", "Once the batch gets the okay, they stack the bricks into cubes of 500 to 600.", "Each brick weighs 5 1/2 pounds, so each cube weighs in at about 1/4 ton.", "Brick is one of the sturdiest building materials around.", "It doesn't rot, fade, warp, or dent the way some other materials can.", "Bricks are also energy-efficient.", "They absorb heat to help cool your house in the summer and hold heat to help keep it warmer in the winter.", "The music it makes is as complex as it is majestic.", "The pipe organ is one of the largest and most technically sophisticated instruments.", "Building one is an incredible feat of engineering and craftsmanship.", "Early man discovered he could make music by blowing across hollow reeds of different lengths.", "In ancient egypt, an engineer devised what would later become the basic technology of the pipe organ, a steady airflow without mouth-blowing while controlling the air to each pipe to create different notes.", "By the middle ages, the pipe organ was a fixture in churches throughout europe.", "Johann sebastian bach composed his greatest works for organ while working as the musical director of a church.", "a concept artist creates the design.", "The design then goes to a draftsperson, who prepares the technical drawings.", "The organ's pipes are made of a mixture of tin and lead.", "Tin-- the harder metal-- gives brightness to the sound, while lead-- the softer metal-- gives it warmth.", "Artisans pour the molten alloy into a tray, then draw it out to form a sheet.", "As the sheet cools, the two metals react to each other, creating spots.", "The sheet goes into storage to give the alloy time to stabilize.", "Two to three months later, it's ready to be formed into organ pipes.", "First, they cut pieces of metal in the shape of each pipe using templates and large rulers.", "Then they roll each piece using a mandrel.", "The larger the organ, the more pipes it has.", "Pipes are grounded in sets of 61, corresponding to the 61 black-and-white keys on the keyboard.", "And elaborate organ can have more than 10,000 pipes.", "The pipemaker carefully seals the body of each pipe by hand, using tin solder.", "Next, he solders the body of the pipe to the foot and languet.", "The languet is the part that produces the pipe's sound.", "The process of giving a specific sound to each pipe is called voicing.", "This work is done by a trained musician called a voicer.", "He enlarges the mouth of the pipe, called the cut-up, until it's approximately 1/4 of the width across.", "He adjusts the pipe some more, blowing air through it to judge how to further refine the tone.", "Next come the windchests, also called the soundboards.", "These are the large wooden boxes filled with air on which the pipes stand.", "Under each pipe is an air channel covered by a valve.", "The valve is made of leather and sits on a wooden board.", "When the organist pushes a key on the keyboard, the corresponding valve drops down like a trapdoor, releasing air into the pipe to play the note.", "they glue the valves to the windchests one at a time, using animal glue.", "It's suppler and dries faster than synthetic glue.", "The valves are connected to the organ's keys mechanically by long tracks of cedarwood or by electrical wiring.", "The electric signal triggers electromagnets to cause a sudden air depression, making the trapdoor valve drop down and let the air in.", "The console is the organ's brain.", "It contains all the controls for the keys and sets of pipes.", "The organ's white keys are made of linden wood covered with bone, the black keys of ebony or rosewood.", "An artisan adjusts the keys using a weight.", "When the weight rises, the tension is just right.", "The console, keys, and all the other components are finally put together in the assembly room.", "After testing, they disassemble the organ and ship it to its destination, where it's reassembled.", "The voicers come on-site to perform what's called tonal finishing.", "They check and adjust each pipe according to the acoustics of the room.", "This process can take many months for a large and elaborate organ." ]

{ "things": [ "Leather Briefcases", "Crop Dusters", "Corn Whiskey", "Drag Racing Clutches" ] }

[ "Briefcases come in many styles today.", "The classic type is a rigid rectangular box made up of two hinged sections that close together.", "It's often referred to as an attaché case because it was traditionally the type of briefcase used in diplomatic circles by cultural or military attachés.", "These luxury attachés are entirely handcrafted, made from english bridal leather, a fine leather traditionally used for horse saddles.", "The cutter lays out patterns for the various parts, then trims around them.", "Leather, being an animal hide, naturally has scars and blemishes here and there, so he's careful to select blemish-free areas for use as the main surfaces.", "Next he uses a punch press to cut out what are called foundation boards, which will reinforce the leather.", "At this point, an expert leather craftsman takes over.", "He positions each foundation board on the leather.", "Using a tool called a bone folder, he marks where the leather will fold over each board.", "Then he coats the boards with leather-bonding glue...", "And positions them along the fold lines he marked.", "With a tool called a sleeker, he pushes out air pockets and excess glue.", "This ensures a thorough, wrinkle-free bond.", "Next, with a tool called a stitch marker, he perforates the edges of the leather.", "This ensures the stitching will be straight and evenly spaced.", "It also sets the angle of the stitches, essential for both aesthetics and durability.", "Now he bevels the leather.", "This leaves what's known as a raw edge, which he then colors and seals with a reddish stain that highlights the tan-colored leather.", "The attaché case frame is made of steel.", "The craftsman uses contact adhesive to mate the frame to the foundation board and leather.", "Now he can sew the leather.", "He inserts an awl in each stitch hole to clear a path through the leather and boards.", "Then he passes two strong saddle-stitching needles in opposite directions, pulling the pure-linen threads waxed with tallow.", "Next he rivets in place two traditional-style locks made of hand-polished brass.", "Then he constructs the handle by sewing several layers of leather around a piece of steel.", "The handle has a raised rib on the top and bottom.", "These risers, as they're called, make the handle comfortable to hold.", "He uses the bone folder to fit a piece of finishing leather snugly against the risers.", "He glues finishing leather around the handle ends...", "Feeds each end through a brass ring...", "Then folds over the ends to lock in the rings.", "Then he wraps the rest of the leather under and hand-stitches all around.", "The rings attach to brass handle plates, which he secures from the inside with washers and bolts.", "Next he glues in the lid-pocket assembly...", "An all-leather organizer that contains pen loops and pockets for files and business cards.", "Finally, he lines the bottom section with sheepskin leather that's been coated with a semigloss glaze so it can be wiped clean with a damp cloth.", "The outer leather is strong and weather-resistant because it's been tanned with natural plant and tree extracts, then conditioned by hand with fish oils and lanolin, centuries-old techniques they still use to make luxury leather goods today.", "Crop dusters are airplanes specially outfitted for aerial spraying.", "Farmers use them to seed fields and apply pesticides and fertilizer.", "The aquaculture industry uses them to feed fish, and emergency crews fly them to spread retardant on forest fires and dispersants on oil spills.", "Depending on its size, a crop duster can carry up to 2,700 liters of liquid or dry material.", "The plane is designed to be able to swoop down low to accurately cover the target spray area.", "At the factory, they manually weld lightweight aircraft-grade steel tubes to construct the frame of the fuselage.", "Next they use spring-loaded fasteners to affix aluminum panels to the sides.", "An anti-rust coating turns the aluminum golden color.", "All the plane's aluminum parts require this coating, because many of the chemicals crop dusters carry are corrosive.", "The tank that holds those chemicals is called a hopper.", "The factory molds it out of many layers of fiberglass, which is deliberately transparent.", "This enables the pilot to see at a glance roughly how much chemical remains.", "Inside each of the plane's wings is a row of vertical supports called webs.", "To make each web, they lay a soft aluminum sheet on a mold, place a rubber mat on top, then load the assembly into a press.", "A built-in water bag distributes the pressure evenly.", "This helps form the aluminum sheet perfectly.", "Next they soak the web for a half-hour in molten sodium chloride at more than 900 degrees fahrenheit.", "Then they immediately submerge the web in lukewarm water.", "This triggers a molecular reaction that hardens the aluminum.", "Each wing contains 32 webs.", "Technicians line them up in an assembly fixture in between the wing's horizontal beams called spars.", "Once they've riveted the webs to the spars, they cover the structure with aluminum panels using spring clamps for now.", "The panels have holes in them to allow regular inspections of the structure inside.", "After riveting the panels, technicians screw covers onto the inspection holes.", "They also seal the seams between panels with liquid rubber so chemicals can't penetrate.", "Next they install the engine and the propeller, which ranges from 750 to 1,400 horsepower.", "The prop has from three to five aluminum blades.", "Now the equipment that releases the chemicals from the air.", "For spraying liquids, they hook up horizontal pipes lined with spray nozzles called booms.", "To apply dry chemicals or disperse seed, the flight crew detaches the booms and installs a large stainless-steel funnel called a spreader under the plane's belly.", "At release time, the pilot opens a door at the bottom of the hopper, enabling the wind to draw out the contents through the spreader.", "To spray liquids, a wind-driven pump moves the hopper contents to the booms.", "Technicians now assemble and install the instrumentation panel.", "To fill the hopper with liquid chemicals, they connect a pump to a valve on the side of the crop duster.", "For dry chemicals, they just lift the hopper's lid and fill 'er up.", "More than three centuries ago, american bootleggers made corn whiskey by moonlight to avoid being detected by the tax authorities, and so this whiskey became known as moonshine.", "Today, that whiskey has emerged from the shadows of history and is produced legally, but people still call it moonshine.", "It was the nectar of outlaws-- clear, fresh corn whiskey that's 50% alcohol, and centuries later, it still has a potent appeal.", "In virginia, they still make this whiskey the traditional way, allowing corn to germinate in a process called malting.", "They mix a small amount of the malted kernels with regular corn in a big tank, then funnel the mix into a mill.", "Inside this mill, automated hammers grind the mix to a cornmeal consistency.", "This frees some of the starch and exposes it to enzymes from the malted kernels.", "Those enzymes convert the starch to sugar.", "They'll use some of this ground corn to make a big batch of yeast.", "They add it to water in a tank and boil it until it becomes a thick soup.", "Once it reaches the desired consistency, they allow it to cool to room temperature.", "They add yeast and blow air into the mix to help the yeast grow, making this one big batch of liquid yeast.", "In another tank, a ton of corn is being blended with water and boiled.", "This breaks down more of the starch, converting it to sugar.", "Once cooled, they pump the mix and the liquefied yeast into the fermentation tank.", "Over a period of four days, the yeast turns the sugar to alcohol.", "The process also generates carbon dioxide, which is vented into the atmosphere.", "Every so often, the brewmaster scoops up some liquid and scrutinizes it.", "If it looks too thick, the conversion of sugar to alcohol is not yet complete.", "But when the viscosity is just right, they pump the batch into a big copper still.", "It's just like the type used to make moonshine in the backwoods centuries ago.", "They heat it to 82 degrees celsius.", "At that temperature, alcohol will boil, but water will not.", "As the alcohol boils off the mix, it's recovered through a condenser.", "The recovered liquid is 80% alcohol.", "Talk about a stiff drink.", "So they add water to cut it down to about 50%, and then it's ready to bottle.", "To make a darker whiskey, they steep it with what looks like a big tea bag.", "It's actually wood chips wrapped in cheesecloth.", "The whiskey absorbs flavor and color from the wood over a period of about two months.", "When the whiskey takes on a golden hue, they transfer it into oak barrels.", "They allow the whiskey to age for two years in a hot room.", "The heat causes the whiskey to expand, causing it to absorb the flavor of the wood, but the pressure can also cause cracks in the barrels, so the brewmaster routinely checks for leaks.", "After the whiskey has aged, they adjust the alcohol content by adding a little water.", "The water is always softened and filtered to remove minerals that could affect the whiskey's taste.", "At the bottling station, machinery pumps the whiskey into the containers.", "There's no spillage, and not a drop goes to waste.", "Machinery then twists on the caps for an airtight seal that preserves the aroma and flavor of this old-fashioned corn whiskey.", "At the next station, robotic arms grab labels, apply glue to them, then press them onto the bottles.", "It has taken a combination of down-home methodology and modern technology to prepare this old-fashioned american whiskey for market.", "And whether it's aged or fresh, this historic whiskey is sure to set the taste buds ablaze.", "This clutch is not for the family sedan.", "It's a racing clutch designed for a car with an 1,800-horsepower engine.", "Without this kind of heavy-duty clutch, there would be no way to transfer that much power to the wheels, and the racecar would be going nowhere fast.", "Racecars use a manual transmission to transfer power to the wheels, so a good clutch is behind every win.", "Production starts with a flywheel, which connects the clutch to the engine.", "Computerized cutting tools shape this aluminum part, then move on to carve the cover plate for the clutch.", "They trim its perimeter to give it the correct profile and reduce its weight.", "Next they use a bolt with an industrial diamond tip to level the surface of an iron friction disk.", "This will allow for better contact with other parts of the clutch.", "There are typically two to three of these friction disks in a racing clutch.", "The clutch disks will ride against this steel insert, which they position on the flywheel.", "The technician applies locking compound to bolts, then uses them to attach the insert to the flywheel.", "Here, the technician sets the bolts to a precise torque.", "Next he uses this grinder to flatten the surface of the steel insert, again for better contact with the clutch disk.", "These bolts will anchor the clutch assembly to the flywheel.", "They're called stand bolts, and there are six.", "Here, they sculpt titanium cylinders to act as stands for the bolts that were just installed in the flywheel.", "Titanium is strong and lightweight, which is important because of the huge amount of energy the clutch must transfer.", "The technician places a stand over each bolt, then arranges the clutch disks and a floater plate on the flywheel.", "He presets the height of the stands.", "Then he prepares the pressure-plate assembly.", "He presses aluminum cups into holes in the cover.", "These cups will hold springs that will be used to change the pressure of the clutch pack, but he holds off on inserting the springs in the cups.", "First he installs a series of levers on the cover plate.", "He slides pivot pins into each lever.", "These pins will enable the levers to compress and decompress the clutch pack.", "He applies lubricant to adjuster screws for the clutch springs, then threads each one into an aluminum casing.", "He inserts an assembly in each cup, followed by a heavy-duty spring.", "He now installs the pressure ring on the underside of the cover.", "When the driver releases the clutch pedal, the levers cause the pressure ring to compress the clutch pack.", "That action transfers power from the engine to the transmission.", "He now slips the pressure-ring assembly over the stand bolts and secures it with nuts.", "He adjusts each stand with a socket wrench, then checks the height.", "He measures the tips of the levers to confirm they're even and makes any necessary adjustments.", "He pushes the levers to test this clutch, and the pressure ring responds as it should, creating the necessary pressure on the clutch pack.", "Finally, a certification sticker and some strapping to secure it for shipping.", "At the track, this clutch will be serviced between every run, and if it's operating at peak performance, a win could be just down the road." ]

{ "things": [ "Bacon", "Snowblowers", "Luxury Cars" ] }

[ "Today on \"how it's made\"...", "Bacon...", "Snowblowers...", "And a special 2-part report on the making of the rolls-royce.", "When it comes to breakfast, bacon is one of our favorite side orders.", "Its popularity actually goes back centuries to the days when people cured and smoked meats in their own homes.", "But, today, a quick trip to the store, and anyone can bring home the bacon.", "Bacon is now processed and even precooked in factories.", "It all starts with a load of pork bellies.", "They're tossed into a big tumbler.", "The action softens them, so it will be easier to remove the skins.", "Each pork belly goes skin-side down on a conveyor belt.", "This conveyor takes the pork bellies to a long, automated blade that slices the skin away from the meat.", "The skins drop onto another conveyor belt to be processed into pork rinds.", "Meanwhile, the meat pieces head toward a flipping device that turns them backside up, so workers down the line can trim off any remaining pieces of skin.", "Next, they mix up a brine solution which will cure the pork.", "Salt is funneled into a tank of water.", "It's mixed thoroughly until the salt dissolves.", "Then, liquid smoke and other flavorings are added.", "The pork bellies now pass under an injector head.", "Its needles repeatedly inject a curing solution into each pork belly.", "A metal hanger, called a comb, is pressed into each of the pork bellies so they can be hung on a rack.", "Then, it's into the drench cabinet for a shower of liquid smoke.", "As liquid smoke bombards the meat, it adds flavor and color to the surface.", "The pork bellies are transferred to a big oven.", "They'll cook for five hours at a low temperature.", "That allows the flavoring to permeate the meat.", "Now it's into a blast freezer for a quick chilldown, then into another cooler for a couple of days.", "The cooling firms the meat, which makes it easier to slice.", "The pork bellies head to a sizing station, where their sides get a quick trim.", "They also pass under a metal detector to confirm that no piece of the metal hanger has gotten lodged in the meat.", "After that, the pork bellies are stacked and wrapped, then stored in the freezer until they're ready to be sliced into bacon.", "This is called the slice line.", "Here, workers load the meat slabs into chutes.", "The chutes sway back and forth over a blade, which slices the meat into bacon-sized pieces.", "The bacon falls neatly onto a conveyor belt.", "Another conveyor belt rolls over the bacon slices to secure them for cooking in a browning microwave.", "As the fat cooks off the bacon, it drain into a trough.", "These drippings will be used to make gravy and pet foods.", "The cooked bacon now exits the microwave oven and comes under the watchful eye of an inspector.", "She discards slices that are broken or not up to par.", "These wheels then roll the brown bacon slices onto parchment paper.", "A tiny electronic eye keeps track of the number of slices.", "Finally, the bacon is stacked for packaging.", "Now, that's a job well done.", "Time to put the coffee on and scramble up some eggs.", "When we return, making the machine that makes snow shoveling obsolete.", "Snowblowers first came on the market in the 1950s, and before long, this alternative to shoveling really took off.", "Today's machines come in a range of sizes, from smaller models with 26cc engines to 50cc machines 3 feet wide for plowing through even the deepest snow.", "At the heart of a snowblower are rotating blades called augers.", "The left and right augers spiral in opposite directions in order to move snow toward the middle.", "There, a fan called an impeller swallows the snow and blows it out a chute.", "Each auger starts out as a blank-- a partially formed steel disk a little less than 1/8 inch thick.", "This press finalizes the shape with about 200 tons of pressure.", "The bigger the snowblower, the bigger its augers.", "The press forms the left and right augers at the same time.", "Then, a blast of air ejects them onto separate conveyor belts.", "Next step, workers take a steel tube, called a hub, and mount it upright on an assembly jig.", "Then, they take an auger and center it on the hub.", "The hub and auger then travel down a conveyor belt to a robotic welder.", "The robot fuses the two pieces into a single unit.", "Elsewhere in the factory, workers construct the steel housing that will encase the augers.", "This housing consists of four parts-- a cup to hold the impeller, a backpiece with a hole for the cup, and two side plates.", "This bar aligns the pieces in a holder.", "First, everything turns upside down so the robot can access the back and weld the cup to the backpiece.", "Then, it flips right-side up again, and the robot welds on the side plates.", "Total construction time-- 55 seconds.", "The housings now undergo an electrostatic paint process.", "Powder paint laced with a positive electrical charge is drawn like a magnet to the housings, which have been negatively charged.", "Workers inspect the coat of paint and do any necessary touch-ups.", "Then, the housings spend 15 minutes in an oven which bakes on the paint.", "In another part of the factory, workers have bolted a gas-powered engine to a painted steel frame.", "Inside this frame, they assemble the transmission-- the gear system that transfers power from the engine to the snowblower's wheels and augers.", "After bolting on the impeller, that black component in the back, they attach a large, steel axle to the transmission-driven sprocket.", "Then, they slide the now-painted auger and hub units onto this axle.", "Now the housing arrives.", "Workers bolt the auger assembly into it.", "The impeller slides into the cup that's centered at the back of the housing.", "Then, they screw the housing to the transmission frame.", "The last component is the snowblower's handle, where the control panel is mounted.", "There's a lever for selecting different speeds and clutch levers that can be locked down to direct the wheels and augers.", "There's also a headlight so that you'll be visible to oncoming cars while clearing snow at night or on a snowy day.", "And, of course, there's a lever that lets you choose the direction you want to blow the snow.", "Coming up, behind the scenes at one of the most luxurious production lines in the world.", "If you have one of these cars, you may also have a chauffeur and a pretty big bank account.", "This rolls-royce costs more than an average house in some cities.", "But a house is just a place to live, and you can really live it up if you have a car like this.", "Since the company's inception in 1906, rolls-royce has been going the extra mile when it comes to perks and performance.", "For many people, the car they drive is a measure of their personal success, and you don't get much more successful than this.", "Each rolls-royce starts with a hand-welded aluminum body shelf that's rigid yet lightweight.", "Then, workers handcraft the components for a lavish interior.", "This gadget stitches together sheets of wooden veneer.", "The veneers have been cut from the same piece of wood.", "Workers match the grain so each side is a mirror image of the other.", "The technique is called book-matching, and the look is seamless luxury.", "There are 40 or more solid, wooden parts in the interior of this rolls.", "These are for the dashboard.", "Each of these parts is hand-finished.", "Workers meticulously polish the wood with a special paste that enhances the grain.", "A lacquer job puts a shine on the woodwork.", "Inspectors scrutinize the leather for any natural defects and mark them in white.", "They'll work around those blemishes so no imperfections will be visible on the car's upholstery.", "It will take as many as 18 hides to make all the seats, panels, and consoles.", "Leather pieces are carefully stretched onto various components.", "The fit is set with a dryer.", "Ensuring the sewn leather parts conform to all the curves and crevices on the door panels can be tricky.", "But these workers, some of them former saddlemakers, are experts at the job.", "They mount the upholstered leather parts to the car's interior and secure them tightly with screws.", "They fit handles and control panels into the tailored slots.", "Next, they attach switches, wiring, and other controls to the instrument panel.", "This framework has been crafted from a single piece of magnesium so there aren't any squeaky joints.", "The impressive radiator grille has a purpose besides bringing in cool air.", "It houses the rolls' signature hood ornament and its automated platform.", "Workers test the platform to confirm that it rises and retracts smoothly.", "Then, they mount it under an opening at the top of the grille.", "They check the spacing around the opening's cover to make sure there's enough room for things to run smoothly.", "The rolls-royce mascot is called the spirit of ecstasy.", "With the mascot now locked in proud position, workers are ready to assemble the car's mechanics.", "So stay tuned.", "This rolls-royce is looking good.", "The body shell has the long lines of luxury.", "It's been equipped with flawless leather upholstery and elegant wooden paneling.", "Plush and posh, this car is now ready for some serious engine power.", "It's bumper-to-bumper opulence at this factory as these cars are lined up to receive their engine components.", "Workers install soundproofing material on the floor of the car to muffle engine noise.", "Then, they run the wiring loom along the length of the vehicle.", "This is the car's nervous system.", "It transmits huge amounts of information that help run the engine, transmission, even the car's entertainment system.", "Next, the engine and transmission system are hoisted onto a metal platform.", "This v-12 engine has 400-plus horsepower.", "Workers complete the assembly and make some final adjustments.", "Then, it's time for the engine and car body to become one.", "They call this the marriage.", "The platform rolls the engine down an aisle to be joined with the awaiting car body.", "Then, it lifts the engine into the cavity of the car.", "It's secured with bolts.", "Then, the platform moves away to get the next engine for the next car.", "Workers double-check the installation and mark parts with yellow to confirm that they've been fitted.", "The engine is now installed, but there are still a number of steps before the car is complete.", "The instrument control panel is mounted to the dashboard and gets an upholstered leather cushion.", "Veneer paneling is fitted around the dashboard controls.", "And the headlining, made of cashmere and wool, goes into place.", "Workers check the hydraulic cup holders in the rear of the car.", "Then, they install two batteries-- one for the engine, the other for the cabin controls.", "A rocker cover is fastened to the engine to stifle any noise.", "They hook up a large air-intake system because optimum engine function requires a lot of airflow.", "There will be no fingerprints on this windshield.", "After it's wiped clean, workers use a pulley system with suction cups to lower it onto the car.", "It's taped into place to allow the adhesive to set, then it's measured to ensure a perfect fit.", "Next, the wheel-arch liners are installed.", "These hefty guards will protect the car body from mud, gravel, and debris.", "Finally, the wheels are mounted, and this rolls-royce is ready to roll.", "It takes several weeks to assemble a rolls-royce, compared to the day or two it takes to manufacture an ordinary vehicle.", "That's part of the reason why one of these will set you back a princely sum.", "But if you win the lottery, this could be one way to splurge." ]

{ "things": [ "Binoculars", "Sparklers", "Rubber Boots", "Circular Saw Blades" ] }

[ "A pair of binoculars is essentially a handheld double telescope.", "Light rays from the object you're viewing enter the lenses on the far end, the objectives.", "This projects an image just behind those lenses inside the binoculars' housing.", "The smaller eyepiece lenses you peer through then magnify that image.", "The objectives are curved, causing the image to appear upside down.", "The turn it right side up, each binocular half needs a glass prism.", "Using u.v.-light-activated glue, workers mount several prisms on steel plates that take them through a series of grinding and polishing steps.", "Protective paint prevents any dust from contaminating the pristine surface.", "Grinding with diamond dust removes mere tenths of a millimeter of glass.", "Polishing with an even finer abrasive removes another 1/100 of a millimeter.", "At the end of it all, the three sides are perfectly flat.", "This minimizes reflection, critical for making the glass see-through.", "To make each prism, they glue two pieces of glass together at 90 degrees.", "This special machine ensures the angle is precise.", "A shot of u.v. light dries the glue.", "The first piece of glass rotates the inverted image 90 degrees.", "The second rotates it another 90 degrees, completing the flip.", "Now for the objectives.", "These curved lenses have undergone the same grinding and polishing steps as the prisms.", "Now they go through a nine-stage computer-guided cleaning process.", "After inspecting the lenses, a technician glues two together.", "A double lens limits a type of distortion that causes fringes of color to appear around the image.", "It's critical to match them to each other perfectly.", "If the alignment's off by more than just 1/100th of a millimeter, the image will be poor.", "This alignment machine displays a dot representing the center of each lens, so it's just a matter of matching the dots.", "A 2-second shot of u.v. light dries the glue.", "Next, a technician loads mineral pellets into a vacuum chamber.", "Their exact formulation is a company secret.", "The pellets produce an anti-reflection lens coating that lets more light come through the lenses.", "Inside the vacuum chamber, a beam of electrons evaporates the pellets into microscopic particles that coat the lenses.", "It's time to begin assembling the binoculars.", "First, the objectives go into the housing, which is usually made of plastic, aluminum, or carbon.", "Workers clean the lenses with a few blasts of compressed nitrogen...", "Then secure them in place with threaded holding rings.", "Now a few drops of glue behind the objectives, where the prisms will go, another blast of nitrogen to remove any dust, then they insert the prisms.", "This optical machine aligns the focal points of the prism and its corresponding objective.", "Then, some more glue to lock in the positioning and a blast of u.v. light to dry the glue.", "Now they silicone the objectives and prisms to the housing's middle section.", "Silicone creates an airtight and waterproof seal.", "This holding mechanism presses the parts together while workers drive in the screws.", "Onto the opposite end of the middle section go the oculars, the smaller lenses through which you look.", "Those also attach with threaded holding rings.", "Now, through a valve on each side, a machine sucks air from the housing and injects nitrogen gas.", "Nitrogen prevents the lenses from fogging up.", "A day after filling, they recheck the nitrogen pressure to make sure there's no leak.", "This factory puts all the binoculars it produces through rigorous testing, subjecting them to prolonged vibration, water pressure, extreme heat, freezing temperatures, and other trying conditions.", "After every test, inspectors make sure everything still works perfectly, both mechanically and optically.", "Sparklers have sizzled on the party scene for decades, adding pyrotechnical glitter to weddings and birthday celebrations.", "They evolved from more traditional fireworks and are the only kind that the consumer can handle when lit.", "Lighting one definitely means excitement is in the air.", "The splash of flash can last a minute or more, depending on the length of the sparkler.", "They start with steel wires that are about 19 inches long.", "They load bundles of them into slots of a sorting machine.", "The machine vibrates, and the wires fall in single file into smaller openings.", "The operator then moves a spring-loaded wooden rack into position.", "It opens like the bellows of an accordion.", "The operator rocks the sorting machine overhead, and the wires drop into the slits of the rack, perfectly aligned.", "After 300 sparkler wires have fallen into position, the operator pulls a handle to close the rack.", "Now, clamped in the accordion-style rack, the wires are ready to move on to the next station.", "Wires for parade sparklers are much longer-- 36 inches, in fact-- which means they're heavier than ordinary sparklers.", "The operator loads each of these wires manually into a rack that's larger and sturdier than the last one.", "This system of loading is a lot more time-consuming, but parade sparklers are worth the extra trouble because they'll have a longer burn time-- up to four minutes.", "Next, an operator loads boric acid and barium nitrate into a big mixing tank.", "The barium nitrate is an oxidizer and will help the sparkler burn.", "The boric acid is a neutralizer.", "He adds water and mixes in cornstarch.", "It will bind all the ingredients together.", "Next, he pours in some very fine iron filings.", "These bits of iron will give the sparklers their gold color.", "The operator then suits up in protective gear and closes the door.", "He's the only one allowed inside to load the sparklers' most volatile ingredient-- aluminum powder.", "Once mixed into the wet slurry, the powder is virtually harmless, and they don't need to take as many safety precautions.", "Chain conveyors now move the rack of sparkler wires into position.", "An elevator lifts up a tank of the sparkler slurry to dip the wires in it.", "The next rack of wires then moves forward for dipping.", "286 racks of wires move through this dipping station every hour and 45 minutes.", "They go through a second dipping station for one more coating.", "The two coatings double the diameter of the wires.", "After each dip, wires ride an overhead rail through an oven to bake the sparkler slurry until it's hard.", "An inspector then examines each sparkler.", "She checks for cracks and defects.", "Any wire that's flawed will be rejected because these sparklers have to outshine the competition.", "It takes her about three minutes to examine the 300 sparklers on a rack.", "They check the diameter of each sparkler by sliding it through a template, and they bend it to check its integrity.", "The sparklers have been stored for a week prior to packaging to allow them to cure.", "And now they're ready for a party, and they're sure to be the center of attention.", "Wellington boots, billy boots, galoshes.", "By any name, rubber rain boots owe their existence to a 19th-century american, charles goodyear.", "He invented the vulcanization process, a way of keeping natural rubber from deteriorating.", "Nowadays, rain boots are made from a synthetic material called thermoplastic rubber, or tpr.", "They're functional-- even fashionable.", "Making rubber boots begins with spools of polyester yarn for their lining.", "A colored spool adds a thin line of color to indicate the foot size of the lining.", "A computer-programmed machine crochets the yarn with 242 needles.", "As we can see in slow motion, each gate opens completely, then closes on the yarn.", "The needles rotate 750 times per second.", "They can program the machine to make linings for any size of boot.", "For quality control, workers spot-check a few linings from every batch.", "Now the action moves to this automated injection-molding machine with six stations.", "Each one produces a pair of boots.", "Workers carefully roll a pair of linings onto each station's foot form, called the last.", "These lasts will create the space inside the boot for the lower leg and foot.", "A five-part boot mold closes around the foot last.", "Then, a high-pressure injection screw pushes in melted synthetic rubber, first in the soles, then in the upper boot.", "The company lab regularly tests samples of the synthetic rubber pellets that feed the injection machine to make sure they melt and flow well.", "The lab technician pours in some pellets, melts them, then pushes in a piston to extrude the molten rubber.", "The machine measures what's called the melt flow index.", "Back on the factory floor, a large suction hose feeds rubber pellets to the injectors-- black for the boot body, red for the soles.", "And at this factory, nothing goes to waste.", "It recycles rubber leftovers or rejects of all colors into a batch of black rubber.", "The suction hose then sends the pellets into a hopper which feeds the barrel of the injection unit.", "The heater bands inside the barrels melt the pellets at 200 degrees celsius.", "Then, at the precise moment the mold arrives, the injector shoots in the molten rubber.", "Giant clamps apply pressure for about 10 seconds, then release.", "A hydraulic cylinder pushes up the last, helping to extract the boots.", "Then it's quickly on with new linings for the next pair.", "Total molding time?", "Just 30 seconds.", "The boots cool for 45 minutes, then head off to packaging...", "Making just one stop along the way at the pad printing machine to get the company's logo.", "Elsewhere in the factory, a seamstress carefully constructs a patterned boot lining.", "The factory crochets white linings in a continuous roll, then has another company print on the design.", "The trickiest part is shaping the toe because she has to curve and cut the material at the same time.", "For these patterned boots, the machine injects a transparent synthetic rubber into the mold so that the printed lining will show through.", "The mirror-finish surface of the mold cavity produces a high-gloss boot.", "The printed boot requires more work and costlier materials and is therefore more expensive.", "After the molding, for example, it has to go to the trimming station.", "There, a worker shaves off excess material from the top of the boot.", "Then he sews on a fabric binding to sandwich the lining.", "The factory randomly selects a boot from each batch and puts it through a battery of tests on this flex machine.", "It bends the boot in various ways some 300,000 times, ensuring that these rain boots can walk the walk.", "When a construction site is buzzing with activity, it's usually the sound of the circular saw.", "Its spinning teeth can take a bite out of any job in seconds.", "There are many claims to the invention of the circular saw, but there's no doubt that when its design was perfected in the last century, it revolutionized woodworking.", "With a circular saw, you can give odd jobs a whirl, and when the sawdust settles, you may have discovered your inner handyman.", "To make a circular-saw blade, a laser burns into a sheet of steel to cut out jagged disks in the basic shape of a circular-saw blade.", "They feed each disk to rollers that press grooves onto both sides.", "These grooves are tensioning rings that will keep the blade from vibrating while cutting.", "Without these grooves, the circular blade wouldn't cut straight.", "At the next station, the assembler measures sags and buckles before feeding the disks to a machine that rolls them flat like a pie crust.", "A grinding wheel polishes the blade.", "And then they load barrels of the disks into an oven to bake until they're very hard.", "This will take about 24 hours.", "Meanwhile, carbide tips for the blades' teeth funnel past a laser that confirms they're properly positioned for the next step.", "A robot then picks up one tip at a time and delivers it to nozzles.", "The nozzles pump a paste called flux onto it.", "Another robot places a piece of solder metal on the flux.", "The next robot delivers the tips to the saw-blade body.", "Elements melt the solder metal and flux to fuse the carbide tips to the teeth.", "It's a technique called brazing.", "Teeth with carbide tips last longer without losing their sharpness.", "Circular blades for sawmills have a larger and different design.", "They brush flux around a side hole and then place soldering metal on an elongated carbide tooth.", "They braze the tooth to the flux-coated hole and install several more of these carbide side teeth.", "The side teeth will enable this sawmill blade to tear through big logs.", "The smaller circular-saw blade now spins on an axle while a spray nozzle sandblasts it.", "The sandblasting cleans the surface and gives the blade a brushed texture.", "A mechanical finger now moves one of the blade's teeth into position for sharpening.", "A grinding wheel tapers each tooth.", "A different wheel moves in and grinds the outside diameter of the blade.", "The geometric angle of the grinding can vary, depending on the type of blade being made.", "The grinding wheel then hones the face of each tooth to give it a sharper edge.", "Next, a straightening specialist pounds out any remaining bumps in the blade...", "And double-checks it with a straightedge tool.", "He wipes off any smudges and then holds the blade to the light and examines it to confirm that it has no flaws.", "A laser then etches the company insignia onto the blade.", "And now the circular-saw blade is ready for its close-up.", "A camera focuses on the teeth and sends the picture to a computer.", "It analyzes the cutting angle and the clearance of each tooth to make sure each one measures up.", "The result is circular-saw blades that should be able to keep their edge on the job." ]

{ "things": [ "Automotive Fuel Pumps", "Cricket Bats", "Change Machines", "Ductile Iron Pipe" ] }

[ "Today on \"how it's made\"-- automotive fuel pumps...", "Cricket bats...", "Change machines...", "Change machines...", "And ductile-iron pipe.", "And ductile-iron pipe.", "When you start your car, it activates a pump that's usually located inside the gas tank.", "This electrical system pushes the gas out of the tank and into injectors, which aerate the gas and deliver it to the engine cylinders.", "Without a pump to get the fuel flowing, your car would be going nowhere fast.", "You might think that submerging an electric pump in gasoline would be a risky thing, but liquid fuel can't explode, so it's actually a very safe place to be.", "Production begins with the pumping mechanism.", "A gear and several rollers are sandwiched between two metal plates.", "The rollers will rotate to pull fuel into the pump before pushing it out of the tank.", "Each roller assembly is tested by spinning it from the bottom.", "A robot then pops it out and moves it to the next station.", "Here the electric motor is attached to the roller pumping mechanism.", "Then it gets a magnetic sleeve and a plastic cap.", "All the parts that make up the pumping mechanism have now been assembled.", "Next comes an end cap with a filter made of metal mesh.", "A metal sleeve slides over the pump unit, and the whole thing is press-fit together.", "Inside this chamber, large magnets generate a very strong force field.", "This causes the metal sleeve to collapse, crimping at one end so that it holds everything together.", "Next, retainer rings go into slots in the fuel-pump cap.", "A metal bracket goes over the pump.", "It steadies the assembly and serves as a guide as workers install the brushes and coils which will supply electricity to the fuel-pump motor.", "A brass terminal slides onto the end of each coil and brush assembly to facilitate the electrical connection.", "Then the terminals are attached to the assembly.", "When the job is done, a robot removes the bracket.", "They built this fuel pump from the inside out, and now the actual workings are complete.", "Inspectors hook each pump up to a power source and run fluid through them to test the pumping action.", "Then they check for proper flow and pressure.", "If the pump passes inspection, a robot sends it down the assembly line...", "Where a tubing system is being assembled to carry the gasoline to the engine.", "The joints are sealed with a brazing paste.", "Then it's into a gas oven, where the paste hardens and fuses to the tubing.", "Workers remove the tubing from the oven and brush off any unwanted bits of metal and unwanted bits of metal and hardened paste.", "Hardened paste.", "The ends of the apparatus are capped to keep them from collecting dirt and debris during shipping.", "Rubber tubing is attached to the pump and secured with metal clamps.", "Then the rubber tubing is clamped to the metal tubing system.", "Workers wire the fuel pump, then hook up a connector which will attach to the engine's wiring.", "This is the sending unit.", "It's a float with a metal arm that's attached to an electronic sensor.", "The sensor sends information about fuel levels to the fuel gauge on the dashboard.", "A computerized system checks the sending unit's accuracy as the sensor is moved up and down.", "Once everything checks out, it's time to fill the tank and hit the road.", "Up next-- cricket, anyone?", "We'll go behind the scenes at a we'll go behind the scenes at a bat factory.", "Bat factory.", "References to the game of cricket date back to the 1300s.", "Historians believe it started as a children's game.", "In the 1600s, working men took up the pastime, and before long, it caught on with the upper classes.", "By the 18th century, cricket was one of england's favorite organized sports.", "Cricket bats are made of a particular species of white willow.", "It has stringy wood fibers that are usually long.", "These give the wood elasticity, the key to its performance.", "Bat makers use as much sapwood as possible because it's moister and more flexible than the heartwood at the tree's core.", "Production begins with willow pieces about 2 1/2 feet long.", "The first machine trims them down roughly to size.", "A few sprays of water limber up the wood fibers.", "Then each piece goes through a pressing machine three to four times.", "A curved roller applies up to three tons of pressure, rounding the bat's face and compressing the wood by almost half an inch.", "This pressing is essential to the bat's performance and durability.", "The bat maker draws a \"v\" on the end where the handle will attach.", "Then he removes the bulk of wood behind the \"v\" on a table saw.", "This minimizes the amount of work he'll have to do by hand later.", "Now he cuts out the \"v\".", "This creates a joint in which to insert the handle.", "The handle is made of cane, dried vine stems, glued together in sections, and coated with rubber.", "The grip end has been shaped on a lathe.", "The other end will attach to the blade.", "The bat maker cuts the block-shape tip into a wedge that will fit into the \"v\" cut, then glues the two pieces then glues the two pieces together.", "Together.", "A few taps with a hammer ensures a tight fit.", "He spreads the excess glue all over the joint to seal it.", "Now he shapes the bat's profile using a classic woodworking tool called a drawknife.", "This takes only a few minutes but requires years of experience and an expert eye.", "Then he completes the shaping with another pressing to curve the bottom third of the bat.", "International cricket rules regulate the length and width of bats, but there's no restriction on curve.", "Getting it right is tricky, though.", "Too much curve, and he'll limit the blade's flexibility and performance.", "The bat maker finishes off the shape using specialized tools.", "Then he uses a metal hand plane to flatten the blade's edges.", "He ensures the bat has good spring by hitting it with a dense wooden mallet.", "He also analyzes the sound of the strike.", "The softer the sound, the softer the wood, and the better the bat will play.", "He smooths the bat against an air-filled drum sander that molds to the bat so it doesn't wear away the shape he worked so hard to achieve.", "Then a worker smooths out the rest of the surface with a belt sander designed specifically for cricket bats.", "The entire bat is sanded twice, first with a coarse abrasive, then with a fine one.", "Next, the bat is mounted on a binding machine, where its handle gets a coat of glue.", "A wrapping of twine binds together the sections of cane together the sections of cane that make up the handle.", "That make up the handle.", "Extra glue prevents the twine from unraveling.", "Next, they polish the blade next, they polish the blade using a cotton wheel.", "Using a cotton wheel.", "Once the wood is shiny enough, brand-name decals go on.", "Finally, a rubber grip goes over the binding to prevent the player's hands from slipping.", "The bat's two main components complement each other when striking the ball.", "The willow-wood blade flexes enough to deliver a good hit, and the cane handle absorbs that energy, protecting the player's hands.", "When you return-- making the when you return-- making the machines that make our change.", "Machines that make our change.", "Change machines were invented in the mid-1950s in response to the vending-machine boom.", "They began as simple mechanical coin changers, converting a quarter into nickels and dimes.", "Today's modern machines can even convert $20 bills.", "Times sure have changed.", "It's like magic.", "In goes the bill, and presto, out comes the exact change.", "But behind the scenes, there's no slight of hand-- just innovative design and some pretty high-tech equipment.", "Production begins with the machine's cabinet.", "A computer-guided laser cuts the cabinet parts from a sheet of steel measuring 1 by 1/2 yards.", "Workers shake the parts free and push out the openings in the panel that will become the cabinet's front door.", "The parts are then shaped in a machine called the press break.", "This is one of the door panels.", "The machine forces it against a die, bending the edge.", "These bent edges will strengthen the door and help it fit snugly into the frame.", "The laser cutter also makes a series of holes in another cabinet part.", "Then workers press threaded studs into the holes.", "A vibrating feeder automatically dispenses the studs into the insertion machine.", "Now they bend the sheet, again using a press break, and make the three-sided panel that will become the cabinet sides and back.", "They attach the top and bottom panels.", "Then they position the cabinet on a computerized welding station and rotate the table.", "A robot makes precision welds behind a steel partition that shields workers from heat and harmful rays.", "Now they assemble the change machine's coin dispenser.", "It has two counter-rotating discs fitted to the diameter and thickness of a coin.", "They work together to seize and align the coins, then drop them into the coin chute.", "Workers set in these metal discs, along with a plastic gear mechanism that rotates them.", "Then they secure the parts on a fixture...", "And drill holes into the gear and drill holes into the gear mechanism.", "Mechanism.", "Roll pins are inserted to hold the parts together.", "Then workers make sure the coin discs spin freely.", "The next task is to assemble the coin-dispenser discs and gears.", "This is precision work.", "First, they set the parts in a metal casing.", "Plastic rings go around the discs to guide and support the gears.", "Then they attach the gear-train motor which powers the motor which powers the change-dispensing discs.", "Change-dispensing discs.", "A plastic guide on the casing helps the coins drop in properly.", "Next comes the coin chute that guides the change out of the dispenser and into the machine's coin cup.", "The dispenser holds up to $800, which can weigh a hefty 45 pounds, so it needs a strong handle.", "It's locked into place with this tool, called a ring fastener.", "Now it's time to put the whole machine together.", "First, an electric power supply is installed on the inside back wall.", "Next comes the bill validator.", "And the coin cup.", "Then the coin dispenser and electronic control board, the brains of the machine that calculates the change.", "Finally, on go the instruction decals.", "So, how do bills transform into coins?", "Let's open the door and see.", "First, the bill acceptor scans the bill's paper and ink, then stacks it in a box.", "The processor calculates the transaction, then cha-ching, exact change.", "Coming up-- turning iron and steel into the pipes that keep steel into the pipes that keep our cities running.", "Our cities running.", "Chances are you use ductile-iron pipe every day and don't even know it.", "The underground pipes that transport a city's drinking water are cast from ductile iron.", "So are the sewer pipes that take away household waist.", "Ductile iron is more flexible than ordinary gray iron.", "Under pressure, it will bend before it breaks.", "Ductile-iron pipes are made of 90% recycled metal and have a life-span of hundreds of years.", "Production begins in the pipe factory's scrapyard.", "These old cars are on their way to a shredder that chews them up into little bits.", "The factory sorts the bits by material.", "It discards the plastic, sells the aluminum and copper, but keeps the steel and iron.", "The factory also gets scrap steel from demolished buildings and other sources.", "The shredded metal is analyzed by its chemical composition and sorted accordingly.", "A crane operator uses an industrial magnet to gather precise amounts of steel and iron.", "The shredded metals then go into a blast furnace fueled by coke, a form of coal.", "At 2,500 degrees fahrenheit, the iron and steel liquefy, while impurities are carried away.", "Workers then add magnesium.", "This turns the metal from ordinary gray iron into stronger, more flexible ductile iron.", "The molten iron travels down a trough into a casting machine.", "It enters a spinning mold, where centrifugal force spreads the centrifugal force spreads the iron against the mold walls.", "Iron against the mold walls.", "A cooling system chills the walls, and the iron solidifies within seconds.", "Then an extractor pulls out a 20-foot-long cast-iron pipe, the standard industry length.", "Before each casting, workers insert a round form, called a core, into one end of the pipe mold.", "The molten iron fills the void between the core and mold, forming a flared edge, called a bell.", "The core also seals off that end of the mold, preventing molten iron from flying out during casting.", "When it's time to connect the pipes, installers will fit the bell of one pipe over the straight end of another.", "A rubber gasket seals the link together.", "The casting machine can make pipes of different diameters by changing the size of the mold inside.", "After the pipe is extracted, inspectors weigh it and measure the wall thickness to be sure everything meets specifications.", "Then, on the bell end, they remove the core.", "Since it's made of sand and plastic resin, it simply plastic resin, it simply disintegrates.", "Disintegrates.", "This factory makes pipes in several diameters, but regardless of size, the casting process is always the same.", "It just takes less time with smaller pipes because they harden faster.", "A freshly cast pipe is around 1,500 degrees fahrenheit, but it cools quickly after leaving the mold.", "Such rapid cooling makes the iron brittle, so the pipe goes directly into a gas-fired annealing furnace that reheats it to 1,700 degrees fahrenheit.", "This alters the internal structure of the iron, making it strong and flexible.", "The pipe then runs through a cooling chamber that showers it in cold water.", "To prevent the iron from corroding, the inside gets sprayed with cement, building up a lining an eighth of an inch a lining an eighth of an inch thick.", "Thick.", "Then the pipe is spun for a few seconds to smooth out the cement.", "The entire pipe is painted inside and out.", "This seals the surface, enabling the cement to cure over the next 24 hours.", "It also provides some extra rust protection.", "Finally, a robot paints a stripe around the straight end of each pipe.", "This is a depth guideline so installation crews know when they've inserted the straight end of one pipe as far as it can go into the bell end of another." ]

{ "things": [ "Fly Fishing Reels", "House Paint", "Weaving Looms", "Ice Makers" ] }

[ "Fishing reels date back to 12th-century china.", "In the beginning, they were very basic devices used only for storing extra line.", "But by the 1800s, craftsmen in britain and america reinvented the reel when they gave it a drag system for landing feisty fish.", "These flycasters could hook the big one at any moment, and that's when a precision fishing reel will come in handy.", "To make a fly-fishing reel, they start with a solid aluminum puck.", "The puck turns on a lathe as a computerized cutter contours it to shape it into a spool.", "A different tool machines a center hole.", "The focus then moves to the other side as another tool completes the spool shape.", "The dimensions must be exact if this fishing reel is to perform flawlessly.", "They drill holes to both reduce the weight of the spool and provide some ventilation for wet fishing line.", "They cut windows into the other side for an attractive look that further lightens the reel.", "Next, another aluminum puck is transformed into a frame for the spool and other parts.", "The frame goes into a bath of soapy water and plastic pellets, which rub the part clean.", "The final touch is a black oxide finish.", "They now transform this aluminum bar into feet, which will be used to mount the reel to the fishing rod.", "A laser engraves the company name onto these attachments.", "It also does a bit of custom engraving on the frame.", "A worker now inserts a bronze bushing into the center of the spool and uses hydraulic force to entrench it.", "He then positions a stainless steel ball on top of the bushing.", "He activates a press that drives the ball through it to expand the bushing to the correct internal dimension.", "Another worker applies a counterweight to one side of the spool.", "This bit of stainless steel will offset the weight of the spool handle.", "She installs the spool's magnetic locking mechanism.", "This molded polymer part has a tiny magnet inside.", "She applies a second magnet to it, followed by a release button.", "One final magnet and an aluminum cap, and this assembly is complete.", "She now installs part of the drag-engagement system.", "It's this system that will create the necessary resistance on the fishing line for battling a big fish.", "She applies adhesive to screws and then uses them to attach the footing to the fly-reel frame, using a screwdriver to set it to a specific torque.", "She then resumes the assembly of the drag system by placing a rubber \"o\" ring in the frame's center groove.", "She installs the thrust-bearing ring, which can be rotated by the fly-fisher to adjust the drag setting.", "And it's now time to attach the spool to the fishing-reel frame.", "She turns it to check the drag setting and adjusts it to its starting point.", "She secures the setting by inserting a pin into the bearing.", "Then she removes the center locking screw temporarily to assemble the knob base to the thrust bearing.", "She reinstalls the screw and covers the assembly with the drag knob.", "She turns the spool for a final inspection, confirming that this fishing reel operates smoothly.", "And now it's ready to put a positive spin on any fishing experience.", "A fresh coat of latex paint is a surefire way to spruce up a home.", "Latex is a term for acrylic or vinyl resins.", "Latex paint is water-based, so it has less odor than alkaline paint.", "It also cleans up without any harsh solvents.", "All you need is soap and water.", "The paint factory produces an uncolored base.", "The store then tints that base to the color ordered by the customer.", "Latex paint contains water, latex for adhesion, titanium dioxide, calcium carbonate, potassium, zinc for mildew resistance, and whatever additives the particular type of paint requires.", "For example, if it's paint designed for metal, a rust inhibitor.", "They pump the water into a large mixing tank.", "Then they add a thickening agent and stabilizer to prevent the ingredients from settling to the bottom of the tank and to the bottom of the can once the paint is packaged.", "A vacuum duct sucks up the waste.", "One at a time, all the ingredients except the latex go in.", "There's a specific mixing time after each ingredient because proper blending is critical for quality.", "Now they pump the tank's contents into another mixing tank that contains the latex.", "After four to six hours of blending, the industrial-sized batch of paint base is finally ready.", "The factory subjects a sample from every batch to extensive quality-control testing.", "This viscometer measures the thickness of the paint.", "This test assesses how well the dry ingredients have dispersed within the mix.", "This tells them whether the mix is blended well enough to move into the second tank containing the latex.", "Technicians also conduct color tests, adding recipes of liquid colorants to a gallon sample.", "This is to ensure the shade comes out exactly the way it's supposed to.", "To check if the paint covers well, they brush it onto test paper.", "The stripes provide a contrast so that any defects in the paint, such as foam or grit, will show.", "This test evaluates tint strength.", "Once the paint sample dries, they analyze its color properties with a machine called a spectrophotometer.", "Once the batch passes inspection, it proceeds to packaging.", "Latex paint contains about 60% water, which corrodes metal, so the steel cans are lined with an anti-rust coating.", "The cans run over a glue applicator, then over a label, which instantly sticks to the adhesive.", "The next stop is a filling machine.", "Each can sits on a scale that's positioned under a dispensing nozzle.", "Once the scale detects the correct net weight, it triggers the nozzle to stop.", "From the filling machine to a lid dispenser that drops a cover onto each can.", "Then it's on to what's called a lid press.", "As each can passes underneath, a row of cylinders gradually presses in the lid.", "The next machine, called a baler, attaches a curved handle made of steel wire.", "It locks the handle ends into metal disks on both sides of the can.", "The factory varies its formulations to produce paint in lusters ranging from flat to high gloss and for interior and exterior use, making sure it's got every possible application covered.", "Looms for handweaving cloth have become increasingly sophisticated over time.", "But the basic concept still remains the same-- weaving horizontal threads, called weft threads, through vertical threads, called warp threads, to create the patterns in the cloth.", "The loom lifts selected warp threads.", "The weaver passes the weft thread between the warp threads, then uses a beater to pack the weft tightly.", "They construct the loom's frame out of ash, which is strong enough to withstand the pulling of up to thousands of threads.", "Workers submerge the frame pieces in mineral oil to prevent the wood from drying out.", "They assemble the frame pieces with heavy-duty nuts and bolts, then mount high-strength plastic brackets for attaching the various components, such as the cloth beam that grabs and moves the finished cloth.", "They wrap sandpaper around the beam's adhesive surface to grab the cloth without damaging it.", "Elsewhere, workers make the loom's cables out of high-strength stainless steel.", "These cables maneuver harnesses that lift and lower the warp threads.", "After cutting each cable to length, she forms a loop through a cable crimp.", "Then she locks the loop with this heavy-duty crimping tool.", "On one of the frame pieces, they mount a metal plate bearing the loom's model and serial numbers.", "They assemble the pulley system on which the harness cables run.", "They thread the plastic pulleys onto a steel axle and position the axle with steel disks called stop collars.", "A spring lever helps each harness lift its respective warp thread.", "After hammering a pin into each lever, they hook a wire to the pin, then squeeze the wire closed so that it can't unhook.", "They attach a chain to an eyelet on one side of the spring lever.", "Shortening or lengthening this chain adjusts the tension of the harness.", "Like the pulleys, the spring levers go onto an axle across the loom's frame.", "Another loom component, called the warp beam, has holes which hold metal hoops that guide the warp threads.", "A brake drum on the side provides counterforce to keep the threads taut.", "At the front of the loom, they install foot pedals called treadles.", "The weaver uses them to lift and lower the warp threads.", "Next comes the beater, which the weaver uses to pack the weft thread into the fabric.", "The pulley system for the harness cables goes on top.", "This computer-controlled device, called a dobby head, lifts and lowers the warp threads according to the programmed weaving pattern.", "Each harness cable hooks onto the dobby head, goes around one of the pulleys, and attaches to a hook on the harness.", "The factory checks every dobby head on a test loom to ensure the device outputs the programmed patterns correctly.", "Next, workers install the spring levers that help the harness lift the warp threads.", "Each lever hooks onto a spring, which attaches to a chain, which connects to a harness.", "They install the warp beam at the back of the loom.", "The weaver installs the hoops and warp threads on the warp beam.", "As the loom weaves, the cloth beam gently moves the emerging fabric forward.", "The weft thread is wrapped around a bobbin called a shuttle.", "This pattern requires a two-weft-thread technique that uses a second shuttle suspended in front of the weaver.", "The loom keeps the threads evenly taut, producing a consistent and uniform weave-- the hallmarks of a beautiful, quality cloth.", "Until the mid-19th century, mother nature was the only producer of ice, and the idea of man-made ice seemed preposterous.", "It was a florida doctor who, in need of ice to cool feverish patients, invented the ice machine.", "The technology took a few years to refine, and then they were ready to chill.", "Today's commercial ice makers churn out ice on demand, allowing restaurants and other businesses to keep things cool at all times.", "To make one, machinery folds the edges of stainless-steel sheets so they can be assembled into the icemaker frame and exterior panels.", "Meanwhile, copper uncoils over a roller, which removes the curl from the metal.", "A machine spiked with blades then punches the copper.", "In one action, it cuts numerous slits in the strip and slices it to the correct length.", "The notched strips are now ready to be assembled into a grid.", "This grid is part of the evaporator.", "It's here the liquid refrigerant will evaporate as it pulls heat from the water to freeze it into ice cubes.", "This copper tubing is central to that process.", "An automated arm bends it into a configuration called the serpentine, producing a coil that will fit on the back with the evaporator.", "As liquid refrigerant moves through it, it will draw heat out of the water.", "This machine flattens the tubing, giving it greater surface contact with the evaporator to facilitate heat transfer.", "Then it's into a big washing machine to remove any oils or oxides on the parts.", "A worker now applies strips of tin silver solder to the evaporator's back plate.", "This acid solution will act as a bonding agent.", "He then places the evaporator, solder side down, on the serpentine tubing and locks the assembled parts in an iron rig.", "He hoists the rig into an oven to melt the solder strips between the back plate and tubing, fusing the parts together.", "Then it's into an ultrasonic bath, where high-frequency sound waves clean off lingering contaminants.", "An inspector now examines the evaporator to confirm that the parts have been solidly fused.", "Next, he installs pipes on an icemaker's side panel.", "These are the lines that supply refrigerant to the machine.", "He turns the assembly around and removes the caps on the compressor to connect it to a network of pipes.", "The compressor will force refrigerant through these pipes in a continuous cycle of heating and cooling to eventually produce ice.", "He brazes the joints to seal the connections.", "He attaches a fan to another side panel.", "It will blow cool air onto the radiator to cool the refrigerant and help convert it back into a liquid.", "Now he pumps the refrigerant into the system and measures the flow to ensure it receives a precise amount.", "Meanwhile, at another station, they assemble the ice bin.", "It's time to test this icemaker.", "Water flows continuously over the surface of the evaporator grid as the temperature inside the cells drops below freezing.", "Impurities, like minerals, are washed away as the water turns to ice, and the result is crystal-clear cubes, almost 6 1/2 pounds in just 15 minutes.", "Finally, they install the front panel on the unit.", "This job is done, and it's time for a little liquid refreshment...", "On ice, of course." ]

{ "things": [ "LED Stage Lights", "Apple Cider", "Chemical Tank Trailers", "Ornate Stone Floors" ] }

[ "Today, on \"how it's made\"...", "L.e.d. stage lights...", "Apple cider...", "Chemical tank trailers...", "And ornate stone floors.", "In the world of stage lighting, traditional incandescent or halogen bulb spotlights are making way for l.e.d.s.", "L.e.d.s are light-emitting diodes controlled by electronics.", "They use less energy, emit less heat, and can produce a wide array of colors without the use of filters.", "Incandescent or halogen stage lights produce just one color.", "The only way to create more is to shine the light beam through colored plastic called gel filters.", "However, this l.e.d. stage light uses seven different colored l.e.d.s, which can be blended into a variety of different hues.", "This computer-guided machine places all the components on the stage light's circuit board, which contains 60 l.e.d.s in 7 different base colors.", "Another machine measures and cuts pieces of insulated electrical wire.", "Then, the machine strips the insulation off the ends and crimps on terminals.", "The machine processes up to 26 feet of wire per second.", "Workers manually assemble 10 wires and two connectors into a control harness.", "The harness will connect the light's control board to the l.e.d. array.", "On the factory floor, they paint the stage light's two-part cast-aluminum housing.", "The paint process is electrostatic.", "This means the housing and the black powder paint are laced with opposing electrical charges.", "This spreads the paint evenly over the housing.", "Then, the housing goes through an oven, which bakes on the paint.", "Back in the assembly area, workers install the stage light's electronic components, starting with the lcd screen.", "It displays the current settings and modes and the menus for changing them.", "After covering the screen with a protective plastic shield, they install the control panel.", "It has an opening for the screen.", "This plastic cover protects the lcd.", "It also directs outside air into the housing to the light's cooling fan, which they now secure in place with this bracket.", "The fan dissipates the heat the l.e.d.s generate.", "This block of aluminum, called the heat sink, absorbs and quickly dissipates some of that heat.", "They mount the l.e.d. array on top of this twofold cooling system.", "Then, they install the optic assembly.", "This plastic component focuses the individual l.e.d.s.", "They construct the stage light's mixing tube, lining its interior with adhesive-backed aluminum mirrors.", "The mirrors mix the seven l.e.d. colors into a single color.", "The assemblers now join the two halves of the mixing tube, adding a glass lens on the front.", "The lens focuses the light produced by the 60 l.e.d.s into a single beam.", "Then, they install the tube over the optic.", "Next, they mount the control card to the side of the mixing tube.", "The control card is the stage light's onboard computer.", "It processes the commands the lighting technician enters.", "Commands can be entered from the control panel or remotely from a computer.", "After installing the main power supply, they plug a dmx cable into the control card.", "Dmx is the digital network through which the console or computer communicates to the stage light.", "They join this completed unit to the rest of the housing, which has the dmx and power connectors.", "This stage light is now finished and ready for a thorough quality control check.", "They plug it into a testing machine, which powers it up and verifies several functions.", "The machine also calibrates every color to ensure consistency in every stage light they manufacture.", "Then, they run the stage light at full power for three hours nonstop to simulate strenuous operating conditions.", "Once the light passes these tests, it's ready for its stage debut.", "Apple cider is also known as sweet cider or soft cider.", "It's darker and cloudier than conventional apple juice because tiny bits of apple are not filtered out.", "These flavorful fragments are what makes this fall beverage unique.", "When the apples on the trees are ripe, it's time to produce apple cider.", "They process the apples within days of the harvest to produce a beverage that tastes both fresh and sweet.", "It starts with the right mix of apples.", "Some varieties are sweet, and others are tart.", "This mix of flavors will spice things up.", "The apples float to the surface of a water-filled pit and drift onto a conveyor that takes them into the cider mill.", "Inside the mill, the apples spill into a washing station.", "Water sprays the apples as they bounce across rolling brushes.", "Next, the apples take a trip up to a grinder.", "Inside, a steel arm pushes the apples against a grater.", "It shreds them, pits and all, into a pulp.", "This pulp is known as pomace.", "The pomace lands in a funnel.", "From here, a pump moves it through pipes across the plant, where it arrives at a press.", "The apple pomace flows between two porous belts that wind around rollers.", "The rollers apply pressure to squeeze out the juice.", "The juice drips through holes in the belts.", "The process strains out most of the pulp, but some remains as the juice spills from the press into large catch pans.", "Then, they pump this chunky apple liquid into a holding tank.", "From the tank, it flows through a revolving drum that filters out more pulp, pits, and apple stems.", "The fluid seeps through the perforations in the drum and flows into a large trough.", "After one more screening, only fine bits of apple and sediment remain.", "This gives it the desired cider consistency and flavor.", "The cider now flows into channels between hot steel plates.", "The heat destroys pathogens and bacteria that would convert the natural sugars to alcohol.", "This ensures that the cider is both safe to drink and nonalcoholic.", "It's now ready for bottling.", "A worker slides plastic jugs into position under nozzles.", "The nozzles descend and pump the boiling-hot apple cider into the jugs.", "They're filled to the brim so air can't get inside.", "Air causes the cider to deteriorate.", "Next, the conveyor moves the jugs forward to a capping station.", "Plastic caps funnel toward the jugs as they approach.", "The caps land on the rims with perfect timing.", "Spinning wheels tighten the caps as the jugs ride by, hermetically sealing the hot apple cider, giving it a shelf life of approximately a year.", "The jugs then head into a tunnel, where sprayers douse them with cold water.", "Next, machinery pulls the liner off of adhesive-backed labels.", "An electric eye detects the approaching jugs, queuing rollers to apply the labels.", "The filtered-out pomace from earlier is cooked four to five hours.", "This caramelizes the sugars in the apples, turning the pomace into a highly concentrated spread known as apple butter.", "They bottle it while it's piping hot to preserve it.", "Although not technically butter, this fruit spread has a similar consistency.", "It takes a full day of processing to produce both apple butter and apple cider.", "It's time to raise a glass and enjoy the sweet bounty of the harvest.", "Chemical tank trailers roll down our highways every day.", "They haul liquid chemicals for manufacturing and other needs.", "Chemicals could be hazardous if released into the environment.", "Making a chemical tank trailer is serious business.", "Chemical tank trailers are built to ensure that a potentially harmful cargo arrives safely.", "Their design is tightly regulated because safety is in everyone's best interest.", "They build the chemical tank from scratch.", "They start with a big sheet of heavy-duty stainless steel.", "Pressurized rollers curl it into a cylinder that will become half of the tank's inner vessel.", "Using a crane, they transfer the 20-foot-long rounded section to a welding station.", "Here, an operator controls a semi-automatic welder with a joystick.", "The welder joins the two sides of the sheet to complete the cylinder.", "They bring two cylinders together to form a 40-foot-long inner vessel.", "This seam is near the midpoint.", "It will be subject to significant bending stress in transport.", "It's critical that this weld is perfect.", "The team caps the end with metal discs known as heads.", "They tack-weld the heads to the vessel first and assure that the fit is exact.", "Then, a semi-automatic welder does a permanent weld.", "Next, they weld three long half pipes along the bottom, again doing tack welds first and then final welds.", "The three pipes serve as a heating panel, keeping the chemical cargo at a liquid state.", "This is important because, when some chemicals solidify, their purity is compromised.", "The team slides the first of many metal rings onto the tank and clamps each ring to the shell.", "These rings stiffen the structure and act as an exterior skeleton.", "A worker does the initial tack welds.", "Then, a semi-automatic welder makes the full welds.", "After attaching a steel framework to the bottom, a crane transfers the inner vessel to the trailer.", "A worker tucks insulation between the vessel and the trailer.", "He secures the tank to the trailer with intermittent welds known as stitch welds.", "Another member of the team wraps strips of rigid foam around the steel vessel.", "He spaces the foam evenly apart and pulls them tightly against the vessel with metal strapping.", "This creates compartments for fiberglass insulation.", "He tucks the insulation into the spaces, blanketing the vessels so the chemical freight will stay warm and fluid.", "The team now builds the outer shell.", "They pull stainless steel sheets around the inner vessel using thick nylon ties.", "These sheets are made of thinner steel than the kind used to construct the inner vessel.", "They easily conform to the cylindrical shape.", "A worker welds the sheets in place, completing the outer shell.", "Once a manhole has been installed at the top, the crew builds a metal platform around it.", "This platform allows a person to access the manhole without slipping or denting the outer shell of the tank.", "A worker attaches a ladder to the tank.", "It will be used for accessing the manhole.", "Another member of the team connects l.e.d. taillights and inserts them in light boxes at the back of the trailer.", "He secures the lights to the light box with screws.", "It takes about five days to build a chemical tank trailer.", "They last for 30 years or more, so this trailer should be good for the long haul.", "Centuries-old churches and palaces have ornate stone floors that took craftsmen decades to create with chisels and other hand tools.", "Today, factories can produce similar elaborate designs in a matter of hours thanks to computer-guided machinery.", "These floor designs are so intricate, it's hard to believe that each component is an individually cut piece of marble, granite, or other natural stone.", "Whether the design covers an entire floor, or it's a single decorative insert, the starting point is a stone slab.", "It's massive but extremely thin, so it's actually quite fragile.", "Workers use a pneumatic suction hoist to position the slab onto a cutting machine table.", "The machine is entirely computer-guided.", "It cuts with a jet of water.", "The water contains particles of garnet, an extremely hard gemstone.", "The jet cuts by eroding the stone rather than by sheer force, which would crack it.", "Workers rinse away the stone grit and abrasive residue once the cutting is finished.", "They use suction cups to remove the cut pieces one at a time.", "They've cut squares for this design.", "Some will go into the floor as-is, while others go onto a smaller water jet machine, which cuts them into intricate shapes.", "Workers extract these smaller pieces with tweezers.", "Every component of the design has a number.", "Workers label the back of the corresponding piece accordingly.", "Then, they print out a life-size version of the numbered design on a sheet of durable polyester film.", "They tape it to the assembly table to serve as a template.", "Then, they lay one piece at a time front side down onto the template.", "Like a puzzle, the design slowly reveals itself.", "Once the design is fully laid out, they tack the pieces together with glue.", "This keeps them from shifting or separating.", "They lay fiberglass mesh over the entire assembly.", "Then, they prepare an epoxy resin specially formulated for stone setting...", "And spread it evenly over the mesh.", "They let it set overnight.", "And the next day, they sand it flat.", "The cut stone design is now bonded together in a solid unit.", "Now, they can safely flip it face-up.", "The final step is to fill the joints with epoxy grout then wash off any excess with a wet sponge.", "This ornate cut-stone floor insert is finally finished.", "This is just one of several components of a large, elaborate design.", "Workers assemble them together to do a quality control check.", "Then, they take the design apart and package each component separately for shipping.", "Stone must always ship upright on its side because it can crack when transported horizontally.", "However, the cut-stone floor will be sturdy enough to walk on once it's properly installed.", "Just be careful not to bump into anything while you're admiring the art beneath your feet." ]

{ "things": [ "Pistons", "Paint Rollers", "Parachutes", "Chimneys" ] }

[ "Today on \"how it's made\"...", "Pistons...", "Paint rollers...", "Parachutes...", "And chimneys.", "Pistons are key to the internal combustion process that drives engines.", "A piston is a plug that slides up and down inside each engine cylinder, compressing gas and air ignited by a spark plug.", "The resulting energy turns the crankshaft and drives the engine.", "This company makes 9,000 different types of pistons for everything from dirt bikes to car engines.", "A piston starts out as a 10-foot-long aluminum rod.", "Aluminum is ideal because it's a lightweight and rust-resistant metal that's easy to cut.", "A rotary saw slices the rod into slugs, the length of which can be changed by adjusting the feeder machine to push the rod at different intervals.", "This piston model requires 2.7-inch slugs.", "The factory recycles excess aluminum shavings.", "The punch press and die are preheated to 800 degrees fahrenheit, the temperature required to forge the slugs.", "The slugs are brought to the same temperature in an oven.", "The punch applies 2,000 tons of pressure to form it into the initial shape of the piston.", "He dunks about 1 in 10 forgings in water to check for defects.", "To make forging easier, they pre-lube the slugs before heating them.", "That's why the slug flames up when struck by the press.", "It only takes two seconds for the press to do its job, but the forgings are so hot, they need at least an hour to cool before the next step.", "Workers heat the forgings twice more, the first time at very high heat to strengthen the metal, the second time at a lower heat to stabilize it.", "Now they insert each slug in a lathe to give the forging the correct shape for machines that handle it later.", "These small holes allow oil to flow through to lubricate the piston when it's in use.", "Another lathe reduces the diameter by an 1/8 of an inch.", "The same machine then cuts three grooves, two for compression rings and another for an oil-control ring.", "These rings help the piston glide and enable it to provide an airtight seal.", "This hole is for the wrist pin that will attach the piston to a connecting rod.", "A milling machine then shaves off up to 3/4 of an inch of metal from two sides of the piston to reduce the overall weight.", "The white liquid is lubricant to cool the area during cutting.", "Another milling machine cuts away part of what they call the dome.", "This way it will clear other parts when moving inside the cylinder.", "The pistons must be just the right shape and size.", "Some of them move up and down as much as 6,000 times per minute when the engine is running.", "Next, a lathe shaves a hair width more of the metal from the outside.", "This cut enables the piston to expand slightly when heat builds up inside the cylinder.", "An automated drill makes two intersecting oil-drain holes to enhance lubrication of the wrist pin.", "Another machine now engraves model and production data.", "Here, a worker removes sharp edges created during previous operations.", "He then uses a belt sander to further smooth out the surface.", "Sharp edges could damage cylinder walls.", "This cutting machine shaves off a bit of metal inside the pinhole so the wrist pin will fit snugly inside.", "Once the cutting is complete, high-pressure jets spray the pistons with hot, deionized water.", "This cleaning removes all traces of lubricant and oil.", "After a blow-dry with an air gun, the pistons are ready to be installed.", "Norman breakey, a canadian, invented the paint roller in 1940.", "It revolutionized painting, but breakey never got rich because he lacked the financial means to defend his patent.", "Over the next 60-odd years, the paint roller, with its replaceable cylindrical refill, became the primary painting tool, alongside the paintbrush.", "The refill is a tube covered in fabric made from either polyester fiber or lint-free acrylic and nylon fiber.", "Regardless of fabric, all refills are made the same way.", "The fabric is processed into a 2.8-inch-wide strip.", "It goes into a machine called an automatic tube winder.", "It first applies epoxy glue to the surface of pvc plastic tubes.", "As the tension bar pulls the fabric strip taut, the machine winds the fabric around a tube.", "An air jet pushes aside the wound fabric to avoid bumps as more is applied.", "Once the tube is covered with fabric, the machine simultaneously wraps the end and the start of the next tube in masking tape.", "Once the glue has dried for eight hours, the tubes enter a machine that cuts them into several refills.", "The tube spins as it passes, so one small cut is enough to sever it.", "One tube produces 9 7 1/2-inch-long refills or 7 9 1/2-inch-long refills, the two standard sizes on the market.", "The next machine first runs a wire brush against the fabric.", "This lifts and fluffs the pile...", "Then makes a beveled edge on each end.", "To fluff the fabric further, a high-speed spin at 3,500 rpm.", "During all these operations, a vacuum sucks away loose fibers.", "Meanwhile, the paint-roller handles take shape.", "An injection molding machine shoots molten plastic into handle-shaped cavities.", "A built-in cooling system hardens the plastic within seconds.", "The handles are made of polypropylene, a semi-tough thermoplastic, and some colored polyethylene, a lightweight thermoplastic.", "Now that the handles and refills are made, it's just a matter of assembling them.", "These plastic bearings hold the components together.", "The assembly is entirely automated.", "The bottom bearing goes on first.", "It rests against the part called the shoulder.", "Next, the refill.", "The bottom bearing slots right into the open end of the tube.", "Now the top bearing goes on.", "A metal clip locks the bearings and roller in place.", "And, voilà, a three-inch roller for painting windows and trims.", "This factory also makes disposable plastic paint trays and tray liners.", "They're made of polyethylene terephthalate, p.e.t. for short, a type of plastic that's strong yet flexible.", "This thermoform machine heats a p.e.t. sheet, then vacuums it into a tray-shaped mold.", "Fans cool and harden the plastic.", "This heat mold-and-cool cycle takes just 30 to 50 seconds, depending on the tray thickness.", "The molded sheets go into a cutter.", "It excises the tray in one slice.", "The factory grinds up the leftover plastic and sends it back to the supplier for recycling.", "This factory also makes roller refills for applying solvents.", "Instead of pvc, the tube inside is made of a tougher material, either a chemically strengthened cardboard or a polypropylene.", "Daredevils have parachuted from cliffs or towers for centuries.", "When airplanes first took off, so did parachutes as the best escape.", "Today's aerodynamic, lightweight chutes enable cargo and people to descend safely and land right on target.", "This company makes military parachutes.", "Each one has a 30-foot wingspan and carries up to 440 pounds.", "Making the chute's canopy starts with a rugged woven nylon fabric with nylon ribbing.", "This light table lets a worker detect any flaws in the fabric.", "The alignment between the ribbing must be consistent, spaced no more than 1.5 inches apart.", "They test the strength of the fabric by pulling the material until it rips.", "To pass, the fabric must withstand a minimum of 44 pounds of pulling force.", "A laser cuts out the parachute parts, 30 to 100 of them, depending on the model.", "A vacuum system stabilizes the fabric by sucking it to the table during cutting.", "The fabric is usually silver-colored to blend in against the daytime sky.", "A seamstress now sews on nylon tape to attach the parts and reinforce the seams.", "Some panels have holes about the size of a dinner plate to funnel air between the two layers of the canopy and keep it rigid during flight.", "Once they finish sewing, workers meticulously inspect the stitching.", "Every inch of stitching must have between 7 and 10 stitches.", "If the stitching is too close or too far apart, the fabric could rip, and that's the last thing you want when your chute is descending at a rate of up to 13 feet per second.", "So they mark any problem spots with a red ribbon and resew them.", "Here, a worker sews nylon tape to reinforce an area called a flare, which is a triangular patch of nylon reinforced with silicone coating.", "She loops the tape at one of the flare's points to later insert what's called a suspension line.", "The 60 lines link the 60 flares on the canopy to the jumper's harness.", "To reinforce each flare, she sews 42 zigzag stitches in a 1-inch area.", "The nylon suspension line arrives on spools, so workers use this machine to stretch it straight.", "A worker marks off up to 14 1/2 feet per line and cuts it on an angle to reduce fraying.", "Workers later sew the ends into loops so they can attach each one to the loop on the flares.", "A worker makes a lark's head knot in each line and ties it to a flare.", "This type of knot is easy to undo if a line needs replacing.", "Connecting the 60 lines to the canopy's 60 flares takes about two hours.", "Only after all these knots are secure can they pack the chute into the backpack and ship it to the customer.", "The nylon backpack has two identical parachutes, the main chute and a reserve.", "This worker is sewing the panels that will encase the reserve chute.", "Extra stitching reinforces the strap connecting the steel buckle, which fastens an extra pack for up to 100 pounds.", "It's critical to strictly follow the company's instructions when packing the chute.", "You roll the ends, then fold the rest into layers.", "Before each jump, you have to untangle the lines and check for any tears from the previous jump.", "Then you insert the lines and canopy into the pack.", "You pull on this red nylon handle to deploy the main chute.", "The yellow handle is for the reserve chute.", "There are straps over the shoulders, chest, belly, and legs.", "And three buckles attach the harness to the jumper.", "Your home's chimney vents hot gases or smoke from your fireplace to the outside.", "Some types also channel air to the fire to keep it burning.", "Although the concept's very old, today's chimneys have come a long way.", "They're energy-efficient and modular, so you can easily assemble them yourself.", "This company makes chimneys for gas-fired and wood-burning fireplaces.", "A chimney's inner chamber is called a flue.", "For a wood-burning fireplace, they make the flue from stainless steel.", "Workers unwind a sheet, then slice it to the size of the flue section they're making.", "The sections are up to 10 inches wide and 4 feet long.", "They assemble as many as they need to make a complete chimney.", "Here, a worker folds the edges in opposite directions, which will enable them to interlock.", "Rollers then curl the sheet into a cylinder.", "The metal is only about as thick as four pieces of paper stacked together.", "This keeps the chimney lightweight.", "They weld together the top and bottom ends, and a roller flattens the welded seam.", "They insert the bottom of the flue between two rollers.", "They form a ridge to which a coupler will later attach.", "They crimp the metal at the top so it can also hold a coupler.", "To make top-end couplers, a die punches the shape from lubricated sheets of stainless steel.", "A robotic arm then suctions out the coupler and places it onto another machine that cuts threads into the sides of it.", "These threads enable the chimney sections to twist and lock together.", "To attach the coupler, the worker mounts it on top of the flue.", "A roller then pushes against the flue in the coupler.", "This expands the metal and secures the pieces together.", "Now to join the flue with the outer casing.", "An eight-sided die pushes out against a coupler to attach it to the flue in the casing.", "They insulate the chimney with shredded ceramic fiber that can withstand a temperature of up to 2,100 degrees fahrenheit.", "Workers feed the fiber into a machine that packs it into the cavity between the flue and the casing.", "The machine then moves the chimney to another station where it twists a coupler to the bottom end to close the cavity.", "After a quick brushing to remove any fiber dust, a mechanical arm lifts the chimney and moves it to be boxed and shipped.", "A gas-burning fireplace generates less heat and fewer corrosive gases, so the chimney flue is made of aluminum-coated steel and a casing of a zinc-aluminum alloy-- more-affordable materials, yet still well above safety standards.", "The air space between the flue and casing provides the required insulation.", "A worker places the flue inside an automated welder.", "It fuses the edges with a laser that's as thin as a human hair.", "This is called a butt laser weld because the machine butts the edges together and bonds them.", "Next, an eight-sided die indents the section with three ridges.", "A component will fit into these indentations later.", "Here, a machine creates a star-shaped component called a spacer.", "They use two of them to center the flue in the casing.", "A worker installs one at each end of the flue.", "He then inserts the flue into the casing and twists it to lock the spacers into the ridges.", "This connects and aligns the chimney sections properly.", "The tops of chimneys have steel rain caps.", "They let smoke and gases vent but keep rain out, ensuring that where's there's smoke, there is indeed fire." ]

{ "things": [ "Compression & Extension Springs", "Micro Drill Bits", "Skiffs", "Painted Glass Backsplashes" ] }

[ "Compression and extension springs...", "Micro drill bits...", "Skiffs...", "And painted glass backsplashes.", "Coiled wire springs are designed to change shape when weight is added or removed.", "Some coils, such as compression springs, are made to keep components apart.", "Other types of coils, like extension springs, hold things together while the spring expands and contracts.", "When a load is applied to a compression spring, it contracts, while an extension spring expands when pulled.", "Compression and extension springs are made from steel wire.", "The diameter and qualities of the wire varies, depending on the use of the spring.", "Spooled onto a reel, the wire uncoils, pulled by rollers, which lead to a forming machine.", "Guide rollers steer the wire, as does this aperture.", "Multiple feed rollers push the wire towards computerized forming tools.", "The rollers pause, while the tools do their work, and then resume to supply wire for the next spring.", "Meanwhile, other rollers push the wire around a mandrel, where it's coiled into an extension spring.", "A side-arm controls the diameter, while another tool cuts it to length.", "The forming process has caused internal stresses.", "To remove those stresses, the springs are heat-treated.", "As the springs move out of the oven, they travel through a cooling chamber.", "The heating and controlled cooling improves the physical properties, allowing the springs to withstand repeated compression.", "With internal stresses relieved, it's time to work on the outer surface of the steel springs.", "A rack conveyer dips extension springs into a vat of water-based paint.", "The paint seeps into the crevices of the coils, providing even paint coverage.", "Then the rack conveyer takes the painted springs on a ten-minute loop through an oven.", "This step bakes the paint onto the steel, providing a corrosion-resistant finish.", "This is what the springs look like before and after painting.", "These truck suspension springs are made differently.", "A machinist heats the end of a steel rod in a furnace, inserting it between forming tools to taper it.", "This taper will allow the completed spring to sit upright.", "Next, the entire rod goes into a 1,796-degree furnace.", "Once the rod in red-hot and malleable, it exits the furnace and is transferred to the forming mandrel.", "The mandrel spins to wind the soft, steel wire, transforming the straight steel rod into a spring.", "The spring is placed in a bucket and lifted to an oil bath.", "The bath quenches and hardens the steel.", "Then the spring travels through a furnace.", "The heat burns off quenching oil residue.", "A technician inserts the compression springs in a revolving fixture, allowing the ends of the springs to extend outward.", "As the fixture revolves, grinding wheels remove material to flatten the exposed ends.", "This flattened profile is another way to ensure that the springs will sit upright.", "Once complete, the technician measures the height of the spring to confirm that the correct amount of material has been ground off.", "The grinding has made a substantial difference.", "The next machine removes surface flaws.", "An operator places the spring inside the machine.", "As the spring spins, a fine, abrasive steel shot sands away imperfections.", "You can see the difference this step makes in the spring on the right.", "The exposure to heat has made the steel wire more flexible.", "A technician places the wire in a press machine and sets the compression and height.", "The press squeezes the coils until the desired amount of compression is achieved.", "After the spring has been painted, the company name and model information is stamped onto the springs.", "It takes two hours to make a spring, and now it's finally ready for some flex time.", "Thousands of years ago, our earliest ancestors might have picked up a pointed rock and spun it between their hands to bore a hole in something they wanted to modify.", "Today, you can buy drill bits in all shapes and sizes.", "Drill bits are often associated with carpentry, but from electronics to surgery tooling, there are all kinds of fields that require ultra-thin, high-performance drill bits.", "The production process begins with lengths of 100% carbide called blanks.", "A diamond grinding wheel lubricated with a specialized cutting liquid is applied to a chamfered edge on one tip of the blank.", "This step removes the rough edges left when the blanks were cut down to size.", "A vibrating device organizes the blanks inside a rotating bowl.", "The vibrating action shifts the blanks into single file so they can proceed one-by-one to the next step.", "This machine is called a centerless grinder.", "The blanks move between two rotating drums, which grinds them down to a specified length.", "The blanks pour out of the machine immersed in the lubricating fluid.", "An operator selects one and places it in a quality control gauge to check that it meets the manufacturer's required tolerances.", "The blanks now enter a cnc rollomatic.", "An operator sets up the tool and programs its work process.", "A robotic auto-feeder picks up the blanks one-by-one from a specialized palette.", "The robotic arms places each blank carefully and precisely in a waiting chuck, or collar, and then moves them back into position.", "The tool moves forward, holding the blank perfectly still as a pair of wheels close in.", "Liquid coolant pours over the blank as the wheels precision pinch-grind the tip of the blank, grinding it down to about 1/10 of a millimeter-- the width of a human hair.", "It's a delicate process.", "The rollomatic produces 48 pieces per hour.", "Next, a technician places small sheets of plastic foil in a jig.", "The foil is shim stock, color-coded according to its thickness.", "The jig raises the metal support to a specified height.", "When the blank advances over the support, a mark left in the blue ink determines whether the metal blank is centered.", "Once complete, a technician uses a magnifying tool to fine-tune the placement of the blank and ensure that it's perfectly centered.", "This process can take four to five hours.", "The blank is finally ready for the crucial fluting process that will transform it from a cylindrical length of carbide with a narrow tip into a micro drill bit.", "After hours of preparation, this operation takes just a few seconds.", "An industrial grinding diamond wheel has sliced a microscopic groove at a precise angle.", "The technician inserts the bit, sharp-end first, into a precision machining device.", "A steel bushing with a brass insert holds the tip of the bit in place as a cutting wheel slices an angled point.", "It's impossible to see the difference between a bit before and after fluting.", "Using a magnifying device, the technician conducts a quality control check of the bit.", "As the screen reveals the finely-cut flute, the technician ensures the tool's parameters meet manufacturing standards.", "Once such parameter has to do with the shape of the flute, which has a forward taper.", "This means the flue groove becomes shallower from tip to base at a very precise angle.", "This feature simultaneously strengthens the tool while increasing the chip flow along the groove.", "Although carbide is incredibly strong, when it's milled to the thickness of a human hair, it becomes fragile.", "Needless to say, careful packaging is extremely important.", "A skiff is a lightweight motorboat designed for use on shallow water.", "Unlike most boats that have a v-shaped hull, a skiff's hull is relatively flat, allowing it to sit high above the water.", "This type of boat is known as a poling skiff.", "It's designed with a platform set over the engine, which provides fishermen a ledge to stand on while moving the boat along with a pole.", "A technician cleans the hull mold and coats it with a release agent, then sprays on a gel coating.", "The gel coating forms the glossy outer layer of the boat.", "Then the technician measures the gel coat layer with a mill gauge and leaves it to harden for about an hour.", "Computer-guided machines cut pieces for the hull, deck, and cockpit floor from four different materials-- woven fiberglass mat, rigid pvc sheet-foam, kevlar-- a high-strength, heat-resistant synthetic fabric-- and stiffer kevlar reinforced with carbon fiber.", "Chopped fiberglass saturated with resin is applied onto the gel coat.", "With spray-glue, a technician adheres a layer of carbon kevlar, fiberglass, foam, and a second layer of kevlar to the base.", "These layered materials create a mold for the boat's deck and cockpit floor.", "The flat squares are aluminum-retention plates, where components will be screwed down.", "Raised squares are where openings will be cut out for storage compartments.", "Each mold is bagged and connected with hoses to a vacuum-infusion system.", "The vacuum compresses the layers to 2/3 their original thickness, then the system draws a specialized resin through the materials, which will bond them into a single unit.", "The system removes all excess resin so that the ratio of resin to materials creates maximum strength with minimal weight.", "Next, another technician assembles the boat's wiring into a unit known as a wiring harness.", "He winds the individual wires around a schematic that's custom-designed for this specific boat.", "He attaches connectors on the ends that fit into water-tight plugs.", "Every wire is labeled for easy identification.", "Once the resin has fully cured, the plastic vacuum bag is removed from each mold.", "A technician knocks wedges under the flange that formed around the perimeter, and thanks to the release agent, a team can easily lift the flange out of the mold.", "The flange is trimmed, and the openings are cut with a diamond saw, which leaves clean, straight edges.", "Next, a team begins assembling the boat.", "First, they apply adhesive to the hull to prepare the cockpit floor for attachment.", "Once the cockpit's in place, white pvc tubes are installed for storing fishing rods under the deck.", "Then the wiring harness is installed.", "The aluminum fuel tank is mounted in the bow.", "These components are made of strong, lightweight materials.", "A technician places screws into the metal retention plates that were molded into the structure.", "Next, the wiring harness is attached to water-tight plugs connected to the electrically-powered components.", "After installing plumbing lines for the aerated live bait compartment, team members glue the deck to the hull.", "The lids are installed for the deck openings.", "This one covers the forward storage compartment containing the fuel tank and the tubes for the fishing rods.", "Next, the console helm is assembled, which is the nautical equivalent of a vehicle dashboard.", "Onto the helm, a technician installs the steering wheel, the engine gauge, the panel containing the ignition and switches for electrical components, and the throttle, which controls speed.", "Then, two technicians bolt the outboard motor onto the engine mount at the stern.", "While this skiff is built with a square stern and pointed bow, its sides are flat.", "This enables the boat to move quietly through the water.", "Next, technicians mount the poling platform over the engine, securing it with glue and screws.", "Finally, a technician installs the finishing touches, and the skiff is ready for launch.", "Due to its low profile and light weight, this boat can operate in just mere inches of water.", "Painted glass is an un-traditional backsplash choice specifically designed to look minimalistic.", "Due to fewer grout lines, these painted panels are also easier to clean so that when grease splatters, the backsplash can be wiped down quickly.", "These panels are painted on the back so the neutral color shows through the front side.", "Since glass is reflective, this backsplash brings both subtle color and light into the kitchen.", "Production starts with an automated loading system.", "Suctioning grippers transfer the glass to the rails of a conveyer.", "This is low-iron glass, a kind of glass with a very high clarity.", "Once color is applied to the back, the color will appear more clearly on the front than regular glass.", "For easy identification, a computerized system applies labels to each of the parts to be cut.", "A diamond cutting tool scores the glass, mapping out backsplash panels and smaller pieces to be used for showroom samples.", "Once complete, rollers move the glass sheet to the next station.", "Two technicians snap the glass along the score lines.", "This snapping action creates clean cuts, preventing the glass from shattering.", "The snap action doesn't work for cuts within the panel.", "Instead, a highly pressurized water jet mixed with garnet grit cuts through the glass.", "The cutting device makes holes for electrical switch plates and for mounting hardware.", "With the cutting done, a technician rinses the residual grit.", "The sharp edges are profiled so the glass will be safer to handle.", "As this display model demonstrates, there are several choices.", "Next, an operator loads the glass backsplash into a slotted conveyer, which transfers it to the edging machine.", "Underneath the edging machine, there are a series of grinding and buffing wheels.", "As the glass travels over the wheels, the edge of the glass will transform.", "Once the machine is activated, the wheels spin, while lubricant flows over the glass.", "The wheels profile and buff the edge of the glass that will be the top of the backsplash.", "Next, the operator examines the edge to confirm that it's been contoured and that there aren't any imperfections.", "Apart from making the glass safer to handle, the profiled edge will reduce the possibility of chipping and breakage.", "At the next station, spinning brushes with soft bristles scrub the panel.", "The process removes any dust or polishing grit to prepare it for the next steps.", "Once out of the washing machine, the glass backsplash travels through a 1,299-degree oven.", "The intense heat followed by a quick cooling tempers the glass to make it heat resistant.", "Roller conveyers transfer the glass to the painting station.", "A technician mixes the acrylic paint.", "Since paint doesn't stick to glass on its own, a special adhesion-promoting chemical is added to the mixture.", "The technician mixes the colorants into the white base according to the formula.", "Specific amounts of red and yellow paint produce a brilliant orange hue.", "Next, sprayers apply the paint evenly across the back of the panel as the glass moves along a conveyer.", "Then the backsplash enters an infrared oven heated to 302 degrees fahrenheit.", "The painted glass bakes in the oven for about four minutes.", "Once heating is complete, a technician applies gray paint over the backside of the backsplash.", "This coat won't affect the orange hue, but it will protect the backsplash from damage during transport and installation.", "Neutral-colored backsplashes make a more subtle statement, while brightly-colored backsplashes can make a kitchen pop." ]

{ "things": [ "Fire Extinguishers", "Doughnuts", "Shock Absorbers", "Banjos" ] }

[ "Today on \"how it's made\"...", "Fire extinguishers...", "Doughnuts...", "Shock absorbers...", "And banjos.", "The first fire extinguisher on record was built in europe in the middle ages.", "It worked like a giant syringe that squirted water at a fire.", "The modern extinguisher uses compressed air as a propellant and douses the fire with flame-retardant liquid, powder, or foam.", "Squeezing the lever opens a valve that releases compressed air.", "The pressure then propels the chemical through the hose and out the nozzle.", "Production of the release valve starts with cylindrical pieces of aluminum called blanks.", "A carousel runs each one through 16 different machining stations.", "At each stop, under a shower of lubricant, tools shape the blank for 6 1/2 seconds.", "As each blank completes the circuit, it comes off the carousel.", "From blank to valve in a minute and a quarter.", "Now the fire extinguisher's aluminum handle is riveted onto the valve.", "It pivots on a pin.", "Next, an aluminum lever is riveted onto the handle.", "This is the lever you squeeze to use the fire extinguisher.", "Then comes the valve stem-- the valve's inner workings.", "Workers simply place it inside, and an automated assembly machine does the rest.", "It positions a spring over the stem to create resistance when you squeeze the lever.", "Then comes a retainer to hold both the stem and spring in position.", "Now workers slip on a plastic thimble to position the rubber \"o\" ring that goes on next.", "The \"o\" ring acts as a seal between the valve and cylinder so nothing leaks out.", "The siphon tube runs from the valve down into the cylinder.", "The firefighting chemical goes up this tube, then out the nozzle.", "The compressed air inside the cylinder is what propels the chemical.", "This gauge shows if there's sufficient pressure for that to happen.", "After coating the gauge's threaded stem with sealant to prevent leaks, a worker screws it onto the valve.", "The valve unit is now fully assembled, tested, and ready for installation on top of the cylinder.", "To attach it, the cylinder needs a threaded collar.", "With the help of a press, a worker positions it.", "The cylinder also needs a bottom.", "The technique this factory uses to fuse the bottom and collar is called brazing.", "It's similar to soldering but with a copper ring as a bonding metal.", "After positioning a brazing ring at the base of the open cylinder, a steel bottom is pressed into place.", "Then workers position a brazing ring over the collar.", "Now into a brazing furnace for an hour and 45 minutes.", "The 2,000-degree heat melts the two copper rings, boding the parts they connect.", "Next stop, the static-paint booth, where workers apply a positive electrical charge to the paint particles and a negative charge to the cylinders.", "This draws the paint onto the surface evenly.", "Then it's into an oven for 45 minutes to bake the paint.", "Once the cylinders cool, automated machinery fills them with a fire-extinguishing powder.", "The main ingredient is a form of ammonia.", "When it's sprayed on a fire, the heat melts the particles of powder, fusing them into an oxygen-blocking blanket that smothers the flames.", "After the cylinders are filled, an automated machine screws a valve onto the collar of each one.", "Now it's time to pressurize the cylinder.", "The lever is squeezed to open the valve, enabling a compressor to fill the cylinder with air.", "They keep filling until the air pressure reaches 13 bars, about six times the pressure in a car tire.", "Next, workers screw on the nozzle and install a locking pin.", "This immobilizes the lever so the extinguisher can't discharge accidentally.", "As the instruction sticker says, in case of fire, you just pull the pin, aim, and spray.", "This mounting bracket lets you hang the fire extinguisher in an accessible spot so it's close at hand if you need it.", "When we return, frying up one of america's favorite treats.", "Doughnuts used to be called oily cakes because they were deep fried in pork fat.", "When dutch pilgrims first brought them to america, they were ball-shaped.", "But then someone found that removing a nut of dough from the center helped them cook far more evenly.", "And so the doughnut was born.", "In the world of doughnuts, there are two basic types-- yeast doughnuts and cake doughnuts.", "The batter for cake doughnuts drops from the mixer right into boiling vegetable oil.", "The nozzles shape the dough as it passes.", "The doughnuts fry for about a minute and a half.", "Then a conveyor carries them out of the vat to cool.", "Yeast doughnuts require more time to make.", "A high-speed mixer works the yeast dough, then workers pull it off the machine into bins.", "From there, it goes into a hopper that extrudes the dough as a sheet.", "Then it's on to another conveyor belt where a series of rollers flatten the dough sheet to just 3/4 of an inch thick.", "The sheet passes under a shower of cinnamon...", "Then hits a rotating cylinder that rolls it into a log.", "A small metal rod sprinkles the dough with water.", "This keeps it sticky enough to hold its shape while going under another flattening roller.", "A dusting of cornstarch keeps the dough from sticking to the blade that now cuts it into pieces.", "A retractable arm drops the blocks of dough four at a time onto wire-mesh trays.", "Then it's off to the proofer, a machine much like a large bread box in which heat and humidity help the yeast dough rise.", "This leavening process takes about 20 minutes, during which time the trays-- over 300 of them-- go up and down and then out to the fryer.", "A gate slows the doughnuts down just before the drop so they slide in without splashing hot oil.", "Gas burners keep the oil at a constant boil.", "Anything less and the doughnuts would come out partly raw.", "Halfway through, they get a flip so they'll cook evenly throughout.", "After two minutes, the doughnuts leave the fryer and move through a curtain of sweet glaze.", "A strong air current blows off the excess.", "And these fry cakes are ready to eat.", "They gradually cool as they spiral through the production area on their way to packaging.", "Now let's see how they make doughnuts with filling.", "A machine separates the yeast dough into little blobs, then sends them rolling down plastic tunnels.", "This shapes them first into pucks, then into round dough balls.", "Rollers then flatten the balls before they enter the proofer to rise.", "There's cornstarch everywhere to prevent the dough from sticking to the machinery or to the conveyor belt.", "Row after row of doughnuts fry in hot oil...", "Then slide into a large drum that tumbles them around, covering them with a sugary coating.", "Now it's time for the doughnuts to get filled.", "These nozzles inject just the right amount of jelly.", "Each worker fills 45 doughnuts a minute.", "After filling, these doughnuts, known as bismarcks, are ready to go on to packaging.", "They're just one of the many delicious varieties that this factory turns out on a daily basis.", "Next, the shocking truth behind one of your car's most critical parts.", "Shock absorbers do more than just smooth your ride.", "They counteract the bounce when you hit a bump, holding your tires to the road.", "Without that traction, you could lose control.", "So by affecting steering, stopping, and stability, shocks are actually a vital safety component.", "Wheel vibrations cause a piston inside the shock absorber to force oil through a valve.", "This absorbs energy, reducing the vehicle's bounce.", "All this happens within the shock's two tubes-- the reserve tube and, inside it, the pressure tube, housing the piston rod and compression valve.", "Both of these tubes are made from a steel sheet sliced into strips.", "Inside this tube mill, coolant prevents the passing strip from overheating as one forming roller after another gradually rounds it into a tube.", "Then, a copper welding wheel fuses the tube closed.", "As the 6-yard-long tube comes off the mill, a cutting tool chops it into shock-absorber lengths.", "The tube-making process is the same for the reserve and pressure tubes, except that the reserve tubes undergo one extra step-- compressing the ends.", "This enables the shock to house a larger reserve tube that can hold more oil.", "The reserve tube's final stop is a press.", "A die inside stamps the part number, the manufacturing date, and the brand name.", "Many components are made of powdered metal-- mostly iron powder mixed with some graphite and copper.", "After a press compacts the powder in a die, a furnace fuses the particles.", "This powdered-metal part is the valve through which the piston forces the oil.", "Steel discs and a spring help control the speed with which the valve operates for varying driving conditions.", "A stamping tool crimps the end of the tube, holding the spring in position.", "The valve, now fully assembled, seals the bottom of the pressure tube.", "Meanwhile, a press punches round steel discs into other components.", "These loops mount the shock absorber to the vehicle.", "A worker positions a cup on each one, then a robot welds them together.", "They insert a cup-and-mount unit on one end of the reserve tube, then weld it on.", "This unit is called the base assembly.", "The base assemblies now go on a conveyor, open end up so that workers can drop a pressure tube inside each one.", "Automated injectors now fill the tubes with oil that's specially designed to maintain its consistency despite changes in temperature.", "Next comes the head assembly, which includes the steel piston rod and the mount on the other end of the shock absorber.", "Two copper welding wheels fuse the head assembly to the base assembly with a cap.", "This closes the unit, sealing the oil inside.", "Next, workers weld on a dirt shield-- a steel casing that prevents dirt from hindering the movement of the piston rod.", "A piece called a bushing is pressed into each mount.", "This helps tone down the vibrations coming from the vehicle.", "Now it's on to an automated carousel.", "Robots pierce a hole in each shock and inject nitrogen gas to prevent the oil inside from foaming.", "After injection, the robot seals the hole by welding on a tiny steel ball.", "And now for the finishing touch-- an electrostatic paint job.", "A machine runs a positive electrical current through the shocks and a negative one through the paint particles.", "Like a magnet, the static electricity draws the paint onto the shocks in a flawless coat.", "In the factory's quality-control lab, technicians use sophisticated equipment to evaluate how well a shock dampens movement at different speeds.", "The tube-and-valve configuration inside varies by vehicle, so the shocks on a ground-hugging sports car are quite different from those on a luxury sedan or on a light truck.", "Coming up, a production line that comes with strings attached.", "The twang of the banjo resonates in american country music and bluegrass, but this down-home sound actually has its roots in africa.", "Slaves brought to america wanted something that sounded like the instruments from home, so they devised the banjo.", "And the rest is music history.", "to make a banjo, a lip is carved into wood that's been steamed and bent into a circular rim.", "The rim is carefully measured.", "It must be a perfect fit for this metal tone ring.", "The wooden back of the banjo acts as a sound resonator, and some plastic trim gives it a more stylish look.", "A chemical accelerator helps the glue dry so the plastic trim adheres almost instantly.", "The surface is then sanded until the plastic is flush to the wood.", "This long piece of wood will become the banjo's neck.", "Using a table saw, an artisan cuts a long slot into the neck so that a metal adjusting rod can be installed later.", "He widens the end of the neck with two pieces of wood to form the instrument's peg head.", "Next comes some very delicate work, as tiny mother-of-pearl decorations are embedded in a piece of ebony.", "That inlaid piece of ebony is then glued onto the banjo's peg head and clamped to dry.", "Now it's over to a saw with 22 blades.", "A long piece of ebony is passed over those blades to make the banjo's fret slots.", "This is the banjo's fingerboard.", "Once it's been adorned with more inlaid decorations, the fingerboard is glued onto the banjo neck.", "Next, the edges of the banjo neck and peg head are trimmed down to size.", "Using this router, artisans give the back and sides of the banjo neck smoother contours.", "The rounded edges will make the instrument easier to hold and play.", "They finalize the shape of the neck with a rasp, then give it a thorough sanding.", "Here, metal frets are tapped into the slots on the fingerboard, and the overlap is trimmed.", "Now it's time for a little color.", "Stain is rubbed onto the banjo parts.", "When the stain dries, it's followed by 12 coats of lacquer...", "And finally, a thorough buffing.", "Now all the pieces come together, beginning with the pre-fitted tone ring and wooden rim.", "The plastic head through which the banjo's sound will radiate fits on the tone ring.", "The head is secured with a tension hoop and a series of hooks.", "Tightening these hooks will stretch the plastic head to adjust the instrument's tone.", "The banjo neck and its peg head are attached and secured with metal rods.", "The tuning pegs are screwed into the peg head.", "Then the banjo's strings are attached and tightened.", "This little wooden bridge sits on the plastic head and is only held in place by the tension of the strings.", "Finally, the back of the banjo goes into place.", "And now this finely crafted instrument is ready to strum away." ]

{ "things": [ "Native Healing Drums", "Raisins", "Stereoscopic Viewers", "Ribbon Microphones" ] }

[ "For thousands of years, aboriginal peoples have used drums to call on healing spirits.", "But the sound of the drum itself can be a source of renewal.", "The repetitive beat can induce a meditative state which may actually have healing properties.", "today, a new generation beats the drum to heal body and spirit.", "These young men are from the tewa tribe of northern new mexico.", "Like their ancestors before them, they chant and drum in a rhythmic appeal to heal.", "To make a healing drum, they start with pieces of pine or spruce-- soft woods that are lightweight.", "The native craftsman creates an octagonal design and leaves the glue joints to dry.", "The next craftsman soaks a cowhide in water to make it soft and pliable.", "He drapes the wet hide over a drum frame and as he does, he looks for cuts or thin patches.", "He arranges it so that any flaws aren't apparent.", "He then trims the hide.", "This particular drum is for powwows.", "So it's extra large.", "It's a two-sided version for a deeper tone.", "He pulls the wet hide to the desired tension and punches holes in the skirting.", "He hammers nails through the holes to tack the hide to the frame and cuts a scalloped edge.", "He then tacks a hide to the other side.", "He places another piece of wet rawhide on a spiral blade and pounds the hide into it using a hickory mallet.", "This slices the leather into a long, thin lace.", "He extracts the lace from the cutter.", "After softening it with water, he takes it outside.", "He wraps one end around a post and pulls, stretching the leather to remove slack.", "It breaks at any weak points, leaving the strongest parts.", "He now laces the leather drumheads to the frame.", "He cuts a slit in the end and pulls the rest of the lace through the slit to knot it to the drumhead.", "He zigzags the lacing through alternate holes in the the two drumhead hides.", "He tugs the lace as he goes to pull the leather drumheads tightly to the frame.", "Once complete, he knots the other end.", "He threads the second piece of lace through the remaining holes, creating a crisscross pattern.", "Paint applied to the frame early on shows through the crisscross weave.", "The leather dries to a dark patina for a stunning contrast to the blue hue.", "This double-sided drum is now ready for a powwow.", "To make a single-sided healing drum, they bend a piece of wood into a complete circle.", "A craftsperson signs and stamps the maker's information on the inside.", "Then it's over to the drum maker.", "She pulls a wet hide to the wooden hoop and folds it under the rim, smoothing out any puckers.", "She punches holes for securing the drumhead to the wooden hoop and slices off the excess hide.", "She's now ready to lace the drumhead to the frame.", "She ties the skin to the frame in a configuration that looks like the spokes of a bicycle wheel.", "She pulls it tightly for the desired tonality.", "It's all in the technique.", "If she doesn't get it right now, the wet drumhead will warp as it dries.", "The leather spokes meet at the center in a cross where the drummer will grip it.", "The leather darkens as it dries and the tension sets.", "She now weaves strips of tanned leather around the cross at the center.", "It's a decorative touch that also gives the drummer something more substantial to hold on to.", "The drummer will hook a thumb in the cross section to hold the drum with an open hand.", "An artist paints symbolic images on the native healing drum.", "She works freestyle.", "A few strokes of the brush produce a buffalo...", "And then then an entire herd.", "for native peoples of north america, the bison is a symbol of strength and unity.", "A corn maiden painting on a drum represents abundance.", "It's art designed to help one heal to the beat.", "incredibly, people have been drying grapes to turn them into raisins for 2,000 years.", "Today, there are potato chips and chocolate bars, but people are still snacking on raisins.", "Preserved and sweetened by the drying process, they can still be enjoyed anytime, anywhere.", "2,000 years on the snack circuit, and raisins still get plenty of nibbles.", "They're also a popular ingredient in baked goods, cereals, and salads.", "At this california vineyard, they plant grapevine cuttings in late winter.", "They're the seedless kind.", "These cuttings take three years to grow and bear fruit.", "Each winter, they prune the vines, cutting away weaker canes and dead wood.", "Pruning reduces the number of buds.", "So the plant's energy goes to the ones that remain, resulting in larger fruit clusters.", "They twist the remaining chutes around an overhead wire trellis and tie them to it.", "Grapevines are natural climbers.", "Securing them to the trellis positions them to grow in an arc for maximum sun exposure.", "They pipe water between the rows.", "It pools there and seeps into the soil and down to the roots of the vines.", "These particular vines are growing on t-shaped trellises.", "It's an older style of trellis.", "When the grapes ripen, they cut the canes.", "The fruit continues to hang there and it dries on the vines.", "After 6 to 8 weeks, the grapes shrivel up and become raisins.", "A harvester with comb-like teeth shakes the raisins from the vines.", "They fall onto a conveyer, and a vacuum pulls out leaves and then shoots the raisins into bins.", "On this particular harvester, the conveyer and the bins are on board.", "The t-trellises require a different harvesting system, and the bins are outside in the next row.", "Once full, a loader retrieves the bin, and then it's on its way to the packing plant.", "Upon arrival, these raisins undergo extensive scrutiny.", "An inspector from the u.s. department of agriculture looks for defects as the raisins bounce by on a shaker conveyer.", "Technicians also test the moisture content and general quality of the fruit.", "A vacuum removes twigs and stems.", "They're lighter than the raisins and so they can be easily pulled out.", "Here's a sample of the raisins as they arrive from the field.", "And here they are with the plant debris removed.", "They often store the raisins for weeks before further production.", "And during this time, the raisins stick together and form clumps.", "A revolving wheel with paddles now breaks up the clumps and separates the raisins.", "They tumble off the conveyer and onto a perforated shaker table.", "This separates any raisins which may still be clinging together.", "Some cap stems remain.", "These bits link the grapes to the vine stems.", "The raisins now flow into cone-shaped machines that spin them to knock off the cap stems without damaging the raisins.", "Once the raisins have been sorted by size, they travel under sprayers for a rinse, wash, and then another rinse.", "They cruise by a laser that detects any missed cap stems or plant material.", "A blast of air then gets rid of them.", "Next, the raisins go into an inspection station and a worker picks out any material that may have been missed by the laser.", "With her approval, the raisins are ready for packaging.", "Suctioning devices grab and unfold snack-sized boxes and place them, lid up, on a high-speed conveyer or.", "Raisins spill into the open snack boxes, and it's all a blur.", "They fill 30,000 snack boxes an hour at this facility.", "It takes about a year to grow and dry these raisins and just minutes to package them.", "Stored in a cool, dry place, they will last a year-- unless someone eats them first.", "Stereoscopic viewers date back to the 1840s.", "Then, you had to manually insert one photograph at a time.", "In 1939, a new type of viewer was introduced which used a reel of slides instead of printed photographs.", "You advance from one to the next by pulling on a lever.", "Early stereoscopic viewers gave people a way to see the world.", "When viewers with reels came out, travel remained the focus.", "You could visit a tourist site, then buy yourself a reel at the gift shop as a souvenir.", "Today, 3-d viewers are also a business tool.", "Companies use them as a creative way to market products or train employees.", "And consumers now buy them as a novelty or gift, going online to order custom reels featuring their personal photographs.", "Whatever the purpose, it's all about the pictures.", "The manufacturer can use photos shot with a 3-d digital camera or with a standard digital camera.", "The company's editor transfers the photographs to a computer and types a caption for each one.", "If the photos were taken with the regular camera, he performs some computer magic.", "He moves the image backwards, away from the viewer's eyes, then floats the text in the foreground closer to the viewer's eyes.", "This little trick makes the photo appear to be 3-dimensional.", "He puts two of each photo on a reel template.", "You view one with each eye and your brain combines the two, creating 3-dimensional depth.", "A photo and title in the center identify the reel.", "Then the editor sends the assembled reel file to a photo processing lab and sets up the number of copies to be printed.", "The photo processor's lasers print the photographs pixel by pixel on polyester film.", "The machine prints a full sheet of 35 reels in exactly 1 minute and 14 seconds.", "Then the sheet travels through a series of chemical baths and a dryer.", "And 11 1/2 minutes later, the film is ready.", "The editor carefully inspects every photo on every reel.", "If everything's perfect, he feeds the film through a laminator.", "The machine sandwiches the film between two sheets of transparent plastic then uses simultaneous pressure and heat to fuse everything together.", "Encased in plastic, the floppy film is now rigid and three times thicker.", "They now feed the laminated film into a hydraulic punching machine.", "Its cookie-cutter type dies slice the perimeter of the reels, releasing them from the sheet.", "The viewer itself is made up of injection-molded plastic.", "A worker secures the front part in an assembly fixture then places plastic lenses in the eyeholes.", "A machine then expands the plastic, locking in the lenses.", "Preparing two viewers at a time now, he places a frosted plastic panel on the back part to diffuse the daylight or artificial light coming into the viewer.", "An inner eyepiece goes over the diffuser, then this machine applies heat to fuse it in place.", "Next, the lever you pull down to advance from photo to photo.", "This spring returns it to the \"up\" position after each pull.", "Now he mates the two parts of the viewer.", "A high-pressure air press squeezes them together in a permanent bond.", "The finishing touch-- a printing pad stamps the front of the viewer with the brand name.", "Stereoscopic viewers have come a long way since their invention in the 1800s.", "While still offering a dose of nostalgia, there's a new twist-- putting your very own photos on a reel as a unique gift or a fun way to relive those vacation memories.", "The ribbon microphone was invented in the 1920s and first commercially produced in 1931.", "It's called a ribbon microphone because inside, a thin aluminum ribbon positioned between two magnets converts sound waves into electrical signals.", "Introduced in 1931, ribbon microphones revolutionized the broadcasting and audio recording industries with unprecedented sound quality.", "This company manufactures a modern version of the rca-44, one of the first ribbon microphones.", "This manufacturer handcrafts the microphone, starting with the frame, which holds all the components.", "After cutting a flat piece of brass, the machinist makes two bends with a press, then drills threaded holes for the fasteners that will connect the frame to the rest of the microphone.", "Then he puts the bar into another press that bends the two ends upward to form a u-shape.", "The frame goes off to another department to be chrome-plated and polished.", "Meanwhile, another machinist takes a sheet of perforated brass to begin forming the microphone's signature grille.", "He secures it to a die with two mounting plates.", "The die is the shape of one half of the multisided grille.", "He mounts it onto a fly press, a press operated by rotating a heavy counterweight.", "As that counterweight spins, the die descends into a forming mold that's also in the shape of half of the grille.", "A high-speed automated cutter trims the perimeter to make a neat, even edge all around.", "Then the grille halves are sent off to be chrome-plated and polished.", "Next, a technician assembles the motor, the heart of the microphone.", "First, he snaps on two strong magnets.", "The gap between them is where he'll later insert the key component-- the thin aluminum ribbon which gives this type of microphone its name.", "After aligning the top of the motor with the bottom, he attaches the frame, which has since acquired a custom-made transformer, electrical terminals, and side brackets.", "Now for the all-important ribbon.", "A technician crafts it from a hair-thin sheet of pure aluminum.", "It's so fragile, he has to handle it with tweezers.", "First, using the edge of a razor blade, he glues down the edges to a thin sheet of paper set on a glass cutting surface.", "Then, he places a second sheet of paper on top and, with a razor blade, slices lengthwise, dividing it into 4 ribbons, each 2/10 of an inch wide.", "When sound waves pass through the microphone, they cause minute differences in air pressure between the front and the back of the ribbon inside.", "This causes the ribbon to move in response to the peaks and valleys of the sound wave.", "The technician corrugates the ribbon so that it responds to this minute air-pressure changes more accurately.", "He removes the protective papers and installs the ribbon in the motor, between the two magnets.", "In this position, the moving ribbon is a conductor in a magnetic field, generating a tiny current-- an electrical replica of the sound wave that can recorded, amplified, or broadcasted.", "A technician tests the ribbon's tension to ensure it's neither too tight nor too loose.", "He hooks up the terminals to an audio signal generator and measures at what frequency the ribbon resonates.", "If necessary, he tunes the ribbon by adjusting its tension.", "He installs what's called a puff shield.", "It prevents puffs of air from stretching or tearing the delicate ribbon.", "A two-part metal housing will encase the lower part of the motor.", "However, before assembling it, a technician glues on an embossed medal medallion bearing the company's logo.", "Then he takes the motor, which by now has acquired an output cable, stands it upside down, and assembles the housing around it.", "Then he turns it right-side up and assembles the two halves of the grille.", "A sleek-looking chrome-plated band hides the joint.", "He fastens the microphone to a u-shaped stand called a yoke.", "On each side, there's a thumb nut, which you loosen to tilt the mic then tighten to lock the position.", "Although newer technologies have emerged since, the classic ribbon microphone still remains a favorite of sound engineers around the world." ]