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A **pangram** or **holoalphabetic sentence** is a sentence using every letter of a given alphabet at least once. Pangrams have been used to display typefaces, test equipment, and develop skills in handwriting, calligraphy, and keyboarding. Origins ------- The best-known English pangram is "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog". It has been used since at least the late 19th century, was used by Western Union to test Telex/TWX data communication equipment for accuracy and reliability. Pangrams like this are now used by a number of computer programs to display computer typefaces. Short pangrams -------------- Short pangrams in English are more difficult to devise and tend to use uncommon words and unnatural sentences. Longer pangrams afford more opportunity for humor, cleverness, or thoughtfulness. The following are examples of pangrams that are shorter than "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog" (which has 35 letters) and use standard written English without abbreviations or proper nouns: * "Waltz, bad nymph, for quick jigs vex." (28 letters) * "Glib jocks quiz nymph to vex dwarf." (28 letters) * "Sphinx of black quartz, judge my vow." (29 letters) * "How quickly daft jumping zebras vex!" (30 letters) * "The five boxing wizards jump quickly." (31 letters) * "Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz." (31 letters) * "Pack my box with five dozen liquor jugs." (32 letters) Perfect pangrams ---------------- A perfect pangram contains every letter of the alphabet only once and can be considered an anagram of the alphabet. The only perfect pangrams of the English alphabet that are known use abbreviations or other non-dictionary words, such as "Mr Jock, TV quiz PhD, bags few lynx", or use words so obscure that the phrase is hard to understand, such as "Cwm fjord bank glyphs vext quiz", in which **cwm** is a loan word from the Welsh language meaning a steep-sided glaciated valley, and *vext* is an uncommon way to spell *vexed*. Other writing systems may present more options: The Iroha is a well-known perfect pangram of the Japanese syllabary, while the Hanacaraka is a perfect pangram for the Javanese script and is commonly used to order its letters in sequence. Other languages using the Latin script -------------------------------------- Whereas the English language uses all 26 letters of the Latin alphabet in native and naturalized words, many other languages using the same alphabet do not. Pangram writers in these languages are forced to choose between only using those letters found in native words or incorporating exotic loanwords into their pangrams. Some words, such as the Gaelic-derived *whisk(e)y*, which has been borrowed by many languages and uses the letters *k*, *w* and *y*, are a frequent fixture of many foreign pangrams. There are also languages that also use other Latin characters that do not appear in the traditional 26 letters of the Latin alphabet. This differs further from English pangrams, with letters such as *ə*, *ɛ*, and *ɣ*. Azeri**Zəfər, jaketini də papağını da götür, bu axşam hava çox soyuq olacaq.** ("Zəfər, take your jacket and cap, it will be very cold tonight") is a pangram that contains all 32 letters from the Azeri alphabet. Czech**Příliš žluťoučký kůň úpěl ďábelské ódy.** ("A horse that was too yellow moaned devilish odes") is the most commonly used one, especially to test alphabet support with fonts. This sentence includes all Czech letters with diacritics, but not all basic letters. To include all basic letters, including letters that only occur in loanwords (*g, q, w, x*), this one is used: **Nechť již hříšné saxofony ďáblů rozezvučí síň úděsnými tóny waltzu, tanga a quickstepu.** ("May the sinful saxophones of devils echo through the hall with dreadful melodies of waltz, tango and quickstep."). Danish**Høj bly gom vandt fræk sexquiz på wc.** ("Tall shy groom won naughty sexquiz on wc") A perfect pangram, using every letter exactly once (Including the more unusual letters as *q*, *w*, and *x*, and including the Danish *æ*, *ø*, and *å*). Esperanto**Eble ĉiu kvazaŭ-deca fuŝĥoraĵo ĝojigos homtipon.**("Maybe every quasi-fitting bungle-choir makes a human type happy.") **Laŭ Ludoviko Zamenhof bongustas freŝa ĉeĥa manĝaĵo kun spicoj.** ("According to Ludwig Zamenhof, fresh Czech food with spices tastes good.") Ewe**"Dzigbe zã nyuie na wò, ɣeyiɣi didi aɖee nye sia no see, ɣeyiɣi aɖee nye sia tso esime míeyi suku", "Ŋdɔ nyui, ɛ nyteƒe, míagakpɔ wò ake wuieve kele ʋ heda kpedeŋu".** ("Have a nice birthday tonight, it's been a long time no see, it's been a while since we were in school. Good afternoon, yes, see you again at twelve o'clock in the morning.") is a two-part pangram consisting of a statement and response. Finnish**Törkylempijävongahdus.** (Although difficult to translate because of its non-practical use, but roughly means to "a whinge of a sleazy lover") A perfect pangram not using any of the special letters used in Finnish only for foreign words (*b*, *c*, *f*, *q*, *š*, *w*, *x*, *z*, *ž*, *å*). **Albert osti fagotin ja töräytti puhkuvan melodian.** ("Albert bought a bassoon and blew a puffing tune"). An imperfect pangram not using some of the special letters used in Finnish only for foreign words, but which makes perfect everyday sense. **On sangen hauskaa, että polkupyörä on maanteiden jokapäiväinen ilmiö.** ("It is rather fun that bicycles are a daily phenomenon on the countryroads.") An imperfect pangram not containing the previously mentioned special letters. **Wieniläinen siouxia puhuva ökyzombi diggaa Åsan roquefort-tacoja** ("Viennese rich zombie who can speak Sioux likes Åsa's Roquefort tacos") contains all the letters of the Finnish alphabet. French**Portez ce vieux whisky au juge blond qui fume** ("Take this old whisky to the blond judge who is smoking") uses each basic consonant once, though not any letters with diacritics. The letters *k* and *w* are only found in loanwords. German**Victor jagt zwölf Boxkämpfer quer über den großen Sylter Deich** ("Victor chases twelve boxers across the Great Levee of Sylt") contains all letters, including the umlauted vowels (*ä*, *ö*, *ü*) and ß. The letter *y* is limited to loanwords and proper names like *Sylt*. Icelandic**Kæmi ný öxi hér, ykist þjófum nú bæði víl og ádrepa.** ("If a new axe were here, thieves would feel increasing deterrence and punishment") contains all 32 letters in the Icelandic alphabet including the vowels with diacritics (*á*, *é*, *í*, *ó*, *ú*, *ý*, and *ö*) as well as the letters ð, þ, and æ. It does not include the letters *c*, *q*, *w* and *z*. Indonesian**Muharjo seorang xenofobia universal yang takut pada warga jazirah, contohnya Qatar.** ("Muharjo is a universal xenophobic who fears the peninsula residents, such as Qatar.") contains all 26 letters in the Indonesian alphabet, including the foreign letters *q*, *v* and *x*. **Tokoh qari bonceng juru xilofon di vespanya muzawir.** ("The quran reciter figure gives the xylophone expert a ride on the tour guide's vespa.") contains all 26 letters in the Indonesian alphabet. It also contains only the words that are in the Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia. Irish**d'Ith cat mór dubh na héisc lofa go pras** ("A large black cat ate the rotten fish promptly") has 31 letters and includes all 20 letters found in native Irish words. Italian**Pranzo d'acqua fa volti sghembi** ("A lunch of water makes twisted faces") has 26 letters and includes all 21 letters found in native Italian words. It does not include the five letters which are not found in any Italian words, except for some loanwords: *j*, *k*, *w*, *y*, and *x*. Kurdish**Cem vî Feqoyê pîs zêdetir ji çar gulên xweşik hebûn** ("There were more than four beautiful flowers near the filthy Feqo") has 42 letters and includes all 31 letters found in Kurdish words. This pangram was created by Îrec Mêhrbexş in 2023. Polish**Stróż pchnął kość w quiz gędźb vel fax myjń.** ("The watchman pushed the bone into a quiz of the musics or a fax of the washes") Perfect pangram, using every letter once, including foreign letters *f*, *q*, *v*, and *x*. Portuguese**À noite, vovô Kowalsky vê o ímã cair no pé do pingüim queixoso e vovó põe açúcar no chá de tâmaras do jabuti feliz.** ("At night, grandpa Kowalsky sees the magnet falling on the complaining penguin’s foot and grandma puts sugar in the happy tortoise’s date tea.") uses all diacritics and all alphabets from the Portuguese alphabet. The letters *k*, *w*, and *y* are only found in loanwords. Spanish**Benjamín pidió una bebida de kiwi y fresa. Noé, sin vergüenza, la más exquisita champaña del menú** ("Benjamin ordered a kiwi and strawberry drink. Noah, without shame, the most exquisite champagne on the menu") uses all diacritics and the foreign letters *k* and *w*. Slovak**Kŕdeľ šťastných ďatľov učí pri ústí Váhu mĺkveho koňa obhrýzať kôru a žrať čerstvé mäso.** ("A flock of happy woodpeckers by the mouth of the river Váh is teaching a silent horse to nibble on bark and feed on fresh meat") contains all letters in the Slovak alphabet. It does not include the letter *f*, *g*, *j*, *l*, *q*, *w*, *x*, *y*, as well as accented vowels *á* and *ó*. Swedish**Flygande bäckasiner söka hwila på mjuka tuvor** ("Flying snipes seek rest on soft tussocks") is missing q, x and z. Uses archaic spellings. **Yxmördaren Julia Blomqvist på fäktning i Schweiz** ("Axe killer Julia Blomqvist on fencing in Switzerland") uses the name "Julia Blomqvist" and the Swedish name for Switzerland. **Schweiz för lyxfjäder på qvist bakom ugn** ("Switzerland for luxury feather on branch behind oven") feels quite contrived. **FAQ om Schweiz: Klöv du trång pjäxby?** ("FAQ about Switzerland: Did you cleave a narrow village of ski boots?") uses the English abbreviation FAQ alongside some made-up compounds. **Yxskaftbud, ge vår WC-zonmö IQ-hjälp** ("Axe-handle carrier, give our WC zone-maiden IQ support") **Gud hjälpe Zorns mö qwickt få byx av** ("God help Zorn's girlfriend quickly get her pants off") uses both old fashioned words and contemporary names. **Byxfjärmat föl gick på duvshowen** ("Foal without pants went to the dove show") is missing q and z. Turkish**Pijamalı hasta yağız şoföre çabucak güvendi** ("The sick person in pyjamas quickly trusted the swarthy driver") contains all of the letters in the Turkish alphabet. Other alphabetic scripts ------------------------ Non-Latin alphabetic or phonetic scripts such as Greek, Cyrillic, and others can also have pangrams. In some writing systems, exactly what counts as a distinct symbol can be debated. For example, many languages have accents or other diacritics, but one might count "é" and "e" as the same for pangrams. A similar problem arises for older English orthography that includes the long s ("ſ"). Russian*Съешь ещё этих мягких французских булок, да выпей же чаю* ("Eat more of those fresh french loafs and drink a tea") is most commonly used. Its variation is used by Windows FontView. Another popular pangram is *В чащах юга жил бы цитрус? Да, но фальшивый экземпляр!* ("Would a citrus live in the jungles of the south? Yes, but a fake specimen!"). This pangram is used by GNOME. Non-alphabetic scripts ---------------------- Logographic scripts, or writing systems such as Chinese that do not use an alphabet but are composed principally of logograms, cannot produce pangrams in a literal sense (or at least, not pangrams of reasonable size). The total number of signs is large and imprecisely defined, so producing a text with every possible sign is practically impossible. However, various analogies to pangrams are feasible, including traditional pangrams in a romanization. In Japanese, although typical orthography uses kanji (logograms), pangrams can be made using every kana, or syllabic character. The Iroha is a classic example of a perfect pangram in non-Latin script. In Chinese, the Thousand Character Classic is a 1000-character poem in which each character is used exactly once; however, it does not include all Chinese characters. The single character 永 (permanence) incorporates all the basic strokes used to write Chinese characters, using each stroke exactly once, as described in the Eight Principles of Yong. Among abugida scripts, an example of a perfect pangram is the *Hanacaraka (hana caraka; data sawala; padha jayanya; maga bathanga)* of the Javanese script, which is used to write the Javanese language in Indonesia. Self-enumerating pangrams ------------------------- A self-enumerating pangram is a pangrammatic autogram, or a sentence that inventories its own letters, each of which occurs at least once. The first example was produced by Rudy Kousbroek, a Dutch journalist and essayist, who publicly challenged Lee Sallows, a British recreational mathematician resident in the Netherlands, to produce an English translation of his Dutch pangram. In the sequel, Sallows built an electronic "pangram machine", that performed a systematic search among millions of candidate solutions. The machine was successful in identifying the following 'magic' translation: This pangram contains four As, one B, two Cs, one D, thirty Es, six Fs, five Gs, seven Hs, eleven Is, one J, one K, two Ls, two Ms, eighteen Ns, fifteen Os, two Ps, one Q, five Rs, twenty-seven Ss, eighteen Ts, two Us, seven Vs, eight Ws, two Xs, three Ys, & one Z. Chris Patuzzo was able to reduce the problem of finding a self-enumerating pangram to the boolean satisfiability problem. He did this by using a made-to-order hardware description language as a stepping stone and then applied the Tseytin transformation to the resulting chip. Pangrams in literature ---------------------- The pangram "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog", and the search for a shorter pangram, are the cornerstone of the plot of the novel *Ella Minnow Pea* by Mark Dunn. The search successfully comes to an end when the phrase "Pack my box with five dozen liquor jugs" is discovered. The scientific paper *Cneoridium dumosum* (Nuttall) Hooker F. Collected March 26, 1960, at an Elevation of about 1450 Meters on Cerro Quemazón, 15 Miles South of Bahía de Los Angeles, Baja California, México, Apparently for a Southeastward Range Extension of Some 140 Miles has a pangrammatic title, seemingly by pure chance. As of January 2022, its English Wikipedia article is the only English Wikipedia article to have a pangrammatic title without having been constructed as a pangram. See also -------- * Panalphabetic window * Pangrammatic window * Pangrammatic lipogram * Heterogram - word, phrase, or sentence in which no letter of the alphabet occurs more than once * Lipogram, in which the aim is to omit one or more letters from a sentence

Pangram

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangram

**Ge**, **ghe**, or **he** (Г г; italics: *Г* *г*) is a letter of the Cyrillic script. It represents the voiced velar plosive /ɡ/, like ⟨g⟩ in "**g**ift", or the voiced glottal fricative [ɦ], like ⟨h⟩ in "**h**eft". It is generally romanized using the Latin letter *g* or *h*, depending on the source language. History ------- The Cyrillic letter ge was derived directly from the Greek letter Gamma (Γ) in uncial script. In the Early Cyrillic alphabet, its name was глаголи (*glagoli*), meaning "speak". In the Cyrillic numeral system, it had a numerical value of 3. Usage in Slavic languages ------------------------- ### Belarusian, Rusyn, and Ukrainian From these three languages, the letter is romanized with *h*. Its name is *he* in Belarusian and Ukrainian, and *hy* in Rusyn. In Belarusian (like in Southern Russian), the letter corresponds to the velar fricative /ɣ/ and its soft counterpart /ɣʲ/. In Ukrainian and Rusyn, it represents a voiced glottal fricative [ɦ], a breathy voiced counterpart of the English [h]. In Ukrainian and Rusyn, a voiced velar plosive /ɡ/ is written with the Cyrillic letter ghe with upturn (Ґ ґ). In Belarusian, the official orthography uses г for both /ɣ/ and /ɡ/ (which is rare), although in Taraškievica ghe with upturn is optionally used for /ɡ/. Ґ is transliterated with G. In all three languages' historical ancestor Ruthenian, the sound /ɡ/ was also represented by the digraph кг. ### Russian In standard Russian, ghe represents the voiced velar plosive /ɡ/ but is devoiced to [k] word-finally or before a voiceless consonant. It represents /ɡʲ/ before a palatalizing vowel. In the Southern Russian dialect, the sound becomes the velar fricative /ɣ/. Sometimes, the sound is the glottal fricative /ɦ/ in the regions bordering Belarus and Ukraine. It is acceptable, for some people, to pronounce certain Russian words with [ɣ] (sometimes referred to as *Ukrainian Ge*): Бог, богатый, благо, Господь (*Bog, bogatyj, blago, Gospod’*). The sound is normally considered nonstandard or dialectal in Russian and is avoided by educated Russian speakers. Бог (*Bog*, "God") is always pronounced [box] in the nominative case. In the Russian nominal genitive ending -ого, -его, ghe represents [v], including in the word сегодня ("today", from сего дня). It represents a voiceless [x] (not [k]) in front of ka in two Russian words, namely, мягкий and лёгкий, and their derivatives. The Latin letter *h* of words of Latin, Greek, English or German origin is usually transliterated into Russian with ghe rather than kha: ***h**ero* → **г**ерой, ***h**amburger* → **г**амбургер, ***Haydn*** → **Г**айдн. That can occasionally cause ambiguity, as for example English *Harry* and *Gary*/*Garry* would be spelled the same in Russian, eg. Гарри Поттер). The reasons for using ghe to write *h* include the fact that ghe is used for *h* in Ukrainian, Belarusian and some Russian dialects, along with the perception that kha sounds too harsh. Nevertheless, in newer loanwords (especially from English), kha is often used. ### South Slavic In standard Serbian, Bosnian, Montenegrin, Bulgarian and Macedonian the letter ghe represents a voiced velar plosive /ɡ/. But in Bulgarian and Macedonian it is devoiced to [k] word-finally or before a voiceless consonant. Usage in non-Slavic languages ----------------------------- In many non-Slavic languages it can represent both /ɡ/ and /ʁ~ɣ/ (the latter mostly in Turkic and some Finno-Ugric languages). In Ossetian, an Indo-Iranian language spoken in the Caucasus, ⟨г⟩ represents the voiced velar stop /ɡ/. However, the digraph ⟨гъ⟩ represents the voiced uvular fricative /ʁ/. Related letters and other similar characters -------------------------------------------- * Γ γ: Greek letter Gamma * G g: Latin letter G * H h: Latin letter H, romanized as in Belarusian, Ukrainian, and Rusyn * Z z: Latin letter Z, alternative form of italicized Cyrillic Г (ge) * Ґ ґ: Cyrillic letter ghe with upturn, the letter *g,* named ge in Ukrainian * Ѓ ѓ: Cyrillic letter Gje * Ғ ғ: Cyrillic letter Ghayn * ₴: Ukrainian hryvnia (Currency sign) Computing codes --------------- Character information| Preview | Г | г | | --- | --- | --- | | Unicode name | CYRILLIC CAPITAL LETTER GHE | CYRILLIC SMALL LETTER GHE | | Encodings | decimal | hex | dec | hex | | Unicode | 1043 | U+0413 | 1075 | U+0433 | | UTF-8 | 208 147 | D0 93 | 208 179 | D0 B3 | | Numeric character reference | Г | Г | г | г | | Named character reference | Г | г | | KOI8-R and KOI8-U | 231 | E7 | 199 | C7 | | CP 855 | 173 | AD | 172 | AC | | Windows-1251 | 195 | C3 | 227 | E3 | | ISO-8859-5 | 179 | B3 | 211 | D3 | | Mac Cyrillic | 131 | 83 | 227 | E3 |

Ge (Cyrillic)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ge_(Cyrillic)

**Naan** (Persian: نان, romanized: *nān*, Urdu: نان, Kurdish: نان, Pashto: نان, Uyghur: نان, Hindi: नान, Bengali: নান) is a leavened, oven-baked (usually using a tandoor) or tawa-fried flatbread which usually found in the cuisine of the Indian subcontinent, but you can find traces of this over Asia and the Middle East. Etymology --------- The earliest appearance of "naan" in English is from 1803 in a travelogue of William Tooke. The Persian word *nān* 'bread' is attested in Middle Persian as *n'n* 'bread, food', which is of Iranian origin, and is a cognate with Parthian *ngn*, Kurdish *nan*, Balochi *nagan*, Sogdian *nγn-*, and Pashto *nəγan* 'bread'. *Naan* may have derived from bread baked on hot pebbles in ancient Persia. The form *naan* has a widespread distribution, having been borrowed in a range of languages spoken in the Indian subcontinent and also Central Asia where it usually refers to a kind of flatbread (tandyr nan). The spelling *naan* has been recorded as being first attested in 1979, but dates back at least to 1975, and has since become the normal English spelling. Both terms 'naan bread' or simply 'naan' are correct, as naan refers to a specific type of bread in English. Varieties --------- ### Western Asia Naan as known today originates from Mesopotamia, ancient Egypt, and South Asia. The most familiar and readily available varieties of naan in Western countries are those from South Asia. In Iran, as well as in other West Asian nations or ethnic groups in the region, from which the word originated, *nân* (Persian: نان) does not carry any special significance, as it is the generic word for any kind of bread. * Nan in IranNan in Iran * Nân-e barbari in IranNân-e barbari in Iran * Nân-e sangak in IranNân-e sangak in Iran * Nân-e tâftun in IranNân-e tâftun in Iran ### Indian subcontinent Naan spread to Indian subcontinent during Islamic Delhi Sultanate period, earliest mention of naan in the region comes from the memoirs of Indo-Persian Sufi poet Amir Khusrau living in India during 1300s AD. Amir Khusrau mentions two kinds of naan eaten by Muslim nobles; *Naan-e-Tunuk* and *Naan-e-Tanuri*. *Naan-e-Tunuk* was a light or thin bread, while *Naan-e-Tanuri* was the heavy bread and was baked in the tandoor. The Ain-i-Akbari, a written record of the third Mughal emperor’s reign also mentions naan and it was eaten with kebabs or kheema (spiced minced meat) in it. By 1700s naan had reached the masses in Mughal cultural centers in South Asia. Naan in parts of the Indian subcontinent usually refers to a specific kind of thick flatbread. Generally, it is usually leavened with yeast or with bread starter (leavened naan dough left over from a previous batch); unleavened dough (similar to that used for *roti*) is also used. Naan, similar to some other breads of South Asian cuisine is cooked in a *tandoor*, from which tandoori cooking takes its name. This distinguishes it from *roti*, which is usually cooked on a *tava, which is a flat (or slightly concaved) pan*. Modern recipes sometimes substitute baking powder for the yeast. Milk or yogurt may also be used to impart distinct tastes to the naan. Milk used instead of water will, as it does for ordinary bread, yield a softer dough. Also, when bread starter (which contains both yeast and lactobacilli) is used, the milk may undergo modest lactic fermentation. Typically, it is brushed with some water but in some other cultures such as those in the Indian Subcontinent, they brush ghee or butter and maybe sometimes some garlic. It enjoys a special position in the Indian cuisine as it can be used to scoop other foods and gravies or served stuffed with a filling. A typical naan recipe involves mixing white or whole wheat flour (also known as *maida*) with active dry yeast, salt, and water. The dough is kneaded for a few minutes, then set aside to rise for a few hours. Once risen, the dough is divided into balls (about 100 g or 3.5 oz each), which are flattened and cooked. In South Asian cuisine, naans are typically flavored with fragrant essences, such as rosewater, *khus* (vetiver), or with butter or ghee melted on them. Kalonji seeds (Nigella seeds ) are commonly added to naan as cooked in Indian, Bangladeshi and Pakistani restaurants. Raisins, lentils and spices can be added. Naan is a natural marriage with Indian and Bangladeshi curries and gravies and can also be covered with, or served as a wrap for, various toppings of meat, vegetables, or cheeses. This version is sometimes prepared as fast food. It can also be dipped into such soups as *dal* and goes well with *sabzis* (also known as *shaakh*) as well as sweet dishes. ### Indonesia In Indonesia, naan is popular in Indian Indonesian and Arab Indonesian community as well as Malay, Acehnese and Minangkabau–with other variant of *roti* like *roti canai*. This dish usually locally known as *roti naan* or *roti nan* and cooked using Indonesian spices, such as garlic with local taste. ### Myanmar *Naan bya* (Burmese: နံပြား) in Myanmar is traditionally served at teahouses with tea or coffee as a breakfast item. It is round, soft, and blistered, often buttered, or with creamy *pè byouk* (boiled chickpeas) cooked with onions spread on top, or dipped with Burmese curry. ### China The Jingzhou style of guokui, a flatbread prepared inside a cylindrical charcoal oven much like a tandoor, has been described as "Chinese naan". It is also an integral part of Uyghur cuisine, and is known in Chinese as 馕 (*náng*). ### Japan After being promoted by Kandagawa Sekizai Shoukou in 1968, which is now the sole domestic manufacturer of tandoors, naan is now widely available in Indian-style curry restaurants in Japan, where naan is typically free-flow. Some restaurants bake ingredients such as cheese, garlic, onions, and potatoes into the naan, or cover it with toppings like a pizza. ### Elsewhere Naan pizza is a type of pizza where naan is used as the crust instead of the traditional pizza dough. Chefs such as Nigella Lawson, and supermarkets such as Wegmans offer recipes for people to make their own non-traditional naan pizza at home. Gallery ------- * Nan in AfghanistanNan in Afghanistan * Nan in Kabul, AfghanistanNan in Kabul, Afghanistan * Nan in Mazar-e Sharif, AfghanistanNan in Mazar-e Sharif, Afghanistan * Indian naan baked in the tandoorIndian naan baked in the tandoor * Tandoor-baked naan in KarachiTandoor-baked naan in Karachi * A Uyghur naan store in Ürümqi, China A Uyghur naan store in Ürümqi, China * Butter garlic naanButter garlic naan * Paneer naanPaneer naan * Burmese nan byaBurmese nan bya See also -------- * Iranian Naans + Sangak + Taftoon + Barbari + Lavash * Tandoor bread + *Tandoori roti* + *Tandoori paratha* + *Tandyr nan* * *Bazlama* * Shotis puri * Tonis puri * *Matnakash* * *Paratha* * *Parotta* * Afghan bread * Indian breads * Pakistani breads * List of Pakistani breads * List of Indian breads

Naan

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naan

**Utrecht** (/ˈjuːtrɛkt/ *YOO-trekt*, Dutch: [ˈytrɛxt] (), Utrecht dialect: **Utreg** [ˈytʁɛχ]) is the fourth-largest city and a municipality of the Netherlands, capital and most populous city of the province of Utrecht. It is located in the eastern corner of the Randstad conurbation, in the very centre of mainland Netherlands. It has a population of 361,699 as of December 2021[update]. Utrecht's ancient city centre features many buildings and structures, several dating as far back as the High Middle Ages. It has been the religious centre of the Netherlands since the 8th century. It was the most important city in the Northern Netherlands until the Dutch Golden Age, when it was surpassed by Amsterdam as the country's cultural centre and most populous city. Utrecht is home to Utrecht University, the largest university in the Netherlands, as well as several other institutions of higher education. Due to its central position within the country, it is an important hub for both rail and road transport; it has the busiest train station in the Netherlands, Utrecht Centraal. It has the second-highest number of cultural events in the Netherlands, after Amsterdam. In 2012, Lonely Planet included Utrecht in the top 10 of the world's unsung places. History ------- ### Origins (before 650 CE) Although there is some evidence of earlier inhabitation in the region of Utrecht, dating back to the Stone Age (app. 2200 BCE) and settling in the Bronze Age (app. 1800–800 BCE), the founding date of the city is usually related to the construction of a Roman fortification (*castellum*), probably built in around 50 CE. A series of such fortresses were built after the Roman emperor Claudius decided the empire should not expand further north. To consolidate the border, the Limes Germanicus defense line was constructed along the main branch of the river Rhine, which at that time traversed a more northern route (now known as the Kromme Rijn) compared to today's Rhine flow. These fortresses were designed to house a cohort of about 500 Roman soldiers. Near the fort, settlements grew that housed artisans, traders and soldiers' wives and children. In Roman times, the name of the Utrecht fortress was simply *Traiectum*, denoting its location at a possible Rhine crossing. Traiectum became Dutch Trecht; with the U from Old Dutch "uut" (downriver) added to distinguish U-trecht from Maas-tricht, on the river Meuse. In 11th-century official documents, it was Latinized as Ultra Traiectum. Around the year 200, the wooden walls of the fortification were replaced by sturdier tuff stone walls, remnants of which are still to be found below the buildings around Dom Square. From the middle of the 3rd century, Germanic tribes regularly invaded the Roman territories. After around 275 the Romans could no longer maintain the northern border, and Utrecht was abandoned. Little is known about the period from 270 to 650. Utrecht is first spoken of again several centuries after the Romans left. Under the influence of the growing realms of the Franks, during Dagobert I's reign in the 7th century, a church was built within the walls of the Roman fortress. In ongoing border conflicts with the Frisians, this first church was destroyed. ### Centre of Christianity in the Netherlands (650–1579) By the mid-7th century, British, English and Irish missionaries set out to convert the Frisians. Pope Sergius I appointed their leader, Saint Willibrordus, as bishop of the Frisians. The tenure of Willibrordus is generally considered to be the beginning of the Bishopric of Utrecht. In 723, the Frankish leader Charles Martel bestowed the fortress in Utrecht and the surrounding lands as the base of the bishops. From then on Utrecht became one of the most influential seats of power for the Catholic Church in the Netherlands. The archbishops of Utrecht were based at the uneasy northern border of the Carolingian Empire. In addition, the city of Utrecht had competition from the nearby trading centre Dorestad. After the fall of Dorestad around 850, Utrecht became one of the most important cities in the Netherlands. The importance of Utrecht as a centre of Christianity is illustrated by the election of the Utrecht-born Adriaan Florenszoon Boeyens as pope in 1522 (the last non-Italian pope before John Paul II). #### Prince-bishops When the Frankish rulers established the system of feudalism, the Bishops of Utrecht came to exercise worldly power as prince-bishops. The territory of the bishopric not only included the modern province of Utrecht (Nedersticht, 'lower Sticht'), but also extended to the northeast. The feudal conflict of the Middle Ages heavily affected Utrecht. The prince-bishopric was involved in almost continuous conflicts with the Counts of Holland and the Dukes of Guelders. The Veluwe region was seized by Guelders, but large areas in the modern province of Overijssel remained as the Oversticht. #### Religious buildings Several churches and monasteries were built inside, or close to, the city of Utrecht. The most dominant of these was the Cathedral of Saint Martin, inside the old Roman fortress. The construction of the present Gothic building was begun in 1254 after an earlier romanesque construction had been badly damaged by fire. The choir and transept were finished from 1320 and were followed then by the ambitious Dom tower. The last part to be constructed was the central nave, from 1420. By that time, however, the age of the great cathedrals had come to an end and declining finances prevented the ambitious project from being finished, the construction of the central nave being suspended before the planned flying buttresses could be finished. Besides the cathedral there were four collegiate churches in Utrecht: St. Salvator's Church (demolished in the 16th century), on the Dom square, dating back to the early 8th century. Saint John (Janskerk), originating in 1040; Saint Peter, building started in 1039 and Saint Mary's church building started around 1090 (demolished in the early 19th century, cloister survives). Besides these churches, the city housed St. Paul's Abbey, the 15th-century beguinage of St. Nicholas, and a 14th-century chapter house of the Teutonic Knights. Besides these buildings which belonged to the bishopric, an additional four parish churches were constructed in the city: the Jacobikerk (dedicated to Saint James), founded in the 11th century, with the current Gothic church dating back to the 14th century; the Buurkerk (Neighbourhood-church) of the 11th-century parish in the centre of the city; Nicolaichurch (dedicated to Saint Nicholas), from the 12th century, and the 13th-century Geertekerk (dedicated to Saint Gertrude of Nivelles). #### City of Utrecht Its location on the banks of the river Rhine allowed Utrecht to become an important trade centre in the Northern Netherlands. The growing town was granted city rights by Henry V at Utrecht on 2 June 1122. When the main flow of the Rhine moved south, the old bed which still flowed through the heart of the town became ever more canalized; and the wharf system was built as an inner city harbour system. On the wharfs, storage facilities (*werfkelders*) were built, on top of which the main street, including houses, was constructed. The wharfs and the cellars are accessible from a platform at water level with stairs descending from the street level to form a unique structure. The relations between the bishop, who controlled many lands outside of the city, and the citizens of Utrecht was not always easy. The bishop, for example dammed the Kromme Rijn at Wijk bij Duurstede to protect his estates from flooding. This threatened shipping for the city and led the city of Utrecht to commission a canal to ensure access to the town for shipping trade: the Vaartse Rijn, connecting Utrecht to the Hollandse IJssel at IJsselstein. #### The end of independence In 1528 the bishop lost secular power over both Neder- and Oversticht—which included the city of Utrecht—to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. Charles V combined the Seventeen Provinces (the current Benelux and the northern parts of France) as a personal union. This ended the prince-bishopric of Utrecht, as the secular rule was now the lordship of Utrecht, with the religious power remaining with the bishop, although Charles V had gained the right to appoint new bishops. In 1559 the bishopric of Utrecht was raised to archbishopric to make it the religious centre of the Northern ecclesiastical province in the Seventeen Provinces. The transition from independence to a relatively minor part of a larger union was not easily accepted. To quell uprisings, Charles V struggled to exert his power over the city's citizens who had struggled to gain a certain level of independence from the bishops and were not willing to cede this to their new lord. The heavily fortified castle Vredenburg was built to house a large garrison whose main task was to maintain control over the city. The castle would last less than 50 years before it was demolished in an uprising in the early stages of the Dutch Revolt. ### Republic of the Netherlands (1579–1806) In 1579 the northern seven provinces signed the Union of Utrecht, in which they decided to join forces against Spanish rule. The Union of Utrecht is seen as the beginning of the Dutch Republic. In 1580, the new and predominantly Protestant state abolished the bishoprics, including the archbishopric of Utrecht. The stadtholders disapproved of the independent course of the Utrecht bourgeoisie and brought the city under much more direct control of the republic, shifting the power towards its dominant province Holland. This was the start of a long period of stagnation of trade and development in Utrecht. Utrecht remained an atypical city in the new republic being about 40% Catholic in the mid-17th century, and even more so among the elite groups, who included many rural nobility and gentry with town houses there. The fortified city temporarily fell to the French invasion in 1672 (the Disaster Year); where the French invasion was stopped just west of Utrecht at the Old Hollandic Waterline. In 1674, only two years after the French left, the centre of Utrecht was struck by a tornado. The halt to building before construction of flying buttresses in the 15th century now proved to be the undoing of the cathedral of St Martin church's central section which collapsed, creating the current Dom square between the tower and choir. In 1713, Utrecht hosted one of the first international peace negotiations when the Treaty of Utrecht settled the War of the Spanish Succession. Beginning in 1723, Utrecht became the centre of the non-Roman Old Catholic Churches in the world. ### Modern history (1815–present) In the early 19th century, the role of Utrecht as a fortified town had become obsolete. The fortifications of the Nieuwe Hollandse Waterlinie were moved east of Utrecht. The town walls could now be demolished to allow for expansion. The moats remained intact and formed an important feature of the Zocher plantsoen, an English style landscape park that remains largely intact today. Growth of the city increased when, in 1843, a railway connecting Utrecht to Amsterdam was opened. After that, Utrecht gradually became the main hub of the Dutch railway network. With the industrial revolution finally gathering speed in the Netherlands and the ramparts taken down, Utrecht began to grow far beyond its medieval centre. When the Dutch government allowed the bishopric of Utrecht to be reinstated by Rome in 1853, Utrecht became the centre of Dutch Catholicism once more. From the 1880s onward, neighbourhoods such as Oudwijk, Wittevrouwen, Vogelenbuurt to the East, and Lombok to the West were developed. New middle-class residential areas, such as Tuindorp and Oog in Al, were built in the 1920s and 1930s. During this period, several Jugendstil houses and office buildings were built, followed by Rietveld who built the Rietveld Schröder House (1924), and Dudok's construction of the city theater (1941). During World War II, Utrecht was held by German forces until the general German surrender of the Netherlands on 5 May 1945. British and Canadian troops that had surrounded the city entered it after that surrender, on 7 May 1945. Following the end of World War II, the city grew considerably when new neighbourhoods such as Overvecht, Kanaleneiland, Hoograven [nl] and Lunetten were built. Around 2000, the Leidsche Rijn housing area was developed as an extension of the city to the west. The area surrounding Utrecht Centraal railway station and the station itself were developed following modernist ideas of the 1960s, in a brutalist style. This development led to the construction of the shopping mall Hoog Catharijne [nl], the music centre Vredenburg (Hertzberger, 1979), and conversion of part of the ancient canal structure into a highway (Catherijnebaan). Protest against further modernisation of the city centre followed even before the last buildings were finalised. In the early 21st century, the whole area is undergoing change again. The redeveloped music centre TivoliVredenburg opened in 2014 with the original Vredenburg and Tivoli concert and rock and jazz halls brought together in a single building. Geography --------- ### Climate Utrecht experiences a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen: *Cfb*) similar to all of the Netherlands. | Climate data for De Bilt | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 15.1(59.2) | 18.9(66.0) | 23.9(75.0) | 28.9(84.0) | 33.6(92.5) | 36.8(98.2) | 37.5(99.5) | 35.3(95.5) | 34.2(93.6) | 26.7(80.1) | 18.7(65.7) | 15.3(59.5) | 37.5(99.5) | | Average high °C (°F) | 6.1(43.0) | 7.0(44.6) | 10.5(50.9) | 14.8(58.6) | 18.3(64.9) | 20.9(69.6) | 23.1(73.6) | 22.9(73.2) | 19.5(67.1) | 14.8(58.6) | 9.9(49.8) | 6.7(44.1) | 14.6(58.3) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 3.6(38.5) | 3.9(39.0) | 6.5(43.7) | 9.9(49.8) | 13.4(56.1) | 16.1(61.0) | 18.2(64.8) | 17.8(64.0) | 14.7(58.5) | 10.9(51.6) | 7.0(44.6) | 4.2(39.6) | 10.6(51.1) | | Average low °C (°F) | 0.9(33.6) | 0.7(33.3) | 2.4(36.3) | 4.5(40.1) | 8.0(46.4) | 10.8(51.4) | 13.0(55.4) | 12.5(54.5) | 10.0(50.0) | 7.1(44.8) | 3.9(39.0) | 1.6(34.9) | 6.3(43.3) | | Record low °C (°F) | −24.8(−12.6) | −21.6(−6.9) | −14.4(6.1) | −6.6(20.1) | −3.7(25.3) | 0.2(32.4) | 3.2(37.8) | 3.8(38.8) | −0.7(30.7) | −7.8(18.0) | −14.4(6.1) | −16.6(2.1) | −24.8(−12.6) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 70.3(2.77) | 62.7(2.47) | 57.4(2.26) | 41.1(1.62) | 58.9(2.32) | 70.1(2.76) | 84.8(3.34) | 83.1(3.27) | 77.5(3.05) | 80.7(3.18) | 79.7(3.14) | 83.4(3.28) | 849.7(33.45) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1 mm) | 12 | 10 | 11 | 9 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 12 | 131 | | Average snowy days | 6 | 6 | 4 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 5 | 25 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 87 | 84 | 81 | 75 | 75 | 76 | 77 | 79 | 84 | 86 | 89 | 89 | 82 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 66.6 | 89.6 | 139.4 | 189.2 | 217.5 | 207.1 | 213.9 | 196.3 | 152.8 | 119.3 | 67.4 | 55.5 | 1,714.6 | | Source 1: Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (1991–2020 normals, snowy days normals for 1971–2000) | | Source 2: Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (1901–present extremes) | Population ---------- ### Demographics Historical population| | Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. | | --- | --- | --- | | 1400 | 13,000 | —     | | 1481 | 17,250 | +0.35% | | 1577 | 27,500 | +0.49% | | 1623 | 30,000 | +0.19% | | 1670 | 30,000 | +0.00% | | 1748 | 25,244 | −0.22% | | 1795 | 32,294 | +0.53% | | | Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. | | --- | --- | --- | | 1900 | 102,086 | +1.10% | | 1910 | 119,006 | +1.55% | | 1920 | 138,334 | +1.52% | | 1930 | 153,208 | +1.03% | | 1940 | 165,029 | +0.75% | | 1950 | 193,190 | +1.59% | | 1960 | 254,186 | +2.78% | | | Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. | | --- | --- | --- | | 1970 | 279,000 | +0.94% | | 1980 | 236,208 | −1.65% | | 1990 | 230,676 | −0.24% | | 2000 | 233,667 | +0.13% | | 2010 | 307,081 | +2.77% | | 2011 | 312,634 | +1.81% | | 2019 | 357,179 | +1.68% | | | Source: Lourens & Lucassen 1997, pp. 87–88 (1400–1795) | Utrecht city had a population of 361,924 in 2022. It is a growing municipality and projections are that the population will surpass 392,000 by 2025. As of November 2019, the city of Utrecht has a population of 357,179. Utrecht has a young population, with many inhabitants in the age category from 20 and 30 years, due to the presence of a large university. About 52% of the population is female, 48% is male. The majority of households (52.5%) in Utrecht are single-person households. About 29% of people living in Utrecht are either married, or have another legal partnership. About 3% of the population of Utrecht is divorced. For 62,8% of the population of Utrecht both parents were born in the Netherlands. Approximately 12.4% of the population consists of people with a recent migration background from Western countries, while 24.8% of the population has at least one parent who is of 'non-Western origin' (8.8% from Morocco, 4% Turkey, 3% Surinam and Dutch Caribbean and 9.1% of other countries). ### Religion Utrecht has been the religious centre of the Netherlands since the 8th century. Currently it is the see of the Metropolitan Archbishop of Utrecht, the most senior Dutch Roman Catholic leader. His ecclesiastical province covers the whole kingdom. Utrecht is also the see of the archbishop of the Old Catholic Church, titular head of the Union of Utrecht, and the location of the offices of the Protestant Church in the Netherlands, the main Dutch Protestant church. As of 2013, the largest religion is Christianity with 28% of the population being Christian, followed by Islam with 9.9% in 2016 and Hinduism with 0.8%. Religions in Utrecht (2013)   None (61.0%)  Roman Catholic (13.4%)  Protestant Church in the Netherlands (10.2%)  Other Christian denominations (4.4%)  Islam (9.5%)  Hinduism (0.8%)  Buddhism (0.6%)  Judaism (0.1%) ### Population centres and agglomeration The city of Utrecht is subdivided into 10 city quarters, all of which have their own neighbourhood council and service centre for civil affairs. 1. Binnenstad 2. Oost 3. Leidsche Rijn 4. West 5. Overvecht 6. Zuid 7. Noordoost 8. Zuidwest 9. Noordwest 10. Vleuten-De Meern Utrecht is the centre of a densely populated area, a fact which makes concise definitions of its agglomeration difficult, and somewhat arbitrary. The smaller Utrecht agglomeration of continuously built-up areas counts some 420,000 inhabitants and includes Nieuwegein, IJsselstein and Maarssen. It is sometimes argued that the close by municipalities De Bilt, Zeist, Houten, Vianen, Driebergen-Rijsenburg (Utrechtse Heuvelrug), and Bunnik should also be counted towards the Utrecht agglomeration, bringing the total to 640,000 inhabitants. The larger region, including slightly more remote cities such as Woerden and Amersfoort, counts up to 820,000 inhabitants. Cityscape --------- Utrecht's cityscape is dominated by the Dom Tower, the tallest belfry in the Netherlands and originally part of the Cathedral of Saint Martin. An ongoing debate is over whether any building in or near the centre of town should surpass the Dom Tower in height (112 m [367 ft]). Nevertheless, some tall buildings are now being constructed that will become part of the skyline of Utrecht. The second-tallest building of the city, the Rabobank-tower, was completed in 2010 and stands 105 m (344 ft) tall. Two antennas will increase that height to 120 m (394 ft). Two other buildings were constructed around the Nieuw Galgenwaard stadium (2007). These buildings, the 'Kantoortoren Galghenwert' and 'Apollo Residence', stand 85.5 m (280.5 ft) and 64.5 m (211.6 ft) high, respectively. Another landmark is the old centre and the canal structure in the inner city. The Oudegracht is a curved canal, partly following the ancient main branch of the Rhine. It is lined with the unique wharf-basement structures that create a two-level street along the canals. The inner city has largely retained its medieval structure, and the moat ringing the old town is largely intact. In the 1970s part of the moat was converted into a motorway. It was then converted back into a waterway, the work being finished in 2020. Because of the role of Utrecht as a fortified city, construction outside the medieval centre and its city walls was restricted until the 19th century. Surrounding the medieval core there is a ring of late-19th- and early-20th-century neighbourhoods, with newer neighbourhoods positioned farther out. The eastern part of Utrecht remains fairly open. The Dutch Water Line, moved east of the city in the early 19th century, required open lines of fire, thus prohibiting all permanent constructions until the middle of the 20th century on the east side of the city. Due to the past importance of Utrecht as a religious centre, several monumental churches were erected, many of which have survived. Most prominent is the Dom Church. Other notable churches include the romanesque St Peter's and St John's churches; the gothic churches of St James and St Nicholas; and the Buurkerk, now converted into a museum for automatically playing musical instruments. Transport --------- ### Public transport Because of its central location, Utrecht is well connected to the rest of the Netherlands and has a well-developed public transport network. #### Heavy rail Utrecht Centraal is the main railway station of Utrecht and is the largest in the country. There are regular intercity services to all major Dutch cities; direct services to Schiphol Airport. Utrecht Centraal is a station on the night service, providing 7 days a week an all-night service to (among others) Schiphol Airport, Amsterdam and Rotterdam. International InterCityExpress (ICE) services to Germany (and further) through Arnhem call at Utrecht Centraal. Regular local trains to all areas surrounding Utrecht also depart from Utrecht Centraal; and service several smaller stations: Utrecht Lunetten; Utrecht Vaartsche Rijn; Utrecht Overvecht; Utrecht Leidsche Rijn; Utrecht Terwijde; Utrecht Zuilen and Vleuten. A former station Utrecht Maliebaan closed in 1939 and has since been converted into the Dutch Railway Museum. Utrecht is the location of the headquarters of Nederlandse Spoorwegen (English: *Dutch Railways*), the largest rail operator in the Netherlands, and ProRail, the state-owned company responsible for the construction and maintenance of the country's rail infrastructure. #### Light rail The Utrecht sneltram is a light rail scheme running southwards from Utrecht Centraal to the suburbs of IJsselstein, Kanaleneiland, Lombok and Nieuwegein. The sneltram began operations in 1983 and is currently operated by the private transport company Qbuzz. On 16 December 2019 the new tram line to the Uithof started operating, creating a direct mass transit connection from the central station to the main Utrecht university campus. #### Bus transport The main local and regional bus station of Utrecht is located adjacent to Utrecht Centraal railway station, at the East and West entrances. Due to large-scale renovation and construction works at the railway station, the station's bus stops are changing frequently. As a general rule, westbound buses depart from the bus station on the west entrance, other buses from the east side station. Local buses in Utrecht are operated by Qbuzz; its services include a high-frequency service to the Uithof university district. The local bus fleet is one of Europe's cleanest, using only buses compliant with the Euro-VI standard as well as electric buses for inner-city transport. Regional buses from the city are operated by Arriva and Connexxion. The Utrecht Centraal railway station is also served by the pan-European services of Eurolines. Furthermore, it acts as departure and arrival place of many coach companies serving holiday resorts in Spain and France—and during winter in Austria and Switzerland. ### Cycling Like most Dutch cities, Utrecht has an extensive network of cycle paths, making cycling safe and popular. 33 % of journeys within the city are by bicycle, more than any other mode of transport. (Cars, for example, account for 30% of trips). Bicycles are used by young and old people, and by individuals and families. They are mostly traditional, upright, steel-framed bicycles, with few gears. There are also bucket bikes for carrying cargo such as groceries or small children. Thanks in part to the access provided by bicycles, 100% of the population lives in a 15-minute city and more than 90% can get to the major destination types within 10 minutes. In 2014, the city council decided to build the world's largest bicycle parking station, near the Central Railway Station. This three-floor construction will cost an estimated €48 million and will hold 12,500 bicycles. The bicycle parking station was finally opened on 19 August 2019. ### Road transport Utrecht is well-connected to the Dutch road network. Two of the most important major roads serve the city of Utrecht: the A12 and A2 motorways connect Amsterdam, Arnhem, The Hague and Maastricht, as well as Belgium and Germany. Other major motorways in the area are the Almere–Breda A27 and the Utrecht–Groningen A28. Due to the increasing traffic and the ancient city plan, traffic congestion is a common phenomenon in and around Utrecht, causing elevated levels of air pollutants. This has led to a passionate debate in the city about the best way to improve the city's air quality. ### Shipping Utrecht has an industrial port located on the Amsterdam-Rijnkanaal. The container terminal has a capacity of 80,000 containers a year. In 2003, the port facilitated the transport of four million tons of cargo; mostly sand, gravel, fertiliser and fodder. Additionally, some tourist boat trips are organised from various places on the Oudegracht; and the city is connected to touristic shipping routes through sluices. Economy ------- Production industry constitutes a small part of the economy of Utrecht. The economy of Utrecht depends for a large part on the several large institutions located in the city. It is the centre of the Dutch railroad network and the location of the head office of Nederlandse Spoorwegen. ProRail is headquartered in *De Inktpot [nl]* (The Inkwell), the largest brick building in the Netherlands (the "UFO" featured on its façade stems from an art program in 2000). Rabobank, a large bank, has its headquarters in Utrecht. Education --------- Utrecht hosts several large institutions of higher education. The most prominent of these is Utrecht University (est. 1636), the largest university of the Netherlands with 30,449 students (as of 2012[update]). The university is partially based in the inner city as well as in the Uithof campus area, on the east side of the city. According to Shanghai Jiaotong University's university ranking in 2014, it is the 57th-best university in the world. Utrecht also houses the much smaller University of Humanistic Studies, which houses about 400 students. Utrecht is home of one of the locations of TIAS School for Business and Society, focused on post-experience management education and the largest management school of its kind in the Netherlands. In 2008, its executive MBA program was rated the 24th best program in the world by the *Financial Times*. Utrecht is also home to two other large institutions of higher education: the vocational university Hogeschool Utrecht (37,000 students), with locations in the city and the Uithof campus; and the HKU Utrecht School of the Arts (3,000 students). There are many schools for primary and secondary education, allowing parents to select from different philosophies and religions in the school as is inherent in the Dutch school system. Culture ------- Utrecht city has an active cultural life, and in the Netherlands is second only to Amsterdam. There are several theatres and theatre companies. The 1941 main city theatre was built by Dudok. In addition to theatres, there is a large number of cinemas including three arthouse cinemas. Utrecht is host to the international Early Music Festival (Festival Oude Muziek, for music before 1800) and the Netherlands Film Festival. The city has an important classical music hall Vredenburg (1979 by Herman Hertzberger). Its acoustics are considered among the best of the 20th-century original music halls. The original Vredenburg music hall has been redeveloped as part of the larger station area redevelopment plan and in 2014 gained additional halls that allowed its merger with the rock club Tivoli and the SJU jazzpodium. There are several other venues for music throughout the city. Young musicians are educated in the conservatory, a department of the Utrecht School of the Arts. There is a specialised museum of automatically playing musical instruments. There are many art galleries in Utrecht. There are also several foundations to support art and artists. Training of artists is done at the Utrecht School of the Arts. The Centraal Museum has many exhibitions on the arts, including a permanent exhibition on the works of Utrecht resident illustrator Dick Bruna, who is best known for creating Miffy ("Nijntje", in Dutch). BAK, basis voor actuele kunst offers contemporary art exhibitions and public events, as well as a Fellowship program for practitioners involved in contemporary arts, theory and activisms. Although street art is illegal in Utrecht, the Utrechtse Kabouter, a picture of a gnome with a red hat, became a common sight in 2004. Utrecht also houses one of the landmarks of modern architecture, the 1924 Rietveld Schröder House, which is listed on UNESCO's World Heritage Sites. Every Saturday, a paviour adds another letter to *The Letters of Utrecht*, an endless poem in the cobblestones of the Oude Gracht in Utrecht. With the *Letters*, Utrecht has a social sculpture as a growing monument created for the benefit of future people. To promote culture, Utrecht city organizes cultural Sundays. During a thematic Sunday, several organisations create a program which is open to everyone without, or with a very much reduced, admission fee. There are also initiatives for amateur artists. The city subsidises an organisation for amateur education in arts aimed at all inhabitants (Utrechts Centrum voor de Kunsten), as does the university for its staff and students. Additionally there are also several private initiatives. The city council provides coupons for discounts to inhabitants who receive welfare to be used with many of the initiatives. In 2017, Utrecht was named as a UNESCO City of Literature. ### Sports Utrecht is home to the premier league (professional) football club FC Utrecht, which plays in Stadium Nieuw Galgenwaard. It is also the home of Kampong, the largest (amateur) sportsclub in the Netherlands (4,500 members), SV Kampong. Kampong features field hockey, association football, cricket, tennis, squash and boules. Kampong's men and women top hockey squads play in the highest Dutch hockey league, the Rabohoofdklasse. Utrecht is also home to baseball and softball club UVV, which plays in the highest Dutch baseball league: de Hoofdklasse. Utrecht's waterways are used by several rowing clubs. Viking is a large club open to the general public, and the student clubs Orca and Triton compete in the Varsity each year. In July 2013, Utrecht hosted the European Youth Olympic Festival, in which more than 2,000 young athletes competed in nine different olympic sports. In July 2015, Utrecht hosted the Grand Départ and first stage of the Tour de France. ### Museums Utrecht has several smaller and larger museums. Many of those are located in the southern part of the old town, the Museumkwartier. * Aboriginal Art Museum [nl], located at the Oudegracht and closed since 15 June 2017, this museum had a small exhibit of Australian Aboriginal Art * BAK, basis voor actuele kunst, an international platform for theoretically-informed, politically driven art and experimental research * Centraal Museum, located in the MuseumQuarter, this municipal museum has a large collection of art, design, and historical artifacts; + Dick Bruna huis [nl], art of Centraal Museum on this separate location is dedicated to Miffy creator Dick Bruna. * Duitse Huis has a collection of historical items including many charters with seals dating from as far back as the early 13th century and a collection of medieval coins. * Museum Catharijneconvent, Museum of the Catholic Church shows the history of Christian culture and arts in the Netherlands; * Museum Speelklok National Museum in the centre of the city, displays several centuries of mechanical musical instruments; * Railway Museum (Nederlands Spoorwegmuseum) Railway sponsored museum on the history of the Dutch railways; * Utrecht Archives, are located at Hamburgerstraat 28 in Utrecht; * Utrecht university museum [nl] Utrecht University museum includes the ancient botanical garden; * Volksbuurtmuseum Wijk C [nl] * Sonnenborgh Observatory observatory and museum that regularly hosts lectures on astronomy, located at Zonnenburg 2 in Utrecht; * Betje Boerhave Museum [nl] museum for the grocer's shop where you can still buy old-fashioned food and non-food items, located at Hoogt 6 in Utrecht. ### Music and events The city has several music venues such as TivoliVredenburg, Tivoli De Helling, ACU, Moira, EKKO, DB's and RASA. Utrecht hosts the yearly Utrecht Early Music Festival (Festival Oude Muziek). Several Editions of the famous Thunderdome, a large Gabber music event, have been held in Jaarbeurs Utrecht. The city also hosts Trance Energy there. Every summer there used to be the *Summer Darkness* festival, which celebrated goth culture and music. In November the Le Guess Who? festival, focused on indie rock, art rock and experimental rock, takes place in many of the city's venues. ### Theatre There are two main theaters in the city, the Theater Kikker [nl] and the Stadsschouwburg Utrecht [nl]. De parade, a travelling theatre festival, performs in Utrecht in summer. The city also hosts the yearly Festival a/d Werf which offers a selection of contemporary international theatre, together with visual arts, public art and music. Notable people from Utrecht --------------------------- *See also the category People from Utrecht* Over the ages famous people have been born and/or raised in Utrecht. Among the most famous Utrechters are: * Pope Adrian VI (1459–1523), head of the Catholic Church * Louis Andriessen (1939–2021), composer * Marco van Basten (born 1964), football player * Dick Bruna (1927–2017), writer and illustrator (Miffy) * C.H.D. Buys Ballot (1817–1890), meteorologist (Buys-Ballot's law) * Theo van Doesburg (1883–1931), painter and artist (De Stijl movement) * Karel Doorman (1889–1942), Rear Admiral (Battle of the Java Sea) * Paul Fentener van Vlissingen (1941–2006), businessman and philanthropist * Anton Geesink (1934–2010), judoka, first non-Japanese worldchampion Judo * Rijk de Gooyer (1925–2011), actor, writer, comedian and singer * Sylvia Kristel (1952–2012), actress (*Emmanuelle*) * Gerrit Rietveld (1888–1964), designer and architect (De Stijl movement) * Dafne Schippers (born 1992), sprinter/heptathlon Olympian * Herman van Veen (born 1945), actor, musician, singer-songwriter and author of *Alfred J. Kwak* * Wil Velders-Vlasblom (1930–2019), first female alderman in Utrecht International relations ----------------------- ### Twin towns Utrecht is twinned with: * Nicaragua León, Nicaragua * Czech Republic Brno, Czech Republic * Indonesia Pekanbaru, Indonesia * previously Germany Hannover, Germany, between 1970 and 1976 ### Other relations * United States Portland, Oregon, United States as a friendship city See also -------- * Catharijne * Lauwerecht * List of mayors of Utrecht * Utrecht (agglomeration)

Utrecht

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utrecht

The **Mediterranean Sea** (/ˌmɛdɪtəˈreɪniən/ *MED-ih-tə-RAY-nee-ən*) is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the east by the Levant in West Asia. The Mediterranean has played a central role in the history of Western civilization. Geological evidence indicates that around 5.9 million years ago the Mediterranean was cut off from the Atlantic and was partly or completely desiccated over a period of some 600,000 years during the Messinian salinity crisis before being refilled by the Zanclean flood about 5.3 million years ago. The Mediterranean Sea covers an area of about 2,500,000 km2 (970,000 sq mi), representing 0.7% of the global ocean surface, but its connection to the Atlantic via the Strait of Gibraltar—the narrow strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates the Iberian Peninsula in Europe from Morocco in Africa—is only 14 km (9 mi) wide. The Mediterranean Sea encompasses a vast number of islands, some of them of volcanic origin. The two largest islands, in both area and population, are Sicily and Sardinia. The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1,500 m (4,900 ft) and the deepest recorded point is 5,109 m (16,762 ft) ±1 m (3 ft) in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea. It lies between latitudes 30° and 46° N and longitudes 6° W and 36° E. Its west–east length, from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Alexandretta, on the southeastern coast of Turkey, is about 4,000 kilometres (2,500 mi). The north–south length varies greatly between different shorelines and whether only straight routes are considered. Also including longitudinal changes, the shortest shipping route between the multinational Gulf of Trieste and the Libyan coastline of the Gulf of Sidra is about 1,900 kilometres (1,200 mi). The water temperatures are mild in winter and warm in summer and give name to the Mediterranean climate type due to the majority of precipitation falling in the cooler months. Its southern and eastern coastlines are lined with hot deserts not far inland, but the immediate coastline on all sides of the Mediterranean tends to have strong maritime moderation. The sea was an important route for merchants and travellers of ancient times, facilitating trade and cultural exchange between the peoples of the region. The history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies. The Roman Empire maintained nautical hegemony over the sea for centuries and is the only state to have ever controlled all of its coast. The countries surrounding the Mediterranean in clockwise order are Spain, France, Monaco, Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, Greece, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco; Malta and Cyprus are island countries in the sea. In addition, Gibraltar and Ceuta, have coastlines on the sea. The drainage basin encompasses a large number of other countries, the Nile being the longest river ending in the Mediterranean Sea. Names and etymology ------------------- The Ancient Egyptians called the Mediterranean Wadj-wr/Wadj-Wer/Wadj-Ur. This term (literally “great green”) was the name given by the Ancient Egyptians to the semi-solid, semi-aquatic region characterized by papyrus forests to the north of the cultivated Nile delta, and, by extension, the sea beyond. The Ancient Greeks called the Mediterranean simply ἡ θάλασσα (*hē thálassa*; "the Sea") or sometimes ἡ μεγάλη θάλασσα (*hē megálē thálassa*; "the Great Sea"), ἡ ἡμετέρα θάλασσα (*hē hēmetérā thálassa*; "Our Sea"), or ἡ θάλασσα ἡ καθ'ἡμᾶς (*hē thálassa hē kath’hēmâs*; "the sea around us"). The Romans called it *Mare Magnum* ("Great Sea") or *Mare Internum* ("Internal Sea") and, starting with the Roman Empire, *Mare Nostrum* ("Our Sea"). The term *Mare Mediterrāneum* appears later: Solinus apparently used this in the 3rd century, but the earliest extant witness to it is in the 6th century, in Isidore of Seville. It means 'in the middle of land, inland' in Latin, a compound of *medius* ("middle"), *terra* ("land, earth"), and *-āneus* ("having the nature of"). The Latin word is a calque of Greek μεσόγειος (*mesógeios*; "inland"), from μέσος (*mésos*, "in the middle") and γήινος (*gḗinos*, "of the earth"), from γῆ (*gê*, "land, earth"). The original meaning may have been 'the sea in the middle of the earth', rather than 'the sea enclosed by land'. Ancient Iranians called it the "Roman Sea", and in Classical Persian texts, it was called *Daryāy-e Rōm* (دریای روم), which may be from Middle Persian form, *Zrēh ī Hrōm* (𐭦𐭫𐭩𐭤 𐭩 𐭤𐭫𐭥𐭬). The Carthaginians called it the "Syrian Sea". In ancient Syrian texts, Phoenician epics and in the Hebrew Bible, it was primarily known as the "Great Sea", הים הגדול *HaYam HaGadol*, (Numbers; Book of Joshua; Ezekiel) or simply as "The Sea" (1 Kings). However, it has also been called the "Hinder Sea" because of its location on the west coast of Greater Syria or the Holy Land (and therefore behind a person facing the east), which is sometimes translated as "Western Sea". Another name was the "Sea of the Philistines", (Book of Exodus), from the people inhabiting a large portion of its shores near the Israelites. In Modern Hebrew, it is called הים התיכון *HaYam HaTikhon* 'the Middle Sea'. In Classic Persian texts was called Daryāy-e Šām (دریای شام) "The Western Sea" or "Syrian Sea". In Modern Standard Arabic, it is known as **al-Baḥr [al-Abyaḍ] al-Mutawassiṭ** (البحر [الأبيض] المتوسط) 'the [White] Middle Sea'. In Islamic and older Arabic literature, it was *Baḥr al-Rūm(ī)* (بحر الروم or بحر الرومي) 'the Sea of the Romans' or 'the Roman Sea'. At first, that name referred only to the eastern Mediterranean, but the term was later extended to the whole Mediterranean. Other Arabic names were *Baḥr al-šām(ī)* (بحر الشام) ("the Sea of Syria") and *Baḥr al-Maghrib* (بحرالمغرب) ("the Sea of the West"). In Turkish, it is the *Akdeniz* 'the White Sea'; in Ottoman, ﺁق دكيز, which sometimes means only the Aegean Sea. The origin of the name is not clear, as it is not known in earlier Greek, Byzantine or Islamic sources. It may be to contrast with the Black Sea. In Persian, the name was translated as *Baḥr-i Safīd*, which was also used in later Ottoman Turkish. According to Johann Knobloch, in classical antiquity, cultures in the Levant used colours to refer to the cardinal points: black referred to the north (explaining the name Black Sea), yellow or blue to east, red to south (e.g., the Red Sea) and white to west. That would explain the Bulgarian *Byalo More*, the Turkish *Akdeniz*, and the Arab nomenclature described above, lit. "White Sea". History ------- ### Ancient civilizations Major ancient civilizations were located around the Mediterranean. The sea provided routes for trade, colonization, and war, as well as food (from fishing and the gathering of other seafood) for numerous communities throughout the ages. The earliest advanced civilizations in the Mediterranean were the Egyptians and the Minoans, who traded extensively with each other. Other notable civilizations that appeared somewhat later are the Hittites and other Anatolian peoples, the Phoenicians, and Mycenean Greece. Around 1200 BC the eastern Mediterranean was greatly affected by the Bronze Age Collapse, which resulted in the destruction of many cities and trade routes. The most notable Mediterranean civilizations in classical antiquity were the Greek city states and the Phoenicians, both of which extensively colonized the coastlines of the Mediterranean. Darius I of Persia, who conquered Ancient Egypt, built a canal linking the Red Sea to the Nile, and thus the Mediterranean. Darius's canal was wide enough for two triremes to pass each other with oars extended and required four days to traverse. Following the Punic Wars in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, the Roman Republic defeated the Carthaginians to become the preeminent power in the Mediterranean. When Augustus founded the Roman Empire, the Romans referred to the Mediterranean as *Mare Nostrum* ("Our Sea"). For the next 400 years, the Roman Empire completely controlled the Mediterranean Sea and virtually all its coastal regions from Gibraltar to the Levant, being the only state in history to ever do so, being given the nickname "Roman Lake". ### Middle Ages and empires The Western Roman Empire collapsed around 476 AD. The east was again dominant as Roman power lived on in the Byzantine Empire formed in the 4th century from the eastern half of the Roman Empire. Though the Eastern Roman Empire would continue to hold almost all of the Mediterranean, another power arose in the 7th century, and with it the religion of Islam, which soon swept across from the east; at its greatest extent, the Arabs, under the Umayyads, controlled most of the Mediterranean region and left a lasting footprint on its eastern and southern shores. The Arab invasions disrupted the trade relations between Western and Eastern Europe while disrupting trade routes with Eastern Asian Empires. This, however, had the indirect effect of promoting trade across the Caspian Sea. The export of grains from Egypt was re-routed towards the Eastern world. Products from East Asian empires, like silk and spices, were carried from Egypt to ports like Venice and Constantinople by sailors and Jewish merchants. The Viking raids further disrupted the trade in western Europe and brought it to a halt. However, the Norsemen developed the trade from Norway to the White Sea, while also trading in luxury goods from Spain and the Mediterranean. The Byzantines in the mid-8th century retook control of the area around the north-eastern part of the Mediterranean. Venetian ships from the 9th century armed themselves to counter the harassment by Arabs while concentrating trade of Asian goods in Venice. The Fatimids maintained trade relations with the Italian city-states like Amalfi and Genoa before the Crusades, according to the Cairo Geniza documents. A document dated 996 mentions Amalfian merchants living in Cairo. Another letter states that the Genoese had traded with Alexandria. The caliph al-Mustansir had allowed Amalfian merchants to reside in Jerusalem about 1060 in place of the Latin hospice. The Crusades led to the flourishing of trade between Europe and the *outremer* region. Genoa, Venice and Pisa created colonies in regions controlled by the Crusaders and came to control the trade with the Orient. These colonies also allowed them to trade with the Eastern world. Though the fall of the Crusader states and attempts at banning of trade relations with Muslim states by the Popes temporarily disrupted the trade with the Orient, it however continued. Europe started to revive, however, as more organized and centralized states began to form in the later Middle Ages after the Renaissance of the 12th century. Ottoman power based in Anatolia continued to grow, and in 1453 extinguished the Byzantine Empire with the Conquest of Constantinople. Ottomans gained control of much of the eastern part sea in the 16th century and also maintained naval bases in southern France (1543–1544), Algeria and Tunisia. Barbarossa, the Ottoman captain is a symbol of this domination with the victory of the Battle of Preveza (1538). The Battle of Djerba (1560) marked the apex of Ottoman naval domination in the eastern Mediterranean. As the naval prowess of the European powers increased, they confronted Ottoman expansion in the region when the Battle of Lepanto (1571) checked the power of the Ottoman Navy. This was the last naval battle to be fought primarily between galleys. The Barbary pirates of Northwest Africa preyed on Christian shipping and coastlines in the Western Mediterranean Sea. According to Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th centuries, pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves. The development of oceanic shipping began to affect the entire Mediterranean. Once, most of the trade between Western Europe and the East was passing through the region, but after the 1490s the development of a sea route to the Indian Ocean allowed the importation of Asian spices and other goods through the Atlantic ports of western Europe. The sea remained strategically important. British mastery of Gibraltar ensured their influence in Africa and Southwest Asia. Especially after the naval battles of Abukir (1799, Battle of the Nile) and Trafalgar (1805), the British had for a long time strengthened their dominance in the Mediterranean. Wars included Naval warfare in the Mediterranean during World War I and Mediterranean theatre of World War II. With the opening of the lockless Suez Canal in 1869, the flow of trade between Europe and Asia changed fundamentally. The fastest route now led through the Mediterranean towards East Africa and Asia. This led to a preference for the Mediterranean countries and their ports like Trieste with direct connections to Central and Eastern Europe experienced a rapid economic rise. In the 20th century, the 1st and 2nd World Wars as well as the Suez Crisis and the Cold War led to a shift of trade routes to the European northern ports, which changed again towards the southern ports through European integration, the activation of the Silk Road and free world trade. ### 21st century and migrations Satellite image of the Mediterranean Sea at night In 2013, the Maltese president described the Mediterranean Sea as a "cemetery" due to the large number of migrants who drowned there after their boats capsized. European Parliament president Martin Schulz said in 2014 that Europe's migration policy "turned the Mediterranean into a graveyard", referring to the number of drowned refugees in the region as a direct result of the policies. An Azerbaijani official described the sea as "a burial ground ... where people die". Following the 2013 Lampedusa migrant shipwreck, the Italian government decided to strengthen the national system for the patrolling of the Mediterranean Sea by authorising "Operation Mare Nostrum", a military and humanitarian mission in order to rescue the migrants and arrest the traffickers of immigrants. In 2015, more than one million migrants crossed the Mediterranean Sea into Europe. Italy was particularly affected by the European migrant crisis. Since 2013, over 700,000 migrants have landed in Italy, mainly sub-Saharan Africans. Geography --------- A satellite image showing the Mediterranean Sea. The Strait of Gibraltar appears in the bottom left (north-west) quarter of the image; to its left is the Iberian Peninsula in Europe, and to its right, the Maghreb in Africa.The Dardanelles strait in Turkey. The north (upper) side forms part of Europe (the Gelibolu Peninsula in the Thrace region); on the south (lower) side is Anatolia in Asia. The Mediterranean Sea connects: * to the Atlantic Ocean by the Strait of Gibraltar (known in Homer's writings as the "Pillars of Hercules") in the west * to the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea, by the Straits of the Dardanelles and the Bosporus respectively, in the east The 163 km (101 mi) long artificial Suez Canal in the southeast connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea without ship lock, because the water level is essentially the same. The westernmost point of the Mediterranean is located at the transition from the Alborán Sea to the Strait of Gibraltar, the easternmost point is on the coast of the Gulf of Iskenderun in southeastern Turkey. The northernmost point of the Mediterranean is on the coast of the Gulf of Trieste near Monfalcone in northern Italy while the southernmost point is on the coast of the Gulf of Sidra near the Libyan town of El Agheila. Large islands in the Mediterranean include: * Cyprus, Crete, Euboea, Rhodes, Lesbos, Chios, Kefalonia, Corfu, Limnos, Samos, Naxos, and Andros in the Eastern Mediterranean * Sicily, Cres, Krk, Brač, Hvar, Pag, Korčula, and Malta in the central Mediterranean * Sardinia, Corsica, and the Balearic Islands: Ibiza, Majorca, and Menorca in the Western Mediterranean The Alpine arc, which also has a great meteorological impact on the Mediterranean area, touches the Mediterranean in the west in the area around Nice. The typical Mediterranean climate has hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters. Crops of the region include olives, grapes, oranges, tangerines, carobs and cork. ### Marginal seas The Mediterranean Sea includes 15 marginal seas:[*failed verification*] | Number | Sea | Area (km2) | Marginal countries and territories | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | **Libyan Sea** | 350,000 | Libya, Turkey, Greece, Malta, Italy | | 2 | **Levantine Sea** | 320,000 | Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Egypt, Greece, Cyprus, Akrotiri & Dhekelia | | 3 | **Tyrrhenian Sea** | 275,000 | Italy, France | | 4 | **Aegean Sea** | 214,000 | Greece, Turkey | | 5 | **Icarian Sea** | (Part of Aegean) | Greece | | 6 | **Myrtoan Sea** | (Part of Aegean) | Greece | | 7 | **Thracian Sea** | (Part of Aegean) | Greece, Turkey | | 8 | **Ionian Sea** | 169,000 | Greece, Albania, Italy | | 9 | **Balearic Sea** | 150,000 | Spain | | 10 | **Adriatic Sea** | 138,000 | Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Italy, Montenegro, Slovenia | | 11 | **Sea of Sardinia** | 120,000 | Italy, Spain | | 12 | **Sea of Crete** | 95,000 | Greece | | 13 | **Ligurian Sea** | 80,000 | Italy, France | | 14 | **Alboran Sea** | 53,000 | Spain, Morocco, Algeria, Gibraltar | | 15 | **Sea of Marmara** | 11,500 | Turkey | | – | **Other** | ~500,000 | Consists of gulfs, straits, channels and other parts that do not have the name of a specific sea. | | Total | Mediterranean Sea | ~2,500,000 | | * List of seas * Category:Marginal seas of the Mediterranean * Category:Gulfs of the Mediterranean * Category:Straits of the Mediterranean Sea * Category:Channels of the Mediterranean Sea Note 1: The International Hydrographic Organization defines the area as generic Mediterranean Sea, in the Western Basin. It does not recognize the label Sea of Sardinia. Note 2: Thracian Sea and Myrtoan Sea are seas that are part of the Aegean Sea. Note 3: The Black Sea is not considered part of it. ### Extent The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Mediterranean Sea as follows: Stretching from the Strait of Gibraltar in the west to the entrances to the Dardanelles and the Suez Canal in the east, the Mediterranean Sea is bounded by the coasts of Europe, Africa, and Asia and is divided into two deep basins: * Western Basin: + On the west: A line joining the extremities of Cape Trafalgar (Spain) and Cape Spartel (Africa) + On the northeast: The west coast of Italy. In the Strait of Messina, a line joining the north extreme of Cape Paci (15°42′E) with Cape Peloro, the east extreme of the Island of Sicily. The north coast of Sicily + On the east: A line joining Cape Lilibeo the western point of Sicily (37°47′N 12°22′E / 37.783°N 12.367°E / 37.783; 12.367), through the Adventure Bank to Cape Bon (Tunisia) * Eastern Basin: + On the west: The northeastern and eastern limits of the Western Basin + On the northeast: A line joining Kum Kale (26°11′E) and Cape Helles, the western entrance to the Dardanelles + On the southeast: The entrance to the Suez Canal + On the east: The coasts of Lebanon, Syria, and Israel ### Hydrography The drainage basin of the Mediterranean Sea is particularly heterogeneous and extends much further than the Mediterranean region. Its size has been estimated between 4,000,000 km2 (1,500,000 sq mi) and 5,500,000 km2 (2,100,000 sq mi), depending on whether non-active parts (deserts) are included or not. The longest river ending in the Mediterranean Sea is the Nile, which takes its sources in equatorial Africa. The basin of the Nile constitutes about two-thirds of the Mediterranean drainage basin and encompasses areas as high as the Ruwenzori Mountains. Among other important rivers in Africa, are the Moulouya and the Chelif, both on the north side of the Atlas Mountains. In Asia, are the Ceyhan and Seyhan, both on the south side of the Taurus Mountains. In Europe, the largest basins are those of the Rhône, Ebro, Po, and Maritsa. The basin of the Rhône is the largest and extends up as far north as the Jura Mountains, encompassing areas even on the north side of the Alps. The basins of the Ebro, Po, and Maritsa, are respectively south of the Pyrenees, Alps, and Balkan Mountains, which are the major ranges bordering Southern Europe. Total annual precipitation is significantly higher on the European part of the Mediterranean basin, especially near the Alps (the 'water tower of Europe') and other high mountain ranges. As a consequence, the river discharges of the Rhône and Po are similar to that of the Nile, despite the latter having a much larger basin. These are the only three rivers with an average discharge of over 1,000 m3/s (35,000 cu ft/s). Among large natural fresh bodies of water are Lake Victoria (Nile basin), Lake Geneva (Rhône), and the Italian Lakes (Po). While the Mediterranean watershed is bordered by other river basins in Europe, it is essentially bordered by endorheic basins or deserts elsewhere. The following countries are in the Mediterranean drainage basin while *not* having a coastline on the Mediterranean Sea: * In Europe, through various rivers: Andorra, Bulgaria, Kosovo, North Macedonia, San Marino, Serbia, and Switzerland. * In Africa, through the Nile: Congo, Burundi, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda. ### Coastal countries The following countries have a coastline on the Mediterranean Sea: * **Northern shore** (from west to east): Spain, France, Monaco, Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, Greece, Turkey. * **Eastern shore** (from north to south): Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Egypt. * **Southern shore** (from west to east): Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt. * **Island nations**: Malta, Cyprus. Several other territories also border the Mediterranean Sea (from west to east): * the British overseas territory of Gibraltar * the Spanish autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla and nearby islands * the Sovereign Base Areas on Cyprus * the Palestinian Gaza Strip ### Exclusive economic zone Exclusive economic zones in Mediterranean Sea: | Number | Country | Area (Km2) | | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | **Italy** | 541,915 | | 2 | **Greece** | 493,708 | | 3 | **Libya** | 355,604 | | 4 | **Spain** | 260,000 | | 5 | **Egypt** | 169,125 | | 6 | **Algeria** | 128,843 | | 7 | **Tunisia** | 102,047 | | 8 | **Cyprus** | 98,088 | | 9 | **France** | 88,389 | | 10 | **Turkey** | 72,195 | | 11 | **Croatia** | 59,032 | | 12 | **Malta** | 55,542 | | 13 | **Israel** | 25,139 | | 14 | **Lebanon** | 19,265 | | 15 | **Morocco** | 18,302 | | 16 | **Albania** | 13,691 | | 17 | **Syria** | 10,189 | | 18 | **Montenegro** | 7,745 | | 19 | **Palestine** | 2,591 | | 20 | **Monaco** | 288 | | 21 | **Slovenia** | 220 | | 22 | **Bosnia and Herzegovina** | 50 | | 23 | **United Kingdom** | 6.8 | | Total | **Mediterranean Sea** | **2,500,000** | ### Coastline length The Coastline length is about 46,000 km. ### Coastal cities Major cities (municipalities), with populations larger than 200,000 people, bordering the Mediterranean Sea include: * Algeria: Algiers, Annaba, Oran * Egypt: Alexandria, Damietta, Port Said * France: Marseille, Toulon, Nice * Greece: Athens, Thessaloniki, Patras, Heraklion * Israel: Ashdod, Haifa, Netanya, Rishon LeZion, Tel Aviv * Italy: Bari, Catania, Genoa, Messina, Naples, Palermo, Rome, Taranto, Trieste, Venice * Lebanon: Beirut, Tripoli * Libya: Benghazi, Misrata, Tripoli, Zawiya, Zliten * Malta: Valletta * Morocco: Tétouan, Tangier * Palestine: Gaza City * Spain: Alicante, Almería, Badalona, Barcelona, Cartagena, Málaga, Palma de Mallorca, Valencia. * Syria: Latakia, Tartus * Tunisia: Sfax, Sousse, Tunis * Turkey: Alanya, Antalya, Çanakkale, İskenderun, İzmir, Mersin ### Subdivisions The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) divides the Mediterranean into a number of smaller waterbodies, each with their own designation (from west to east): * the Strait of Gibraltar * the Alboran Sea, between Spain and Morocco * the Balearic Sea, between mainland Spain and its Balearic Islands * the Ligurian Sea between Corsica and Liguria (Italy) * the Tyrrhenian Sea enclosed by Sardinia, Corsica, Italian peninsula and Sicily * the Ionian Sea between Italy, Albania and Greece * the Adriatic Sea between Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Albania * the Aegean Sea between Greece and Turkey #### Other seas Some other seas whose names have been in common use from the ancient times, or in the present: * the Sea of Sardinia, between Sardinia and Balearic Islands, as a part of the Balearic Sea * the Sea of Sicily between Sicily and Tunisia * the Libyan Sea between Libya and Crete * In the Aegean Sea, + the Thracian Sea in its north + the Myrtoan Sea between the Cyclades and the Peloponnese + the Sea of Crete north of Crete + the Icarian Sea between Kos and Chios * the Cilician Sea between Turkey and Cyprus * the Levantine Sea at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Many of these smaller seas feature in local myth and folklore and derive their names from such associations. #### Other features In addition to the seas, a number of gulfs and straits are recognised: * the Saint George Bay in Beirut, Lebanon * the Ras Ibn Hani cape in Latakia, Syria * the Ras al-Bassit cape in northern Syria. * the Minet el-Beida ("White Harbour") bay near ancient Ugarit, Syria * the Strait of Gibraltar, connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Spain from Morocco * the Bay of Algeciras, at the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula * the Gulf of Corinth, an enclosed sea between the Ionian Sea and the Corinth Canal * the Pagasetic Gulf, the gulf of Volos, south of the Thermaic Gulf, formed by the Mount Pelion peninsula * the Saronic Gulf, the gulf of Athens, between the Corinth Canal and the Mirtoan Sea * the Thermaic Gulf, the gulf of Thessaloniki, located in the northern Greek region of Macedonia * the Kvarner Gulf, Croatia * the Gulf of Almeria, southeast of Spain * the Gulf of Lion, south of France * the Gulf of Valencia, east of Spain * the Strait of Messina, between Sicily and Calabrian peninsula * the Gulf of Genoa, northwestern Italy * the Gulf of Venice, northeastern Italy * the Gulf of Trieste, northeastern Italy * the Gulf of Taranto, southern Italy * the Gulf of Saint Euphemia, southern Italy, with the international airport nearby * the Gulf of Salerno, southwestern Italy * the Gulf of Gaeta, southwestern Italy * the Gulf of Squillace, southern Italy * the Strait of Otranto, between Italy and Albania * the Gulf of Haifa, northern Israel * the Gulf of Sidra, between Tripolitania (western Libya) and Cyrenaica (eastern Libya) * the Strait of Sicily, between Sicily and Tunisia * the Corsica Channel, between Corsica and Italy * the Strait of Bonifacio, between Sardinia and Corsica * the Gulf of Antalya, between west and east shores of Antalya (Turkey) * the Gulf of İskenderun, between İskenderun and Adana (Turkey) * the Gulf of İzmir, in İzmir (Turkey) * the Gulf of Fethiye, in Fethiye (Turkey) * the Gulf of Kuşadası, in İzmir (Turkey) * the Bay of Kotor, in south-western Montenegro and south-eastern Croatia * the Malta Channel, between Sicily and Malta * the Gozo Channel, between Malta Island and Gozo ### Largest islands The Mediterranean Sea encompasses about 10,000 islands and islets, of which about 250 are permanently inhabited. In the table below are listed the ten largest by size. | Country | Island | Area in km2 | Population | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Italy | Sicily | 25,460 | 5,048,995 | | Italy | Sardinia | 23,821 | 1,672,804 | | Cyprus | Cyprus | 9,251 | 1,088,503 | | France | Corsica | 8,680 | 299,209 | | Greece | Crete | 8,336 | 623,666 | | Greece | Euboea | 3,655 | 218,000 | | Spain | Majorca | 3,640 | 869,067 | | Greece | Lesbos | 1,632 | 90,643 | | Greece | Rhodes | 1,400 | 117,007 | | Greece | Chios | 842 | 51,936 | ### Climate Much of the Mediterranean coast enjoys a hot-summer Mediterranean climate. However, most of its southeastern coast has a hot desert climate, and much of Spain's eastern (Mediterranean) coast has a cold semi-arid climate, while most of Italy's northern (Adriatic) coast has a humid subtropical climate. Although they are rare, tropical cyclones occasionally form in the Mediterranean Sea, typically in September–November. Map of climate zones in the areas surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, according to the Köppen climate classification #### Sea temperature Mean sea temperature (°C)| | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Málaga | 16 | 15 | 16 | 16 | 18 | 20 | 22 | 23 | 22 | 20 | 18 | 17 | 18.6 | | Barcelona | 13 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 17 | 20 | 23 | 25 | 23 | 20 | 17 | 15 | 17.8 | | Marseille | 13 | 13 | 13 | 14 | 16 | 18 | 21 | 22 | 21 | 18 | 16 | 14 | 16.6 | | Naples | 15 | 14 | 14 | 15 | 18 | 22 | 25 | 27 | 25 | 22 | 19 | 16 | 19.3 | | Malta | 16 | 16 | 15 | 16 | 18 | 21 | 24 | 26 | 25 | 23 | 21 | 18 | 19.9 | | Venice | 11 | 10 | 11 | 13 | 18 | 22 | 25 | 26 | 23 | 20 | 16 | 14 | 17.4 | | Athens | 16 | 15 | 15 | 16 | 18 | 21 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 21 | 19 | 18 | 19.3 | | Heraklion | 16 | 15 | 15 | 16 | 19 | 22 | 24 | 25 | 24 | 22 | 20 | 18 | 19.7 | | Antalya | 17 | 17 | 16 | 17 | 21 | 24 | 27 | 29 | 27 | 25 | 22 | 19 | 21.8 | | Limassol | 18 | 17 | 17 | 18 | 20 | 24 | 26 | 28 | 27 | 25 | 22 | 19 | 21.7 | | Mersin | 18 | 17 | 17 | 18 | 21 | 25 | 28 | 29 | 28 | 25 | 22 | 19 | 22.3 | | Tel Aviv | 18 | 17 | 17 | 18 | 21 | 24 | 27 | 28 | 28 | 26 | 23 | 20 | 22.3 | | Alexandria | 18 | 17 | 17 | 18 | 20 | 23 | 25 | 26 | 26 | 25 | 22 | 20 | 21.4 | Oceanography ------------ Being nearly landlocked affects conditions in the Mediterranean Sea: for instance, tides are very limited as a result of the narrow connection with the Atlantic Ocean. The Mediterranean is characterised and immediately recognised by its deep blue colour. Evaporation greatly exceeds precipitation and river runoff in the Mediterranean, a fact that is central to the water circulation within the basin. Evaporation is especially high in its eastern half, causing the water level to decrease and salinity to increase eastward. The average salinity in the basin is 38 PSU at 5 m depth. The temperature of the water in the deepest part of the Mediterranean Sea is 13.2 °C (55.8 °F). The net water influx from the Atlantic Ocean is ca. 70,000 m3/s or 2.2×1012 m3/a (7.8×1013 cu ft/a). Without this Atlantic water, the sea level of the Mediterranean Sea would fall at a rate of about 1 m per year. In oceanography, it is sometimes called the *Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea*, the *European Mediterranean Sea* or the *African Mediterranean Sea* to distinguish it from mediterranean seas elsewhere.[*who else?*] ### General circulation Water circulation in the Mediterranean can be attributed to the surface waters entering from the Atlantic through the Strait of Gibraltar (and also low salinity water entering the Mediterranean from the Black Sea through the Bosphorus). The cool and relatively low-salinity Atlantic water circulates eastwards along the North African coasts. A part of the surface water does not pass the Strait of Sicily, but deviates towards Corsica before exiting the Mediterranean. The surface waters entering the eastern Mediterranean basin circulate along the Libyan and Israeli coasts. Upon reaching the Levantine Sea, the surface waters having warmed and increased its salinity from its initial Atlantic state, is now denser and sinks to form the Levantine Intermediate Waters (LIW). Most of the water found anywhere between 50 and 600 m deep in the Mediterranean originates from the LIW. LIW are formed along the coasts of Turkey and circulate westwards along the Greek and South Italian coasts. LIW are the only waters passing the Sicily Strait westwards. After the Strait of Sicily, the LIW waters circulate along the Italian, French and Spanish coasts before exiting the Mediterranean through the depths of the Strait of Gibraltar. Deep water in the Mediterranean originates from three main areas: the Adriatic Sea, from which most of the deep water in the eastern Mediterranean originates, the Aegean Sea, and the Gulf of Lion. Deep water formation in the Mediterranean is triggered by strong winter convection fueled by intense cold winds like the Bora. When new deep water is formed, the older waters mix with the overlaying intermediate waters and eventually exit the Mediterranean. The residence time of water in the Mediterranean is approximately 100 years, making the Mediterranean especially sensitive to climate change. ### Other events affecting water circulation Being a semi-enclosed basin, the Mediterranean experiences transitory events that can affect the water circulation on short time scales. In the mid-1990s, the Aegean Sea became the main area for deep water formation in the eastern Mediterranean after particularly cold winter conditions. This transitory switch in the origin of deep waters in the eastern Mediterranean was termed Eastern Mediterranean Transient (EMT) and had major consequences on water circulation of the Mediterranean. Another example of a transient event affecting the Mediterranean circulation is the periodic inversion of the North Ionian Gyre, which is an anticyclonic ocean gyre observed in the northern part of the Ionian Sea, off the Greek coast. The transition from anticyclonic to cyclonic rotation of this gyre changes the origin of the waters fueling it; when the circulation is anticyclonic (most common), the waters of the gyre originate from the Adriatic Sea. When the circulation is cyclonic, the waters originate from the Levantine Sea. These waters have different physical and chemical characteristics, and the periodic inversion of the North Ionian Gyre (called Bimodal Oscillating System or BiOS) changes the Mediterranean circulation and biogeochemistry around the Adriatic and Levantine regions. ### Climate change Because of the short residence time of waters, the Mediterranean Sea is considered a hot spot for climate change effects. Deep water temperatures have increased by 0.12 °C (0.22 °F) between 1959 and 1989. According to climate projections, the Mediterranean Sea could become warmer. The decrease in precipitation over the region could lead to more evaporation ultimately increasing the Mediterranean Sea salinity. Because of the changes in temperature and salinity, the Mediterranean Sea may become more stratified by the end of the 21st century, with notable consequences on water circulation and biogeochemistry. The stratification and warming have already led to the eastern Mediterranean to become a net source of CO2 to the atmosphere notably during summer. This strong summer degassing, combined with the prolonged and pronounced stratification results in the formation of aragonite crystals abiotically in the water column. The cumulative warming at the surface of the Mediterranean has a significant impact on the ecological system. Extreme warming has led to biodiversity loss and presents an existential threat to some habitats while making conditions more hospitable to invasive tropical species. Biogeochemistry --------------- In spite of its great biodiversity, concentrations of chlorophyll and nutrients in the Mediterranean Sea are very low, making it one of the most oligotrophic ocean regions in the world. The Mediterranean Sea is commonly referred to as an LNLC (Low-Nutrient, Low-Chlorophyll) area. The Mediterranean Sea fits the definition of a desert in which its nutrient contents are low, making it difficult for plants and animals to develop. There are steep gradients in nutrient concentrations, chlorophyll concentrations and primary productivity in the Mediterranean. Nutrient concentrations in the western part of the basin are about double the concentrations in the eastern basin. The Alboran Sea, close to the Strait of Gibraltar, has a daily primary productivity of about 0.25 g C (grams of carbon) m−2 day−1 whereas the eastern basin has an average daily productivity of 0.16 g C m−2 day−1. For this reason, the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea is termed "ultraoligotrophic". The productive areas of the Mediterranean Sea are few and small. High (i.e. more than 0.5 grams of Chlorophyll *a* per cubic meter) productivity occurs in coastal areas, close to the river mouths which are the primary suppliers of dissolved nutrients. The Gulf of Lion has a relatively high productivity because it is an area of high vertical mixing, bringing nutrients to the surface waters that can be used by phytoplankton to produce Chlorophyll *a*. Primary productivity in the Mediterranean is also marked by an intense seasonal variability. In winter, the strong winds and precipitation over the basin generate vertical mixing, bringing nutrients from the deep waters to the surface, where phytoplankton can convert it into biomass. However, in winter, light may be the limiting factor for primary productivity. Between March and April, spring offers the ideal trade-off between light intensity and nutrient concentrations in surface for a spring bloom to occur. In summer, high atmospheric temperatures lead to the warming of the surface waters. The resulting density difference virtually isolates the surface waters from the rest of the water column and nutrient exchanges are limited. As a consequence, primary productivity is very low between June and October. Oceanographic expeditions uncovered a characteristic feature of the Mediterranean Sea biogeochemistry: most of the chlorophyll production does not occur on the surface, but in sub-surface waters between 80 and 200 meters deep. Another key characteristic of the Mediterranean is its high nitrogen-to-phosphorus ratio (N:P). Redfield demonstrated that most of the world's oceans have an average N:P ratio around 16. However, the Mediterranean Sea has an average N:P between 24 and 29, which translates a widespread phosphorus limitation.[*clarification needed*] Because of its low productivity, plankton assemblages in the Mediterranean Sea are dominated by small organisms such as picophytoplankton and bacteria. Geology ------- The geologic history of the Mediterranean Sea is complex. Underlain by oceanic crust, the sea basin was once thought to be a tectonic remnant of the ancient Tethys Ocean; it is now known to be a structurally younger basin, called the Neotethys, which was first formed by the convergence of the African and Eurasian plates during the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic. Because it is a near-landlocked body of water in a normally dry climate, the Mediterranean is subject to intensive evaporation and the precipitation of evaporites. The Messinian salinity crisis started about six million years ago (mya) when the Mediterranean became landlocked, and then essentially dried up. There are salt deposits accumulated on the bottom of the basin of more than a million cubic kilometres—in some places more than three kilometres thick. Scientists estimate that the sea was last filled about 5.3 million years ago (mya) in less than two years by the Zanclean flood. Water poured in from the Atlantic Ocean through a newly breached gateway now called the Strait of Gibraltar at an estimated rate of about three orders of magnitude (one thousand times) larger than the current flow of the Amazon River. The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1,500 m (4,900 ft) and the deepest recorded point is 5,267 m (17,280 ft) in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea. The coastline extends for 46,000 km (29,000 mi). A shallow submarine ridge (the Strait of Sicily) between the island of Sicily and the coast of Tunisia divides the sea in two main subregions: the Western Mediterranean, with an area of about 850,000 km2 (330,000 mi2); and the Eastern Mediterranean, of about 1.65 million km2 (640,000 mi2). Coastal areas have submarine karst springs or *vrulja*s, which discharge pressurised groundwater into the water from below the surface; the discharge water is usually fresh, and sometimes may be thermal. ### Tectonics and paleoenvironmental analysis The Mediterranean basin and sea system were established by the ancient African-Arabian continent colliding with the Eurasian continent. As Africa-Arabia drifted northward, it closed over the ancient Tethys Ocean which had earlier separated the two supercontinents Laurasia and Gondwana. At about that time in the middle Jurassic period (roughly 170 million years ago [*dubious – discuss*]) a much smaller sea basin, dubbed the Neotethys, was formed shortly before the Tethys Ocean closed at its western (Arabian) end. The broad line of collisions pushed up a very long system of mountains from the Pyrenees in Spain to the Zagros Mountains in Iran in an episode of mountain-building tectonics known as the Alpine orogeny. The Neotethys grew larger during the episodes of collisions (and associated foldings and subductions) that occurred during the Oligocene and Miocene epochs (34 to 5.33 mya); see animation: Africa-Arabia colliding with Eurasia. Accordingly, the Mediterranean basin consists of several stretched tectonic plates in subduction which are the foundation of the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea. Various zones of subduction contain the highest oceanic ridges, east of the Ionian Sea and south of the Aegean. The Central Indian Ridge runs east of the Mediterranean Sea south-east across the in-between[*clarification needed*] of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula into the Indian Ocean. #### Messinian salinity crisis During Mesozoic and Cenozoic times, as the northwest corner of Africa converged on Iberia, it lifted the Betic-Rif mountain belts across southern Iberia and northwest Africa. There the development of the intramontane Betic and Rif basins created two roughly parallel marine gateways between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. Dubbed the Betic and Rifian corridors, they gradually closed during the middle and late Miocene: perhaps several times. In the late Miocene the closure of the Betic Corridor triggered the so-called "Messinian salinity crisis" (MSC), characterized by the deposition of a thick evaporitic sequence – with salt deposits up to 2 km thick in the Levantine sea – and by a massive drop in water level in much of the Basin. This event was for long the subject of acute scientific controversy, now much appeased, regarding its sequence, geographic range, processes leading to evaporite facies and salt deposits. The start of the MSC was recently estimated astronomically at 5.96 mya, and it persisted for some 630,000 years until about 5.3 mya; see Animation: Messinian salinity crisis, at right. After the initial drawdown[*clarification needed*] and re-flooding, there followed more episodes—the total number is debated—of sea drawdowns and re-floodings for the duration of the MSC. It ended when the Atlantic Ocean last re-flooded the basin—creating the Strait of Gibraltar and causing the Zanclean flood—at the end of the Miocene (5.33 mya). Some research has suggested that a desiccation-flooding-desiccation cycle may have repeated several times, which could explain several events of large amounts of salt deposition. Recent studies, however, show that repeated desiccation and re-flooding is unlikely from a geodynamic point of view. #### Desiccation and exchanges of flora and fauna The present-day Atlantic gateway, the Strait of Gibraltar, originated in the early Pliocene via the Zanclean Flood. As mentioned, there were two earlier gateways: the Betic Corridor across southern Spain and the Rifian Corridor across northern Morocco. The Betic closed about 6 mya, causing the Messinian salinity crisis (MSC); the Rifian or possibly both gateways closed during the earlier Tortonian times, causing a "Tortonian salinity crisis" (from 11.6 to 7.2 mya), long before the MSC and lasting much longer. Both "crises" resulted in broad connections between the mainlands of Africa and Europe, which allowed migrations of flora and fauna—especially large mammals including primates—between the two continents. The Vallesian crisis indicates a typical extinction and replacement of mammal species in Europe during Tortonian times following climatic upheaval and overland migrations of new species: see Animation: Messinian salinity crisis (and mammal migrations), at right. The almost complete enclosure of the Mediterranean basin has enabled the oceanic gateways to dominate seawater circulation and the environmental evolution of the sea and basin. Circulation patterns are also affected by several other factors—including climate, bathymetry, and water chemistry and temperature—which are interactive and can induce precipitation of evaporites. Deposits of evaporites accumulated earlier in the nearby Carpathian foredeep during the Middle Miocene, and the adjacent Red Sea Basin (during the Late Miocene), and in the whole Mediterranean basin (during the MSC and the Messinian age). Many diatomites are found underneath the evaporite deposits, suggesting a connection between their[*clarification needed*] formations. Today, evaporation of surface seawater (output) is more than the supply (input) of fresh water by precipitation and coastal drainage systems, causing the salinity of the Mediterranean to be much higher than that of the Atlantic—so much so that the saltier Mediterranean waters sink below the waters incoming from the Atlantic, causing a two-layer flow across the Strait of Gibraltar: that is, an outflow *submarine current* of warm saline Mediterranean water, counterbalanced by an inflow surface current of less saline cold oceanic water from the Atlantic. In the 1920s, Herman Sörgel proposed the building of a hydroelectric dam (the Atlantropa project) across the Straits, using the inflow current to provide a large amount of hydroelectric energy. The underlying energy grid was also intended to support a political union between Europe and, at least, the Maghreb part of Africa (compare Eurafrika for the later impact and Desertec for a later project with some parallels in the planned grid). #### Shift to a "Mediterranean climate" The end of the Miocene also marked a change in the climate of the Mediterranean basin. Fossil evidence from that period reveals that the larger basin had a humid subtropical climate with rainfall in the summer supporting laurel forests. The shift to a "Mediterranean climate" occurred largely within the last three million years (the late Pliocene epoch) as summer rainfall decreased. The subtropical laurel forests retreated; and even as they persisted on the islands of Macaronesia off the Atlantic coast of Iberia and North Africa, the present Mediterranean vegetation evolved, dominated by coniferous trees and sclerophyllous trees and shrubs with small, hard, waxy leaves that prevent moisture loss in the dry summers. Much of these forests and shrublands have been altered beyond recognition by thousands of years of human habitation. There are now very few relatively intact natural areas in what was once a heavily wooded region. Paleoclimate ------------ Because of its latitude and its landlocked position, the Mediterranean is especially sensitive to astronomically induced climatic variations, which are well documented in its sedimentary record. Since the Mediterranean is subject to the deposition of eolian dust from the Sahara during dry periods, whereas riverine detrital input prevails during wet ones, the Mediterranean marine sapropel-bearing sequences provide high-resolution climatic information. These data have been employed in reconstructing astronomically calibrated time scales for the last 9 Ma of the Earth's history, helping to constrain the time of past geomagnetic reversals. Furthermore, the exceptional accuracy of these paleoclimatic records has improved our knowledge of the Earth's orbital variations in the past. Biodiversity ------------ Unlike the vast multidirectional ocean currents in open oceans within their respective oceanic zones; biodiversity in the Mediterranean Sea is that of a stable one due to the subtle but strong locked nature of currents which affects favourably, even the smallest macroscopic type of volcanic life form. The stable marine ecosystem of the Mediterranean Sea and sea temperature provides a nourishing environment for life in the deep sea to flourish while assuring a balanced aquatic ecosystem excluded from any external deep oceanic factors. It is estimated that there are more than 17,000 marine species in the Mediterranean Sea with generally higher marine biodiversity in coastal areas, continental shelves, and decreases with depth. As a result of the drying of the sea during the Messinian salinity crisis, the marine biota of the Mediterranean are derived primarily from the Atlantic Ocean. The North Atlantic is considerably colder and more nutrient-rich than the Mediterranean, and the marine life of the Mediterranean has had to adapt to its differing conditions in the five million years since the basin was reflooded. The Alboran Sea is a transition zone between the two seas, containing a mix of Mediterranean and Atlantic species. The Alboran Sea has the largest population of bottlenose dolphins in the Western Mediterranean, is home to the last population of harbour porpoises in the Mediterranean and is the most important feeding grounds for loggerhead sea turtles in Europe. The Alboran Sea also hosts important commercial fisheries, including sardines and swordfish. The Mediterranean monk seals live in the Aegean Sea in Greece. In 2003, the World Wildlife Fund raised concerns about the widespread drift net fishing endangering populations of dolphins, turtles, and other marine animals such as the spiny squat lobster. There was a resident population of orcas in the Mediterranean until the 1980s, when they went extinct, probably due to long-term PCB exposure. There are still annual sightings of orca vagrants. Environmental issues -------------------- For 4,000 years, human activity has transformed most parts of Mediterranean Europe, and the "humanisation of the landscape" overlapped with the appearance of the present Mediterranean climate. The image of a simplistic, environmental determinist notion of a Mediterranean paradise on Earth in antiquity, which was destroyed by later civilisations, dates back to at least the 18th century and was for centuries fashionable in archaeological and historical circles. Based on a broad variety of methods, e.g. historical documents, analysis of trade relations, floodplain sediments, pollen, tree-ring and further archaeometric analyses and population studies, Alfred Thomas Grove's and Oliver Rackham's work on "The Nature of Mediterranean Europe" challenges this common wisdom of a Mediterranean Europe as a "Lost Eden", a formerly fertile and forested region, that had been progressively degraded and desertified by human mismanagement. The belief stems more from the failure of the recent landscape to measure up to the imaginary past of the classics as idealised by artists, poets and scientists of the early modern Enlightenment. The historical evolution of climate, vegetation and landscape in southern Europe from prehistoric times to the present is much more complex and underwent various changes. For example, some of the deforestation had already taken place before the Roman age. While in the Roman age large enterprises such as the latifundia took effective care of forests and agriculture, the largest depopulation effects came with the end of the empire. Some[*who?*] assume that the major deforestation took place in modern times—the later usage patterns were also quite different e.g. in southern and northern Italy. Also, the climate has usually been unstable and there is evidence of various ancient and modern "Little Ice Ages",[*page needed*] and plant cover accommodated to various extremes and became resilient to various patterns of human activity. Human activity was therefore not the cause of climate change but followed it. The wide ecological diversity typical of Mediterranean Europe is predominantly based on human behaviour, as it is and has been closely related to human usage patterns. The diversity range[*clarification needed*] was enhanced by the widespread exchange and interaction of the longstanding and highly diverse local agriculture, intense transport and trade relations, and the interaction with settlements, pasture and other land use. The greatest human-induced changes, however, came after World War II, in line with the "1950s syndrome" as rural populations throughout the region abandoned traditional subsistence economies. Grove and Rackham suggest that the locals left the traditional agricultural patterns and instead became scenery-setting agents[*clarification needed*] for tourism. This resulted in more uniform, large-scale formations[*of what?*]. Among further current important threats to Mediterranean landscapes are overdevelopment of coastal areas, abandonment of mountains and, as mentioned, the loss of variety via the reduction of traditional agricultural occupations. ### Natural hazards The region has a variety of geological hazards which have closely interacted with human activity and land use patterns. Among others, in the eastern Mediterranean, the Thera eruption, dated to the 17th or 16th century BC, caused a large tsunami that some experts hypothesise devastated the Minoan civilisation on the nearby island of Crete, further leading some to believe that this may have been the catastrophe that inspired the Atlantis legend. Mount Vesuvius is the only active volcano on the European mainland, while others, Mount Etna and Stromboli, are on neighbouring islands. The region around Vesuvius including the Phlegraean Fields Caldera west of Naples are quite active and constitute the most densely populated volcanic region in the world where an eruptive event may occur within decades. Vesuvius itself is regarded as quite dangerous due to a tendency towards explosive (Plinian) eruptions. It is best known for its eruption in AD 79 that led to the burying and destruction of the Roman cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum. The large experience[*clarification needed*] of member states and regional authorities has led to exchange[*of what?*] on the international level with the cooperation of NGOs, states, regional and municipality authorities and private persons. The Greek–Turkish earthquake diplomacy is a quite positive example of natural hazards leading to improved relations between traditional rivals in the region after earthquakes in İzmir and Athens in 1999. The European Union Solidarity Fund (EUSF) was set up to respond to major natural disasters and express European solidarity to disaster-stricken regions within all of Europe. The largest amount of funding requests in the EU relates to forest fires, followed by floods and earthquakes. Forest fires, whether human-made or natural, are a frequent and dangerous hazard in the Mediterranean region. Tsunamis are also an often-underestimated hazard in the region. For example, the 1908 Messina earthquake and tsunami took more than 123,000 lives in Sicily and Calabria and were among the deadliest natural disasters in modern Europe. ### Invasive species The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 created the first salt-water passage between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. The Red Sea is higher than the Eastern Mediterranean, so the canal functions as a tidal strait that pours Red Sea water into the Mediterranean. The Bitter Lakes, which are hyper-saline natural lakes that form part of the canal, blocked the migration of Red Sea species into the Mediterranean for many decades, but as the salinity of the lakes gradually equalised with that of the Red Sea, the barrier to migration was removed, and plants and animals from the Red Sea have begun to colonise the Eastern Mediterranean. The Red Sea is generally saltier and more nutrient-poor than the Atlantic, so the Red Sea species have advantages over Atlantic species in the salty and nutrient-poor Eastern Mediterranean. Accordingly, Red Sea species invade the Mediterranean biota, and not vice versa; this phenomenon is known as the Lessepsian migration (after Ferdinand de Lesseps, the French engineer) or Erythrean ("red") invasion. The construction of the Aswan High Dam across the Nile River in the 1960s reduced the inflow of freshwater and nutrient-rich silt from the Nile into the Eastern Mediterranean, making conditions there even more like the Red Sea and worsening the impact of the invasive species. Invasive species have become a major component of the Mediterranean ecosystem and have serious impacts on the Mediterranean ecology, endangering a number of local and endemic Mediterranean species. A first look at some groups of marine species shows that over 70% of exotic decapods and some 2/3 of exotic fishes found in the Mediterranean are of Indo-Pacific origin, introduced from the Red Sea via the Suez Canal. This makes the Canal the first pathway of arrival of alien species into the Mediterranean. The impacts of some Lessepsian species have proven to be considerable, mainly in the Levantine basin of the Mediterranean, where they are replacing native species and becoming a familiar sight. According to definitions by the Mediterranean Science Commission and the International Union for Conservation of Nature, and to Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and Ramsar Convention terminologies, they are alien species, as they are non-native (non-indigenous) to the Mediterranean Sea, and are found outside their normal, non-adjacent area of distribution. When these species succeed in establishing populations in the Mediterranean Sea, compete with and begin to replace native species they are "Alien Invasive Species", as they are an agent of change and a threat to the native biodiversity. In the context of CBD, "introduction" refers to the movement by human agency, indirect or direct, of an alien species outside of its natural range (past or present). The Suez Canal, being an artificial (human-made) canal, is a human agency. Lessepsian migrants are therefore "introduced" species (indirect, and unintentional). Whatever wording is chosen, they represent a threat to the native Mediterranean biodiversity, because they are non-indigenous to this sea. In recent years, the Egyptian government's announcement of its intentions to deepen and widen the Canal raised concerns from marine biologists, fearing that such an act will only worsen the invasion of Red Sea species into the Mediterranean, and lead to even more species passing through the Canal. #### Arrival of new tropical Atlantic species In recent decades, the arrival of exotic species from the tropical Atlantic has become noticeable. In many cases this reflects an expansion – favoured by a warming trend of sub-tropical Atlantic waters, and also by a fast-growing maritime traffic – of the natural range of species that now enter the Mediterranean through the Strait of Gibraltar. While not as intense as Lessepsian migration, the process is of importance and is therefore receiving increased levels of scientific coverage. ### Sea-level rise By 2100 the overall level of the Mediterranean could rise between 3 and 61 cm (1.2 and 24.0 in) as a result of the effects of climate change. This could have adverse effects on populations across the Mediterranean: * Rising sea levels will submerge parts of Malta. Rising sea levels will also mean rising salt water levels in Malta's groundwater supply and reduce the availability of drinking water. * A 30 cm (12 in) rise in sea level would flood 200 square kilometres (77 sq mi) of the Nile Delta, displacing over 500,000 Egyptians. * Cyprus wetlands are also in danger of being destroyed by the rising temperatures and sea levels. Coastal ecosystems also appear to be threatened by sea level rise, especially enclosed seas such as the Baltic, the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. These seas have only small and primarily east–west movement corridors, which may restrict northward displacement of organisms in these areas. Sea level rise for the next century (2100) could be between 30 cm (12 in) and 100 cm (39 in) and temperature shifts of a mere 0.05–0.1 °C in the deep sea are sufficient to induce significant changes in species richness and functional diversity. ### Pollution Pollution in this region has been extremely high in recent years.[*when?*] The United Nations Environment Programme has estimated that 650,000,000 t (720,000,000 short tons) of sewage, 129,000 t (142,000 short tons) of mineral oil, 60,000 t (66,000 short tons) of mercury, 3,800 t (4,200 short tons) of lead and 36,000 t (40,000 short tons) of phosphates are dumped into the Mediterranean each year. The Barcelona Convention aims to 'reduce pollution in the Mediterranean Sea and protect and improve the marine environment in the area, thereby contributing to its sustainable development.' Many marine species have been almost wiped out because of the sea's pollution. One of them is the Mediterranean monk seal which is considered to be among the world's most endangered marine mammals. The Mediterranean is also plagued by marine debris. A 1994 study of the seabed using trawl nets around the coasts of Spain, France and Italy reported a particularly high mean concentration of debris; an average of 1,935 items per km2. ### Shipping Some of the world's busiest shipping routes are in the Mediterranean Sea. In particular, the Maritime Silk Road from Asia and Africa leads through the Suez Canal directly into the Mediterranean Sea to its deep-water ports in Valencia, Piraeus, Trieste, Genoa, Marseilles and Barcelona. It is estimated that approximately 220,000 merchant vessels of more than 100 tonnes cross the Mediterranean Sea each year—about one-third of the world's total merchant shipping. These ships often carry hazardous cargo, which if lost would result in severe damage to the marine environment. The discharge of chemical tank washings and oily wastes also represent a significant source of marine pollution. The Mediterranean Sea constitutes 0.7% of the global water surface and yet receives 17% of global marine oil pollution. It is estimated that every year between 100,000 t (98,000 long tons) and 150,000 t (150,000 long tons) of crude oil are deliberately released into the sea from shipping activities. Approximately 370,000,000 t (360,000,000 long tons) of oil are transported annually in the Mediterranean Sea (more than 20% of the world total), with around 250–300 oil tankers crossing the sea every day. An important destination is the Port of Trieste, the starting point of the Transalpine Pipeline, which covers 40% of Germany's oil demand (100% of the federal states of Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg), 90% of Austria and 50% of the Czech Republic. Accidental oil spills happen frequently with an average of 10 spills per year. A major oil spill could occur at any time in any part of the Mediterranean. Mediterranean Sea is located in MediterraneanValenciaValenciaBarcelonaBarcelonaGenoaGenoaAmbarlıAmbarlıPiraeusPiraeusLimassolLimassolFosFosMarsaxlokkMarsaxlokkLa SpeziaLa SpeziaAlgecirasAlgecirasGioia TauroGioia TauroTanger-MedTanger-MedLeghornLeghornEvyapEvyapMersinMersinHaifaHaifaAshdodAshdodBeirutBeirutGemlikGemlikNemrut BayNemrut Bayclass=notpageimage| Largest ports of the Mediterranean area per total vessel traffic as of 2016. ### Tourism The coast of the Mediterranean has been used for tourism since ancient times, as the Roman villa buildings on the Amalfi Coast or in Barcola show. From the end of the 19th century, in particular, the beaches became places of longing for many Europeans and travellers. From then on, and especially after World War II, mass tourism to the Mediterranean began with all its advantages and disadvantages. While initially, the journey was by train and later by bus or car, today the plane is increasingly used. Tourism is today one of the most important sources of income for many Mediterranean countries, despite the human-made geopolitical conflicts[*clarification needed*] in the region. The countries have tried to extinguish rising human-made chaotic zones[*clarification needed*] that might affect the region's economies and societies in neighbouring coastal countries, and shipping routes. Naval and rescue components in the Mediterranean Sea are considered to be among the best due to the rapid cooperation between various naval fleets. Unlike the vast open oceans, the sea's closed position facilitates effective naval and rescue missions, considered the safest and regardless of[*clarification needed*] any human-made or natural disaster. Tourism is a source of income for small coastal communities, including islands, independent of urban centres. However, tourism has also played a major role in the degradation of the coastal and marine environment. Rapid development has been encouraged by Mediterranean governments to support the large numbers of tourists visiting the region, but this has caused serious disturbance to marine habitats by erosion and pollution in many places along the Mediterranean coasts. Tourism often concentrates in areas of high natural wealth[*clarification needed*], causing a serious threat to the habitats of endangered species such as sea turtles and monk seals. Reductions in natural wealth may reduce the incentive for tourists to visit. ### Overfishing Fish stock levels in the Mediterranean Sea are alarmingly low. The European Environment Agency says that more than 65% of all fish stocks in the region are outside safe biological limits and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation, that some of the most important fisheries—such as albacore and bluefin tuna, hake, marlin, swordfish, red mullet and sea bream—are threatened.[*date missing*] There are clear indications that catch size and quality have declined, often dramatically, and in many areas, larger and longer-lived species have disappeared entirely from commercial catches. Large open-water fish like tuna have been a shared fisheries resource for thousands of years but the stocks are now dangerously low. In 1999, Greenpeace published a report revealing that the amount of bluefin tuna in the Mediterranean had decreased by over 80% in the previous 20 years and government scientists warn that without immediate action the stock will collapse. ### Marine heatwaves A study showed that climate change-related exceptional marine heatwaves in the Mediterranean Sea during 2015–2019 resulted in widespread mass sealife die-offs in five consecutive years. Gallery ------- * Europa Point, GibraltarEuropa Point, Gibraltar * Old city of Ibiza Town, SpainOld city of Ibiza Town, Spain * Panoramic view of La Condamine, MonacoPanoramic view of La Condamine, Monaco * The beach of la Courtade in the Îles d'Hyères, FranceThe beach of la Courtade in the Îles d'Hyères, France * Sardinia's south coast, ItalySardinia's south coast, Italy * Pretty Bay in Birżebbuġa, MaltaPretty Bay in Birżebbuġa, Malta * Panoramic view of Piran, SloveniaPanoramic view of Piran, Slovenia * Panoramic view of Cavtat, CroatiaPanoramic view of Cavtat, Croatia * View of Neum, Bosnia and HerzegovinaView of Neum, Bosnia and Herzegovina * A view of Sveti Stefan, MontenegroA view of Sveti Stefan, Montenegro * Ksamil Islands, AlbaniaKsamil Islands, Albania * Navagio, GreeceNavagio, Greece * Ölüdeniz, Turquoise Coast, TurkeyÖlüdeniz, Turquoise Coast, Turkey * Paphos, CyprusPaphos, Cyprus * Burj Islam Beach, Latakia, SyriaBurj Islam Beach, Latakia, Syria * A view of Raouché off the coast of Beirut, LebanonA view of Raouché off the coast of Beirut, Lebanon * A view of Haifa, IsraelA view of Haifa, Israel * Sunset at the Deir al-Balah beach, Gaza StripSunset at the Deir al-Balah beach, Gaza Strip * Coast of Alexandria, view From Bibliotheca Alexandrina, EgyptCoast of Alexandria, view From Bibliotheca Alexandrina, Egypt * Ras El Hilal sea caves, LibyaRas El Hilal sea caves, Libya * Beach of Hammamet, TunisiaBeach of Hammamet, Tunisia * Les Aiguades near Béjaïa, AlgeriaLes Aiguades near Béjaïa, Algeria * El Jebha, a port town in MoroccoEl Jebha, a port town in Morocco See also -------- * Aegean dispute – Series of controversies between Greece and Turkey over the Aegean Sea * Atlantropa – Proposed engineering project to create new land within the Mediterranean Sea * Babelmed, the site of the Mediterranean cultures * Cyprus dispute – Dispute between Greek and Turkish CypriotsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets * Cyprus–Turkey maritime zones dispute – Ongoing political dispute in the Mediterranean * Eastern Mediterranean – Countries that are geographically located to the east of the Mediterranean Sea * Euro-Mediterranean Parliamentary Assembly – Parliamentary assemblyPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets * Exclusive economic zone of Greece * Familial Mediterranean fever – Human diseasePages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback * History of the Mediterranean region – Historical development of the Mediterranean * Holy League (1571) – alliance of European countries from 1571Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback * Libya–Turkey maritime deal – Maritime boundary treaty between Libya's GNA and TurkeyPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets * List of islands in the Mediterranean * List of Mediterranean countries – List Of 3/7 countries * Mediterranean diet – Diet inspired by the Mediterranean region * Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub – Habitat defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature * Mediterranean Games – Multi-sport event of the Mediterranean countries * Mediterranean race – Outdated grouping of human beings * Mediterranean sea (oceanography) – Mostly enclosed sea with limited exchange with outer oceansPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets * Piri Reis – Turkish admiral and cartographer – Early cartographer of the Mediterranean * Qattara Depression Project – Hydroelectric macro-engineering concept in Egypt * Seto Inland Sea – Japanese Inland Sea – also known as the Japanese Mediterranean Sea * Tyrrhenian Basin * Union for the Mediterranean – Intergovernmental organization

Mediterranean Sea

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea

**Mwanza City**, also known as **Rock City** to the residents, is a port city and capital of Mwanza Region on the southern shore of Lake Victoria in north-western Tanzania. With an urban population of 1,244,648 in 2023, it is Tanzania's second largest city, after Dar es Salaam. It is also the second largest city in the Lake Victoria basin after Kampala, Uganda and ahead of Kisumu, Kenya at least in population size. Within the East African community, Mwanza city is the fifth largest city after Dar, Nairobi, Mombasa, and Kampala. It is slightly ahead of Kigali, Kisumu, and Bujumbura in the population of city proper limits. However, in terms of infrastructure, Kigali and Kisumu cities are way ahead of Mwanza. Mwanza city is also the capital city of Mwanza Region, and is administratively divided into two municipal districts within that Region - Ilemela and Nyamagana. Ethnicity --------- The Sukuma constitute over 90 percent of the population of the Mwanza Region. Other ethnic groups in the region, in much smaller proportions, include the Zinza, Haya, Sumbwa, Nyamwezi, Luo, Kurya, Jita, Shashi and Kerewe. They live mainly in the Mwanza city area. National policy, however, gives very little importance to ethnic groupings and reliable data is difficult to find. Historical population| Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1978 | 110,553 | —     | | 1988 | 172,287 | +55.8% | | 2002 | 385,810 | +123.9% | | 2012 | 706,453 | +83.1% | | 2022 | 1,104,521 | +56.3% | | source: | Economy ------- In 2011 the City Council announced plans to create a major commercial development in the Ilemela District. Construction works on Rock City Mall were finalized in early 2016. This mall is the first of its size in Mwanza and one of the biggest malls in the country. Tanzania Breweries Limited has a brewery in Mwanza ### Fishing One major occupation of the inhabitants along the shores of Lake Victoria in Mwanza region is fishing, and there are five fish processing plants in the area. The Nile perch were previously introduced to the lake, and are exported in large quantities. The consequences of the Nile perch industry are the subject of the Academy Award nominated documentary *Darwin's Nightmare* (2004) by Hubert Sauper. ### Water supply and sanitation Water supply coverage is at 75% and sewerage at 23.7%. Projects to increase coverage including the UN Habitat Lake Victoria Water and Sanitation (LVWATSAN-Mwanza) project. Water is managed by the Mwanza Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Authority (Mwauwasa), established in 1996 and wholly owned by the government of Tanzania. The authority covers Mwanza City, Kisesa Township in Magu District, Misungwi town and Nyahiti Village in Misungwi District, Geita, Sengerema and Nansio, and Lamadi in Simiyu Region. Mwauwasa operates a wastewater treatment plant in Butuja Ilemela Tourism ------- ### National parks Saanane Island National Park is located on a rocky island in Lake Victoria, 500 meters from Capri Point in the centre of Mwanza. The westernmost gate (Ndabaka Gate) of Serengeti National Park is located at around 150 kilometres by road from Mwanza town. Day trips to Serengeti National Park are organised by several tour operators in Mwanza. Rubondo Island National Park can be reached by road and boat, or by a direct flight from Mwanza. It is located around 110 kilometres west of Mwanza town. ### Culture The Sukuma Museum is located in Bujora, just east of Mwanza near Kisesa. It gives an overview of the history, architecture, culture and language of the Sukuma tribe, from which the majority of the native population originates. Education --------- St. Augustine University of Tanzania (SAUT) is the main university in Mwanza. The University extends over 600 acres (243 ha) in the Nyegezi-Malimbe area 10 km south of Mwanza City. It lies 4 km off the main Mwanza- Shinyanga road on the south eastern shores of Lake Victoria. The University is a half-hour's drive from Mwanza by car or by bus. Places of worship ----------------- Among the places of worship, they are predominantly Christian churches and temples : Africa Inland Church Tanzania, Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Mwanza (Catholic Church), Anglican Church of Tanzania (Anglican Communion), Evangelical Lutheran Church in Tanzania (Lutheran World Federation), Baptist Convention of Tanzania (Baptist World Alliance), Assemblies of God. There are also Muslim mosques and BAPS temple for the Hindu community. There is a large Hindu Temple built in the late 50's,and one of the first temples in Tanzania. View of Lake Victoria and Mwanza Climate ------- Mwanza features a tropical savanna climate under the Köppen climate classification. Temperatures are relatively consistent throughout the course of the year, tempered by the city's altitude. Thus, the climate is not quite as hot as one might expect, given the city's location near the equator. Average temperatures in Mwanza is roughly 23.5 °C (74.3 °F) throughout the year. The city features a lengthy wet season which runs from October through May and a short pronounced dry season that covers the remaining four months. Mwanza receives on average roughly 1,050 millimetres (41 in) of precipitation annually. | Climate data for Mwanza | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 35.0(95.0) | 35.0(95.0) | 36.6(97.9) | 34.0(93.2) | 35.6(96.1) | 35.0(95.0) | 34.0(93.2) | 34.2(93.6) | 34.5(94.1) | 36.0(96.8) | 35.6(96.1) | 34.2(93.6) | 36.6(97.9) | | Average high °C (°F) | 27.6(81.7) | 27.9(82.2) | 28.5(83.3) | 27.8(82.0) | 28.1(82.6) | 28.4(83.1) | 28.3(82.9) | 28.7(83.7) | 29.0(84.2) | 28.5(83.3) | 27.5(81.5) | 27.3(81.1) | 28.1(82.6) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 23.5(74.3) | 23.2(73.8) | 23.5(74.3) | 23.3(73.9) | 23.4(74.1) | 22.9(73.2) | 22.4(72.3) | 23.2(73.8) | 23.8(74.8) | 24.3(75.7) | 23.9(75.0) | 23.3(73.9) | 23.4(74.1) | | Average low °C (°F) | 17.7(63.9) | 17.8(64.0) | 18.0(64.4) | 18.2(64.8) | 17.7(63.9) | 16.2(61.2) | 15.4(59.7) | 16.4(61.5) | 17.3(63.1) | 18.1(64.6) | 18.1(64.6) | 17.9(64.2) | 17.4(63.3) | | Record low °C (°F) | 10.8(51.4) | 11.0(51.8) | 14.0(57.2) | 14.0(57.2) | 13.0(55.4) | 12.0(53.6) | 11.0(51.8) | 11.0(51.8) | 13.0(55.4) | 13.0(55.4) | 10.8(51.4) | 12.0(53.6) | 10.8(51.4) | | Average rainfall mm (inches) | 103.7(4.08) | 108.0(4.25) | 139.8(5.50) | 168.2(6.62) | 72.9(2.87) | 21.1(0.83) | 11.9(0.47) | 20.6(0.81) | 22.9(0.90) | 85.6(3.37) | 157.2(6.19) | 138.9(5.47) | 1,050.7(41.37) | | Average rainy days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 10 | 8 | 11 | 14 | 8 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 8 | 13 | 12 | 92 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 71 | 71 | 69 | 74 | 70 | 66 | 58 | 58 | 59 | 61 | 71 | 73 | 67 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 229.4 | 211.9 | 235.6 | 231.0 | 254.2 | 282.0 | 285.2 | 266.6 | 252.0 | 241.8 | 210.0 | 223.2 | 2,922.9 | | Mean daily sunshine hours | 7.4 | 7.5 | 7.6 | 7.7 | 8.2 | 9.4 | 9.2 | 8.6 | 8.4 | 7.8 | 7.0 | 7.2 | 8.0 | | Source 1: World Meteorological Organization | | Source 2: Deutscher Wetterdienst (extremes, means, humidity, and sun) | Transport --------- ### Airport Mwanza is served by the Mwanza Airport, which is designated as a regional airport. Air Tanzania offers flights to Dar es Salaam. Precision Air has daily flights to Mwanza, including from Nairobi (via Kilimanjaro), and Air Tanzania also flies to the city. ### Railway The city is connected by rail with Shinyanga on a branch of Tanzania's Central Railway. Twice a week the train departs to Dar es Salaam, via Dodoma, Tabora and Kigoma. ### Buses Nyegezi bus station is located in Nyamagana district. Buses going to the south and west leave from Nyegezi, as well as international services. Buzuruga bus station is located in Ilemela district. Buses going to the east, North and the Kenyan border depart from Buzuruga bus station. ### Ferry In December 2014 the regular ferry service between Mwanza, Bukoba and Kampala was halted whilst the ferry boat MV Victoria underwent major maintenance. Sports ------ The CCM Kirumba Stadium has hosted matches of the Tanzania national football team. Mbao FC is a football team from Mwanza that was promoted to the Tanzanian Premier League at the end of the 2015/2016 football season. Cooperation with cities outside Tanzania ---------------------------------------- * Finland Tampere, Finland: The relationship between Tampere and Mwanza is part of the North-South Local Government Co-operation Programme. * Western Sahara Tifariti, Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic * Germany Würzburg, Germany Gallery ------- * The Jamatkhana Mosque.The Jamatkhana Mosque. * The Nyakahoja Catholic Church.The Nyakahoja Catholic Church. * A street sight of Mwanza downtown.A street sight of Mwanza downtown. * Mwanza a city among the rocks.Mwanza a city among the rocks. * Nyerere road, MwanzaNyerere road, Mwanza * The Mwanza city centre.The Mwanza city centre. * Bismark rock in Rock city.Bismark rock in Rock city. See also -------- * Community Development and Relief Agency * Peter Le Jacq, Maryknoll medical missionary

Mwanza

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mwanza

A **chromosome** is a long DNA molecule with part or all of the genetic material of an organism. In most chromosomes the very long thin DNA fibers are coated with packaging proteins; in eukaryotic cells the most important of these proteins are the histones. These proteins, aided by chaperone proteins, bind to and condense the DNA molecule to maintain its integrity. These chromosomes display a complex three-dimensional structure, which plays a significant role in transcriptional regulation. Chromosomes are normally visible under a light microscope only during the metaphase of cell division (where all chromosomes are aligned in the center of the cell in their condensed form). Before this happens, each chromosome is duplicated (S phase), and both copies are joined by a centromere, resulting either in an X-shaped structure (pictured above), if the centromere is located equatorially, or a two-arm structure, if the centromere is located distally. The joined copies are now called sister chromatids. During metaphase the X-shaped structure is called a metaphase chromosome, which is highly condensed and thus easiest to distinguish and study. In animal cells, chromosomes reach their highest compaction level in anaphase during chromosome segregation. Chromosomal recombination during meiosis and subsequent sexual reproduction play a significant role in genetic diversity. If these structures are manipulated incorrectly, through processes known as chromosomal instability and translocation, the cell may undergo mitotic catastrophe. Usually, this will make the cell initiate apoptosis leading to its own death, but sometimes mutations in the cell hamper this process and thus cause progression of cancer. Some use the term chromosome in a wider sense, to refer to the individualized portions of chromatin in cells, either visible or not under light microscopy. Others use the concept in a narrower sense, to refer to the individualized portions of chromatin during cell division, visible under light microscopy due to high condensation. Etymology --------- The word *chromosome* (/ˈkroʊməˌsoʊm, -ˌzoʊm/) comes from the Greek χρῶμα (*chroma*, "colour") and σῶμα (*soma*, "body"), describing their strong staining by particular dyes. The term was coined by the German anatomist Heinrich Wilhelm Waldeyer, referring to the term chromatin, which was introduced by Walther Flemming. Some of the early karyological terms have become outdated. For example, Chromatin (Flemming 1880) and Chromosom (Waldeyer 1888), both ascribe color to a non-colored state. History of discovery -------------------- Walter Sutton (left) and Theodor Boveri (right) independently developed the chromosome theory of inheritance in 1902. Otto Bütschli was the first scientist to recognize the structures now known as chromosomes. In a series of experiments beginning in the mid-1880s, Theodor Boveri gave definitive contributions to elucidating that chromosomes are the vectors of heredity, with two notions that became known as 'chromosome continuity' and 'chromosome individuality'. Wilhelm Roux suggested that each chromosome carries a different genetic configuration, and Boveri was able to test and confirm this hypothesis. Aided by the rediscovery at the start of the 1900s of Gregor Mendel's earlier work, Boveri was able to point out the connection between the rules of inheritance and the behaviour of the chromosomes. Boveri influenced two generations of American cytologists: Edmund Beecher Wilson, Nettie Stevens, Walter Sutton and Theophilus Painter were all influenced by Boveri (Wilson, Stevens, and Painter actually worked with him). In his famous textbook *The Cell in Development and Heredity*, Wilson linked together the independent work of Boveri and Sutton (both around 1902) by naming the chromosome theory of inheritance the Boveri–Sutton chromosome theory (the names are sometimes reversed). Ernst Mayr remarks that the theory was hotly contested by some famous geneticists: William Bateson, Wilhelm Johannsen, Richard Goldschmidt and T.H. Morgan, all of a rather dogmatic turn of mind. Eventually, complete proof came from chromosome maps in Morgan's own lab. The number of human chromosomes was published in 1923 by Theophilus Painter. By inspection through the microscope, he counted 24 pairs, which would mean 48 chromosomes. His error was copied by others and it was not until 1956 that the true number, 46, was determined by Indonesia-born cytogeneticist Joe Hin Tjio. Prokaryotes ----------- The prokaryotes – bacteria and archaea – typically have a single circular chromosome, but many variations exist. The chromosomes of most bacteria, which some authors prefer to call genophores, can range in size from only 130,000 base pairs in the endosymbiotic bacteria *Candidatus Hodgkinia cicadicola* and *Candidatus Tremblaya princeps*, to more than 14,000,000 base pairs in the soil-dwelling bacterium *Sorangium cellulosum*. Spirochaetes of the genus *Borrelia* are a notable exception to this arrangement, with bacteria such as *Borrelia burgdorferi*, the cause of Lyme disease, containing a single *linear* chromosome. ### Structure in sequences Prokaryotic chromosomes have less sequence-based structure than eukaryotes. Bacteria typically have a one-point (the origin of replication) from which replication starts, whereas some archaea contain multiple replication origins. The genes in prokaryotes are often organized in operons, and do not usually contain introns, unlike eukaryotes. ### DNA packaging Prokaryotes do not possess nuclei. Instead, their DNA is organized into a structure called the nucleoid. The nucleoid is a distinct structure and occupies a defined region of the bacterial cell. This structure is, however, dynamic and is maintained and remodeled by the actions of a range of histone-like proteins, which associate with the bacterial chromosome. In archaea, the DNA in chromosomes is even more organized, with the DNA packaged within structures similar to eukaryotic nucleosomes. Certain bacteria also contain plasmids or other extrachromosomal DNA. These are circular structures in the cytoplasm that contain cellular DNA and play a role in horizontal gene transfer. In prokaryotes (see nucleoids) and viruses, the DNA is often densely packed and organized; in the case of archaea, by homology to eukaryotic histones, and in the case of bacteria, by histone-like proteins. Bacterial chromosomes tend to be tethered to the plasma membrane of the bacteria. In molecular biology application, this allows for its isolation from plasmid DNA by centrifugation of lysed bacteria and pelleting of the membranes (and the attached DNA). Prokaryotic chromosomes and plasmids are, like eukaryotic DNA, generally supercoiled. The DNA must first be released into its relaxed state for access for transcription, regulation, and replication. Eukaryotes ---------- Each eukaryotic chromosome consists of a long linear DNA molecule associated with proteins, forming a compact complex of proteins and DNA called *chromatin.* Chromatin contains the vast majority of the DNA of an organism, but a small amount inherited maternally, can be found in the mitochondria. It is present in most cells, with a few exceptions, for example, red blood cells. Histones are responsible for the first and most basic unit of chromosome organization, the nucleosome. Eukaryotes (cells with nuclei such as those found in plants, fungi, and animals) possess multiple large linear chromosomes contained in the cell's nucleus. Each chromosome has one centromere, with one or two arms projecting from the centromere, although, under most circumstances, these arms are not visible as such. In addition, most eukaryotes have a small circular mitochondrial genome, and some eukaryotes may have additional small circular or linear cytoplasmic chromosomes. In the nuclear chromosomes of eukaryotes, the uncondensed DNA exists in a semi-ordered structure, where it is wrapped around histones (structural proteins), forming a composite material called chromatin. ### Interphase chromatin The packaging of DNA into nucleosomes causes a 10 nanometer fibre which may further condense up to 30 nm fibres Most of the euchromatin in interphase nuclei appears to be in the form of 30-nm fibers. Chromatin structure is the more decondensed state, i.e. the 10-nm conformation allows transcription. During interphase (the period of the cell cycle where the cell is not dividing), two types of chromatin can be distinguished: * Euchromatin, which consists of DNA that is active, e.g., being expressed as protein. * Heterochromatin, which consists of mostly inactive DNA. It seems to serve structural purposes during the chromosomal stages. Heterochromatin can be further distinguished into two types: + *Constitutive heterochromatin*, which is never expressed. It is located around the centromere and usually contains repetitive sequences. + *Facultative heterochromatin*, which is sometimes expressed. ### Metaphase chromatin and division In the early stages of mitosis or meiosis (cell division), the chromatin double helix become more and more condensed. They cease to function as accessible genetic material (transcription stops) and become a compact transportable form. The loops of 30-nm chromatin fibers are thought to fold upon themselves further to form the compact metaphase chromosomes of mitotic cells. The DNA is thus condensed about 10,000 fold. The chromosome scaffold, which is made of proteins such as condensin, TOP2A and KIF4, plays an important role in holding the chromatin into compact chromosomes. Loops of 30 nm structure further condense with scaffold into higher order structures. This highly compact form makes the individual chromosomes visible, and they form the classic four-arm structure, a pair of sister chromatids attached to each other at the centromere. The shorter arms are called *p arms* (from the French *petit*, small) and the longer arms are called *q arms* (*q* follows *p* in the Latin alphabet; q-g "grande"; alternatively it is sometimes said q is short for *queue* meaning tail in French). This is the only natural context in which individual chromosomes are visible with an optical microscope. Mitotic metaphase chromosomes are best described by a linearly organized longitudinally compressed array of consecutive chromatin loops. During mitosis, microtubules grow from centrosomes located at opposite ends of the cell and also attach to the centromere at specialized structures called kinetochores, one of which is present on each sister chromatid. A special DNA base sequence in the region of the kinetochores provides, along with special proteins, longer-lasting attachment in this region. The microtubules then pull the chromatids apart toward the centrosomes, so that each daughter cell inherits one set of chromatids. Once the cells have divided, the chromatids are uncoiled and DNA can again be transcribed. In spite of their appearance, chromosomes are structurally highly condensed, which enables these giant DNA structures to be contained within a cell nucleus. ### Human chromosomes Chromosomes in humans can be divided into two types: autosomes (body chromosome(s)) and allosome (sex chromosome(s)). Certain genetic traits are linked to a person's sex and are passed on through the sex chromosomes. The autosomes contain the rest of the genetic hereditary information. All act in the same way during cell division. Human cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes (22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes), giving a total of 46 per cell. In addition to these, human cells have many hundreds of copies of the mitochondrial genome. Sequencing of the human genome has provided a great deal of information about each of the chromosomes. Below is a table compiling statistics for the chromosomes, based on the Sanger Institute's human genome information in the Vertebrate Genome Annotation (VEGA) database. Number of genes is an estimate, as it is in part based on gene predictions. Total chromosome length is an estimate as well, based on the estimated size of unsequenced heterochromatin regions. | Chromosome | Genes | Total base pairs |  % of bases | Sequenced base pairs | % sequenced base pairs | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | 2000 | 247,199,719 | 8.0 | 224,999,719 | 91.02% | | 2 | 1300 | 242,751,149 | 7.9 | 237,712,649 | 97.92% | | 3 | 1000 | 199,446,827 | 6.5 | 194,704,827 | 97.62% | | 4 | 1000 | 191,263,063 | 6.2 | 187,297,063 | 97.93% | | 5 | 900 | 180,837,866 | 5.9 | 177,702,766 | 98.27% | | 6 | 1000 | 170,896,993 | 5.5 | 167,273,993 | 97.88% | | 7 | 900 | 158,821,424 | 5.2 | 154,952,424 | 97.56% | | 8 | 700 | 146,274,826 | 4.7 | 142,612,826 | 97.50% | | 9 | 800 | 140,442,298 | 4.6 | 120,312,298 | 85.67% | | 10 | 700 | 135,374,737 | 4.4 | 131,624,737 | 97.23% | | 11 | 1300 | 134,452,384 | 4.4 | 131,130,853 | 97.53% | | 12 | 1100 | 132,289,534 | 4.3 | 130,303,534 | 98.50% | | 13 | 300 | 114,127,980 | 3.7 | 95,559,980 | 83.73% | | 14 | 800 | 106,360,585 | 3.5 | 88,290,585 | 83.01% | | 15 | 600 | 100,338,915 | 3.3 | 81,341,915 | 81.07% | | 16 | 800 | 88,822,254 | 2.9 | 78,884,754 | 88.81% | | 17 | 1200 | 78,654,742 | 2.6 | 77,800,220 | 98.91% | | 18 | 200 | 76,117,153 | 2.5 | 74,656,155 | 98.08% | | 19 | 1500 | 63,806,651 | 2.1 | 55,785,651 | 87.43% | | 20 | 500 | 62,435,965 | 2.0 | 59,505,254 | 95.31% | | 21 | 200 | 46,944,323 | 1.5 | 34,171,998 | 72.79% | | 22 | 500 | 49,528,953 | 1.6 | 34,893,953 | 70.45% | | X (sex chromosome) | 800 | 154,913,754 | 5.0 | 151,058,754 | 97.51% | | Y (sex chromosome) | 200 | 57,741,652 | 1.9 | 25,121,652 | 43.51% | | Total | 21,000 | 3,079,843,747 | 100.0 | 2,857,698,560 | **92.79%** | Based on the micrographic characteristics of size, position of the centromere and sometimes the presence of a chromosomal satellite, the human chromosomes are classified into the following groups: | Group | Chromosomes | Features | | --- | --- | --- | | **A** | 1–3 | Large, metacentric or submetacentric | | **B** | 4–5 | Large, submetacentric | | **C** | 6–12, X | Medium-sized, submetacentric | | **D** | 13–15 | Medium-sized, acrocentric, with satellite | | **E** | 16–18 | Small, metacentric or submetacentric | | **F** | 19–20 | Very small, metacentric | | **G** | 21–22, Y | Very small, acrocentric (and 21, 22 with satellite) | Karyotype --------- In general, the karyotype is the characteristic chromosome complement of a eukaryote species. The preparation and study of karyotypes is part of cytogenetics. Although the replication and transcription of DNA is highly standardized in eukaryotes, the same cannot be said for their karyotypes, which are often highly variable. There may be variation between species in chromosome number and in detailed organization. In some cases, there is significant variation within species. Often there is: 1. variation between the two sexes 2. variation between the germline and soma (between gametes and the rest of the body) 3. variation between members of a population, due to balanced genetic polymorphism 4. geographical variation between races 5. mosaics or otherwise abnormal individuals. Also, variation in karyotype may occur during development from the fertilized egg. The technique of determining the karyotype is usually called *karyotyping*. Cells can be locked part-way through division (in metaphase) in vitro (in a reaction vial) with colchicine. These cells are then stained, photographed, and arranged into a *karyogram*, with the set of chromosomes arranged, autosomes in order of length, and sex chromosomes (here X/Y) at the end. Like many sexually reproducing species, humans have special gonosomes (sex chromosomes, in contrast to autosomes). These are XX in females and XY in males. ### History and analysis techniques Investigation into the human karyotype took many years to settle the most basic question: *How many chromosomes does a normal diploid human cell contain?* In 1912, Hans von Winiwarter reported 47 chromosomes in spermatogonia and 48 in oogonia, concluding an XX/XO sex determination mechanism. Painter in 1922 was not certain whether the diploid number of man is 46 or 48, at first favouring 46. He revised his opinion later from 46 to 48, and he correctly insisted on humans having an XX/XY system. New techniques were needed to definitively solve the problem: 1. Using cells in culture 2. Arresting mitosis in metaphase by a solution of colchicine 3. Pretreating cells in a hypotonic solution 0.075 M KCl, which swells them and spreads the chromosomes 4. Squashing the preparation on the slide forcing the chromosomes into a single plane 5. Cutting up a photomicrograph and arranging the result into an indisputable karyogram. It took until 1954 before the human diploid number was confirmed as 46. Considering the techniques of Winiwarter and Painter, their results were quite remarkable. Chimpanzees, the closest living relatives to modern humans, have 48 chromosomes as do the other great apes: in humans two chromosomes fused to form chromosome 2. Aberrations ----------- Chromosomal aberrations are disruptions in the normal chromosomal content of a cell and are a major cause of genetic conditions in humans, such as Down syndrome, although most aberrations have little to no effect. Some chromosome abnormalities do not cause disease in carriers, such as translocations, or chromosomal inversions, although they may lead to a higher chance of bearing a child with a chromosome disorder. Abnormal numbers of chromosomes or chromosome sets, called aneuploidy, may be lethal or may give rise to genetic disorders. Genetic counseling is offered for families that may carry a chromosome rearrangement. The gain or loss of DNA from chromosomes can lead to a variety of genetic disorders. Human examples include: * Cri du chat, which is caused by the deletion of part of the short arm of chromosome 5. "Cri du chat" means "cry of the cat" in French; the condition was so-named because affected babies make high-pitched cries that sound like those of a cat. Affected individuals have wide-set eyes, a small head and jaw, moderate to severe mental health problems, and are very short. * Down syndrome, the most common trisomy, usually caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21 (trisomy 21). Characteristics include decreased muscle tone, stockier build, asymmetrical skull, slanting eyes and mild to moderate developmental disability. * Edwards syndrome, or trisomy-18, the second most common trisomy. Symptoms include motor retardation, developmental disability and numerous congenital anomalies causing serious health problems. Ninety percent of those affected die in infancy. They have characteristic clenched hands and overlapping fingers. * Isodicentric 15, also called idic(15), partial tetrasomy 15q, or inverted duplication 15 (inv dup 15). * Jacobsen syndrome, which is very rare. It is also called the 11q terminal deletion disorder. Those affected have normal intelligence or mild developmental disability, with poor expressive language skills. Most have a bleeding disorder called Paris-Trousseau syndrome. * Klinefelter syndrome (XXY). Men with Klinefelter syndrome are usually sterile and tend to be taller and have longer arms and legs than their peers. Boys with the syndrome are often shy and quiet and have a higher incidence of speech delay and dyslexia. Without testosterone treatment, some may develop gynecomastia during puberty. * Patau Syndrome, also called D-Syndrome or trisomy-13. Symptoms are somewhat similar to those of trisomy-18, without the characteristic folded hand. * Small supernumerary marker chromosome. This means there is an extra, abnormal chromosome. Features depend on the origin of the extra genetic material. Cat-eye syndrome and isodicentric chromosome 15 syndrome (or Idic15) are both caused by a supernumerary marker chromosome, as is Pallister–Killian syndrome. * Triple-X syndrome (XXX). XXX girls tend to be tall and thin and have a higher incidence of dyslexia. * Turner syndrome (X instead of XX or XY). In Turner syndrome, female sexual characteristics are present but underdeveloped. Females with Turner syndrome often have a short stature, low hairline, abnormal eye features and bone development and a "caved-in" appearance to the chest. * Wolf–Hirschhorn syndrome, which is caused by partial deletion of the short arm of chromosome 4. It is characterized by growth retardation, delayed motor skills development, "Greek Helmet" facial features, and mild to profound mental health problems. * XYY syndrome. XYY boys are usually taller than their siblings. Like XXY boys and XXX girls, they are more likely to have learning difficulties. ### Sperm aneuploidy Exposure of males to certain lifestyle, environmental and/or occupational hazards may increase the risk of aneuploid spermatozoa. In particular, risk of aneuploidy is increased by tobacco smoking, and occupational exposure to benzene, insecticides, and perfluorinated compounds. Increased aneuploidy is often associated with increased DNA damage in spermatozoa. Number in various organisms --------------------------- ### In eukaryotes The number of chromosomes in eukaryotes is highly variable (see table). In fact, chromosomes can fuse or break and thus evolve into novel karyotypes. Chromosomes can also be fused artificially. For example, the 16 chromosomes of yeast have been fused into one giant chromosome and the cells were still viable with only somewhat reduced growth rates. The tables below give the total number of chromosomes (including sex chromosomes) in a cell nucleus. For example, most eukaryotes are diploid, like humans who have 22 different types of autosomes, each present as two homologous pairs, and two sex chromosomes. This gives 46 chromosomes in total. Other organisms have more than two copies of their chromosome types, such as bread wheat, which is *hexaploid* and has six copies of seven different chromosome types – 42 chromosomes in total. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Chromosome numbers in some plants| Plant species | # | | --- | --- | | *Arabidopsis thaliana* (diploid) | 10 | | Rye (diploid) | 14 | | Einkorn wheat (diploid) | 14 | | Maize (diploid or palaeotetraploid) | 20 | | Durum wheat (tetraploid) | 28 | | Bread wheat (hexaploid) | 42 | | Cultivated tobacco (tetraploid) | 48 | | Adder's tongue fern (polyploid) | approx. 1,200 | | Chromosome numbers (2n) in some animals| Species | # | | --- | --- | | Indian muntjac | 7 | | Common fruit fly | 8 | | Pill millipede (*Arthrosphaera fumosa*) | 30 | | Earthworm (*Octodrilus complanatus*) | 36 | | Tibetan fox | 36 | | Domestic cat | 38 | | Domestic pig | 38 | | Laboratory mouse | 40 | | Laboratory rat | 42 | | Rabbit (*Oryctolagus cuniculus*) | 44 | | Syrian hamster | 44 | | Guppy (*poecilia reticulata*) | 46 | | Human | 46 | | Hares | 48 | | Gorillas, chimpanzees | 48 | | Domestic sheep | 54 | | Garden snail | 54 | | Silkworm | 56 | | Elephant | 56 | | Cow | 60 | | Donkey | 62 | | Guinea pig | 64 | | Horse | 64 | | Dog | 78 | | Hedgehog | 90 | | Goldfish | 100–104 | | Kingfisher | 132 | | Chromosome numbers in other organisms| Species | Largechromosomes | Intermediatechromosomes | Microchromosomes | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | *Trypanosoma brucei* | 11 | 6 | ≈100 | | Domestic pigeon (*Columba livia domestica*) | 18 | – | 59–63 | | Chicken | 8 | 2 sex chromosomes | 60 | | Normal members of a particular eukaryotic species all have the same number of nuclear chromosomes (see the table). Other eukaryotic chromosomes, i.e., mitochondrial and plasmid-like small chromosomes, are much more variable in number, and there may be thousands of copies per cell. Asexually reproducing species have one set of chromosomes that are the same in all body cells. However, asexual species can be either haploid or diploid. Sexually reproducing species have somatic cells (body cells), which are diploid [2n] having two sets of chromosomes (23 pairs in humans), one set from the mother and one from the father. Gametes, reproductive cells, are haploid [n]: They have one set of chromosomes. Gametes are produced by meiosis of a diploid germline cell. During meiosis, the matching chromosomes of father and mother can exchange small parts of themselves (crossover), and thus create new chromosomes that are not inherited solely from either parent. When a male and a female gamete merge (fertilization), a new diploid organism is formed. Some animal and plant species are polyploid [Xn]: They have more than two sets of homologous chromosomes. Plants important in agriculture such as tobacco or wheat are often polyploid, compared to their ancestral species. Wheat has a haploid number of seven chromosomes, still seen in some cultivars as well as the wild progenitors. The more-common pasta and bread wheat types are polyploid, having 28 (tetraploid) and 42 (hexaploid) chromosomes, compared to the 14 (diploid) chromosomes in the wild wheat. ### In prokaryotes Prokaryote species generally have one copy of each major chromosome, but most cells can easily survive with multiple copies. For example, *Buchnera*, a symbiont of aphids has multiple copies of its chromosome, ranging from 10–400 copies per cell. However, in some large bacteria, such as *Epulopiscium fishelsoni* up to 100,000 copies of the chromosome can be present. Plasmids and plasmid-like small chromosomes are, as in eukaryotes, highly variable in copy number. The number of plasmids in the cell is almost entirely determined by the rate of division of the plasmid – fast division causes high copy number. See also -------- * Aneuploidy * Chromomere * Chromosome segregation * Cohesin * Condensin * DNA * Genetic deletion * Epigenetics * For information about chromosomes in genetic algorithms, see chromosome (genetic algorithm) * Genetic genealogy + Genealogical DNA test * Lampbrush chromosome * List of number of chromosomes of various organisms * Locus (explains gene location nomenclature) * Maternal influence on sex determination * Microchromosome * Minichromosome * Non-disjunction * Secondary chromosome * Sex-determination system + XY sex-determination system - X-chromosome * X-inactivation - Y-chromosome * Y-chromosomal Aaron * Y-chromosomal Adam + ZO sex-determination system + ZW sex-determination system + XO sex-determination system + Temperature-dependent sex determination + Haplodiploid sex-determination system * Polytene chromosome * Protamine * Neochromosome * Parasitic chromosome Notes and references -------------------- 1. ↑ Hammond CM, Strømme CB, Huang H, Patel DJ, Groth A (March 2017). 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Chromosome

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosome

**Kaolinite** (/ˈkeɪ.ələˌnaɪt, -lɪ-/ *KAY-ə-lə-nyte, -⁠lih-*) is a clay mineral, with the chemical composition Al2Si2O5(OH)4. It is a layered silicate mineral, with one tetrahedral sheet of silica (SiO4) linked through oxygen atoms to one octahedral sheet of alumina (AlO6) octahedra. Kaolinite is a soft, earthy, usually white, mineral (dioctahedral phyllosilicate clay), produced by the chemical weathering of aluminium silicate minerals like feldspar. It has a low shrink–swell capacity and a low cation-exchange capacity (1–15 meq/100 g). Rocks that are rich in kaolinite, and halloysite, are known as **kaolin** (/ˈkeɪ.əlɪn/) or **china clay**. In many parts of the world kaolin is colored pink-orange-red by iron oxide, giving it a distinct rust hue. Lower concentrations yield white, yellow, or light orange colors. Alternating layers are sometimes found, as at Providence Canyon State Park in Georgia, United States. Kaolin is an important raw material in many industries and applications. Commercial grades of kaolin are supplied and transported as powder, lumps, semi-dried noodle or slurry. Global production of kaolin in 2021 was estimated to be 45 million tonnes, with a total market value of $US4.24 billion. Etymology --------- The name *kaolin* is derived from Gaoling (Chinese: 高嶺; pinyin: *Gāolǐng*; lit. 'High Ridge'), a Chinese village near Jingdezhen in southeastern China's Jiangxi Province. The name entered English in 1727 from the French version of the word: *kaolin*, following François Xavier d'Entrecolles's reports on the making of Jingdezhen porcelain. Kaolin is occasionally referred to by the antiquated term **lithomarge**, from the Ancient Greek *litho-* and Latin *marga*, meaning 'stone of marl'; presently the name lithomarge can refer to a compacted, massive form of kaolin. Chemistry --------- ### Notation The chemical formula for kaolinite as used in mineralogy is Al2Si2O5(OH)4, however, in ceramics applications the formula is typically written in terms of oxides, thus the formula for kaolinite is Al2O3·2SiO2·2H2O. ### Structure Compared with other clay minerals, kaolinite is chemically and structurally simple. It is described as a 1:1 or *TO* clay mineral because its crystals consist of stacked *TO* layers. Each *TO* layer consists of a tetrahedral (*T*) sheet composed of silicon and oxygen ions bonded to an octahedral (*O*) sheet composed of oxygen, aluminium, and hydroxyl ions. The *T* sheet is so called because each silicon ion is surrounded by four oxygen ions forming a tetrahedron. The *O* sheet is so called because each aluminium ion is surrounded by six oxygen or hydroxyl ions arranged at the corners of an octahedron. The two sheets in each layer are strongly bonded together via shared oxygen ions, while layers are bonded via hydrogen bonding between oxygen on the outer face of the *T* sheet of one layer and hydroxyl on the outer face of the *O* sheet of the next layer. * View of the structure of the tetrahedral (T) sheet of kaoliniteView of the structure of the tetrahedral (*T*) sheet of kaolinite * View of the structure of the octahedral (O) sheet of kaoliniteView of the structure of the octahedral (*O*) sheet of kaolinite * Kaolinite crystal structure looking along the layersKaolinite crystal structure looking along the layers A kaolinite layer has no net electrical charge and so there are no large cations (such as calcium, sodium, or potassium) between layers as with most other clay minerals. This accounts for kaolinite's relatively low ion exchange capacity. The close hydrogen bonding between layers also hinders water molecules from infiltrating between layers, accounting for kaolinite's nonswelling character. When moistened, the tiny platelike crystals of kaolinite acquire a layer of water molecules that cause crystals to adhere to each other and give kaolin clay its cohesiveness. The bonds are weak enough to allow the plates to slip past each other when the clay is being molded, but strong enough to hold the plates in place and allow the molded clay to retain its shape. When the clay is dried, most of the water molecules are removed, and the plates hydrogen bond directly to each other, so that the dried clay is rigid but still fragile. If the clay is moistened again, it will once more become plastic. ### Structural transformations Kaolinite group clays undergo a series of phase transformations upon thermal treatment in air at atmospheric pressure. #### Milling High-energy milling of kaolin results in the formation of a mechanochemically amorphized phase similar to metakaolin, although the properties of this solid are quite different. The high-energy milling process is highly inefficient and consumes a large amount of energy. #### Drying Below 100°C, exposure to low humidity air will result in the slow evaporation of any liquid water in the kaolin. At low moisture content the mass can be described *leather dry*, and at near 0% moisture it is referred to as *bone dry*. Above 100°C any remaining free water is lost. Above around 400°C hydroxyl ions (OH-) are lost from the kaolinite crystal structure in the form of water: the material cannot now be plasticised by absorbing water. This is irreversible, as are subsequent transformations; this is referred to as *calcination*. #### Metakaolin Endothermic dehydration of kaolinite begins at 550–600 °C producing disordered metakaolin, but continuous hydroxyl loss is observed up to 900 °C (1,650 °F). Although historically there was much disagreement concerning the nature of the metakaolin phase, extensive research has led to a general consensus that metakaolin is not a simple mixture of amorphous silica (SiO2) and alumina (Al2O3), but rather a complex amorphous structure that retains some longer-range order (but not strictly crystalline) due to stacking of its hexagonal layers. Al 2 Si 2 O 5 ( OH ) 4 ⟶ Al 2 Si 2 O 7 + 2 H 2 O {\displaystyle {\ce {Al2Si2O5(OH)4 -> Al2Si2O7 + 2 H2O}}} {\displaystyle {\ce {Al2Si2O5(OH)4 -> Al2Si2O7 + 2 H2O}}} #### Spinel Further heating to 925–950 °C converts metakaolin to an aluminium-silicon spinel which is sometimes also referred to as a gamma-alumina type structure: 2 Al 2 Si 2 O 7 ⟶ Si 3 Al 4 O 12 + SiO 2 {\displaystyle {\ce {2 Al2Si2O7 -> Si3Al4O12 + SiO2}}} {\displaystyle {\ce {2 Al2Si2O7 -> Si3Al4O12 + SiO2}}} #### Platelet mullite Upon calcination above 1050 °C, the spinel phase nucleates and transforms to platelet mullite and highly crystalline cristobalite: 3 Si 3 Al 4 O 12 ⟶ 2 ( 3 Al 2 O 3 ⋅ 2 SiO 2 ) + 5 SiO 2 {\displaystyle {\ce {3 Si3Al4O12 -> 2 (3 Al2O3 . 2 SiO2) + 5 SiO2}}} {\displaystyle {\ce {3 Si3Al4O12 -> 2 (3 Al2O3 . 2 SiO2) + 5 SiO2}}} #### Needle mullite Finally, at 1400 °C the "needle" form of mullite appears, offering substantial increases in structural strength and heat resistance. This is a structural but not chemical transformation. See stoneware for more information on this form. Occurrence ---------- Kaolinite is one of the most common minerals; it is mined, as kaolin, in Australia, Brazil, Bulgaria, China, Czech Republic, France, Germany, India, Iran, Malaysia, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Tanzania, Thailand, United Kingdom, United States and Vietnam. Mantles of kaolinite are common in Western and Northern Europe. The ages of these mantles are Mesozoic to Early Cenozoic. Kaolinite clay occurs in abundance in soils that have formed from the chemical weathering of rocks in hot, moist climates; for example in tropical rainforest areas. Comparing soils along a gradient towards progressively cooler or drier climates, the proportion of kaolinite decreases, while the proportion of other clay minerals such as illite (in cooler climates) or smectite (in drier climates) increases. Such climatically related differences in clay mineral content are often used to infer changes in climates in the geological past, where ancient soils have been buried and preserved. In the *Institut National pour l'Étude Agronomique au Congo Belge* (INEAC) classification system, soils in which the clay fraction is predominantly kaolinite are called *kaolisol* (from kaolin and soil). In the US, the main kaolin deposits are found in central Georgia, on a stretch of the Atlantic Seaboard fall line between Augusta and Macon. This area of thirteen counties is called the "white gold" belt; Sandersville is known as the "Kaolin Capital of the World" due to its abundance of kaolin. In the late 1800s, an active kaolin surface-mining industry existed in the extreme southeast corner of Pennsylvania, near the towns of Landenberg and Kaolin, and in what is present-day White Clay Creek Preserve. The product was brought by train to Newark, Delaware, on the Newark-Pomeroy line, along which can still be seen many open-pit clay mines. The deposits were formed between the late Cretaceous and early Paleogene, about 100 to 45 million years ago, in sediments derived from weathered igneous and metakaolin rocks. Kaolin production in the US during 2011 was 5.5 million tons. During the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum sediments deposited in the Esplugafreda area of Spain were enriched with kaolinite from a detrital source due to denudation. Synthesis and genesis --------------------- Difficulties are encountered when trying to explain kaolinite formation under atmospheric conditions by extrapolation of thermodynamic data from the more successful high-temperature syntheses. La Iglesia and Van Oosterwijk-Gastuche (1978) thought that the conditions under which kaolinite will nucleate can be deduced from stability diagrams, based as they are on dissolution data. Because of a lack of convincing results in their own experiments, La Iglesia and Van Oosterwijk-Gastuche (1978) had to conclude, however, that there were other, still unknown, factors involved in the low-temperature nucleation of kaolinite. Because of the observed very slow crystallization rates of kaolinite from solution at room temperature Fripiat and Herbillon (1971) postulated the existence of high activation energies in the low-temperature nucleation of kaolinite. At high temperatures, equilibrium thermodynamic models appear to be satisfactory for the description of kaolinite dissolution and nucleation, because the thermal energy suffices to overcome the energy barriers involved in the nucleation process. The importance of syntheses at ambient temperature and atmospheric pressure towards the understanding of the mechanism involved in the nucleation of clay minerals lies in overcoming these energy barriers. As indicated by Caillère and Hénin (1960) the processes involved will have to be studied in well-defined experiments, because it is virtually impossible to isolate the factors involved by mere deduction from complex natural physico-chemical systems such as the soil environment. Fripiat and Herbillon (1971), in a review on the formation of kaolinite, raised the fundamental question how a disordered material (i.e., the amorphous fraction of tropical soils) could ever be transformed into a corresponding ordered structure. This transformation seems to take place in soils without major changes in the environment, in a relatively short period of time, and at ambient temperature (and pressure). Low-temperature synthesis of clay minerals (with kaolinite as an example) has several aspects. In the first place the silicic acid to be supplied to the growing crystal must be in a monomeric form, i.e., silica should be present in very dilute solution (Caillère et al., 1957; Caillère and Hénin, 1960; Wey and Siffert, 1962; Millot, 1970). In order to prevent the formation of amorphous silica gels precipitating from supersaturated solutions without reacting with the aluminium or magnesium cations to form crystalline silicates, the silicic acid must be present in concentrations below the maximum solubility of amorphous silica. The principle behind this prerequisite can be found in structural chemistry: "Since the polysilicate ions are not of uniform size, they cannot arrange themselves along with the metal ions into a regular crystal lattice." (Iler, 1955, p. 182) The second aspect of the low-temperature synthesis of kaolinite is that the aluminium cations must be hexacoordinated with respect to oxygen (Caillère and Hénin, 1947; Caillère et al., 1953; Hénin and Robichet, 1955). Gastuche et al. (1962) and Caillère and Hénin (1962) have concluded that kaolinite can only ever be formed when the aluminium hydroxide is in the form of gibbsite. Otherwise, the precipitate formed will be a "mixed alumino-silicic gel" (as Millot, 1970, p. 343 put it). If it were the only requirement, large amounts of kaolinite could be harvested simply by adding gibbsite powder to a silica solution. Undoubtedly a marked degree of adsorption of the silica in solution by the gibbsite surfaces will take place, but, as stated before, mere adsorption does not create the layer lattice typical of kaolinite crystals. The third aspect is that these two initial components must be incorporated into one mixed crystal with a layer structure. From the following equation (as given by Gastuche and DeKimpe, 1962) for kaolinite formation 2 Al ( OH ) 3 + 2 H 4 SiO 4 ⟶ Si 2 O 5 ⋅ Al 2 ( OH ) 4 + 5 H 2 O {\displaystyle {\ce {2Al(OH)3 + 2H4SiO4 -> Si2O5 . Al2(OH)4 + 5H2O}}} {\displaystyle {\ce {2Al(OH)3 + 2H4SiO4 -> Si2O5 . Al2(OH)4 + 5H2O}}} it can be seen that five molecules of water must be removed from the reaction for every molecule of kaolinite formed. Field evidence illustrating the importance of the removal of water from the kaolinite reaction has been supplied by Gastuche and DeKimpe (1962). While studying soil formation on a basaltic rock in Kivu (Zaïre), they noted how the occurrence of kaolinite depended on the *"degrée de drainage"* of the area involved. A clear distinction was found between areas with good drainage (i.e., areas with a marked difference between wet and dry seasons) and those areas with poor drainage (i.e., perennially swampy areas). Kaolinite was only found in the areas with distinct seasonal alternations between wet and dry. The possible significance of alternating wet and dry conditions on the transition of allophane into kaolinite has been stressed by Tamura and Jackson (1953). The role of alternations between wetting and drying on the formation of kaolinite has also been noted by Moore (1964). ### Laboratory syntheses Syntheses of kaolinite at high temperatures (more than 100 °C [212 °F]) are relatively well known. There are for example the syntheses of Van Nieuwenberg and Pieters (1929); Noll (1934); Noll (1936); Norton (1939); Roy and Osborn (1954); Roy (1961); Hawkins and Roy (1962); Tomura et al. (1985); Satokawa et al. (1994) and Huertas et al. (1999). Relatively few low-temperature syntheses have become known (cf. Brindley and DeKimpe (1961); DeKimpe (1969); Bogatyrev et al. (1997)). Laboratory syntheses of kaolinite at room temperature and atmospheric pressure have been described by DeKimpe et al. (1961). From those tests the role of periodicity becomes convincingly clear. DeKimpe et al. (1961) had used daily additions of alumina (as AlCl3·6 H2O) and silica (in the form of ethyl silicate) during at least two months. In addition, adjustments of the pH took place every day by way of adding either hydrochloric acid or sodium hydroxide. Such daily additions of Si and Al to the solution in combination with the daily titrations with hydrochloric acid or sodium hydroxide during at least 60 days will have introduced the necessary element of periodicity. Only now the actual role of what has been described as the "aging" (*Alterung*) of amorphous alumino-silicates (as for example Harder, 1978 had noted) can be fully understood. As such, time is not bringing about any change in a closed system at equilibrium; but a series of alternations of periodically changing conditions (by definition, taking place in an open system) will bring about the low-temperature formation of more and more of the stable phase kaolinite instead of (ill-defined) amorphous alumino-silicates. Applications ------------ ### Main As of 2009[update], up to 70% of kaolin was used in the production of paper. Following reduced demand from the paper industry, resulting from both competing minerals and the effect of digital media, in 2016 the market share was reported to be: paper, 36%; ceramics, 31%; paint, 7% and other, 26%. According to the USGS, in 2021 the global production of kaolin was estimated to be around 45 million tonnes. * **Paper** applications require high-brightness, low abrasion and delaminated kaolins. For paper coatings it is used to enhance the gloss, brilliance, smoothness and receptability to inks; it can account for 25% of mass of the paper. As a paper filler it is used as a pulp extender, and to increase opacity; it can account for 15% of mass. * In whiteware **ceramic** bodies, kaolin can constitute up to 50% of the raw materials. In unfired bodies it contributes to the green strength, plasticity and rheological properties, such as the casting rate. During firing it reacts with other body components to form the crystal and glass phases. With suitable firing schedules it is key to the formation of mullite. The most valued grades have low contents of chromophoric oxides such that the fired material has high whiteness. In glazes it is primarily used as a rheology control agent, but also contributes some green strength. In both glazes and frits it contributes some SiO2 as a glass network former, and Al2O3 as both a network former and modifier. ### Other industrial * As a raw material for the production of an insulation material called Kaowool (a form of mineral wool). * An additive to some paints to extend the titanium dioxide (TiO2) white pigment and modify gloss levels. * An additive to modify the properties of rubber upon vulcanization. * An additive to adhesives to modify rheology. * As adsorbents in water and wastewater treatment. * In its altered metakaolin form, as a pozzolan; when added to a concrete mix, metakaolin accelerates the hydration of Portland cement and takes part in the pozzolanic reaction with the portlandite formed in the hydration of the main cement minerals (e.g. alite). * Metakaolin is also a base component for geopolymer compounds. ### Medical * To soothe an upset stomach, similar to the way parrots (and later, humans) in South America originally used it (more recently, industrially-produced). * Kaolin-based preparations are used for treatment of diarrhea. * An ingredient in 'pre-work' skin protection and barrier creams. * To induce and accelerate blood clotting. In April 2008 the US Naval Medical Research Institute announced the successful use of a kaolinite-derived aluminosilicate infusion in traditional gauze. which is still the hemostat of choice for all branches of the US military. See Kaolin clotting time * As a mild abrasive in toothpaste. ### Cosmetics * As a filler in cosmetics. * For facial masks or soap. * for spa body treatments, such as body wraps, cocoons, or spot treatments. ### Archaeology * As an indicator in radiological dating since kaolinite can contain very small traces of uranium and thorium. ### Geophagy * Humans sometimes eat kaolin for pleasure or to suppress hunger, a practice known as geophagy. In Africa, kaolin used for such purposes is known as *kalaba* (in Gabon and Cameroon), *calaba*, and *calabachop* (in Equatorial Guinea). Consumption is greater among women, especially during pregnancy, and its use is sometimes said by women of the region to be a habit analogous to cigarette smoking among men. The practice has also been observed within a small population of African-American women in the Southern United States, especially Georgia, likely brought with the traditions of the aforementioned Africans via slavery. There, the kaolin is called *white dirt*, *chalk* or *white clay*. ### Geotechnical engineering * Research results show that the utilization of kaolinite in geotechnical engineering can be alternatively replaced by safer illite, especially if its presence is less than 10.8% of the total rock mass. ### Small-scale uses * As a light-diffusing material in white incandescent light bulbs. * In organic farming as a spray applied to crops to deter insect damage, and in the case of apples, to prevent sun scald. * As whitewash in traditional stone masonry homes in Nepal. * As a filler in Edison Diamond Discs. Production output ----------------- Global production of kaolin by country in 2012 was estimated to be: '000 tonnes| Global - total | 26,651 | | --- | --- | | | | | Egypt | 275 | | Nigeria | 100 | | Algeria | 80 | | Tanzania | 45 | | Sudan | 35 | | Uganda | 30 | | South Africa | 15 | | Ethiopia | 2 | | Kenya | 1 | | Africa - total | 583 | | | | | China | 3,950 | | South Korea | 800 | | Vietnam | 650 | | Malaysia | 450 | | Thailand | 180 | | Indonesia' | 175 | | India | 75 | | Bangladesh | 20 | | Taiwan | 17 | | Pakistan | 15 | | Sri Lanka | 11 | | Japan | 3 | | Philippines | 2 | | Asia - total | 6,348 | | | | | Germany | 4,800 | | UK | 1,000 | | Czech Republica | 650 | | Italy | 625 | | France | 350 | | Portugal | 325 | | Spain | 300 | | Bosnia-H'govina | 250 | | Bulgaria | 225 | | Russia | 170 | | Poland | 125 | | Ukraine | 100 | | Serbia | 90 | | Austria | 65 | | Denmark | 3 | | Europe - total | 9,078 | | | | | USA | 5,900 | | Mexico | 120 | | N. America - total | 6,020 | | | | | Iran | 1,500 | | Turkey | 725 | | Jordan | 100 | | Saudi Arabia | 70 | | Iraq | 3 | | Middle East - total | 2,398 | | | | | Australia | 40 | | New Zealand | 11 | | Oceania - total | 51 | | | | | Brazil | 1,900 | | Argentina | 80 | | Paraguay | 66 | | Chile | 60 | | Colombia | 20 | | Peru | 20 | | Ecuador | 15 | | Venezuela | 10 | | Guatemala | 2 | | S. & C. America - total | 2,173 | Typical properties ------------------ Some selected typical properties of various ceramic grade kaolins are: | Product name | SSP | Premium | Longyan 325# | Zettlitz 1A | OKA | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Country | UK | New Zealand | China | Czech Republic | Germany | | Manufacturer | Imerys | Imerys | Logyan | Sedlecky | AKW | | | | | | | | |  % < 2 μm | 85 | 97 | 25 | 56 | 82 | |  % <1 μm | 50 | 88 | 15 | 41 | 50 | | | | | | | | | SiO2, % | 48.0 | 49.5 | 49.3 | 48.0 | 49.5 | | Al2O3, % | 37.0 | 35.5 | 35.5 | 37.0 | 35.5 | | Fe2O3, % | 0.44 | 0.29 | 0.22 | 0.68 | 0.43 | | TiO2, % | 0.01 | 0.09 | 0.01 | 0.20 | 0.17 | | CaO, % | 0.10 | - | 0.03 | 0.08 | 0.20 | | MgO, % | 0.25 | - | 0.25 | 0.23 | 0.02 | | K2O, % | 1.25 | - | 1.90 | 0.92 | 0.30 | | Na2O, % | 0.15 | - | 0.09 | 0.07 | 0.01 | | LOI, % | 12.8 | 13.8 | 11.9 | 12.9 | 13.4 | | | | | | | | | Kaolinite, % | 95 | - | 40 | 89 | 86 | | Halloysite, % | - | 92 | 40 | - | - | | Mica, % | 4 | - | - | - | - | | Quartz, % | 1 | 4 | 3 | 1 | 8 | | Smectite, % | - | - | - | 1 | 6 | | Cristobalite, % | - | 4 | - | - | - | Safety ------ Kaolin is generally recognized as safe, but may cause mild irritation of the skin or mucous membranes. Kaolin products may also contain traces of crystalline silica, a known carcinogen if inhaled. In the US, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for kaolin exposure in the workplace as 15 mg/m3 total exposure and 5 mg/m3 respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 10 mg/m3 total exposure TWA 5 mg/m3 respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. See also -------- * China stone – Type of altered granite * Clay pit – Open-pit mining for the extraction of clay minerals * Dickite – phyllosilicate mineralPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback * Halloysite – Aluminosilicate clay mineral * Kaolin Deposits of Charentes Basin, France – Sedimentary clay deposits in FrancePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets * Kaolin spray – Kaolin-based pest control * Medicinal clay – Use of clay for health reasons * Nacrite – Phyllosilicate mineral: group of kaolinite

Kaolinite

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaolinite

| | | --- | | | | Systems of government | | | | | --- | | Republican forms of government: | |   Presidential republics with an executive presidency separate from the legislature   Semi-presidential system with both an executive presidency and a separate head of government that leads the rest of the executive, who is appointed by the president and accountable to the legislature   Parliamentary republics with a ceremonial and non-executive president, where a separate head of government leads the executive and is dependent on the confidence of the legislature   Republics in which a combined head of state and government is elected by, or nominated by, the legislature and may or may not be subject to parliamentary confidence |   One-party states --- | | | --- | | Monarchical forms of government: | |   Constitutional monarchies with a ceremonial and non-executive monarch, where a separate head of government leads the executive   Semi-constitutional monarchies with a ceremonial monarch, but where royalty still hold significant executive or legislative power   Absolute monarchies where the monarch leads the executive | --- | | | --- | |   Countries where constitutional provisions for government have been suspended   Countries which do not fit any of the above systems (e.g. provisional government or unclear political situations) | | A **parliamentary republic** is a republic that operates under a parliamentary system of government where the executive branch (the government) derives its legitimacy from and is accountable to the legislature (the parliament). There are a number of variations of parliamentary republics. Most have a clear differentiation between the head of government and the head of state, with the head of government holding real power and the head of state being a ceremonial position, similar to constitutional monarchies. In some countries the head of state has reserve powers to use at their discretion as a non-partisan "referee" of the political process. Some have combined the roles of head of state and head of government, much like presidential systems, but with a dependency upon parliamentary power. Powers ------ In contrast to republics operating under either the presidential system or the semi-presidential system, the head of state usually does not have executive powers as an executive president would (some may have reserve powers or a bit more influence beyond that), because many of those powers have been granted to a head of government (usually called a prime minister).[*clarification needed*] However, in a parliamentary republic with a head of state whose tenure is dependent on parliament, the head of government and head of state can form one office (as in Botswana, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, and South Africa), but the president is still selected in much the same way as the prime minister is in most Westminster systems. This usually means that they are the leader of the largest party or coalition of parties in parliament. In some cases, the president can legally have executive powers granted to them to undertake the day-to-day running of government (as in Austria and Iceland) but by convention they either do not use these powers or they use them only to give effect to the advice of the parliament or head of government. Some parliamentary republics could therefore be seen as following the semi-presidential system but operating under a parliamentary system. Historical development ---------------------- Typically, parliamentary republics are states that were previously constitutional monarchies with a parliamentary system. Following the defeat of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War, France once again became a republic – the French Third Republic – in 1870. The President of the Third Republic had significantly less executive powers than those of the previous two republics had. The Third Republic lasted until the invasion of France by Nazi Germany in 1940. Following the end of the war, the French Fourth Republic was constituted along similar lines in 1946. The Fourth Republic saw an era of great economic growth in France and the rebuilding of the nation's social institutions and industry after the war, and played an important part in the development of the process of European integration, which changed the continent permanently. Some attempts were made to strengthen the executive branch of government to prevent the unstable situation that had existed before the war, but the instability remained and the Fourth Republic saw frequent changes in government – there were 20 governments in ten years. Additionally, the government proved unable to make effective decisions regarding decolonization. As a result, the Fourth Republic collapsed and Charles de Gaulle was given power to rule by decree, subsequently legitimized by approval of a new constitution in a referendum on 28 September 1958 that led to the establishment of the French Fifth Republic in 1959. Chile became the first parliamentary republic in South America following a civil war in 1891. However, following a coup in 1925 this system was replaced by a presidential one.[*original research?*] ### Commonwealth of Nations Since the London Declaration of 29 April 1949 (just weeks after Ireland declared itself a republic, and excluded itself from the Commonwealth) republics have been admitted as members of the Commonwealth of Nations. In the case of many republics in the Commonwealth of Nations, it was common for the Sovereign, formerly represented by a Governor-General, to be replaced by a non-executive head of state. This was the case in South Africa (which ceased to be a member of the Commonwealth immediately upon becoming a republic, and later switched to having an executive presidency), Malta, Trinidad and Tobago, India, Vanuatu, and most recently Barbados. In many of these examples, the last Governor-General became the first president. Such was the case with Sri Lanka and Pakistan. Other states became parliamentary republics upon gaining independence. List of modern parliamentary republics and related systems ---------------------------------------------------------- | Full parliamentary republics | | --- | | Country/territory | Head of state | Head of state elected by | Cameral structure | Parliamentary republic adopted | Previous government form | Notes | |  Albania | Bajram Begaj | Parliament, by three-fifths majority | Unicameral | 1991 | One-party state | | |  Armenia | Vahagn Khachaturyan | Parliament, by absolute majority | Unicameral | 2018 | Semi-presidential republic | | |  Austria | Alexander Van der Bellen | Direct election, by two-round system | Bicameral | 1945 | One-party state (as part of Nazi Germany, see *Anschluss*) | | |  Bangladesh | Mohammed Shahabuddin | Parliament | Unicameral | 1991 | Presidential republic | | |  Barbados | Sandra Mason | Parliament, by two-thirds majority if there is no joint nomination | Bicameral | 2021 | Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm) | | |  Bosnia and Herzegovina | Christian SchmidtMilorad DodikŠefik DžaferovićŽeljko Komšić | Direct election of collective head of state, by first-past-the-post vote | Bicameral | 1991 | One-party state (part of Yugoslavia) | | | Bulgaria Bulgaria | Rumen Radev | Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 1991 | One-party state | | |  China, Republic of | Tsai Ing-wen | Direct election, by first-past-the-postNominally by the National Assembly | UnicameralNominally Tricameral | 1946Only nominally a parliamentary republic since 1996 | One-party military dictatorship (Mainland China)Constitutional monarchy (Taiwan as part of the Japanese Empire) | Nominally; the Constitution has been partially superseded by additional articles that provide for a semi-presidential republic with direct presidential elections and a unicameral legislature. These additional articles have a sunset clause that will terminate them in the event of a hypothetical resumption of ROC rule in Mainland China. | | Croatia Croatia | Zoran Milanović | Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 2000 | Semi-presidential republic | | |  Czech Republic | Petr Pavel | Direct election, by two-round system (since 2013; previously parliament, by majority) | Bicameral | 1993 | Parliamentary republic (part of Czechoslovakia) | | |  Dominica | Charles Savarin | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1978 | Associated state of the United Kingdom | | |  Estonia | Alar Karis | Parliament, by two-thirds majority | Unicameral | 1991 | Presidential republic, thereafter occupied by a one-party state | | |  Ethiopia | Sahle-Work Zewde | Parliament, by two-thirds majority | Bicameral | 1991 | One-party state | | |  Fiji | Wiliame Katonivere | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 2014 | Military dictatorship | | |  Finland | Sauli Niinistö | Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 2000 | Semi-presidential republic | | |  Georgia | Salome Zourabichvili | Electoral college (parliament and regional delegates), by absolute majority | Unicameral | 2018 | Semi-presidential republic | | |  Germany | Frank-Walter Steinmeier | Federal Assembly (parliament and state delegates), by absolute majority | Two unicameral institutions | 1949 | One-party state | | |  Greece | Katerina Sakellaropoulou | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1975 | Military dictatorship; constitutional monarchy | | |  Hungary | Katalin Novák | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1990 | One-party state (Hungarian People's Republic) | | |  Iceland | Guðni Th. Jóhannesson | Direct election, by first-past-the-post vote | Unicameral | 1944 | Constitutional monarchy (in a personal union with Denmark) | | |  India | Droupadi Murmu | Parliament and state legislature, by instant-runoff vote | Bicameral | 1950 | Constitutional monarchy (British Dominion) | | |  Iraq | Barham Salih | Parliament, by two-thirds majority | Unicameral | 2005 | One-party state | | |  Ireland | Michael D. Higgins | Direct election, by instant-runoff vote | Bicameral | 1949 | To 1936: Constitutional monarchy (British Dominion)1936–1949: ambiguous | | |  Israel | Isaac Herzog | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 2001 | Semi-parliamentary republic | | |  Italy | Sergio Mattarella | Parliament and region delegates, by two-thirds majority; by absolute majority, starting from the fourth ballot, if no candidate achieves the aforementioned majority in the first three ballots | Bicameral | 1946 | Constitutional monarchy | Prime Minister is dependent on the confidence of both of the houses of Parliament. | |  Kosovo | Vjosa Osmani | Parliament, by two-thirds majority; by a simple majority, at the third ballot, if no candidate achieves the aforementioned majority in the first two ballots | Unicameral | 2008 | UN-administered Kosovo (formally part of Serbia) | | |  Latvia | Egils Levits | Parliament | Unicameral | 1991 | Presidential republic, thereafter occupied by a one-party state | | |  Lebanon | Michel Aoun | Parliament | Unicameral | 1941 | Protectorate (French mandate of Lebanon) | | |  Malta | George Vella | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1974 | Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm) | | |  Mauritius | Prithvirajsing Roopun | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1992 | Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm) | | |  Moldova | Maia Sandu | Direct election, by two-round system(since 2016; previously by parliament, by three-fifths majority) | Unicameral | 2001 | Semi-presidential republic | | |  Montenegro | Milo Đukanović | Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 1992 | One-party state (Part of Yugoslavia, and after Serbia and Montenegro) | | |    Nepal | Ram Chandra Poudel | Parliament and state legislators | Bicameral | 2008 | Constitutional monarchy | | |  North Macedonia | Stevo Pendarovski | Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 1991 | One-party state (part of Yugoslavia) | | |  Pakistan | Arif Alvi | Parliament and state legislators, by instant-runoff vote | Bicameral | 2010 | Assembly-independent republic | | |  Poland | Andrzej Duda | Direct election, by majority | Bicameral | 1989 | One-party state (Polish People's Republic) | Poland has also been identified as a *de facto* semi-presidential republic as the President does exercise some form of governance and appoints the Prime Minister as the head of government. The decision is then subject to a parliamentary vote of confidence. | |  Samoa | Tuimalealiifano Va'aletoa Sualauvi II | Parliament | Unicameral | 1960 | Trust Territory of New Zealand | | |  Serbia | Aleksandar Vučić | Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 1991 | One-party state (part of Yugoslavia, and later Serbia and Montenegro) | | |  Singapore | Halimah Yacob | Direct election (since 1993) | Unicameral | 1965 | State of Malaysia | | |  Slovakia | Zuzana Čaputová | Direct election, by two-round system (since 1999; previously by parliament) | Unicameral | 1993 | Parliamentary Republic (part of Czechoslovakia) | | |  Slovenia | Borut Pahor | Direct election, by two-round system | Bicameral | 1991 | One-party state (part of Yugoslavia) | | |  Somalia | Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed | Parliament | Bicameral | 2012 | One-party state | | |  Trinidad and Tobago | Christine Kangaloo | Parliament | Bicameral | 1976 | Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm) | | |  Vanuatu | Nikenike Vurobaravu | Parliament and regional council presidents, by majority | Unicameral | 1980 | British–French condominium (New Hebrides) | | | Parliamentary republics with an executive presidency | | Country | Head of state | Head of state elected by | Cameral structure | Parliamentary republic with an executive presidency adopted | Previous government form | Notes | |  Botswana | Mokgweetsi Masisi | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1966 | British protectorate (Bechuanaland Protectorate) | | | |  Kiribati | Taneti Maamau | Direct election, by first-past-the-post vote | Unicameral | 1979 | Protectorate | | |  Marshall Islands | David Kabua | Parliament | Bicameral | 1979 | UN Trust Territory (part of Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands) | | |  Nauru | Russ Kun | Parliament | Unicameral | 1968 | UN Trusteeship between Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. | | |  South Africa | Cyril Ramaphosa | Parliament, by majority | Bicameral | 1961 | Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm) | Was a full parliamentary republic from 1961–1984; adopted an executive presidency in 1984. | | Assembly-independent systems | | Country | Head of state | Head of state elected by | Cameral structure | Assembly-independent republic adopted | Previous government form | Notes | |  Federated States of Micronesia | Wesley Simina | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1986 | UN Trust Territory (Part of Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands) | | |  Guyana | Irfaan Ali | Semi-direct election, by first-past-the-post vote (vacancies are filled by Parliament, by majority) | Unicameral | 1980 | Full parliamentary republic | | |  San Marino | Francesco MussoniGiacomo Simoncini | Parliament | Unicameral | 1291 | Theocracy (part of the Papal States) | Two collective heads of state and heads of government, the Captains Regent | |  Suriname | Chan Santokhi | Parliament | Unicameral | 1987 | Full parliamentary republic | | | Directorial systems | | Country | Head of state | Head of state elected by | Cameral structure | Parliamentary republic adopted | Previous government form | Notes | |  Switzerland | Guy ParmelinIgnazio CassisUeli MaurerSimonetta SommarugaAlain BersetKarin Keller-SutterViola Amherd | Parliament by exhaustive ballot at a joint sitting of both houses | Bicameral | 1848 | Confederation of states | Also has citizen-initiated referendums | List of former parliamentary republics and related systems ---------------------------------------------------------- | Country | Became aparliamentaryrepublic | Statuschanged | Changed to | Reason for change | Notes | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Full parliamentary republics | |  Armenian SSR | 1920 | 1991 | Semi-presidential system | Constitutional amendment | | | Austria First Austrian Republic | 1920 | 1929 | Semi-presidential system | Constitutional amendment | | |  Belarus | 1990 | 1994 | Presidential system | New constitution adopted | | |  Brazil | 1961 | 1963 | Presidential system | Referendum | | | Myanmar Burma *(present-day Myanmar)* | 1948 | 1962 | Military dictatorship | 1962 Burmese coup d'état | | | Chile Chile | 1891 | 1924 | Military junta | 1924 Chilean coup d'état | | | 1925 | 1925 | Presidential system | New constitution | | | Taiwan Republic of China | 1947 | 1972 (de facto) | Presidential system | Constitution suspended | The provisions establishing a parliamentary republic remain in the Constitution which is generally in effect, but are suspended by the Additional Articles, which have a sunset clause that will terminate them in the event of a hypothetical resumption of ROC rule in Mainland China. | | 1991 (de jure; nominally remains parliamentary) | Semi-presidential system | Additional articles of the Constitution adopted | | Czechoslovakia First Czechoslovak Republic | 1920 | 1939 | One-party state | Munich agreement | | | Czechoslovakia Third Czechoslovak Republic | 1945 | 1948 | One-party parliamentary republic | Coup d'état | | | Czechoslovakia Fourth Czechoslovak Republic | 1948 | 1989 | Multi-party parliamentary republic | Velvet Revolution | One-party system under the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia | | Czechoslovakia Fifth Czechoslovak Republic | 1989 | 1992 | *State dissolved* | Velvet Divorce | | | East Indonesia State of East Indonesia | 1946 | 1950 | *State dissolved* | Merged to the Republic of Indonesia | | | France French Third Republic | 1870 | 1940 | Puppet state | World War II German occupation | | | France French Fourth Republic | 1946 | 1958 | Semi-presidential system | New constitution adopted | | |  Georgian SSR | 1921 | 1991 | Semi-presidential system | Constitutional amendment | | |  Guyana | 1970 | 1980 | Assembly-independent republic | New constitution adopted | | | Hungary Hungary | 1946 | 1949 | One-party state | Creation of the People's Republic of Hungary | | |  Indonesia | 1945 | 1959 | Presidential system | Presidential constitution reinstated | | |  Israel | 1948 | 1996 | Semi-parliamentary system | Constitutional amendment | | | South Korea Second Republic of South Korea | 1960 | 1961 | Military junta | 16 May coup | | |  Kyrgyzstan | 2010 | 2021 | Presidential system | New constitution adopted | | | Lithuania Lithuanian First Republic | 1920 | 1926 | One-party state | 1926 Lithuanian coup d'état | In June 1940, Lithuania was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union. | |  Nigeria | 1963 | 1966 | Military dictatorship(which led in 1979 to the democratic, presidential Second Nigerian Republic) | Coup d'état | | |  Pakistan | 1956 | 1958 | Military dictatorship | 1958 Pakistani coup d'état | | | 1973 | 1978 | 1977 Pakistani coup d'état | | | 1997 | 1999 | 1999 Pakistani coup d'état | | | 2002 | 2003 | Assembly-independent republic | Constitutional amendment | | | Poland Second Polish Republic | 1919 | 1935 | Presidential system | New constitution adopted | | | Portugal First Portuguese Republic | 1911 | 1926 | Military dictatorship(which led in 1933to the *Estado Novo* one-party presidential republic) | 28 May coup | | | Philippines First Philippine Republic (Malolos Republic) | 1899 | 1901 | Military dictatorship(De facto United States Colony) | Capture of Emilio Aguinaldo to the American forces | | | Philippines Fourth Philippine Republic | 1973 | 1981 | Semi-presidential system(de facto Military dictatorship under Martial Law between 1972 and 1986.) | Constitutional amendment | | | Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo | 1960 | 1965 | Military dictatorship(De facto one-party state) | 1965 Congolese coup d'état | | |  Rhodesia | 1970 | 1979 | Parliamentary system | Creation of Zimbabwe-Rhodesia | Political rights were restricted to the white minority | |  Russian SFSR | 1917 | 1991 | Semi-presidential system | Referendum | | |  Soviet Union | 1922 | 1990 | Semi-presidential system | Constitutional amendment | Had a collective head of state with a distinct Chairman until 1989One-party system under the Communist Party of the Soviet Union | | Spain First Spanish Republic | 1873 | 1874 | Constitutional monarchy | Restoration of the monarchy | | | Second Spanish Republic Second Spanish Republic | 1931 | 1939 | One-party state(which declared itself a constitutional monarchy in 1947) | Coup d'état | | |  Suriname | 1975 | 1987 | Assembly-independent republic | New constitution adopted | | |  Sri Lanka | 1972 | 1978 | Semi-presidential system | Constitutional amendment | | | Syria Syrian Republic | 1930 | 1958 | *State dissolved* | Creation of the United Arab Republic | Merged into the United Arab Republic, which operated as a One-party presidential system | | Syria Syrian Arab Republic | 1961 | 1963 | One-party presidential system | 1963 Syrian coup d'état | | | South African Republic Transvaal Republic | 1852 | 1902 | Colony of the British Empire | Second Boer War | | |  Turkey | 1923 | 2018 | Presidential system | Constitutional amendment | | |  Uganda | 1963 | 1966 | One-party state | Suspension of the constitution | | |  Ukrainian SSR | 1919 | 1991 | Semi-presidential system | Constitutional amendment | | |  Yugoslavia | 1945 | 1953 | Parliamentary republic with an executive presidency | Constitutional amendment | Had a collective head of state with a distinct ChairmanOne-party system under the Communist Party of Yugoslavia | |  Zimbabwe Rhodesia | 1979 | 1979 | Dependent territory | Reversion to Southern Rhodesia | | |  Zimbabwe | 1980 | 1987 | Presidential system | Constitutional amendment | | | Parliamentary republics with an executive presidency | | Country | Became aparliamentaryrepublicwith an executivepresidency | Statuschanged | Changed to | Reason for change | Notes | |  Gambia | 1970 | 1982 | Presidential system | Constitutional amendment | The president was elected semi-directly by a constituency-based double simultaneous vote, with vacancies filled by Parliament; a motion of no confidence automatically entailed snap parliamentary elections. Presidential elections were made fully direct and separate from parliamentary elections in 1982. | |  Kenya | 1964 | 2013 | Presidential system | New constitution and elections | Originally, the president was elected semi-directly by a constituency-based double simultaneous vote, with vacancies filled by Parliament; a motion of no confidence automatically entailed either the resignation of the president or snap parliamentary elections. Presidential elections were made fully direct in 1969, including after a vacancy, but their schedule remained linked to the parliamentary elections.A separate Prime Minister existed between 2008 and 2013The switch to a fully presidential system was legislated in 2010, but only took effect in 2013. | |  Yugoslavia | 1953 | 1963 | Assembly-independent republic | New constitution | One-party system under the League of Communists of Yugoslavia | | Assembly-independent systems | | Country | Became anassembly-independentrepublic | Statuschanged | Changed to | Reason for change | Notes | | Ghana First Republic of Ghana | 1960 | 1966 | Military dictatorship(Which led to the fully parliamentary Second Republic of Ghana) | Coup d'état | | |  Pakistan | 1985 | 1997 | Full parliamentary republic | Constitutional amendment | | | 2003 | 2010 | Constitutional amendment | |  Serbia and Montenegro | 1992 | 2000 | Semi-presidential republic | Constitutional amendment | | |  Tanganyika | 1962 | 1964 | *State dissolved* | Creation of the United Republic of Tanzania | Merged into the United Republic of Tanzania, which operated as a One-party presidential system | |  Yugoslavia | 1963 | 1980 | Directorial republic | New constitution and the death of Josip Broz Tito | One-party system under the League of Communists of YugoslaviaThe change to a directorial system was legislated in 1973, but only took effect in 1980. | | Directorial systems | |  Yugoslavia | 1980 | 1992 | — | Breakup of Yugoslavia | One-party system under the League of Communists of Yugoslavia | | | See also -------- * List of countries by system of government * Constitutional monarchy * Parliamentary system * Republic * Republicanism * Semi-presidential system * Semi-parliamentary system

Parliamentary republic

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_republic

45°30′02″N 73°33′42″W / 45.5006°N 73.5617°W / 45.5006; -73.5617 The **International Air Transport Association** (**IATA** /aɪˈɑːtə/) is a trade association of the world's airlines founded in 1945. IATA has been described as a cartel since, in addition to setting technical standards for airlines, IATA also organized tariff conferences that served as a forum for price fixing. Consisting in 2023 of 300 airlines, primarily major carriers, representing 117 countries, the IATA's member airlines account for carrying approximately 83% of total available seat miles air traffic. IATA supports airline activity and helps formulate industry policy and standards. It is headquartered in Montreal, Canada with executive offices in Geneva, Switzerland. History ------- IATA was formed in April 1945 in Havana, Cuba. It is the successor to the International Air Traffic Association, which was formed in 1919 at The Hague, Netherlands. At its founding, IATA consisted of 57 airlines from 31 countries. Much of IATA's early work was technical and IATA provided input to the newly created International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), which was reflected in the annexes of the Chicago Convention, the international treaty that still governs international air transport. The Chicago Convention did not result in a consensus on the economic regulation of the airline industry. According to Warren Koffler, IATA was formed to fill the resulting void and provide international air carriers with a mechanism to fix prices. In the late 1940s, IATA started holding conferences to fix prices for international air travel. IATA secretary J.G Gazdik stated that the organization aimed to fix prices at reasonable levels, with due regard being paid to the cost of operations, in order to ensure reasonable profits for airlines. In 1947 at a time when many airlines were government-owned and loss-making, IATA operated as a cartel, charged by the governments with setting a constrained fare structure that avoided price competition. The first Traffic Conference was held in 1947 in Rio de Janeiro and reached unanimous agreement on some 400 resolutions. IATA Director-General William Hildred recounted that about 200 of the resolutions at the Rio de Janeiro conference were related to establishing a uniform structure for tariffs charged for international air transportation. The American Civil Aeronautics Board did not intervene to stop IATA's price fixing, and in 1954 law professor Louis B. Schwartz condemned the board's inaction as an "abdication of judicial responsibility". *The Economist* lambasted IATA's connivance with governments to fix prices and compared IATA with medieval guilds. In the early 1950s IATA's price fixing regime forced airlines to attempt to differentiate themselves through the quality of their passenger experience. IATA responded by imposing strict limits on the quality of airline service. In 1958, IATA issued a formal ruling barring airlines from serving economy passengers sandwiches with "luxurious" ingredients. The economist Walter Adams observed that the limited service competition permitted by IATA tended to merely to divert traffic from one air carrier to another without at the same time enlarging the overall air transport market. From 1956 to 1975, IATA resolutions capped travel agent commissions at 7% of the airline ticket price. Legal scholar Kenneth Elzinga argued that IATA's commission cap harmed consumers by decreasing the incentive for travel agents to offer improved service to consumers. In 1982, the sociologist John Hannigan described IATA as "the world aviation cartel". IATA enjoyed immunity from antitrust law in several nations. In 2006, the United States Department of Justice adopted an order withdrawing the antitrust immunity of IATA tariff conferences. In March 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic interrupted routine flights around the world. In the immediate aftermath most airlines, because of the physical distancing policies implemented by national governments, reduced their seat loading by eliminating the sale of the middle seat in a row of three. This reduction averaged out to a load factor of 62% normal, well below the IATA industry break-even level of 77%. Fares would need to rise as much as 54% if a carrier were to break even, according to calculations done by the IATA, who posit that because of "forward-facing seats that prevent face-to-face contact, and ceiling-to-floor air flows that limit the circulation of respiratory droplets" the risk of transmission is reduced. North American carriers such as WestJet, Air Canada and American Airlines all planned to resume normal pattern sales on 1 July 2020. This industry-driven policy garnered immediate push-back from some Canadians, including those who felt defrauded, while Minister of Transport Marc Garneau noted that the "on-board spacing requirement is a recommendation only and therefore not mandatory" while his Transport Canada department listed physical distancing as a prophylactic among the key positive points in a guide prepared for the Canadian aviation industry. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, IATA has announced its mobile app The IATA Travel Pass to be launched in mid-April 2021 to aid travelers in complying with the flight policies of different governments. Focus areas ----------- ### Safety IATA states that safety is its number one priority. The main instrument for safety is the IATA Operational Safety Audit (IOSA). IOSA has also been mandated at the state level by several countries.[*specify*] In 2017, aviation posted its safest year ever, surpassing the previous record set in 2012. The new global Western-built jet accident rate became the equivalent of one accident every 7.36 million flights. Future improvements will be founded on data sharing with a database fed by a multitude of sources and housed by the Global Safety Information Center. In June 2014, the IATA set up a special panel to study measures to track aircraft in flight in real time. The move was in response to the disappearance without a trace of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 on 8 March 2014. ### Simplifying the Business Simplifying the Business was launched in 2004. This initiative has introduced a number of crucial concepts to passenger travel, including the electronic ticket and the bar coded boarding pass. Many other innovations are being established as part of the Fast Travel initiative, including a range of self-service baggage options. An innovative program, launched in 2012 is New Distribution Capability. This will replace the pre-Internet EDIFACT messaging standard that is still the basis of the global distribution system /travel agent channel and replace it with an XML standard. This will enable the same choices to be offered to high street travel shoppers as are offered to those who book directly through airline websites. A filing with the US Department of Transportation brought over 400 comments. ### Environment IATA members and all industry stakeholders have agreed to three sequential environmental goals: 1. An average improvement in fuel efficiency of 1.5% per annum from 2009 through 2020 2. A cap on net carbon emissions from aviation from 2020 (carbon-neutral growth) 3. A 50% reduction in net aviation carbon emissions by 2050 relative to 2005 levels. At the 2013 IATA annual general meeting in Cape Town, South Africa, members overwhelmingly endorsed a resolution on "Implementation of the Aviation Carbon-Neutral Growth (CNG2020) Strategy." A representative for the European Federation for Transport and Environment criticized the resolution for relying on carbon offsets instead of direct reductions in aviation carbon emissions. ### Services IATA provides consulting and training services in many areas. ### Publications - standards A number of standards are defined under the umbrella of IATA. One of the most important is the IATA DGR for the transport of dangerous goods (HAZMAT) by air. See also -------- * Air Transport Action Group (ATAG) * Conex box * Flight planning * IATA airline code * IATA airport code * IATA Operational Safety Audit (IOSA) * International Association of Travel Agents Network (IATAN) * International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) * International Society of Transport Aircraft Trading * Kenneth Beaumont * Standard Schedules Information Manual

International Air Transport Association

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Air_Transport_Association

A **camera** is an optical instrument that captures images. Most cameras can capture 2D images, while some more advanced models can capture 3D images. At a basic level, most cameras consist of a sealed box (the camera body) with a small hole (the aperture) that allows light to pass through and capture an image on a light-sensitive surface (usually a digital sensor or photographic film). Cameras have various mechanisms to control how light falls onto the light-sensitive surface, including lenses that focus the light and a shutter that determines the amount of time the photosensitive surface is exposed to the light. The still-image camera is a key instrument in the art of photography. Captured images may be reproduced later through processes such as digital imaging or photographic printing. Similar artistic fields in the moving-image camera domain include film, videography, and cinematography. The word *camera* comes from *camera obscura*, which is Latin for "dark chamber" and refers to the original device used to project a 2D image onto a flat surface. The modern photographic camera evolved from the camera obscura. The first permanent photograph was taken in 1825 by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce. History ------- The term "camera" in English comes from "camera obscura" (Latin for dark rooms). The prototype of the camera obscura was used to observe a total solar eclipse by drilling a small hole in one wall of the dark space and projecting the scenery outside the camera on the opposite wall of the hole. The camera Obscura was designed by Leonardo da Vinci, but Gernsaim's explanation is that Bacon knew and observed the eclipse.Porta also used the camera obscura as a tool for artists to paint in his 1558 book, Magic of Nature. The first practical camera was developed in 1685 by Johann Jeanne of Germany and was small enough to carry around. This was about 120 years ago before cameras were used among real people. The first cameras were similar to the invention of the glass, focusing on moving the box with the imaging unit back and forth and exposing the photosensitive plate to light for image recording. In 1839, Louis Daguerre's daguerreotype photography using copper plates was invented and widely used by the public. In 1841, William Fox Talbot invented Callatype photography to record images on paper. The first printed photograph was taken in 1826 using a camera co-produced with Louis Daguerre by Joseph Nisefo-Nieves.(See Figure). The first photograph was taken with a mixture of silver and lime, settled on a copper plate, and printed. In 1850, Frederick Scott Archer invented wet photography using coludium. This method was to photograph and print on glass using a colloidal film in a small movable darkroom. Filming with wet plates was a complicated technique, but in the mid-19th century, the mblotype and tintype techniques, which are wet photography, spread widely. Cameras have had a lot of influence on history, such as whether they convey terrible reality through cameras. For example, in the Belgian colony of Congo, harsh abuse was committed when collecting less than the quota of rubber, and someone took a camera to tell the world. This prevented Leopold II from doing such a thing in Congo. In the 2000s, as photography functions were added to mobile phones, cameras were gradually developing. Mechanics --------- Most cameras capture light from the visible spectrum, while specialized cameras capture other portions of the electromagnetic spectrum, such as infrared. All cameras use the same basic design: light enters an enclosed box through a converging or convex lens and an image is recorded on a light-sensitive medium. A shutter mechanism controls the length of time that light enters the camera. Most cameras also have a viewfinder, which shows the scene to be recorded, along with means to adjust various combinations of focus, aperture and shutter speed. ### Exposure control #### Aperture Light enters the camera through an aperture, an opening adjusted by overlapping plates called the aperture ring. Typically located in the lens, this opening can be widened or narrowed to alter the amount of light that strikes the film or sensor. The size of the aperture can be set manually, by rotating the lens or adjusting a dial or automatically based on readings from an internal light meter. As the aperture is adjusted, the opening expands and contracts in increments called *f-stops*. The smaller the f-stop, the more light is allowed to enter the lens, increasing the exposure. Typically, f-stops range from f/1.4 to f/32 in standard increments: 1.4, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, and 32. The light entering the camera is halved with each increasing increment. The wider opening at lower f-stops narrows the range of focus so the background is blurry while the foreground is in focus. This depth of field increases as the aperture closes. A narrow aperture results in a high depth of field, meaning that objects at many different distances from the camera will appear to be in focus. What is acceptably in focus is determined by the circle of confusion, the photographic technique, the equipment in use and the degree of magnification expected of the final image. #### Shutter The shutter, along with the aperture, is one of two ways to control the amount of light entering the camera. The shutter determines the duration that the light-sensitive surface is exposed to light. The shutter opens, light enters the camera and exposes the film or sensor to light, and then the shutter closes. There are two types of mechanical shutters: the leaf-type shutter and the focal-plane shutter. The leaf-type uses a circular iris diaphragm maintained under spring tension inside or just behind the lens that rapidly opens and closes when the shutter is released. More commonly, a focal-plane shutter is used. This shutter operates close to the film plane and employs metal plates or cloth curtains with an opening that passes across the light-sensitive surface. The curtains or plates have an opening that is pulled across the film plane during exposure. The focal-plane shutter is typically used in single-lens reflex (SLR) cameras, since covering the film (rather than blocking the light passing through the lens) allows the photographer to view the image through the lens at all times, except during the exposure itself. Covering the film also facilitates removing the lens from a loaded camera, as many SLRs have interchangeable lenses. A digital camera may use a mechanical or electronic shutter, the latter of which is common in smartphone cameras. Electronic shutters either record data from the entire sensor simultaneously (a global shutter) or record the data line by line across the sensor (a rolling shutter). In movie cameras, a rotary shutter opens and closes in sync with the advancement of each frame of film. The duration for which the shutter is open is called the *shutter speed* or *exposure time*. Typical exposure times can range from one second to 1/1,000 of a second, though longer and shorter durations are not uncommon. In the early stages of photography, exposures were often several minutes long. These long exposure times often resulted in blurry images, as a single object is recorded in multiple places across a single image for the duration of the exposure. To prevent this, shorter exposure times can be used. Very short exposure times can capture fast-moving action and eliminate motion blur. However, shorter exposure times require more light to produce a properly exposed image, so shortening the exposure time is not always possible. Like aperture settings, exposure times increment in powers of two. The two settings determine the exposure value (EV), a measure of how much light is recorded during the exposure. There is a direct relationship between the exposure times and aperture settings so that if the exposure time is lengthened one step, but the aperture opening is also narrowed one step, then the amount of light that contacts the film or sensor is the same. #### Light meter In most modern cameras, the amount of light entering the camera is measured using a built-in light meter or exposure meter. Taken through the lens (called *TTL metering*), these readings are taken using a panel of light-sensitive semiconductors. They are used to calculate optimal exposure settings. These settings are typically determined automatically as the reading is used by the camera's microprocessor. The reading from the light meter is incorporated with aperture settings, exposure times, and film or sensor sensitivity to calculate the optimal exposure. Light meters typically average the light in a scene to 18% middle gray. More advanced cameras are more nuanced in their metering—weighing the center of the frame more heavily (center-weighted metering), considering the differences in light across the image (matrix metering), or allowing the photographer to take a light reading at a specific point within the image (spot metering). ### Lens A camera lens is an assembly of multiple optical elements, typically made from high-quality glass. Its primary function is to focus light onto a camera's film or digital sensor, thereby producing an image. This process significantly influences image quality, the overall appearance of the photo, and which parts of the scene are brought into focus. A camera lens is constructed from a series of lens elements, small pieces of glass arranged to form an image accurately on the light-sensitive surface. Each element is designed to reduce optical aberrations, or distortions, such as chromatic aberration (a failure of the lens to focus all colors at the same point), vignetting (darkening of image corners), and distortion (bending or warping of the image). The degree of these distortions can vary depending on the subject of the photo. The focal length of the lens, measured in millimeters, plays a critical role as it determines how much of the scene the camera can capture and how large the objects appear. Wide-angle lenses provide a broad view of the scene, while telephoto lenses capture a narrower view but magnify the objects. The focal length also influences the ease of taking clear pictures handheld, with longer lengths making it more challenging to avoid blur from small camera movements. Two primary types of lenses include zoom and prime lenses. A zoom lens allows for changing its focal length within a certain range, providing the convenience of adjusting the scene capture without moving the camera or changing the lens. A prime lens, in contrast, has a fixed focal length. While less flexible, prime lenses often provide superior image quality, are typically lighter, and perform better in low light. Focus involves adjusting the lens elements to sharpen the image of the subject at various distances. The focus is adjusted through the focus ring on the lens, which moves the lens elements closer or further from the sensor. Autofocus is a feature included in many lenses, which uses a motor within the lens to adjust the focus quickly and precisely based on the lens's detection of contrast or phase differences. This feature can be enabled or disabled using switches on the lens body. Advanced lenses may include mechanical image stabilization systems that move lens elements or the image sensor itself to counteract camera shake, especially beneficial in low-light conditions or at slow shutter speeds. Lens hoods, filters, and caps are accessories used alongside a lens to enhance image quality, protect the lens, or achieve specific effects. ### Viewfinder The camera's viewfinder provides a real-time approximation of what will be captured by the sensor or film. It assists photographers in aligning, focusing, and adjusting the composition, lighting, and exposure of their shots, enhancing the accuracy of the final image. Viewfinders fall into two primary categories: optical and electronic. Optical viewfinders, commonly found in Single-Lens Reflex (SLR) cameras, use a system of mirrors or prisms to reflect light from the lens to the viewfinder, providing a clear, real-time view of the scene. Electronic viewfinders, typical in mirrorless cameras, project an electronic image onto a small display, offering a wider range of information such as live exposure previews and histograms, albeit at the cost of potential lag and higher battery consumption. Specialized viewfinder systems exist for specific applications, like subminiature cameras for spying or underwater photography. Parallax error, resulting from misalignment between the viewfinder and lens axes, can cause inaccurate representations of the subject's position. While negligible with distant subjects, this error becomes prominent with closer ones. Some viewfinders incorporate parallax-compensating devices to mitigate this issue. ### Film and sensor Image capture in a camera occurs when light strikes a light-sensitive surface: photographic film or a digital sensor. Housed within the camera body, the film or sensor records the light's pattern when the shutter is briefly opened to allow light to pass during the exposure. Loading film into a film camera is a manual process. The film, typically housed in a cartridge, is loaded into a designated slot in the camera. One end of the film strip, the film leader, is manually threaded onto a take-up spool. Once the back of the camera is closed, the film advance lever or knob is used to ensure the film is correctly placed. The photographer then winds the film, either manually or automatically depending on the camera, to position a blank portion of the film in the path of the light. Each time a photo is taken, the film advance mechanism moves the exposed film out of the way, bringing a new, unexposed section of film into position for the next shot. The film must be advanced after each shot to prevent double exposure — where the same section of film is exposed to light twice, resulting in overlapped images. Once all frames on the film roll have been exposed, the film is rewound back into the cartridge, ready to be removed from the camera for developing. In digital cameras, sensors typically comprise Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs) or Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (CMOS) chips, both of which convert incoming light into electrical charges to form digital images. CCD sensors, though power-intensive, are recognized for their excellent light sensitivity and image quality. Conversely, CMOS sensors offer individual pixel readouts, leading to less power consumption and faster frame rates, with their image quality having improved significantly over time. Digital cameras convert light into electronic data that can be directly processed and stored. The volume of data generated is dictated by the sensor's size and properties, necessitating storage media such as Compact Flash, Memory Sticks, and SD (Secure Digital) cards. Modern digital cameras typically feature a built-in monitor for immediate image review and adjustments. Digital images are also more readily handled and manipulated by computers, offering a significant advantage in terms of flexibility and post-processing potential over traditional film. ### Camera accessories #### Flash A flash provides a short burst of bright light during exposure and is a commonly used artificial light source in photography. Most modern flash systems use a battery-powered high-voltage discharge through a gas-filled tube to generate bright light for a very short time (1/1,000 of a second or less). Many flash units measure the light reflected from the flash to help determine the appropriate duration of the flash. When the flash is attached directly to the camera—typically in a slot at the top of the camera (the flash shoe or hot shoe) or through a cable—activating the shutter on the camera triggers the flash, and the camera's internal light meter can help determine the duration of the flash. Additional flash equipment can include a light diffuser, mount and stand, reflector, soft box, trigger and cord. #### Other accessories Accessories for cameras are mainly used for care, protection, special effects, and functions. * Lens hood: used on the end of a lens to block the sun or other light source to prevent glare and lens flare (see also matte box). * Lens cap: covers and protects the camera lens when not in use. * Lens adapter: allows the use of lenses other than those for which the camera was designed. * Filter: allows artificial colors or changes light density. * Lens extension tube: allows close focus in macro photography. * Care and protection: including camera case and cover, maintenance tools, and screen protector. * Camera monitor: provides an off-camera view of the composition with a brighter and more colorful screen, and typically exposes more advanced tools such as framing guides, focus peaking, zebra stripes, waveform monitors (oftentimes as an "RGB parade"), vectorscopes and false color to highlight areas of the image critical to the photographer. * Tripod: primarily used for keeping the camera steady while recording video, doing a long exposure, and time-lapse photography. * Microscope adapter: used to connect a camera to a microscope to photograph what the microscope is examining. * Cable release: used to remotely control the shutter using a remote shutter button that can be connected to the camera via a cable. It can be used to lock the shutter open for the desired period, and it is also commonly used to prevent the camera shake from pressing the built-in camera shutter button. * Dew shield: prevents moisture build-up on the lens. * UV filter: can protect the front element of a lens from scratches, cracks, smudges, dirt, dust, and moisture while keeping a minimum impact on image quality. * Battery and sometimes a charger. Large format cameras use special equipment that includes a magnifier loupe, view finder, angle finder, and focusing rail/truck. Some professional SLRs can be provided with interchangeable finders for eye-level or waist-level focusing, focusing screens, eyecup, data backs, motor-drives for film transportation or external battery packs. Primary types ------------- ### Single-lens reflex (SLR) camera In photography, the single-lens reflex camera (SLR) is provided with a mirror to redirect light from the lens to the viewfinder prior to releasing the shutter for composing and focusing an image. When the shutter is released, the mirror swings up and away, allowing the exposure of the photographic medium, and instantly returns after the exposure is finished. No SLR camera before 1954 had this feature, although the mirror on some early SLR cameras was entirely operated by the force exerted on the shutter release and only returned when the finger pressure was released. The Asahiflex II, released by Japanese company Asahi (Pentax) in 1954, was the world's first SLR camera with an instant return mirror. In the single-lens reflex camera, the photographer sees the scene through the camera lens. This avoids the problem of parallax which occurs when the viewfinder or viewing lens is separated from the taking lens. Single-lens reflex cameras have been made in several formats including sheet film 5x7" and 4x5", roll film 220/120 taking 8,10, 12, or 16 photographs on a 120 roll, and twice that number of a 220 film. These correspond to 6x9, 6x7, 6x6, and 6x4.5 respectively (all dimensions in cm). Notable manufacturers of large format and roll film SLR cameras include Bronica, Graflex, Hasselblad, Seagull, Mamiya and Pentax. However, the most common format of SLR cameras has been 35 mm and subsequently the migration to digital SLR cameras, using almost identical sized bodies and sometimes using the same lens systems. Almost all SLR cameras use a front-surfaced mirror in the optical path to direct the light from the lens via a viewing screen and pentaprism to the eyepiece. At the time of exposure, the mirror is flipped up out of the light path before the shutter opens. Some early cameras experimented with other methods of providing through-the-lens viewing, including the use of a semi-transparent pellicle as in the Canon *Pellix* and others with a small periscope such as in the Corfield Periflex series. ### Large-format camera The large-format camera, taking sheet film, is a direct successor of the early plate cameras and remained in use for high-quality photography and technical, architectural, and industrial photography. There are three common types: the view camera, with its monorail and field camera variants, and the press camera. They have extensible bellows with the lens and shutter mounted on a lens plate at the front. Backs taking roll film and later digital backs are available in addition to the standard dark slide back. These cameras have a wide range of movements allowing very close control of focus and perspective. Composition and focusing are done on view cameras by viewing a ground-glass screen which is replaced by the film to make the exposure; they are suitable for static subjects only and are slow to use. #### Plate camera The earliest cameras produced in significant numbers were *plate cameras*, using sensitized glass plates. Light entered a lens mounted on a lens board which was separated from the plate by extendible bellows. There were simple box cameras for glass plates but also single-lens reflex cameras with interchangeable lenses and even for color photography (Autochrome Lumière). Many of these cameras had controls to raise, lower, and tilt the lens forwards or backward to control perspective. Focusing of these plate cameras was by the use of a ground glass screen at the point of focus. Because lens design only allowed rather small aperture lenses, the image on the ground glass screen was faint and most photographers had a dark cloth to cover their heads to allow focusing and composition to be carried out more quickly. When focus and composition were satisfactory, the ground glass screen was removed, and a sensitized plate was put in its place protected by a dark slide. To make the exposure, the dark decline was carefully slid out and the shutter opened, and then closed and the dark fall replaced. Glass plates were later replaced by sheet film in a dark slide for sheet film; adapter sleeves were made to allow sheet film to be used in plate holders. In addition to the ground glass, a simple optical viewfinder was often fitted. ### Medium-format camera Medium-format cameras have a film size between the large-format cameras and smaller 35 mm cameras. Typically these systems use 120 or 220 roll film. The most common image sizes are 6×4.5 cm, 6×6 cm and 6×7 cm; the older 6×9 cm is rarely used. The designs of this kind of camera show greater variation than their larger brethren, ranging from monorail systems through the classic Hasselblad model with separate backs, to smaller rangefinder cameras. There are even compact amateur cameras available in this format. #### Twin-lens reflex camera Twin-lens reflex cameras used a pair of nearly identical lenses: one to form the image and one as a viewfinder. The lenses were arranged with the viewing lens immediately above the taking lens. The viewing lens projects an image onto a viewing screen which can be seen from above. Some manufacturers such as Mamiya also provided a reflex head to attach to the viewing screen to allow the camera to be held to the eye when in use. The advantage of a TLR was that it could be easily focused using the viewing screen and that under most circumstances the view seen on the viewing screen was identical to that recorded on film. At close distances, however, parallax errors were encountered, and some cameras also included an indicator to show what part of the composition would be excluded. Some TLRs had interchangeable lenses, but as these had to be paired lenses, they were relatively heavy and did not provide the range of focal lengths that the SLR could support. Most TLRs used 120 or 220 films; some used the smaller 127 films. ### Compact cameras #### Instant camera After exposure, every photograph is taken through pinch rollers inside the instant camera. Thereby the developer paste contained in the paper 'sandwich' is distributed on the image. After a minute, the cover sheet just needs to be removed and one gets a single original positive image with a fixed format. With some systems, it was also possible to create an instant image negative, from which then could be made copies in the photo lab. The ultimate development was the SX-70 system of Polaroid, in which a row of ten shots – engine driven – could be made without having to remove any cover sheets from the picture. There were instant cameras for a variety of formats, as well as adapters for instant film use in medium- and large-format cameras. #### Subminiature camera Subminiature cameras were first produced in the twentieth century and use film significantly smaller than 35mm. The expensive 8×11mm Minox, the only type of camera produced by the company from 1937 to 1976, became very widely known and was often used for espionage (the Minox company later also produced larger cameras). Later inexpensive subminiatures were made for general use, some using rewound 16 mm cine film. Image quality with these small film sizes was limited. #### Folding camera The introduction of films enabled the existing designs for plate cameras to be made much smaller and for the baseplate to be hinged so that it could be folded up, compressing the bellows. These designs were very compact and small models were dubbed *vest pocket* cameras. Folding roll film cameras were preceded by folding plate cameras, more compact than other designs. #### Box camera Box cameras were introduced as budget-level cameras and had few if any controls. The original box Brownie models had a small reflex viewfinder mounted on the top of the camera and had no aperture or focusing controls and just a simple shutter. Later models such as the Brownie 127 had larger direct view optical viewfinders together with a curved film path to reduce the impact of deficiencies in the lens. ### Rangefinder camera As camera lens technology developed and wide aperture lenses became more common, rangefinder cameras were introduced to make focusing more precise. Early rangefinders had two separate viewfinder windows, one of which is linked to the focusing mechanisms and moved right or left as the focusing ring is turned. The two separate images are brought together on a ground glass viewing screen. When vertical lines in the object being photographed meet exactly in the combined image, the object is in focus. A normal composition viewfinder is also provided. Later the viewfinder and rangefinder were combined. Many rangefinder cameras had interchangeable lenses, each lens requiring its range- and viewfinder linkages. Rangefinder cameras were produced in half- and full-frame 35 mm and roll film (medium format). ### Motion picture cameras A movie camera or a video camera operates similarly to a still camera, except it records a series of static images in rapid succession, commonly at a rate of 24 frames per second. When the images are combined and displayed in order, the illusion of motion is achieved. Cameras that capture many images in sequence are known as movie cameras or as cine cameras in Europe; those designed for single images are still cameras. However, these categories overlap as still cameras are often used to capture moving images in special effects work and many modern cameras can quickly switch between still and motion recording modes. A ciné camera or movie camera takes a rapid sequence of photographs on an image sensor or strips of film. In contrast to a still camera, which captures a single snapshot at a time, the ciné camera takes a series of images, each called a *frame*, through the use of an intermittent mechanism. The frames are later played back in a ciné projector at a specific speed, called the *frame rate* (number of frames per second). While viewing, a person's eyes and brain merge the separate pictures to create the illusion of motion. The first ciné camera was built around 1888 and by 1890 several types were being manufactured. The standard film size for ciné cameras was quickly established as 35mm film and this remained in use until the transition to digital cinematography. Other professional standard formats include 70 mm film and 16 mm film whilst amateur filmmakers used 9.5 mm film, 8 mm film, or Standard 8 and Super 8 before the move into digital format. The size and complexity of ciné cameras vary greatly depending on the uses required of the camera. Some professional equipment is very large and too heavy to be handheld whilst some amateur cameras were designed to be very small and light for single-handed operation. #### Professional video camera A professional video camera (often called a *television camera* even though the use has spread beyond television) is a high-end device for creating electronic moving images (as opposed to a movie camera, that earlier recorded the images on film). Originally developed for use in television studios, they are now also used for music videos, direct-to-video movies, corporate and educational videos, marriage videos, etc. These cameras earlier used vacuum tubes and later electronic image sensors. #### Camcorders A camcorder is an electronic device combining a video camera and a video recorder. Although marketing materials may use the colloquial term "camcorder", the name on the package and manual is often "video camera recorder". Most devices capable of recording video are camera phones and digital cameras primarily intended for still pictures; the term "camcorder" is used to describe a portable, self-contained device, with video capture and recording its primary function. ### Digital camera A digital camera (or digicam) is a camera that encodes digital images and videos and stores them for later reproduction. They typically use semiconductor image sensors. Most cameras sold today are digital, and they are incorporated into many devices ranging from mobile phones (called camera phones) to vehicles. Digital and film cameras share an optical system, typically using a lens of variable aperture to focus light onto an image pickup device. The aperture and shutter admit the correct amount of light to the imager, just as with film but the image pickup device is electronic rather than chemical. However, unlike film cameras, digital cameras can display images on a screen immediately after being captured or recorded, and store and delete images from memory. Most digital cameras can also record moving videos with sound. Some digital cameras can crop and stitch pictures & perform other elementary image editing. Consumers adopted digital cameras in the 1990s. Professional video cameras transitioned to digital around the 2000s–2010s. Finally, movie cameras transitioned to digital in the 2010s. The first camera using digital electronics to capture and store images was developed by Kodak engineer Steven Sasson in 1975. He used a charge-coupled device (CCD) provided by Fairchild Semiconductor, which provided only 0.01 megapixels to capture images. Sasson combined the CCD device with movie camera parts to create a digital camera that saved black and white images onto a cassette tape.The images were then read from the cassette and viewed on a TV monitor. Later, cassette tapes were replaced by flash memory. In 1986, Japanese company Nikon introduced an analog-recording electronic single-lens reflex camera, the Nikon SVC. The first full-frame digital SLR cameras were developed in Japan from around 2000 to 2002: the MZ-D by Pentax, the N Digital by Contax's Japanese R6D team, and the EOS-1Ds by Canon. Gradually in the 2000s, the full-frame DSLR became the dominant camera type for professional photography. On most digital cameras a display, often a liquid crystal display (LCD), permits the user to view the scene to be recorded and settings such as ISO speed, exposure, and shutter speed. #### Camera phone In 2000, Sharp introduced the world's first digital camera phone, the J-SH04 J-Phone, in Japan. By the mid-2000s, higher-end cell phones had an integrated digital camera, and by the beginning of the 2010s, almost all smartphones had an integrated digital camera. See also -------- * Camera matrix * History of the camera * Camera phone * List of camera types * List of digital camera brands Further reading --------------- * Ascher, Steven; Pincus, Edward (2007). *The Filmmaker's Handbook: A Comprehensive Guide for the Digital Age* (3 ed.). New York: Penguin Group. ISBN 978-0-452-28678-8. * Frizot, Michel (January 1998). "Light machines: On the threshold of invention". In Michel Frizot (ed.). *A New History of Photography*. Koln, Germany: Konemann. ISBN 978-3-8290-1328-4. * Gernsheim, Helmut (1986). *A Concise History of Photography* (3 ed.). Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, Inc. ISBN 978-0-486-25128-8. * Hirsch, Robert (2000). *Seizing the Light: A History of Photography*. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. ISBN 978-0-697-14361-7. * Hitchcock, Susan Tyler (20 September 2011). Hitchcock, Susan Tyler (ed.). *National Geographic complete photography*. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society. ISBN 978-1-4351-3968-8. * Johnson, William S.; Rice, Mark; Williams, Carla (2005). Therese Mulligan; David Wooters (eds.). *A History of Photography*. Los Angeles, California: Taschen America. ISBN 978-3-8228-4777-0. * Spira, S.F.; Lothrop, Easton S. Jr.; Spira, Jonathan B. (2001). *The History of Photography as Seen Through the Spira Collection*. New York: Aperture. ISBN 978-0-89381-953-8. * Starl, Timm (January 1998). "A New World of Pictures: The Daguerreotype". In Michel Frizot (ed.). *A New History of Photography*. Koln, Germany: Konemann. ISBN 978-3-8290-1328-4. * Wenczel, Norma (2007). "Part I – Introducing an Instrument" (PDF). In Wolfgang Lefèvre (ed.). *The Optical Camera Obscura II Images and Texts*. *Inside the Camera Obscura – Optics and Art under the Spell of the Projected Image*. Max Planck Institute for the History of Science. pp. 13–30. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 April 2012.

Camera

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera

**Chinese** (中文; *Zhōngwén*, especially when referring to written Chinese) is a group of languages spoken natively by the ethnic Han Chinese majority and many minority ethnic groups in Greater China. About 1.3 billion people (or approximately 16% of the world's population) speak a variety of Chinese as their first language. Chinese languages form the Sinitic branch of the Sino-Tibetan languages family. The spoken varieties of Chinese are usually considered by native speakers to be dialects of a single language. However, their lack of mutual intelligibility means they are sometimes considered to be separate languages in a family. Investigation of the historical relationships among the varieties of Chinese is ongoing. Currently, most classifications posit 7 to 13 main regional groups based on phonetic developments from Middle Chinese, of which the most spoken by far is Mandarin (with about 800 million speakers, or 66%), followed by Min (75 million, e.g. Southern Min), Wu (74 million, e.g. Shanghainese), and Yue (68 million, e.g. Cantonese). These branches are unintelligible to each other, and many of their subgroups are unintelligible with the other varieties within the same branch (e.g. Southern Min). There are, however, transitional areas where varieties from different branches share enough features for some limited intelligibility, including New Xiang with Southwestern Mandarin, Xuanzhou Wu Chinese with Lower Yangtze Mandarin, Jin with Central Plains Mandarin and certain divergent dialects of Hakka with Gan (though these are unintelligible with mainstream Hakka). All varieties of Chinese are tonal to at least some degree, and are largely analytic. The earliest Chinese written records are Shang dynasty-era oracle bone inscriptions, which can be dated to 1250 BCE. The phonetic categories of Old Chinese can be reconstructed from the rhymes of ancient poetry. During the Northern and Southern dynasties period, Middle Chinese went through several sound changes and split into several varieties following prolonged geographic and political separation. *Qieyun*, a rime dictionary, recorded a compromise between the pronunciations of different regions. The royal courts of the Ming and early Qing dynasties operated using a koiné language (Guanhua) based on Nanjing dialect of Lower Yangtze Mandarin. Standard Chinese (Standard Mandarin), based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin, was adopted in the 1930s and is now an official language of both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China (Taiwan), one of the four official languages of Singapore, and one of the six official languages of the United Nations. The written form, using the logograms known as Chinese characters, is shared by literate speakers of mutually unintelligible dialects. Since the 1950s, simplified Chinese characters have been promoted for use by the government of the People's Republic of China, while Singapore officially adopted simplified characters in 1976. Traditional characters remain in use in Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau, and other countries with significant overseas Chinese speaking communities such as Malaysia (where, although simplified characters were adopted as the *de facto* standard in the 1980s, traditional characters remain in widespread use). Classification -------------- Linguists classify all varieties of Chinese as part of the Sino-Tibetan language family, together with Burmese, Tibetan and many other languages spoken in the Himalayas and the Southeast Asian Massif. Although the relationship was first proposed in the early 19th century and is now broadly accepted, reconstruction of Sino-Tibetan is much less developed than that of families such as Indo-European or Austroasiatic. Difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of inflection in many of them, and the effects of language contact. In addition, many of the smaller languages are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to reach and are often also sensitive border zones. Without a secure reconstruction of proto-Sino-Tibetan, the higher-level structure of the family remains unclear. A top-level branching into Chinese and Tibeto-Burman languages is often assumed, but has not been convincingly demonstrated. History ------- The first written records appeared over 3,000 years ago during the Shang dynasty. As the language evolved over this period, the various local varieties became mutually unintelligible. In reaction, central governments have repeatedly sought to promulgate a unified standard. ### Old and Middle Chinese The earliest examples of Chinese (Old Chinese) are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones from around 1250 BCE in the late Shang dynasty. The next attested stage came from inscriptions on bronze artifacts of the Western Zhou period (1046–771 BCE), the *Classic of Poetry* and portions of the *Book of Documents* and *I Ching*. Scholars have attempted to reconstruct the phonology of Old Chinese by comparing later varieties of Chinese with the rhyming practice of the *Classic of Poetry* and the phonetic elements found in the majority of Chinese characters. Although many of the finer details remain unclear, most scholars agree that Old Chinese differs from Middle Chinese in lacking retroflex and palatal obstruents but having initial consonant clusters of some sort, and in having voiceless nasals and liquids. Most recent reconstructions also describe an atonal language with consonant clusters at the end of the syllable, developing into tone distinctions in Middle Chinese. Several derivational affixes have also been identified, but the language lacks inflection, and indicated grammatical relationships using word order and grammatical particles. Middle Chinese was the language used during Northern and Southern dynasties and the Sui, Tang, and Song dynasties (6th through 10th centuries CE). It can be divided into an early period, reflected by the *Qieyun* rime book (601 CE), and a late period in the 10th century, reflected by rhyme tables such as the *Yunjing* constructed by ancient Chinese philologists as a guide to the *Qieyun* system. These works define phonological categories, but with little hint of what sounds they represent. Linguists have identified these sounds by comparing the categories with pronunciations in modern varieties of Chinese, borrowed Chinese words in Japanese, Vietnamese, and Korean, and transcription evidence. The resulting system is very complex, with a large number of consonants and vowels, but they are probably not all distinguished in any single dialect. Most linguists now believe it represents a diasystem encompassing 6th-century northern and southern standards for reading the classics. ### Classical and literary forms The relationship between spoken and written Chinese is rather complex ("diglossia"). Its spoken varieties have evolved at different rates, while written Chinese itself has changed much less. Classical Chinese literature began in the Spring and Autumn period. ### Rise of northern dialects After the fall of the Northern Song dynasty and subsequent reign of the Jin (Jurchen) and Yuan (Mongol) dynasties in northern China, a common speech (now called Old Mandarin) developed based on the dialects of the North China Plain around the capital. The *Zhongyuan Yinyun* (1324) was a dictionary that codified the rhyming conventions of new *sanqu* verse form in this language. Together with the slightly later *Menggu Ziyun*, this dictionary describes a language with many of the features characteristic of modern Mandarin dialects. Up to the early 20th century, most Chinese people only spoke their local variety. Thus, as a practical measure, officials of the Ming and Qing dynasties carried out the administration of the empire using a common language based on Mandarin varieties, known as *Guānhuà* (官话/官話, literally "language of officials"). For most of this period, this language was a koiné based on dialects spoken in the Nanjing area, though not identical to any single dialect. By the middle of the 19th century, the Beijing dialect had become dominant and was essential for any business with the imperial court. In the 1930s, a standard national language, *Guóyǔ* (国语/國語 ; "national language") was adopted. After much dispute between proponents of northern and southern dialects and an abortive attempt at an artificial pronunciation, the National Language Unification Commission finally settled on the Beijing dialect in 1932. The People's Republic founded in 1949 retained this standard but renamed it *pǔtōnghuà* (普通话/普通話; "common speech"). The national language is now used in education, the media, and formal situations in both Mainland China and Taiwan. Because of their colonial and linguistic history, the language used in education, the media, formal speech, and everyday life in Hong Kong and Macau is the local Cantonese, although the standard language, Mandarin, has become very influential and is being taught in schools. ### Influence Historically, the Chinese language has spread to its neighbors through a variety of means. Northern Vietnam was incorporated into the Han empire in 111 BCE, marking the beginning of a period of Chinese control that ran almost continuously for a millennium. The Four Commanderies were established in northern Korea in the first century BCE, but disintegrated in the following centuries. Chinese Buddhism spread over East Asia between the 2nd and 5th centuries CE, and with it the study of scriptures and literature in Literary Chinese. Later Korea, Japan, and Vietnam developed strong central governments modeled on Chinese institutions, with Literary Chinese as the language of administration and scholarship, a position it would retain until the late 19th century in Korea and (to a lesser extent) Japan, and the early 20th century in Vietnam. Scholars from different lands could communicate, albeit only in writing, using Literary Chinese. Although they used Chinese solely for written communication, each country had its own tradition of reading texts aloud, the so-called Sino-Xenic pronunciations. Chinese words with these pronunciations were also extensively imported into the Korean, Japanese and Vietnamese languages, and today comprise over half of their vocabularies. This massive influx led to changes in the phonological structure of the languages, contributing to the development of moraic structure in Japanese and the disruption of vowel harmony in Korean. Borrowed Chinese morphemes have been used extensively in all these languages to coin compound words for new concepts, in a similar way to the use of Latin and Ancient Greek roots in European languages. Many new compounds, or new meanings for old phrases, were created in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to name Western concepts and artifacts. These coinages, written in shared Chinese characters, have then been borrowed freely between languages. They have even been accepted into Chinese, a language usually resistant to loanwords, because their foreign origin was hidden by their written form. Often different compounds for the same concept were in circulation for some time before a winner emerged, and sometimes the final choice differed between countries. The proportion of vocabulary of Chinese origin thus tends to be greater in technical, abstract, or formal language. For example, in Japan, Sino-Japanese words account for about 35% of the words in entertainment magazines, over half the words in newspapers, and 60% of the words in science magazines. Vietnam, Korea, and Japan each developed writing systems for their own languages, initially based on Chinese characters, but later replaced with the *hangul* alphabet for Korean and supplemented with *kana* syllabaries for Japanese, while Vietnamese continued to be written with the complex *chữ nôm* script. However, these were limited to popular literature until the late 19th century. Today Japanese is written with a composite script using both Chinese characters (*kanji*) and kana. Korean is written exclusively with hangul in North Korea (although knowledge of the supplementary Chinese characters - *hanja* - is still required), and hanja are increasingly rarely used in South Korea. As a result of former French colonization, Vietnamese switched to a Latin-based alphabet. Examples of loan words in English include "tea", from Hokkien (Min Nan) *tê* (茶), "dim sum", from Cantonese *dim2 sam1* (點心) and "kumquat", from Cantonese *gam1gwat1* (金橘). Varieties --------- Jerry Norman estimated that there are hundreds of mutually unintelligible varieties of Chinese. These varieties form a dialect continuum, in which differences in speech generally become more pronounced as distances increase, though the rate of change varies immensely. Generally, mountainous South China exhibits more linguistic diversity than the North China Plain. In parts of South China, a major city's dialect may only be marginally intelligible to close neighbors. For instance, Wuzhou is about 190 kilometres (120 mi) upstream from Guangzhou, but the Yue variety spoken there is more like that of Guangzhou than is that of Taishan, 95 kilometres (60 mi) southwest of Guangzhou and separated from it by several rivers. In parts of Fujian the speech of neighboring counties or even villages may be mutually unintelligible. Until the late 20th century, Chinese emigrants to Southeast Asia and North America came from southeast coastal areas, where Min, Hakka, and Yue dialects are spoken. The vast majority of Chinese immigrants to North America up to the mid-20th century spoke the Taishan dialect, from a small coastal area southwest of Guangzhou. ### Grouping Proportions of first-language speakers   Mandarin (65.7%)  Min (6.2%)  Wu (6.1%)  Yue (5.6%)  Jin (5.2%)  Gan (3.9%)  Hakka (3.5%)  Xiang (3.0%)  Huizhou (0.3%)  Pinghua, others (0.6%) Local varieties of Chinese are conventionally classified into seven dialect groups, largely on the basis of the different evolution of Middle Chinese voiced initials: * Mandarin, including Standard Chinese, Pekingese, Sichuanese, and also the Dungan language spoken in Central Asia * Wu, including Shanghainese, Suzhounese, and Wenzhounese * Gan * Xiang * Min, including Fuzhounese, Hainanese, Hokkien and Teochew * Hakka * Yue, including Cantonese and Taishanese The classification of Li Rong, which is used in the *Language Atlas of China* (1987), distinguishes three further groups: * Jin, previously included in Mandarin. * Huizhou, previously included in Wu. * Pinghua, previously included in Yue. Some varieties remain unclassified, including Danzhou dialect (spoken in Danzhou, on Hainan Island), Waxianghua (spoken in western Hunan) and Shaozhou Tuhua (spoken in northern Guangdong). ### Standard Chinese Standard Chinese, often called Mandarin, is the official standard language of China, the de facto official language of Taiwan, and one of the four official languages of Singapore (where it is called "Huáyŭ" 华语/華語 or Chinese). Standard Chinese is based on the Beijing dialect, the dialect of Mandarin as spoken in Beijing. The governments of both China and Taiwan intend for speakers of all Chinese speech varieties to use it as a common language of communication. Therefore, it is used in government agencies, in the media, and as a language of instruction in schools. In China and Taiwan, diglossia has been a common feature. For example, in addition to Standard Chinese, a resident of Shanghai might speak Shanghainese; and, if they grew up elsewhere, then they are also likely to be fluent in the particular dialect of that local area. A native of Guangzhou may speak both Cantonese and Standard Chinese. In addition to Mandarin, most Taiwanese also speak Taiwanese Hokkien (commonly "Taiwanese" 台語), Hakka, or an Austronesian language. A Taiwanese may commonly mix pronunciations, phrases, and words from Mandarin and other Taiwanese languages, and this mixture is considered normal in daily or informal speech. Due to their traditional cultural ties to Guangdong province and colonial histories, Cantonese is used as the standard variant of Chinese in Hong Kong and Macau instead. ### Nomenclature The official Chinese designation for the major branches of Chinese is *fāngyán* (方言, literally "regional speech"), whereas the more closely related varieties within these are called *dìdiǎn fāngyán* (地点方言/地點方言 "local speech"). Conventional English-language usage in Chinese linguistics is to use *dialect* for the speech of a particular place (regardless of status) and *dialect group* for a regional grouping such as Mandarin or Wu. Because varieties from different groups are not mutually intelligible, some scholars prefer to describe Wu and others as separate languages. Jerry Norman called this practice misleading, pointing out that Wu, which itself contains many mutually unintelligible varieties, could not be properly called a single language under the same criterion, and that the same is true for each of the other groups. Mutual intelligibility is considered by some linguists to be the main criterion for determining whether varieties are separate languages or dialects of a single language, although others do not regard it as decisive, particularly when cultural factors interfere as they do with Chinese. As Campbell (2008) explains, linguists often ignore mutual intelligibility when varieties share intelligibility with a central variety (i.e. prestige variety, such as Standard Mandarin), as the issue requires some careful handling when mutual intelligibility is inconsistent with language identity. John DeFrancis argues that it is inappropriate to refer to Mandarin, Wu and so on as "dialects" because the mutual unintelligibility between them is too great. On the other hand, he also objects to considering them as separate languages, as it incorrectly implies a set of disruptive "religious, economic, political, and other differences" between speakers that exist, for example, between French Catholics and English Protestants in Canada, but not between speakers of Cantonese and Mandarin in China, owing to China's near-uninterrupted history of centralized government. Because of the difficulties involved in determining the difference between language and dialect, other terms have been proposed. These include *vernacular*, *lect*, *regionalect*, *topolect*, and *variety*. Most Chinese people consider the spoken varieties as one single language because speakers share a common culture and history, as well as a shared national identity and a common written form. Phonology --------- Syllables in the Chinese languages have some unique characteristics. They are tightly related to the morphology and also to the characters of the writing system; and phonologically they are structured according to fixed rules. The structure of each syllable consists of a nucleus that has a vowel (which can be a monophthong, diphthong, or even a triphthong in certain varieties), preceded by an onset (a single consonant, or consonant+glide; zero onset is also possible), and followed (optionally) by a coda consonant; a syllable also carries a tone. There are some instances where a vowel is not used as a nucleus. An example of this is in Cantonese, where the nasal sonorant consonants /m/ and /ŋ/ can stand alone as their own syllable. In Mandarin much more than in other spoken varieties, most syllables tend to be open syllables, meaning they have no coda (assuming that a final glide is not analyzed as a coda), but syllables that do have codas are restricted to nasals /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, the retroflex approximant /ɻ/, and voiceless stops /p/, /t/, /k/, or /ʔ/. Some varieties allow most of these codas, whereas others, such as Standard Chinese, are limited to only /n/, /ŋ/, and /ɻ/. The number of sounds in the different spoken dialects varies, but in general there has been a tendency to a reduction in sounds from Middle Chinese. The Mandarin dialects in particular have experienced a dramatic decrease in sounds and so have far more multisyllabic words than most other spoken varieties. The total number of syllables in some varieties is therefore only about a thousand, including tonal variation, which is only about an eighth as many as English. ### Tones All varieties of spoken Chinese use tones to distinguish words. A few dialects of north China may have as few as three tones, while some dialects in south China have up to 6 or 12 tones, depending on how one counts. One exception from this is Shanghainese which has reduced the set of tones to a two-toned pitch accent system much like modern Japanese. A very common example used to illustrate the use of tones in Chinese is the application of the four tones of Standard Chinese (along with the neutral tone) to the syllable *ma*. The tones are exemplified by the following five Chinese words: The four main tones of Standard Mandarin, pronounced with the syllable *ma*. Examples of Standard Mandarin tones| Characters | Pinyin | Pitch contour | Meaning | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 妈/媽 | *mā* | high level | 'mother' | | 麻 | *má* | high rising | 'hemp' | | 马/馬 | *mǎ* | low falling-rising | 'horse' | | 骂/罵 | *mà* | high falling | 'scold' | | 吗/嗎 | *ma* | neutral | question particle | Standard Cantonese, in contrast, has six tones. Historically, finals that end in a stop consonant were considered to be "checked tones" and thus counted separately for a total of nine tones. However, they are considered to be duplicates in modern linguistics and are no longer counted as such: Examples of Standard Cantonese tones| Characters | Jyutping | Yale | Pitch contour | Meaning | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 诗/詩 | *si1* | *sī* | high level, high falling | 'poem' | | 史 | *si2* | *sí* | high rising | 'history' | | 弒 | *si3* | *si* | mid level | 'to assassinate' | | 时/時 | *si4* | *sìh* | low falling | 'time' | | 市 | *si5* | *síh* | low rising | 'market' | | 是 | *si6* | *sih* | low level | 'yes' | Grammar ------- Chinese is often described as a "monosyllabic" language. However, this is only partially correct. It is largely accurate when describing Classical Chinese and Middle Chinese; in Classical Chinese, for example, perhaps 90% of words correspond to a single syllable and a single character. In the modern varieties, it is usually the case that a morpheme (unit of meaning) is a single syllable; in contrast, English has many multi-syllable morphemes, both bound and free, such as "seven", "elephant", "para-" and "-able". Some of the conservative southern varieties of modern Chinese have largely monosyllabic words, especially among the more basic vocabulary. In modern Mandarin, however, most nouns, adjectives and verbs are largely disyllabic. A significant cause of this is phonological attrition. Sound change over time has steadily reduced the number of possible syllables. In modern Mandarin, there are now only about 1,200 possible syllables, including tonal distinctions, compared with about 5,000 in Vietnamese (still largely monosyllabic) and over 8,000 in English. This phonological collapse has led to a corresponding increase in the number of homophones. As an example, the small Langenscheidt Pocket Chinese Dictionary lists six words that are commonly pronounced as *shí* (tone 2): 十 'ten'; 实/實 'real, actual'; 识/識 'know (a person), recognize'; 石 'stone'; 时/時 'time'; 食 'food, eat'. These were all pronounced differently in Early Middle Chinese; in William H. Baxter's transcription they were *dzyip*, *zyit*, *syik*, *dzyek*, *dzyi* and *zyik* respectively. They are still pronounced differently in today's Cantonese; in Jyutping they are *sap9*, *sat9*, *sik7*, *sek9*, *si4*, *sik9*. In modern spoken Mandarin, however, tremendous ambiguity would result if all of these words could be used as-is; Yuen Ren Chao's modern poem Lion-Eating Poet in the Stone Den exploits this, consisting of 92 characters all pronounced *shi*. As such, most of these words have been replaced (in speech, if not in writing) with a longer, less-ambiguous compound. Only the first one, 十 'ten', normally appears as such when spoken; the rest are normally replaced with, respectively, *shíjì* 实际/實際 (lit. 'actual-connection'); *rènshi* 认识/認識 (lit. 'recognize-know'); *shítou* 石头/石頭 (lit. 'stone-head'); *shíjiān* 时间/時間 (lit. 'time-interval'); *shíwù* 食物 (lit. 'foodstuff'). In each case, the homophone was disambiguated by adding another morpheme, typically either a synonym or a generic word of some sort (for example, 'head', 'thing'), the purpose of which is to indicate which of the possible meanings of the other, homophonic syllable should be selected. However, when one of the above words forms part of a compound, the disambiguating syllable is generally dropped and the resulting word is still disyllabic. For example, *shí* 石 alone, not *shítou* 石头/石頭, appears in compounds meaning 'stone-', for example, *shígāo* 石膏 'plaster' (lit. 'stone cream'), *shíhuī* 石灰 'lime' (lit. 'stone dust'), *shíkū* 石窟 'grotto' (lit. 'stone cave'), *shíyīng* 石英 'quartz' (lit. 'stone flower'), *shíyóu* 石油 'petroleum' (lit. 'stone oil'). Most modern varieties of Chinese have the tendency to form new words through disyllabic, trisyllabic and tetra-character compounds. In some cases, monosyllabic words have become disyllabic without compounding, as in *kūlong* 窟窿 from *kǒng* 孔; this is especially common in Jin. Chinese morphology is strictly bound to a set number of syllables with a fairly rigid construction. Although many of these single-syllable morphemes (*zì*, 字) can stand alone as individual words, they more often than not form multi-syllabic compounds, known as *cí* (词/詞), which more closely resembles the traditional Western notion of a word. A Chinese *cí* ('word') can consist of more than one character-morpheme, usually two, but there can be three or more. For example: * *yún* 云/雲 'cloud' * *hànbǎobāo*, *hànbǎo* 汉堡包/漢堡包, 汉堡/漢堡 'hamburger' * *wǒ* 我 'I, me' * *shǒuményuán* 守门员/守門員 'goalkeeper' * *rén* 人 'people, human, mankind' * *dìqiú* 地球 'The Earth' * *shǎndiàn* 闪电/閃電 'lightning' * *mèng* 梦/夢 'dream' All varieties of modern Chinese are analytic languages, in that they depend on syntax (word order and sentence structure) rather than morphology—i.e., changes in form of a word—to indicate the word's function in a sentence. In other words, Chinese has very few grammatical inflections—it possesses no tenses, no voices, no numbers (singular, plural; though there are plural markers, for example for personal pronouns), and only a few articles (i.e., equivalents to "the, a, an" in English). They make heavy use of grammatical particles to indicate aspect and mood. In Mandarin Chinese, this involves the use of particles like *le* 了 (perfective), *hái* 还/還 ('still'), *yǐjīng* 已经/已經 ('already'), and so on. Chinese has a subject–verb–object word order, and like many other languages of East Asia, makes frequent use of the topic–comment construction to form sentences. Chinese also has an extensive system of classifiers and measure words, another trait shared with neighboring languages like Japanese and Korean. Other notable grammatical features common to all the spoken varieties of Chinese include the use of serial verb construction, pronoun dropping and the related subject dropping. Although the grammars of the spoken varieties share many traits, they do possess differences. Vocabulary ---------- The entire Chinese character corpus since antiquity comprises well over 50,000 characters, of which only roughly 10,000 are in use and only about 3,000 are frequently used in Chinese media and newspapers. However Chinese characters should not be confused with Chinese words. Because most Chinese words are made up of two or more characters, there are many more Chinese words than characters. A more accurate equivalent for a Chinese character is the morpheme, as characters represent the smallest grammatical units with individual meanings in the Chinese language. Estimates of the total number of Chinese words and lexicalized phrases vary greatly. The *Hanyu Da Zidian*, a compendium of Chinese characters, includes 54,678 head entries for characters, including bone oracle versions. The *Zhonghua Zihai* (1994) contains 85,568 head entries for character definitions, and is the largest reference work based purely on character and its literary variants. The CC-CEDICT project (2010) contains 97,404 contemporary entries including idioms, technology terms and names of political figures, businesses and products. The 2009 version of the Webster's Digital Chinese Dictionary (WDCD), based on CC-CEDICT, contains over 84,000 entries. The most comprehensive pure linguistic Chinese-language dictionary, the 12-volume *Hanyu Da Cidian*, records more than 23,000 head Chinese characters and gives over 370,000 definitions. The 1999 revised *Cihai*, a multi-volume encyclopedic dictionary reference work, gives 122,836 vocabulary entry definitions under 19,485 Chinese characters, including proper names, phrases and common zoological, geographical, sociological, scientific and technical terms. The 7th (2016) edition of *Xiandai Hanyu Cidian*, an authoritative one-volume dictionary on modern standard Chinese language as used in mainland China, has 13,000 head characters and defines 70,000 words. ### Loanwords Like many other languages, Chinese has absorbed a sizable number of loanwords from other cultures. Most Chinese words are formed out of native Chinese morphemes, including words describing imported objects and ideas. However, direct phonetic borrowing of foreign words has gone on since ancient times. Some early Indo-European loanwords in Chinese have been proposed, notably 蜜 *mì* "honey", 狮/獅 *shī* "lion," and perhaps also 马/馬 *mǎ* "horse", 猪/豬 *zhū* "pig", 犬 *quǎn* "dog", and 鹅/鵝 *é* "goose". Ancient words borrowed from along the Silk Road since Old Chinese include 葡萄 *pútáo* "grape", 石榴 *shíliu*/*shíliú* "pomegranate" and 狮子/獅子 *shīzi* "lion". Some words were borrowed from Buddhist scriptures, including 佛 *Fó* "Buddha" and 菩萨/菩薩 *Púsà* "bodhisattva." Other words came from nomadic peoples to the north, such as 胡同 *hútòng* "hutong". Words borrowed from the peoples along the Silk Road, such as 葡萄 "grape," generally have Persian etymologies. Buddhist terminology is generally derived from Sanskrit or Pāli, the liturgical languages of North India. Words borrowed from the nomadic tribes of the Gobi, Mongolian or northeast regions generally have Altaic etymologies, such as 琵琶 *pípá*, the Chinese lute, or 酪 *lào*/*luò* "cheese" or "yogurt", but from exactly which source is not always clear. ### Modern borrowings Modern neologisms are primarily translated into Chinese in one of three ways: free translation (*calque*, or by meaning), phonetic translation (by sound), or a combination of the two. Today, it is much more common to use existing Chinese morphemes to coin new words to represent imported concepts, such as technical expressions and international scientific vocabulary. Any Latin or Greek etymologies are dropped and converted into the corresponding Chinese characters (for example, *anti-* typically becomes "反", literally *opposite*), making them more comprehensible for Chinese but introducing more difficulties in understanding foreign texts. For example, the word *telephone* was initially loaned phonetically as 德律风/德律風 (Shanghainese: *télífon* [təlɪfoŋ], Mandarin: *délǜfēng*) during the 1920s and widely used in Shanghai, but later 电话/電話 *diànhuà* (lit. "electric speech"), built out of native Chinese morphemes, became prevalent (電話 is in fact from the Japanese 電話 *denwa*; see below for more Japanese loans). Other examples include 电视/電視 *diànshì* (lit. "electric vision") for television, 电脑/電腦 *diànnǎo* (lit. "electric brain") for computer; 手机/手機 *shǒujī* (lit. "hand machine") for mobile phone, 蓝牙/藍牙 *lányá* (lit. "blue tooth") for Bluetooth, and 网志/網誌 *wǎngzhì* (lit. "internet logbook") for blog in Hong Kong and Macau Cantonese. Occasionally half-transliteration, half-translation compromises are accepted, such as 汉堡包/漢堡包 *hànbǎobāo* (漢堡 *hànbǎo* "Hamburg" + 包 *bāo* "bun") for "hamburger". Sometimes translations are designed so that they sound like the original while incorporating Chinese morphemes (phono-semantic matching), such as 马利奥/馬利奧 Mǎlì'ào for the video game character Mario. This is often done for commercial purposes, for example 奔腾/奔騰 *bēnténg* (lit. "dashing-leaping") for Pentium and 赛百味/賽百味 *Sàibǎiwèi* (lit. "better-than hundred tastes") for Subway restaurants. Foreign words, mainly proper nouns, continue to enter the Chinese language by transcription according to their pronunciations. This is done by employing Chinese characters with similar pronunciations. For example, "Israel" becomes 以色列 *Yǐsèliè*, "Paris" becomes 巴黎 *Bālí*. A rather small number of direct transliterations have survived as common words, including 沙发/沙發 *shāfā* "sofa", 马达/馬達 *mǎdá* "motor", 幽默 *yōumò* "humor", 逻辑/邏輯 *luóji*/*luójí* "logic", 时髦/時髦 *shímáo* "smart, fashionable", and 歇斯底里 *xiēsīdǐlǐ* "hysterics". The bulk of these words were originally coined in the Shanghai dialect during the early 20th century and were later loaned into Mandarin, hence their pronunciations in Mandarin may be quite off from the English. For example, 沙发/沙發 "sofa" and 马达/馬達 "motor" in Shanghainese sound more like their English counterparts. Cantonese differs from Mandarin with some transliterations, such as 梳化 *so1 faa3\*2* "sofa" and 摩打 *mo1 daa2* "motor". Western foreign words representing Western concepts have influenced Chinese since the 20th century through transcription. From French came 芭蕾 *bālěi* "ballet" and 香槟/香檳 *xiāngbīn*, "champagne"; from Italian, 咖啡 *kāfēi* "caffè". English influence is particularly pronounced. From early 20th century Shanghainese, many English words are borrowed, such as 高尔夫/高爾夫 *gāoěrfū* "golf" and the above-mentioned 沙发/沙發 *shāfā* "sofa". Later, the United States soft influences gave rise to 迪斯科 *dísikē*/*dísīkē* "disco", 可乐/可樂 *kělè* "cola", and 迷你 *mínǐ* "mini [skirt]". Contemporary colloquial Cantonese has distinct loanwords from English, such as 卡通 *kaa1 tung1* "cartoon", 基佬 *gei1 lou2* "gay people", 的士 *dik1 si6\*2* "taxi", and 巴士 *baa1 si6\*2* "bus". With the rising popularity of the Internet, there is a current vogue in China for coining English transliterations, for example, 粉丝/粉絲 *fěnsī* "fans", 黑客 *hēikè* "hacker" (lit. "black guest"), and 博客 *bókè* "blog". In Taiwan, some of these transliterations are different, such as 駭客 *hàikè* for "hacker" and 部落格 *bùluògé* for "blog" (lit. "interconnected tribes"). Another result of the English influence on Chinese is the appearance in Modern Chinese texts of so-called 字母词/字母詞 *zìmǔcí* (lit. "lettered words") spelled with letters from the English alphabet. This has appeared in magazines, newspapers, on web sites, and on TV: 三G手机/三G手機 "3rd generation cell phones" (三 *sān* "three" + G "generation" + 手机/手機 *shǒujī* "mobile phones"), IT界 "IT circles" (IT "information technology" + 界 *jiè* "industry"), HSK (*Hànyǔ Shuǐpíng Kǎoshì*, 汉语水平考试/漢語水平考試), GB (*Guóbiāo*, 国标/國標), CIF价/CIF價 (CIF "Cost, Insurance, Freight" + 价/價 *jià* "price"), e家庭 "e-home" (e "electronic" + 家庭 *jiātíng* "home"), Chinese: W时代/Chinese: W時代 "wireless era" (W "wireless" + 时代/時代 *shídài* "era"), TV族 "TV watchers" (TV "television" + 族 *zú* "social group; clan"), 后РС时代/後PC時代 "post-PC era" (后/後 *hòu* "after/post-" + PC "personal computer" + 时代/時代), and so on. Since the 20th century, another source of words has been Japanese using existing kanji (Chinese characters used in Japanese). Japanese re-molded European concepts and inventions into *wasei-kango* (和製漢語, lit. "Japanese-made Chinese"), and many of these words have been re-loaned into modern Chinese. Other terms were coined by the Japanese by giving new senses to existing Chinese terms or by referring to expressions used in classical Chinese literature. For example, *jīngjì* (经济/經濟; 経済 *keizai* in Japanese), which in the original Chinese meant "the workings of the state", was narrowed to "economy" in Japanese; this narrowed definition was then reimported into Chinese. As a result, these terms are virtually indistinguishable from native Chinese words: indeed, there is some dispute over some of these terms as to whether the Japanese or Chinese coined them first. As a result of this loaning, Chinese, Korean, Japanese, and Vietnamese share a corpus of linguistic terms describing modern terminology, paralleling the similar corpus of terms built from Greco-Latin and shared among European languages. Writing system -------------- The Chinese orthography centers on Chinese characters, which are written within imaginary square blocks, traditionally arranged in vertical columns, read from top to bottom down a column, and right to left across columns, despite alternative arrangement with rows of characters from left to right within a row and from top to bottom across rows (like English and other Western writing systems) having become more popular since the 20th century. Chinese characters denote morphemes independent of phonetic variation in different languages. Thus the character 一 ("one") is uttered *yī* in Standard Chinese, *yat1* in Cantonese and *it* in Hokkien (a form of Min). Most written Chinese documents in the modern time, especially the more formal ones, are created using the grammar and syntax of the Standard Mandarin Chinese variants, regardless of dialectical background of the author or targeted audience. This replaced the old writing language standard of Literary Chinese before the 20th century. However, vocabularies from different Chinese-speaking areas have diverged, and the divergence can be observed in written Chinese. Meanwhile, colloquial forms of various Chinese language variants have also been written down by their users, especially in less formal settings. The most prominent example of this is the written colloquial form of Cantonese, which has become quite popular in tabloids, instant messaging applications, and on the internet amongst Hong-Kongers and Cantonese-speakers elsewhere. Because some Chinese variants have diverged and developed a number of unique morphemes that are not found in Standard Mandarin (despite all other common morphemes), unique characters rarely used in Standard Chinese have also been created or inherited from archaic literary standard to represent these unique morphemes. For example, characters like 冇 and 係 for Cantonese and Hakka, are actively used in both languages while being considered archaic or unused in standard written Chinese. The Chinese had no uniform phonetic transcription system for most of its speakers until the mid-20th century, although enunciation patterns were recorded in early rime books and dictionaries. Early Indian translators, working in Sanskrit and Pali, were the first to attempt to describe the sounds and enunciation patterns of Chinese in a foreign language. After the 15th century, the efforts of Jesuits and Western court missionaries resulted in some Latin character transcription/writing systems, based on various variants of Chinese languages. Some of these Latin character based systems are still being used to write various Chinese variants in the modern era. In Hunan, women in certain areas write their local Chinese language variant in Nü Shu, a syllabary derived from Chinese characters. The Dungan language, considered by many a dialect of Mandarin, is nowadays written in Cyrillic, and was previously written in the Arabic script. The Dungan people are primarily Muslim and live mainly in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Russia; some of the related Hui people also speak the language and live mainly in China. ### Chinese characters Each Chinese character represents a monosyllabic Chinese word or morpheme. In 100 CE, the famed Han dynasty scholar Xu Shen classified characters into six categories, namely pictographs, simple ideographs, compound ideographs, phonetic loans, phonetic compounds and derivative characters. Of these, only 4% were categorized as pictographs, including many of the simplest characters, such as *rén* 人 (human), *rì* 日 (sun), *shān* 山 (mountain; hill), *shuǐ* 水 (water). Between 80% and 90% were classified as phonetic compounds such as *chōng* 沖 (pour), combining a phonetic component *zhōng* 中 (middle) with a semantic radical 氵 (water). Almost all characters created since have been made using this format. The 18th-century Kangxi Dictionary recognized 214 radicals. Modern characters are styled after the regular script. Various other written styles are also used in Chinese calligraphy, including seal script, cursive script and clerical script. Calligraphy artists can write in traditional and simplified characters, but they tend to use traditional characters for traditional art. There are currently two systems for Chinese characters. The traditional system, used in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Macau and Chinese speaking communities (except Singapore and Malaysia) outside mainland China, takes its form from standardized character forms dating back to the late Han dynasty. The Simplified Chinese character system, introduced by the People's Republic of China in 1954 to promote mass literacy, simplifies most complex traditional glyphs to fewer strokes, many to common cursive shorthand variants. Singapore, which has a large Chinese community, was the second nation to officially adopt simplified characters, although it has also become the *de facto* standard for younger ethnic Chinese in Malaysia. The Internet provides the platform to practice reading these alternative systems, be it traditional or simplified. Most Chinese users in the modern era are capable of, although not necessarily comfortable with, reading (but not writing) the alternative system, through experience and guesswork. A well-educated Chinese reader today recognizes approximately 4,000 to 6,000 characters; approximately 3,000 characters are required to read a Mainland newspaper. The PRC government defines literacy amongst workers as a knowledge of 2,000 characters, though this would be only functional literacy. School-children typically learn around 2,000 characters whereas scholars may memorize up to 10,000. A large unabridged dictionary, like the Kangxi Dictionary, contains over 40,000 characters, including obscure, variant, rare, and archaic characters; fewer than a quarter of these characters are now commonly used. ### Romanization Romanization is the process of transcribing a language into the Latin script. There are many systems of romanization for the Chinese varieties, due to the lack of a native phonetic transcription until modern times. Chinese is first known to have been written in Latin characters by Western Christian missionaries in the 16th century. Today the most common romanization standard for Standard Mandarin is *Hanyu Pinyin*, introduced in 1956 by the People's Republic of China, and later adopted by Singapore and Taiwan. Pinyin is almost universally employed now for teaching standard spoken Chinese in schools and universities across the Americas, Australia, and Europe. Chinese parents also use Pinyin to teach their children the sounds and tones of new words. In school books that teach Chinese, the Pinyin romanization is often shown below a picture of the thing the word represents, with the Chinese character alongside. The second-most common romanization system, the Wade–Giles, was invented by Thomas Wade in 1859 and modified by Herbert Giles in 1892. As this system approximates the phonology of Mandarin Chinese into English consonants and vowels, i.e. it is largely an Anglicization, it may be particularly helpful for beginner Chinese speakers of an English-speaking background. Wade–Giles was found in academic use in the United States, particularly before the 1980s, and until 2009 was widely used in Taiwan. When used within European texts, the tone transcriptions in both pinyin and Wade–Giles are often left out for simplicity; Wade–Giles' extensive use of apostrophes is also usually omitted. Thus, most Western readers will be much more familiar with *Beijing* than they will be with *Běijīng* (pinyin), and with *Taipei* than *T'ai²-pei³* (Wade–Giles). This simplification presents syllables as homophones which really are none, and therefore exaggerates the number of homophones almost by a factor of four. Here are a few examples of *Hanyu Pinyin* and Wade–Giles, for comparison: Mandarin Romanization Comparison| Characters | Wade–Giles | Pinyin | Meaning/Notes | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 中国/中國 | Chung¹-kuo² | *Zhōngguó* | China | | 台湾/台灣 | T'ai²-wan¹ | *Táiwān* | Taiwan | | 北京 | Pei³-ching¹ | *Běijīng* | Beijing | | 台北/臺北 | T'ai²-pei³ | *Táiběi* | Taipei | | 孫文 | Sun¹-wên² | *Sūn Wén* | Sun Yat-sen | | 毛泽东/毛澤東 | Mao² Tse²-tung¹ | *Máo Zédōng* | Mao Zedong, Former Communist Chinese leader | | 蒋介石/蔣介石 | Chiang³ Chieh⁴-shih² | *Jiǎng Jièshí* | Chiang Kai-shek, Former Nationalist Chinese leader | | 孔子 | K'ung³ Tsu³ | *Kǒngzǐ* | Confucius | Other systems of romanization for Chinese include Gwoyeu Romatzyh, the French EFEO, the Yale system (invented during WWII for U.S. troops), as well as separate systems for Cantonese, Min Nan, Hakka, and other Chinese varieties. ### Other phonetic transcriptions Chinese varieties have been phonetically transcribed into many other writing systems over the centuries. The 'Phags-pa script, for example, has been very helpful in reconstructing the pronunciations of premodern forms of Chinese. Zhuyin (colloquially *bopomofo*), a semi-syllabary is still widely used in Taiwan's elementary schools to aid standard pronunciation. Although zhuyin characters are reminiscent of katakana script, there is no source to substantiate the claim that Katakana was the basis for the zhuyin system. A comparison table of zhuyin to pinyin exists in the zhuyin article. Syllables based on pinyin and zhuyin can also be compared by looking at the following articles: * Pinyin table * Zhuyin table There are also at least two systems of cyrillization for Chinese. The most widespread is the Palladius system. As a foreign language --------------------- With the growing importance and influence of China's economy globally, Mandarin instruction has been gaining popularity in schools throughout East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Western world. Besides Mandarin, Cantonese is the only other Chinese language that is widely taught as a foreign language, largely due to the economic and cultural influence of Hong Kong and its widespread usage among significant Overseas Chinese communities. In 1991 there were 2,000 foreign learners taking China's official Chinese Proficiency Test (also known as HSK, comparable to the English Cambridge Certificate), but by 2005 the number of candidates had risen sharply to 117,660 and in 2010 to 750,000. See also -------- * Chinese exclamative particles * Chinese honorifics * Chinese numerals * Chinese punctuation * Classical Chinese grammar * Four-character idiom * Han unification * Languages of China * North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics * Protection of the Varieties of Chinese References ---------- ### Sources * Bailey, Charles-James N. (1973), *Variation and Linguistic Theory*, Arlington, VA: Center for Applied Linguistics. * Baxter, William H. (1992), *A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology*, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-012324-1. * Campbell, Lyle (2008), "[Untitled review of *Ethnologue*, 15th edition]", *Language*, **84** (3): 636–641, doi:10.1353/lan.0.0054, S2CID 143663395. * Chappell, Hilary (2008), "Variation in the grammaticalization of complementizers from *verba dicendi* in Sinitic languages", *Linguistic Typology*, **12** (1): 45–98, doi:10.1515/lity.2008.032, S2CID 201097561. * Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (2012), *Zhōngguó yǔyán dìtú jí (dì 2 bǎn): Hànyǔ fāngyán juǎn* 中国语言地图集(第2版):汉语方言卷 [*Language Atlas of China (2nd edition): Chinese dialect volume*], Beijing: The Commercial Press, ISBN 978-7-100-07054-6. * Coblin, W. South (2000), "A brief history of Mandarin", *Journal of the American Oriental Society*, **120** (4): 537–552, doi:10.2307/606615, JSTOR 606615. * DeFrancis, John (1984), *The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy*, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-1068-9. * Handel, Zev (2008), "What is Sino-Tibetan? Snapshot of a Field and a Language Family in Flux", *Language and Linguistics Compass*, **2** (3): 422–441, doi:10.1111/j.1749-818X.2008.00061.x. * Haugen, Einar (1966), "Dialect, Language, Nation", *American Anthropologist*, **68** (4): 922–935, doi:10.1525/aa.1966.68.4.02a00040, JSTOR 670407. * Hudson, R. A. (1996), *Sociolinguistics* (2nd ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-56514-1. * Hymes, Dell (1971), "Sociolinguistics and the ethnography of speaking", in Ardener, Edwin (ed.), *Social Anthropology and Language*, Routledge, pp. 47–92, ISBN 978-1-136-53941-1. * Groves, Julie (2008), "Language or Dialect—or Topolect? A Comparison of the Attitudes of Hong Kongers and Mainland Chinese towards the Status of Cantonese" (PDF), *Sino-Platonic Papers* (179) * Kane, Daniel (2006), *The Chinese Language: Its History and Current Usage*, Tuttle Publishing, ISBN 978-0-8048-3853-5. * Kornicki, P.F. (2011), "A transnational approach to East Asian book history", in Chakravorty, Swapan; Gupta, Abhijit (eds.), *New Word Order: Transnational Themes in Book History*, Worldview Publications, pp. 65–79, ISBN 978-81-920651-1-3. * Kurpaska, Maria (2010), *Chinese Language(s): A Look Through the Prism of "The Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects"*, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-021914-2. * Lewis, M. Paul; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D., eds. (2015), *Ethnologue: Languages of the World* (Eighteenth ed.), Dallas, Texas: SIL International. * Liang, Sihua (2014), *Language Attitudes and Identities in Multilingual China: A Linguistic Ethnography*, Springer International Publishing, ISBN 978-3-319-12619-7. * Mair, Victor H. (1991), "What Is a Chinese "Dialect/Topolect"? Reflections on Some Key Sino-English Linguistic terms" (PDF), *Sino-Platonic Papers*, **29**: 1–31, archived from the original (PDF) on 10 May 2018, retrieved 12 January 2009. * Matthews, Stephen; Yip, Virginia (1994), *Cantonese: A Comprehensive Grammar*, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-08945-6. * Miller, Roy Andrew (1967), *The Japanese Language*, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-52717-8. * Miyake, Marc Hideo (2004), *Old Japanese: A Phonetic Reconstruction*, RoutledgeCurzon, ISBN 978-0-415-30575-4. * Norman, Jerry (1988), *Chinese*, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-29653-3. * Norman, Jerry (2003), "The Chinese dialects: phonology", in Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (eds.), *The Sino-Tibetan languages*, Routledge, pp. 72–83, ISBN 978-0-7007-1129-1. * Ramsey, S. Robert (1987), *The Languages of China*, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-01468-5. * Romaine, Suzanne (2000), *Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics*, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-875133-5. * Schuessler, Axel (2007), *ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese*, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-2975-9. * Shibatani, Masayoshi (1990), *The Languages of Japan*, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-36918-3. * Sohn, Ho-Min (2001), *The Korean Language*, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-36943-5. * Sohn, Ho-Min; Lee, Peter H. (2003), "Language, forms, prosody, and themes", in Lee, Peter H. (ed.), *A History of Korean Literature*, Cambridge University Press, pp. 15–51, ISBN 978-0-521-82858-1. * Thomason, Sarah Grey (1988), "Languages of the World", in Paulston, Christina Bratt (ed.), *International Handbook of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education*, Westport, CT: Greenwood, pp. 17–45, ISBN 978-0-313-24484-1. * Van Herk, Gerard (2012), *What is Sociolinguistics?*, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-1-4051-9319-1. * Wardaugh, Ronald; Fuller, Janet (2014), *An Introduction to Sociolinguistics*, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-1-118-73229-8. * Wilkinson, Endymion (2000), *Chinese History: A Manual* (2nd ed.), Harvard Univ Asia Center, ISBN 978-0-674-00249-4. * Wurm, Stephen Adolphe; Li, Rong; Baumann, Theo; Lee, Mei W. (1987), *Language Atlas of China*, Longman, ISBN 978-962-359-085-3. * Zhang, Bennan; Yang, Robin R. (2004), "*Putonghua* education and language policy in postcolonial Hong Kong", in Zhou, Minglang (ed.), *Language policy in the People's Republic of China: Theory and practice since 1949*, Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 143–161, ISBN 978-1-4020-8038-8. * Sagart, Laurent; Jacques, Guillaume; Lai, Yunfan; Ryder, Robin; Thouzeau, Valentin; Greenhill, Simon J.; List, Johann-Mattis (2019), "Dated language phylogenies shed light on the history of Sino-Tibetan", *Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America*, **116** (21): 10317–10322, doi:10.1073/pnas.1817972116, PMC 6534992, PMID 31061123. + "Origin of Sino-Tibetan language family revealed by new research". *ScienceDaily* (Press release). 6 May 2019. Further reading --------------- * Hannas, William C. (1997), *Asia's Orthographic Dilemma*, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-1892-0. * Qiu, Xigui (2000), *Chinese Writing*, trans. Gilbert Louis Mattos and Jerry Norman, Society for the Study of Early China and Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley, ISBN 978-1-55729-071-7. * R. L. G. "Language borrowing Why so little Chinese in English?" *The Economist*. 6 June 2013. * Huang, Cheng-Teh James; Li, Yen-Hui Audrey; Li, Yafei (2009), *The Syntax of Chinese*, Cambridge Syntax Guides, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, doi:10.1017/CBO9781139166935, ISBN 978-0-521-59958-0.

Chinese language

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language

**Plastic surgery** is a surgical specialty involving the restoration, reconstruction or alteration of the human body. It can be divided into two main categories: **reconstructive surgery** and **cosmetic surgery**. Reconstructive surgery includes craniofacial surgery, hand surgery, microsurgery, and the treatment of burns. While reconstructive surgery aims to reconstruct a part of the body or improve its functioning, cosmetic (or aesthetic) surgery aims at improving the appearance of it. Etymology --------- The word *plastic* in *plastic surgery* is in reference to the concept of "reshaping" and comes from the Greek πλαστική (τέχνη), *plastikē* (*tekhnē*), "the art of modelling" of malleable flesh. This meaning in English is seen as early as 1598. The surgical definition of "plastic" used in this manner first appeared in 1839, preceding the modern usage of the word as "engineering material made from petroleum" by 70 years. History ------- Treatments for the plastic repair of a broken nose are first mentioned in the c. 1600 BC Egyptian medical text called the Edwin Smith papyrus. The early trauma surgery textbook was named after the American Egyptologist, Edwin Smith. The Romans also performed plastic cosmetic surgery, using simple techniques, such as repairing damaged ears, from around the 1st century BC. For religious reasons, they did not dissect either human beings or animals, thus, their knowledge was based in its entirety on the texts of their Greek predecessors. Notwithstanding, Aulus Cornelius Celsus left some accurate anatomical descriptions, some of which—for instance, his studies on the genitalia and the skeleton—are of special interest to plastic surgery. Several ancient Sanskrit medical treatise mentions some types of plastic surgery in India such as the works of Sushruta and Charaka. These works were translated into the Arabic language during the Abbasid Caliphate in 750 AD. The Arabic translations made their way into Europe via intermediaries. In Italy, the Branca family of Sicily and Gaspare Tagliacozzi (Bologna) became familiar with the techniques of Sushruta. British physicians travelled to India to see rhinoplasties being performed by Indian methods. Reports on Indian rhinoplasty performed by a Kumhar (potter) vaidya were published in the *Gentleman's Magazine* by 1794. Joseph Constantine Carpue spent 20 years in India studying local plastic surgery methods. Carpue was able to perform the first major surgery in the Western world in the year 1815. Instruments described in the *Sushruta Samhita* were further modified in the Western world. In 1465, Sabuncu's book, description, and classification of hypospadias were more informative and up to date. Localization of the urethral meatus was described in detail. Sabuncuoglu also detailed the description and classification of ambiguous genitalia. In mid-15th-century Europe, Heinrich von Pfolspeundt described a process "to make a new nose for one who lacks it entirely, and the dogs have devoured it" by removing skin from the back of the arm and suturing it in place. However, because of the dangers associated with surgery in any form, especially that involving the head or face, it was not until the 19th and 20th centuries that such surgery became common. In 1814, Joseph Carpue successfully performed an operative procedure on a British military officer who had lost his nose to the toxic effects of mercury treatments. In 1818, German surgeon Carl Ferdinand von Graefe published his major work entitled *Rhinoplastik*. Von Graefe modified the Italian method using a free skin graft from the arm instead of the original delayed pedicle flap. The first American plastic surgeon was John Peter Mettauer, who, in 1827, performed the first cleft palate operation with instruments that he designed himself. In 1845, Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach wrote a comprehensive text on rhinoplasty, titled *Operative Chirurgie*, and introduced the concept of reoperation to improve the cosmetic appearance of the reconstructed nose. Another case of plastic surgery for nose reconstruction from 1884 at Bellevue Hospital was described in Scientific American. In 1891, American otorhinolaryngologist John Roe presented an example of his work: a young woman on whom he reduced a dorsal nasal hump for cosmetic indications. In 1892, Robert Weir experimented unsuccessfully with xenografts (duck sternum) in the reconstruction of sunken noses. In 1896, James Israel, a urological surgeon from Germany, and in 1889 George Monks of the United States each described the successful use of heterogeneous free-bone grafting to reconstruct saddle nose defects. In 1898, Jacques Joseph, the German orthopaedic-trained surgeon, published his first account of reduction rhinoplasty. In 1928, Jacques Joseph published *Nasenplastik und Sonstige Gesichtsplastik*. Nascency of maxillofacial surgery --------------------------------- The development of weapons such as machine guns and explosive shell during World War I created trench warfare, which led to a rapid increase in the number of mutilations to the faces and the heads of soldiers, because the trenches mainly offered protection to the body. The surgeons, who were not prepared for these injuries, were even less prepared for a large number of injuries and had to react quickly and intelligently to treat the greatest number. Facial injuries were hard to treat on the front line because of the sanitary conditions many infections could occur. Sometimes, some stitches were made on a jagged wound without thinking about the amount of flesh that has been lost, so scars after were hideous and disfigured soldiers. Some injured had important injuries and the stitches were not sufficient so some became blind, or were left with gaping holes instead of their nose. Harold Gillies, scared by the number of new facial injuries and the lack of good surgical techniques decided to dedicate an entire hospital to the reconstruction of facial injuries as fully as possible. He took into account the psychological dimension. Gillies introduced skin grafts to the treatments of soldiers, so they would be less horrified by looking at themselves in the mirror. It is the multidisciplinary approach to the treatment of facial lesions, bringing together plastic surgeons, dental surgeons, technicians, and specialized nurses, which has made it possible to develop techniques leading to the reconstruction of injured faces. Harold Gillies identified the need to advance the specialty of maxillofacial surgery which would be directly dedicated to the management of war wounds at this time. He has developed a new technique using rotational and transposition flaps but also bone grafts from the ribs and tibia to reconstruct facial defects caused by the weapons during the war Gillies experimented with this technique so he knew that he have to start by moving back healthy tissue to its normal position and then he will be able to fill with tissue from another place on the body of the soldier. One of the most successful techniques in skin grafting had the aim of not completely severing the connection to the body. It was possible by releasing and lifting a flap of skin from the wound. The flap of skin, still connected to the donor site would then be swung over the site of the wound, this technique allows the maintenance of physical connection and ensured that blood was supplied to the skin and increase the chances of the skin graft being accepted by the body. At this time, we assist also to improving in treating infections also meant that important injuries had become survivable mostly thanks to the new technique of Gillies. Some soldiers arrived at the hospital of Gillies without noses, chins, cheekbones, or even eyes. But for them, the most important trauma was psychological. Development of modern techniques -------------------------------- The father of modern plastic surgery is generally considered to have been Sir Harold Gillies. A New Zealand otolaryngologist working in London, he developed many of the techniques of modern facial surgery in caring for soldiers with disfiguring facial injuries during the First World War. During World War I, he worked as a medical minder with the Royal Army Medical Corps. After working with the renowned French oral and maxillofacial surgeon Hippolyte Morestin on skin graft, he persuaded the army's chief surgeon, Arbuthnot-Lane, to establish a facial injury ward at the Cambridge Military Hospital, Aldershot, later upgraded to a new hospital for facial repairs at Sidcup in 1917. There Gillies and his colleagues developed many techniques of plastic surgery; more than 11,000 operations were performed on more than 5,000 men (mostly soldiers with facial injuries, usually from gunshot wounds). After the war, Gillies developed a private practice with Rainsford Mowlem, including many famous patients, and travelled extensively to promote his advanced techniques worldwide. In 1930, Gillies' cousin, Archibald McIndoe, joined the practice and became committed to plastic surgery. When World War II broke out, plastic surgery provision was largely divided between the different services of the armed forces, and Gillies and his team were split up. Gillies himself was sent to Rooksdown House near Basingstoke, which became the principal army plastic surgery unit; Tommy Kilner (who had worked with Gillies during the First World War, and who now has a surgical instrument named after him, the kilner cheek retractor) went to Queen Mary's Hospital, Roehampton; and Mowlem went to St Albans. McIndoe, consultant to the RAF, moved to the recently rebuilt Queen Victoria Hospital in East Grinstead, Sussex, and founded a Centre for Plastic and Jaw Surgery. There, he treated very deep burn, and serious facial disfigurement, such as loss of eyelids, typical of those caused to aircrew by burning fuel. McIndoe is often recognized for not only developing new techniques for treating badly burned faces and hands but also for recognising the importance of the rehabilitation of the casualties and particularly of social reintegration back into normal life. He disposed of the "convalescent uniforms" and let the patients use their service uniforms instead. With the help of two friends, Neville and Elaine Blond, he also convinced the locals to support the patients and invite them to their homes. McIndoe kept referring to them as "his boys" and the staff called him "The Boss" or "The Maestro". His other important work included development of the walking-stalk skin graft, and the discovery that immersion in saline promoted healing as well as improving survival rates for patients with extensive burns—this was a serendipitous discovery drawn from observation of differential healing rates in pilots who had come down on land and in the sea. His radical, experimental treatments led to the formation of the Guinea Pig Club at Queen Victoria Hospital, Sussex. Among the better-known members of his "club" were Richard Hillary, Bill Foxley and Jimmy Edwards. Sub-specialties --------------- Plastic surgery is a broad field, and may be subdivided further. In the United States, plastic surgeons are board certified by American Board of Plastic Surgery. Subdisciplines of plastic surgery may include: ### Aesthetic surgery Aesthetic surgery is a central component of plastic surgery and includes facial and body aesthetic surgery. Plastic surgeons use cosmetic surgical principles in all reconstructive surgical procedures as well as isolated operations to improve overall appearance. ### Burn surgery Burn surgery generally takes place in two phases. Acute burn surgery is the treatment immediately after a burn. Reconstructive burn surgery takes place after the burn wounds have healed. ### Craniofacial surgery Craniofacial surgery is divided into pediatric and adult craniofacial surgery. Pediatric craniofacial surgery mostly revolves around the treatment of congenital anomalies of the craniofacial skeleton and soft tissues, such as cleft lip and palate, microtia, craniosynostosis, and pediatric fractures. Adult craniofacial surgery deals mostly with reconstructive surgeries after trauma or cancer and revision surgeries along with orthognathic surgery and facial feminization surgery. Craniofacial surgery is an important part of all plastic surgery training programs. Further training and subspecialisation is obtained via a craniofacial fellowship. Craniofacial surgery is also practiced by maxillofacial surgeons. ### Ethnic plastic surgery Ethnic plastic surgery is plastic surgery performed to change ethnic attributes, often considered used as a way of "passing". ### Hand surgery Hand surgery is concerned with acute injuries and chronic diseases of the hand and wrist, correction of congenital malformations of the upper extremities, and peripheral nerve problems (such as brachial plexus injuries or carpal tunnel syndrome). Hand surgery is an important part of training in plastic surgery, as well as microsurgery, which is necessary to replant an amputated extremity. The hand surgery field is also practiced by orthopedic surgeons and general surgeons. Scar tissue formation after surgery can be problematic on the delicate hand, causing loss of dexterity and digit function if severe enough. There have been cases of surgery to women's hands in order to correct perceived flaws to create the perfect engagement ring photo. ### Microsurgery Microsurgery is generally concerned with the reconstruction of missing tissues by transferring a piece of tissue to the reconstruction site and reconnecting blood vessels. Popular subspecialty areas are breast reconstruction, head and neck reconstruction, hand surgery/replantation, and brachial plexus surgery. ### Pediatric plastic surgery Children often face medical issues very different from the experiences of an adult patient. Many birth defects or syndromes present at birth are best treated in childhood, and pediatric plastic surgeons specialize in treating these conditions in children. Conditions commonly treated by pediatric plastic surgeons include craniofacial anomalies, Syndactyly (webbing of the fingers and toes), Polydactyly (excess fingers and toes at birth), cleft lip and palate, and congenital hand deformities. ### Prison plastic surgery Plastic surgery performed on an incarcerated population in order to affect their recidivism rate, a practice instituted in the early 20th century that lasted until the mid-1990s. Separate from surgery performed for medical need. Techniques and procedures ------------------------- In plastic surgery, the transfer of skin tissue (skin grafting) is a very common procedure. Skin grafts can be derived from the recipient or donors: * Autografts are taken from the recipient. If absent or deficient of natural tissue, alternatives can be cultured sheets of epithelial cells *in vitro* or synthetic compounds, such as integra, which consists of silicone and bovine tendon collagen with glycosaminoglycans. * Allografts are taken from a donor of the same species. * Xenografts are taken from a donor of a different species. Usually, good results would be expected from plastic surgery that emphasize careful planning of incisions so that they fall within the line of natural skin folds or lines, appropriate choice of wound closure, use of best available suture materials, and early removal of exposed sutures so that the wound is held closed by buried sutures.[*original research?*] Reconstructive surgery ---------------------- Reconstructive plastic surgery is performed to correct functional impairments caused by burns; traumatic injuries, such as facial bone fractures and breaks; congenital abnormalities, such as cleft palates or cleft lips; developmental abnormalities; infection and disease; and cancer or tumors. The goal of reconstructive plastic surgery is to restore both form and function. The most common reconstructive procedures are tumor removal, laceration repair, maxillofacial surgery, scar revision, hand surgery and breast reduction plasty. According to the American Society of Plastic Surgeons, the number of reconstructive breast reductions for women decreased in 2018 by 4 percent from the year before. Breast reduction in men decreased in 2018 by 8 percent. In 2018, there were 57,535 performed. Some other common reconstructive surgical procedures include breast reconstruction after a mastectomy for the treatment of cancer, cleft lip and palate surgery, contracture surgery for burn survivors, and creating a new outer ear when one is congenitally absent. Plastic surgeons use microsurgery to transfer tissue for coverage of a defect when no local tissue is available. Free flaps of skin, muscle, bone, fat, or a combination may be removed from the body, moved to another site on the body, and reconnected to a blood supply by suturing arteries and veins as small as 1 to 2 millimeters in diameter. Cosmetic surgery procedures --------------------------- Cosmetic surgery is a voluntary or elective surgery that is performed on normal parts of the body with the only purpose of improving a person's appearance and/or removing signs of aging. Some cosmetic surgeries such as breast reduction are also functional and can help to relieve symptoms of discomfort such as back ache or neck ache. Cosmetic surgeries are also undertaken following breast cancer and mastectomy to recreate the natural breast shape which has been lost during the process of removing the cancer. In 2014, nearly 16 million cosmetic procedures were performed in the United States alone. The number of cosmetic procedures performed in the United States has almost doubled since the start of the century. 92% of cosmetic procedures were performed on women in 2014, up from 88% in 2001. 15.6 million cosmetic procedures were performed in 2020, with the five most common surgeries being Nose Reshaping, Eyelid surgery, Facelift, Liposuction, and breast augmentation. Breast augmentation continues to be one of the top 5 cosmetic surgical procedures and has been since 2006. Silicone implants were used in 84% and saline implants in 16% of all breast augmentations in 2020. The American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery looks at the statistics for 34 different cosmetic procedures. Nineteen of the procedures are surgical, such as rhinoplasty or facelift. The nonsurgical procedures include Botox and laser hair removal. In 2010, their survey revealed that there were 9,336,814 total procedures in the United States. Of those, 1,622,290 procedures were surgical (p. 5). They also found that a large majority, 81%, of the procedures were done on Caucasian people (p. 12). In 1949, 15,000 Americans underwent cosmetic surgery procedures and by 1969 this number rose to almost half a million people. The American Society of Plastic Surgeons (ASPS) estimates that more than 333,000 cosmetic procedures were performed on patients 18 years of age or younger in the US in 2005 compared to approx. 14,000 in 1996. In 2018, more than 226,994 patients between the ages of 13 and 19 underwent plastic surgery compared to just over 218,900 patients in the same age group in 2010. Concerns about young people undergoing plastic surgery include the financial burden of additional surgical procedures needed to correct problems after the initial cosmetic surgery, long-term health complications from plastic surgery, and unaddressed mental health issues that may have led to surgery. The increased use of cosmetic procedures crosses racial and ethnic lines in the U.S., with increases seen among African-Americans, Asian Americans and Hispanic Americans as well as Caucasian Americans. In Asia, cosmetic surgery has become more popular, and countries such as China and India have become Asia's biggest cosmetic surgery markets. South Korea is also rising in popularity due to their expertise in facial bone surgeries (see cosmetic surgery in South Korea). Plastic surgery is increasing slowly, rising 115% from 2000 to 2015. "According to the annual plastic surgery procedural statistics, there were 15.9 million surgical and minimally-invasive cosmetic procedures performed in the United States in 2015, a 2 percent increase over 2014." A study from 2021 found that requests for cosmetic procedures had increased significantly since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, possibly due to the increase in videoconferencing; cited estimates include a 10% increase in the United States and a 20% increase in France. The most popular aesthetic/cosmetic procedures include: * Abdominoplasty ("tummy tuck"): reshaping and firming of the abdomen * Blepharoplasty ("eyelid surgery"): reshaping of upper/lower eyelids including Asian blepharoplasty * Phalloplasty ("penile surgery"): construction (or reconstruction) of a penis or, sometimes, artificial modification of the penis by surgery, often for cosmetic purposes * Mammoplasty: + Breast augmentations ("breast implant" or "boob job"): augmentation of the breasts by means of fat grafting, saline, or silicone gel prosthetics, which was initially performed for women with micromastia + Reduction mammoplasty ("breast reduction"): removal of skin and glandular tissue, which is done to reduce back and shoulder pain in women with gigantomastia and for men with gynecomastia + Mastopexy ("breast lift"): Lifting or reshaping of breasts to make them less saggy, often after weight loss (after a pregnancy, for example). It involves removal of breast skin as opposed to glandular tissue - Augmentation mastopexy ("breast lift with breast implants"): Lifting breasts to make them less saggy, repositioning the nipple to a higher location, and increasing breast size with saline or silicone gel implants. Recent studies of a newer technique for simultaneous augmentation mastopexy (SAM) indicate that it is a safe surgical procedure with minimal medical complications. The SAM technique involves invaginating and tacking the tissues first, in order to previsualize the result, before making any surgical incisions to the breast. * Buttock augmentation ("butt implant"): enhancement of the buttocks using silicone implants or fat grafting ("Brazilian butt lift") where fat is transferred from other areas of the body * Cryolipolysis: refers to a medical device used to destroy fat cells. Its principle relies on controlled cooling for non-invasive local reduction of fat deposits to reshape body contours. * Cryoneuromodulation: Treatment of superficial and subcutaneous tissue structures using gaseous nitrous oxide, including temporary wrinkle reduction, temporary pain reduction, treatment of dermatologic conditions, and focal cryo-treatment of tissue * Calf Augmentation: done by silicone implants or fat transfer to add bulk to calf muscles * Labiaplasty: surgical reduction and reshaping of the labia * Lip augmentation: alter the appearance of the lips by increasing their fullness through surgical enlargement with lip implants or nonsurgical enhancement with injectable fillers * Cheiloplasty: surgical reconstruction of the lip * Rhinoplasty ("nose job"): reshaping of the nose sometimes used to correct breathing impaired by structural defects. * Otoplasty ("ear surgery"/"ear pinning"): reshaping of the ear, most often done by pinning the protruding ear closer to the head. * Rhytidectomy ("face lift"): removal of wrinkles and signs of aging from the face + Neck lift: tightening of lax tissues in the neck. This procedure is often combined with a facelift for lower face rejuvenation. + Browplasty ("brow lift" or "forehead lift"): elevates eyebrows, smooths forehead skin + Midface lift ("cheek lift"): tightening of the cheeks * Genioplasty: augmentation of the chin with an individual's bones or with the use of an implant, usually silicone, by suture of the soft tissue + Mentoplasty: surgery to the chin. This can involve either enhancing or reducing the size of the chin. Enhancements are achieved with the use of facial implants. Reduction of the chin involved reducing the size of the chin bone. * Cheek augmentation ("cheek implant"): implants to the cheek * Orthognathic Surgery: altering the upper and lower jaw bones (through osteotomy) to correct jaw alignment issues and correct the teeth alignment * Fillers injections: collagen, fat, and other tissue filler injections, such as hyaluronic acid * Brachioplasty ("Arm lift"): reducing excess skin and fat between the underarm and the elbow * Laser Skin Rejuvenation or laser resurfacing: the lessening of depth of facial pores and exfoliation of dead or damaged skin cells * Liposuction ("suction lipectomy"): removal of fat deposits by traditional suction technique or ultrasonic energy to aid fat removal * Zygoma reduction plasty: reducing the facial width by performing osteotomy and resecting part of the zygomatic bone and arch * Jaw reduction: reduction of the mandible angle to smooth out an angular jaw and creating a slim jaw * Buccal Fat Extraction: extraction of the buccal pads * Body contouring: the removal of this excess skin and fat from numerous areas of the body, restoring the appearance of skin elasticity of the remaining skin. The surgery is prominent in those who have undergone significant weight loss resulting in excess sagging skin being present around areas of the body. The skin loses elasticity (a condition called elastosis) once it has been stretched past capacity and is unable to recoil back to its standard position against the body and also with age. * Sclerotherapy: removing visible 'spider veins' (Telangiectasia), which appear on the surface of the skin. * Dermal fillers: Dermal fillers are injected below the skin to give a more fuller, youthful appearance of a feature or section of the face. One type of dermal filler is Hyaluronic acid. Hyaluronic acid is naturally found throughout the human body. It plays a vital role in moving nutrients to the cells of the skin from the blood. It is also commonly used in patients with Arthritis as it acts like a cushion to the bones which have depleted the articular cartilage casing. Development within this field has occurred over time with synthetic forms of hyaluronic acid is being created, playing roles in other forms of cosmetic surgery such as facial augmentation. * Micropigmentation: is the creation of permanent makeup using natural pigments to places such as the eyes to create the effect of eye shadow, lips creating lipstick and cheek bones to create a blush like look. The pigment is inserted beneath the skin using a machine which injects a small needle at a very fast rate carrying pigment into the skin, creating a lasting colouration of the desired area. In 2015, the most popular surgeries were Botox, liposuction, eyelid surgery, breast implants, nose jobs, and facelifts. According to the 2020 Plastic Surgery Statistics Report, which is published by the American Society of Plastic Surgeons, the most surgical procedure performed in the U.S. was Rhinoplasty (Nose reshaping)accounting for 15.2% of all cosmetic surgical procedures that year, followed by Blepharoplasty (Eyelid surgery), which accounted for 14% of all procedures. The third most populous procedure was Rhytidectomy (Facelift) (10% of all procedures), then Liposuction (9.1% of all procedures). Complications, risks, and reversals ----------------------------------- All surgery has risks. Common complications of cosmetic surgery includes hematoma, nerve damage, infection, scarring, implant failure and organ damage. Breast implants can have many complications, including rupture. In a study of his 4761 augmentation mammaplasty patients, Eisenberg reported that overfilling saline breast implants 10–13% significantly reduced the rupture-deflation rate to 1.83% at 8-years post-implantation. In 2011 FDA stated that one in five patients who received implants for breast augmentation will need them removed within 10 years of implantation. Psychological disorders ----------------------- Though media and advertising do play a large role in influencing many people's lives, such as by making people believe plastic surgery to be an acceptable course to change our identities to our liking, researchers believe that plastic surgery obsession is linked to psychological disorders like body dysmorphic disorder. There exists a correlation between those with BDD and the predilection toward cosmetic plastic surgery in order to correct a perceived defect in their appearance. BDD is a disorder resulting in the individual becoming "preoccupied with what they regard as defects in their bodies or faces". Alternatively, where there is a slight physical anomaly, then the person's concern is markedly excessive. While 2% of people have body dysmorphic disorder in the United States, 15% of patients seeing a dermatologist and cosmetic surgeons have the disorder. Half of the patients with the disorder who have cosmetic surgery performed are not pleased with the aesthetic outcome. BDD can lead to suicide in some people with the condition. While many with BDD seek cosmetic surgery, the procedures do not treat BDD, and can ultimately worsen the problem. The psychological root of the problem is usually unidentified; therefore causing the treatment to be even more difficult. Some say that the fixation or obsession with correction of the area could be a sub-disorder such as anorexia or muscle dysmorphia. The increased use of body and facial reshaping applications such as Snapchat and Facetune have been identified as a potential triggers of BDD. Recently, a phenomenon referred to as 'Snapchat dysmorphia' has appeared to describe people who request surgery to resemble the edited version of themselves as they appear through Snapchat Filters. As a protest to the detrimental trend, Instagram banned all augmented reality (AR) filters that depict or promote cosmetic surgery. In some cases, people whose physicians refuse to perform any further surgeries, have turned to "do it yourself" plastic surgery, injecting themselves and running extreme safety risks. Minimally invasive cosmetic medicine ------------------------------------ With the growing popularity of plastic surgery, has also come a widespread increase in minimally invasive alternatives involving intradermal and intramusclular injectables, including various neurotoxins such as Botox, Dysport, Xeomin, and Jeuveau, amongst others, alongside hyaluronic acid based dermal fillers. See also -------- * Biomaterial * Body modification * Cosmetic surgery in Australia * Dental trauma * Ethnic plastic surgery * List of plastic surgery flaps * *Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery* * Scalp reconstruction * Serdev suture * Rejuvenation Further reading --------------- * Atkinson M (2008). "Exploring Male Femininity in the 'Crisis': Men and Cosmetic Surgery". *Body & Society*. **14**: 67–87. doi:10.1177/1357034X07087531. S2CID 143604536. * Fraser S (2003). *Cosmetic surgery, gender and culture*. Palgrave. ISBN 978-1-4039-1299-2. * Gilman S (2005). *Creating Beauty to Cure the Soul: Race and Psychology in the Shaping of Aesthetic Surgery*. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-2144-6. * Haiken E (1997). *Venus Envy: A History of Cosmetic Surgery*. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-5763-8. * Santoni-Rugiu P (2007). *A History of Plastic Surgery*. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-46240-8.

Plastic surgery

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_surgery

An **amulet**, also known as a good luck charm or phylactery, is an object believed to confer protection upon its possessor. The word "amulet" comes from the Latin word amuletum, which Pliny's *Natural History* describes as "an object that protects a person from trouble". Anything can function as an amulet; items commonly so used include statues, coins, drawings, plant parts, animal parts, and written words. Amulets which are said to derive their extraordinary properties and powers from magic or those which impart luck are typically part of folk religion or paganism, whereas amulets or sacred objects of formalised mainstream religion as in Christianity are believed to have no power of their own without faith in Jesus and being blessed by a clergyman, and they supposedly will also not provide any preternatural benefit to the bearer who does not have an appropriate disposition. Talisman and amulets have interchangeable meanings. Amulets refer to any object which has the power to avert evil influences or ill luck. An amulet is an object that is generally worn for protection and made from a durable material (metal or hard-stone). Amulets can be applied to paper examples as well; however, the word 'talisman' is typically used to describe these. Amulets are sometimes confused with pendants, small aesthetic objects that hang from necklaces. Any given pendant may indeed be an amulet but so may any other object that purportedly protects its holder from danger. Ancient Egypt ------------- The use of amulets (*meket*) was widespread among both living and dead ancient Egyptians. They were used for protection and as a means of "...reaffirming the fundamental fairness of the universe". The oldest amulets found are from the predynastic Badarian Period, and they persisted all the way through to Roman times. Pregnant women would wear amulets depicting Taweret, the goddess of childbirth, to protect against miscarriage. The god Bes, who had the head of a lion and the body of a dwarf, was believed to be the protector of children. After giving birth, a mother would remove her Taweret amulet and put on a new amulet representing Bes. Amulets depicted specific symbols, among the most common are the ankh and the Eye of Horus, which represented the new eye given to Horus by the god Thoth as a replacement for his old eye, which had been destroyed during a battle with Horus's uncle Seth. Amulets were often made to represent gods, animals or hieroglyphs. For example, the common amulet shape the scarab beetle is the emblem of the god Khepri. The most common material for such amulets was a kind of ceramic known as Egyptian faience or *tjehenet*, but amulets were also made of stone, metal, bone, wood and gold. Phylacteries containing texts were another common form of amulet. Like the Mesopotamians, the ancient Egyptians had no distinction between the categories magic and medicine. Indeed for them "...religion was a potent and legitimate tool for affecting magical cures". Each treatment was a complementary combination of practical medicine and magical spells. Magical spells against snakebite are the oldest magical remedies known from Egypt. The Egyptians believed that diseases stemmed from both supernatural and natural causes The symptoms of the disease determined which deity the doctor needed to invoke in order to cure it. Doctors were extremely expensive, therefore, for most everyday purposes, the average Egyptian would have relied on individuals who were not professional doctors, but who possessed some form of medical training or knowledge. Among these individuals were folk healers and seers, who could set broken bones, aid mothers in giving birth, prescribe herbal remedies for common ailments, and interpret dreams. If a doctor or seer was unavailable, then everyday people would simply cast their spells on their own without assistance. It was likely commonplace for individuals to memorize spells and incantations for later use. Ancient Rome ------------ Amulets were particularly prevalent in ancient Roman society, being the inheritor of the ancient Greek tradition, and inextricably linked to Roman religion and magic (see magic in the Graeco-Roman world). Amulets are usually outside of the normal sphere of religious experience, though associations between certain gemstones and gods has been suggested. For example, Jupiter is represented on milky chalcedony, Sol on heliotrope, Mars on red jasper, Ceres on green jasper, and Bacchus on amethyst. Amulets are worn to imbue the wearer with the associated powers of the gods rather than for any reasons of piety. The intrinsic power of the amulet is also evident from others bearing inscriptions, such as *vterfexix (utere fexix)* or "good luck to the user." Amulet boxes could also be used, such as the example from part of the Thetford treasure, Norfolk, UK, where a gold box intended for suspension around the neck was found to contain sulphur for its apotropaic (evil-repelling) qualities. Children wore bullas and lunulas, and could be protected by amulet-chains known as *Crepundia*. Near Eastern amulets -------------------- Metal amulets in the form of flat sheets made of silver, gold, copper, and lead were also popular in Late Antiquity in Palestine and Syria as well as their adjacent countries (Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, Iran). Usually, they were rolled up and placed in a metal container with loops to be carried by a necklace. They were incised with a needle with manifold incantation formulars and citations and references to the name of God (Tetragrammaton). Most of them are composed in various kinds of Aramaic (Jewish Aramaic, Samaritan Aramaic, Christian Palestinian Aramaic, Mandaic, Syriac) and Hebrew, but there exist also sometimes combinations with Greek. China, Korea, Japan ------------------- In China, Taoist specialists developed a special style of calligraphy called *fulu*, which they say is able to protect against evil spirits. The equivalent type of amulet in Japan is called an *ofuda*. *Mamorifuda* are *gofu* amulets. In Korea, where they are called *bujeok* (부적) even usually in the tradition of Korean Taoist rituals, they are talismans encased inside in small brocade bags that are carried on the person. Abrahamic religions ------------------- In antiquity and the Middle Ages, most Jews, Christians, and Muslims in the Orient believed in the protective and healing power of amulets or blessed objects. Many pagan religions also believe in stone worship. Talismans used by these peoples can be broken down into three main categories: talismans carried or worn on the body, talismans hung upon or above the bed of an infirm person, and medicinal talismans. This third category can be further divided into external and internal talismans. For example, an external amulet can be placed in a bath. Jews, Christians, and Muslims have also at times used their holy books in a talisman-like manner in grave situations. For example, a bedridden and seriously ill person would have a holy book placed under part of the bed or cushion. ### Judaism The Silver Scroll on display at the Israel MuseumChai pendant (modern)Examples of Hand of Miriam in contemporary Israel Amulets are plentiful in the Jewish tradition, with examples of Solomon-era amulets existing in many museums. Due to the proscription of idols and other graven images in Judaism, Jewish amulets emphasize text and names. The shape, material, and color of a Jewish amulet makes no difference. Examples of textual amulets include the Silver Scroll, c. 630 BCE, and the still contemporary mezuzah and tefillin. A counter-example, however, is the Hand of Miriam, an outline of a human hand. Another non-textual amulet is the Seal of Solomon, also known as the hexagram or Star of David. In one form, it consists of two intertwined equilateral triangles, and in this form it is commonly worn suspended around the neck to this day. Another common amulet in contemporary use is the Chai—(Hebrew: חַי "living" **ḥay**), which is also worn around the neck. Other similar amulets still in use consist of one of the names of the god of Judaism, such as ה (He), יה (YaH), or שדי (Shaddai), inscribed on a piece of parchment or metal, usually silver. Among Jewish children in the 2nd-century CE, the practice of wearing amulets (Hebrew: קמיעין) was so pervasive that one could distinguish between a Jewish child (who usually donned an amulet) and a non-Jewish child who did not usually wear them. During the Middle Ages, Maimonides and Sherira Gaon (and his son Hai Gaon) opposed the use of amulets and derided the "folly of amulet writers." Other rabbis, however, approved the use of amulets. Regional traditions surrounding the birth of children often included amulets to ward off the devil, the evil eye, or demons such as Lilith. So-called miracle rabbi (Ba’al Shem) would be responsible for writing text amulets and conjuring up the names of God and protective angels. Midwives would also create amulets, often filled with herbs, to protect mothers and their young children. In Southern Germany, Alsace and areas of Switzerland, young Jewish boys wore textile neckbands or collars for their Brit Milah. Coins or coral stones on these neckbands were meant to distract the evil eye away from the boys, thus serving as a form of protection. This practice continued until the early 20th century. The wearing of phylacteries has been seen by others as another form of amulet, worn for protection. Rabbi and famous kabbalist Naphtali ben Isaac Katz ("Ha-Kohen," 1645–1719) was said to be an expert in the magical use of amulets. He was accused of causing a fire that broke out in his house and then destroyed the whole Jewish quarter of Frankfurt, and of preventing the extinguishing of the fire by conventional means because he wanted to test the power of his amulets; he was imprisoned and forced to resign his post and leave the city. ### Christianity A pendant crucifix, considered in Christian tradition as a defense against demons, as the holy sign of Christ's victory over every evilBack of the Saint Benedict medal with the *Vade Retro Satana* abbreviation, used in liturgical Western Christian traditions. In Christianity, regularly attending church, frequently receiving Holy Communion, Bible study, and a consistent prayer life are taught as being among the best ways to ward against demonic influence. The Catholic, Oriental Orthodox, Eastern Orthodox, Lutheran, Anglican and Pentecostal denominations of Christianity hold that the use of sacramentals in its proper disposition is encouraged only by a firm faith and devotion to the Triune God, and not by any magical or superstitious belief bestowed on the sacramental. In this regard, prayer cloths, holy oil, prayer beads, cords, scapulars, medals, and other devotional religious paraphernalia derive their power, not simply from the symbolism displayed in the object, but rather from the blessing of the Church in the name of Jesus. The crucifix, and the associated sign of the cross, is one of the key sacramentals used by Christians to ward off evil since the time of the Early Church Fathers; as such, many Christians wear a cross necklace. The imperial cross of Conrad II (1024–1039) referred to the power of the cross against evil. A well-known amulet associated with Benedictine spirituality present in Christianity of the Catholic, Lutheran and Anglican traditions is the Saint Benedict medal which includes the *Vade Retro Satana* formula to ward off Satan. This medal has been in use at least since the 1700s, and in 1742 it received the approval of Pope Benedict XIV. It later became part of the *Roman Ritual*. Several Christian saints have written about the power of holy water as a force that repels evil; as such in Christianity (especially in the Catholic, Orthodox, Lutheran, and Anglican denominations), holy water is used in the dominical sacrament of baptism, as well as for devotional use in the home. Saint Teresa of Avila, a Doctor of the Church who reported visions of Jesus and Mary, was a strong believer in the power of holy water and wrote that she used it with success to repel evil and temptations. Lay Catholics are not permitted to perform solemn exorcisms, but they can use holy water, blessed salt, and other sacramentals, such as the Saint Benedict medal or the crucifix, for warding off evil. Some Catholic sacramentals are believed to defend against evil, by virtue of their association with a specific saint or archangel. The *scapular of St. Michael the Archangel* is a Roman Catholic devotional scapular associated with Archangel Michael, the chief enemy of Satan. Pope Pius IX gave this scapular his blessing, but it was first formally approved under Pope Leo XIII. The form of this scapular is somewhat distinct, in that the two segments of cloth that constitute it have the form of a small shield; one is made of blue and the other of black cloth, and one of the bands likewise is blue and the other black. Both portions of the scapular bear the well-known representation of the Archangel St. Michael slaying the dragon and the inscription "**Quis ut Deus?**" meaning "Who is like God?". Since the 19th century, devout Spanish soldiers, especially Carlist units, have worn a patch with an image of the Sacred Heart of Jesus and the inscription *detente bala* ("stop, bullet"). Early Egyptian Christians made textual amulets with scriptural incipits, especially the opening words of the Gospels, the Lord's Prayer and Psalm 91. These amulets have survived from late antiquity (c. 300–700 C.E.), mostly from Egypt. They were written in Greek and Coptic on strips of papyrus, parchment and other materials in order to cure bodily illnesses and/or to protect individuals from demons. Some believers, especially those of the Greek Orthodox tradition, wear the filakto, an Eastern Christian sacramental that is pinned to one's clothing to ward off Satan. ### Islam Percentage of Muslims, median of national values in region, 2012 survey.| Place | Wear amulets | Believe evil eye exists | Have objects against the evil eye | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Southeast Europe | 24 | 47 | 35 | | Central Asia | 20 | 49 | 41 | | Southeast Asia | 3 | 29 | 4 | | South Asia | 26 | 53 | 40 | | Middle East/North Africa | 25 | 65 | 18 | | Sub-Saharan Africa | no data | 36 | no data | Amulet containing the names of the Seven Sleepers and their dog Qitmir, 1600s-1800s.Berber hamsa or "Hand of Fatima" amulet in silver, Morocco, early 20th century.Amulet Kilim motif (3 examples). There is a long cultural tradition of using amulets in Islam, and in many Muslim-majority countries, tens of percent of the population use them. Some hadith condemn the wearing of talismans, and some Muslims (notably Salafis) believe that amulets and talismans are forbidden in Islam, and using them is an act of *shirk* (idolatry). Other hadith support the use of talismans with some Muslim denominations considering it 'permissible magic', usually under some conditions (for instance, that the wearer believes that the talisman only helps through God's will). Many Muslims do not consider items used against the evil eye to be talismans; these are often kept in the home rather than worn. Examples of worn amulets are necklaces, rings, bracelets, coins, armbands and talismanic shirts. In the Islamic context they can also be referred to as *hafiz* or protector or *himala* meaning pendant. Amulet is interchangeable with the term talisman. An amulet is an object that is generally worn for protection and most often made from a durable material such as metal or a hard-stone. Amulet can also be applied to paper examples, although talisman is often used to describe these less robust and usually individualized forms. In Muslim cultures, amulets often include texts, particularly prayers, texts from the Quran, hadiths (recorded oral histories of early Islam) and religious narratives, and religious names. The word "Allah" (God) is especially popular, as many believe that touching or seeing it wards off evil. The ninety-nine names of God, and the names of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his companions, are also used. The names of prophets and religious figures are felt to connect the wearer to the named person, protecting the wearer. The written stories of these people are also considered effective, and are sometimes illustrated with images of the religious figure or omens associated with them. Favoured figures include Solomon, Ali ibn Abi Talib and his sons Hasan and Husain, and the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus. Devotional manuals sometimes also promise that those reading them will be protected from demons and jinn. Apotropaic texts may even be incorporated into clothing. Weapons might also be inscribed with religious texts thought to confer protective powers. Scrolls with Qur'anic quotations, prophetic references and sacred symbols were common during war in the Ottoman Empire with Qur'anic verses such as 'victory is from God and conquest is near' (Qur. 6I:13) found on ta'wiz worn in combat. Texts packaged in ta'wiz were most often pre-made when used by the public, but literate wearers could change the verse upon their discretion. While criticized by some denominations, sunni muslims are permitted to wear ta'wiz as long as it consciously strengthens their bond with Allah and does not come from a belief the ta'wiz itself cures or protects. Astrological symbols were also used, especially in the Medieval period. These included symbols of the Zodiac, derived from Greek representations of constellations, and especially popular in the Middle East in the twelfth to the fourteenth centuries. Muslim artists also developed personifications of the planets, based on their astrological traits, and of a hypothetical invisible planet named Al Tinnin or Jauzahr. It was believed that objects decorated with these astrological signs developed talismanic power to protect. Abstract symbols are also common in Muslim amulets, such as the Seal of Solomon and the Zulfiqar (sword of the aforementioned Ali). Another popular amulet often used to avert the evil gaze is the *hamsa* (meaning five) or "Hand of Fatima". The symbol is pre-Islamic, known from Punic times. In Central and West Asia, amulets (often in the form of triangular packages containing a sacred verse) were traditionally attached to the clothing of babies and young children to give them protection from forces such as the evil eye.[*unreliable source?*][*unreliable source?*] Triangular amulet motifs were often also woven into oriental carpets such as kilims. The carpet expert Jon Thompson explains that such an amulet woven into a rug is not a theme: it actually is an amulet, conferring protection by its presence. In his words, "the device in the rug has a materiality, it generates a field of force able to interact with other unseen forces and is not merely an intellectual abstraction."[*unreliable source?*] #### Materiality of Islamic amulets In the Islamic world, material composition and graphic content are important in determining the apotropaic forces of the amulets. The preferred materials employed by amulets are precious and semi-precious materials, because the inherent protective values of these materials depend hugely upon their natural rarity, monetary value, and symbolic implications. Among the semi-precious materials, carnelian *('aqiq)* is often favoured because it was considered as the stone of Muhammad, who was said to have worn a carnelian seal set in silver on the little finger of his right hand. Besides, materials such as jade and jasper are regarded as to possess protective and medicinal properties, including assuring victory in battles, protection from lightning and treating diseases of the internal organs. Sometimes, amulets combine different materials to achieve multiple protective effects. A combination of jade and carnelian, for instance, connotates fertility and embryogenesis. The reddish, transcalent quality of the cornelian resembles blood, which echoes the clot of congealed blood from which Allah created human (Qur. 96:2). Additionally, recurring apotropaic Qur'anic verses are often inscribed on the amulet, praising Allah as the ultimate bestower of security and power and as the provider of the Qur'an and Muhammad. #### Diminutive Islamic amulets Diminutive amulets made in the medieval Mediterranean Islamic world include prayers executed with a block print or die (tarsh). Through folding, these miniature paper amulets are often even further reduced in size in order to fit into a tiny wearable box or tubular pendant cases. In other cases, however, these protective objects remain fully loyal to the book format as miniature Qur'ans, protected by illuminated metal cases. In the Aga Khan Museum, Toronto, rests an example of an Egyptian block printed amulet, made during the tenth or eleventh century. Here, one can notice the minuscule ink on paper script of the size of 7.2 x 5.5 cm. Its text's final line is a verse from the Qur'an that proclaims: 'So God will safeguard you from them. He is All-Hearing and All-Knowing' (Qur. 20:46). A tension is therefore created between the idea of Allah as protector and the amulet as a material item that encapsulates and transmits this divine energy. Amulets and talismanic objects were used by early Muslims to appeal to God in the first instance. In this respect, these early Islamic amulets differ substantially from Byzantine, Roman, early Iranian, and other pre-Islamic magic which addressed demonic forces or spirits of the dead. The main function of amulets was to ward off misfortune, "evil eye", and the jinn. They were meant to promote health, longevity, fertility, and potency. Despite regional variations, what unites these objects is that they are characterized by the use of particular and distinctive vocabulary of writings and symbols. These can appear in a multitude of combinations. The important elements to these amulets are the 'magic'vocabulary used and the heavy implementation of the Qur'an. The regional variations of these amulets each are unique; however, they are tied together through the Quranic inscriptions, images of Muhammad, astrological signs, and religious narratives. Such text amulets were originally housed within a lead case imprinted with surat al-Ikhlas (Qur. n2: 1-4), a verse that instructs the worshipper to proclaim God's sanctity. As seen in a diverse range of block printed amulets, the lead case should include lugs, which allowed the tiny package to be either sewn onto clothing or suspended from the owner's body. These modest containers were, most likely, kept sealed shut, their printed contents therefore invisible to a possessor who perhaps was not wealthy enough to purchase a non-serialised, handwritten amulet. Buddhism -------- ### Tibet The Tibetan Buddhists have many kinds of talismanic and shamanistic amulets and ritual tools, including the dorje, the bell, and many kinds of portable amulets. The Tibetan Buddhists enclose prayers on a parchment scroll within a prayer wheel, which is then spun around, each rotation being one recitation of all of the stanzas within the prayer wheel. ### Thailand The people of Thailand, with Buddhist and animist beliefs, also have a vast pantheon of amulets, which are still popular and in common use by most people even in the present day. The belief in magic is impregnated into Thai culture and religious beliefs and folk superstitions, and this is reflected in the fact that we can still see commonplace use of amulets and magical rituals in everyday life. Some of the more commonly known amulets are of course the Buddhist votive tablets, such as the Pra Somdej Buddha image, and guru monk coins. But Thailand has an immensely large number of magical traditions, and thousands of different types of amulet and occult charm can be found in use, ranging from the takrut scroll spell, to the necromantic Ban Neng Chin Aathan, which uses the bones or flesh of the corpse of a 'hoeng prai' ghost (a person who died unnaturally, screaming, or in other strange premature circumstances), to reanimate the spirit of the dead, to dwell within the bone as a spirit, and assist the owner to achieve their goals. The list of Thai Buddhist amulets in existence is a lifetime study in its own right, and indeed, many people devote their lives to the study of them, and collection. Thai amulets are still immensely popular both with Thai folk as well as with foreigners, and in recent years, a massive increase in foreign interest has caused the subject of Thai Buddhist amulets to become a commonly known topic around the world. Amulets can fetch prices ranging from a few dollars right up to millions of dollars for a single amulet. Due to the money that can be made with sorcery services, and with rare collector amulets of the master class, there is also a forgery market in existence, which ensures that the experts of the scene maintain a monopoly on the market. With so many fakes, experts are needed for collectors to trust for obtaining authentic amulets, and not selling them fakes. Other cultures -------------- Amulets vary considerably according to their time and place of origin. In many societies, religious objects serve as amulets, e.g. deriving from the ancient Celts, the clover, if it has four leaves, symbolizes good luck (not the Irish shamrock, which symbolizes the Christian Trinity). In Bolivia, the god Ekeko furnishes a standard amulet, to whom one should offer at least one banknote or a cigarette to obtain fortune and welfare. In certain areas of India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka, it is traditionally believed that the jackal's horn can grant wishes and reappear to its owner at its own accord when lost. Some Sinhalese believe that the horn can grant the holder invulnerability in any lawsuit. The Native American movement of the Ghost Dance wore ghost shirts to protect them from bullets. In the Philippines, amulets are called agimat or *anting-anting*. According to folklore, the most powerful *anting-anting* is the *hiyas ng saging* (directly translated as pearl or gem of the banana). The hiyas must come from a mature banana and only comes out during midnight. Before the person can fully possess this agimat, he must fight a supernatural creature called *kapre*. Only then will he be its true owner. During Holy Week, devotees travel to Mount Banahaw to recharge their amulets.[*unreliable source?*] Gallery ------- * A cross necklaceA cross necklace * Scapular of Our Lady of Mount Carmel or "Brown Scapular"Scapular of Our Lady of Mount Carmel or "Brown Scapular" * Sator Square, an ancient Roman amulet in the form of a palindromic word squareSator Square, an ancient Roman amulet in the form of a palindromic word square * Amulet from Rajasthan, depicting the goddess DurgaAmulet from Rajasthan, depicting the goddess Durga * Charm braceletCharm bracelet * Ancient Roman amulet from Pompeii in the form of a phallusAncient Roman amulet from Pompeii in the form of a phallus * A mezuzahA mezuzah * An amulet from the Black Pullet grimoire An amulet from the *Black Pullet* grimoire * Magical mirror with Zodiac signsMagical mirror with Zodiac signs * Nez Perce talisman, made of wolf skin, wool, mirrors, feathers, buttons and a brass bellNez Perce talisman, made of wolf skin, wool, mirrors, feathers, buttons and a brass bell * Afro-Surinamese Winti amulet Afro-Surinamese Winti amulet * Ancient Egyptian Taweret amulet, New Kingdom, Dynasty XVIII, c. 1539–1292 BCAncient Egyptian Taweret amulet, New Kingdom, Dynasty XVIII, c. 1539–1292 BC * Omamori amulet from a Shinto shrine in Kumamoto, JapanOmamori amulet from a Shinto shrine in Kumamoto, Japan See also -------- * Apotropaic magic - protective magic * Charm - an incantation or spell * Charm bracelet * Charmstone * Evil eye * Hamsa * List of good-luck charms * Sigil * Talisman * Tefillin (or phylacteries) of the Jewish faith

Amulet

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amulet

**Beijing** (/beɪˈdʒɪŋ/ *bay-JING*; Chinese: 北京; pinyin: *Běijīng*; Mandarin pronunciation: [pèɪ.tɕíŋ] ()), alternatively romanized as **Peking** (/piːˈkɪŋ/ *pee-KING*), is the capital of the People's Republic of China. With over 21 million residents, Beijing is the world's most populous national capital city as well as China's second largest city after Shanghai. It is located in Northern China, and is governed as a municipality under the direct administration of the State Council with 16 urban, suburban, and rural districts. Beijing is mostly surrounded by Hebei Province with the exception of neighboring Tianjin to the southeast; together, the three divisions form the Jingjinji megalopolis and the national capital region of China. Beijing is a global city and one of the world's leading centres for culture, diplomacy, politics, finance, business and economics, education, research, language, tourism, media, sport, science and technology and transportation. As a megacity, Beijing is the second largest Chinese city by urban population after Shanghai. It is home to the headquarters of most of China's largest state-owned companies and houses the largest number of Fortune Global 500 companies in the world, as well as the world's four biggest financial institutions by total assets. It is also a major hub for the national highway, expressway, railway, and high-speed rail networks. The Beijing Capital International Airport has been the second busiest in the world by passenger traffic (Asia's busiest) since 2010, and, as of 2016[update], the city's subway network is the busiest and longest in the world. The Beijing Daxing International Airport, a second international airport in Beijing, is the largest single-structure airport terminal in the world. Combining both modern and traditional style architectures, Beijing is one of the oldest cities in the world, with a rich history dating back over three millennia. As the last of the Four Great Ancient Capitals of China, Beijing has been the political center of the country for most of the past eight centuries, and was the largest city in the world by population for much of the second millennium CE. With mountains surrounding the inland city on three sides, in addition to the old inner and outer city walls, Beijing was strategically poised and developed to be the residence of the emperor and thus was the perfect location for the imperial capital. The city is renowned for its opulent palaces, temples, parks, gardens, tombs, walls and gates. Beijing is one of the most important tourist destinations of the world. In 2018, Beijing was the second highest earning tourist city in the world after Shanghai. Beijing is home to many national monuments and museums and has seven UNESCO World Heritage Sites—the Forbidden City, Temple of Heaven, Summer Palace, Ming Tombs, Zhoukoudian, and parts of the Great Wall and the Grand Canal—all of which are popular tourist locations. Siheyuans, the city's traditional housing style, and hutongs, the narrow alleys between siheyuans, are major tourist attractions and are common in urban Beijing. Beijing's public universities make up more than one-fifth of Double First-Class Universities, and many of them consistently rank among the best in the Asia-Pacific and the world. Beijing is home to the two best C9 League universities (Tsinghua and Peking) in Asia & Oceania region and emerging countries. Beijing CBD is a center for Beijing's economic expansion, with the ongoing or recently completed construction of multiple skyscrapers. Beijing's Zhongguancun area is a world leading center of scientific and technological innovation as well as entrepreneurship. Beijing has been ranked the city with the largest scientific research output by the Nature Index since 2016. The city has hosted numerous international and national sporting events, the most notable being the 2008 Summer Olympics and 2008 Summer Paralympics Games. In 2022, Beijing became the first city ever to host both the Summer and Winter Olympics, and also the Summer and Winter Paralympics. Beijing hosts 175 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of many organizations, including the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB), the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), the Silk Road Fund, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the Chinese Academy of Engineering, the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, the Central Academy of Fine Arts, the Central Academy of Drama, the Central Conservatory of Music, and the Red Cross Society of China. Etymology --------- Over the past 3,000 years, the city of Beijing has had numerous other names. The name *Beijing*, which means "Northern Capital" (from the Chinese characters 北 *běi* for *north* and 京 *jīng* for *capital*), was applied to the city in 1403 during the Ming dynasty to distinguish the city from Nanjing (the "Southern Capital"). The English spelling *Beijing* is based on the government's official romanization (adopted in the 1980s) of the two characters as they are pronounced in Standard Mandarin. An older English spelling, *Peking*, was used by Jesuit missionary Martino Martini in a popular atlas published in Amsterdam in 1655. Although Peking is no longer the common name for the city, some of the city's older locations and facilities, such as Beijing Capital International Airport, with the IATA Code PEK, and Peking University, still retain the former romanization. The single Chinese character abbreviation for Beijing is 京, which appears on automobile license plates in the city. The official Latin alphabet abbreviation for Beijing is "BJ". History ------- ### Early history The earliest traces of human habitation in the Peking municipality were found in the caves of Dragon Bone Hill near the village of Zhoukoudian in Fangshan District, where Peking Man lived. *Homo erectus* fossils from the caves date to 230,000 to 250,000 years ago. Paleolithic *Homo sapiens* also lived there more recently, about 27,000 years ago. Archaeologists have found neolithic settlements throughout the municipality, including in Wangfujing, located in central Peking. The first walled city in Beijing was Jicheng, the capital city of the state of Ji which was built in 1045 BC. Within modern Beijing, Jicheng was located around the present Guang'anmen area in the south of Xicheng District. This settlement was later conquered by the state of Yan and made its capital. ### Early Imperial China After the First Emperor unified China in 221 BC, Jicheng became a prefectural capital and during the Three Kingdoms period, it was held by Gongsun Zan and Yuan Shao before falling to the Wei Kingdom of Cao Cao. The AD third-century Western Jin demoted the town, placing the prefectural seat in neighboring Zhuozhou. During the Sixteen Kingdoms period when northern China was conquered and divided by the Wu Hu, Jicheng was briefly the capital of the Xianbei Former Yan Kingdom. After China was reunified by the Sui dynasty in 581, Jicheng, also known as Zhuojun, became the northern terminus of the Grand Canal. Under the Tang dynasty, Jicheng as Youzhou, served as a military frontier command center. During the An-Shi Rebellion and again amidst the turmoil of the late Tang, local military commanders founded their own short-lived Yan dynasties and called the city Yanjing, or the "Yan Capital." Also in the Tang dynasty, the city's name Jicheng was replaced by Youzhou or Yanjing. In 938, after the fall of the Tang, the Later Jin ceded the frontier territory including what is now Beijing to the Khitan Liao dynasty, which treated the city as Nanjing, or the "Southern Capital", one of four secondary capitals to complement its "Supreme Capital" Shangjing (modern Baarin Left Banner in Inner Mongolia). Some of the oldest surviving pagodas in Beijing date to the Liao period, including the Tianning Pagoda. The Liao fell to the Jurchen Jin dynasty in 1122, which gave the city to the Song dynasty and then retook it in 1125 during its conquest of northern China. In 1153, the Jurchen Jin made Beijing their "Central Capital", or Zhongdu. The city was besieged by Genghis Khan's invading Mongolian army in 1213 and razed to the ground two years later. Two generations later, Kublai Khan ordered the construction of Dadu (or Daidu to the Mongols, commonly known as Khanbaliq), a new capital for his Yuan dynasty to the northeast of the Zhongdu ruins. The construction took from 1264 to 1293, but greatly enhanced the status of a city on the northern fringe of China proper. The city was centered on the Drum Tower slightly to the north of modern Beijing and stretched from the present-day Chang'an Avenue to the northern part of Line 10 subway. Remnants of the Yuan rammed earth wall still stand and are known as the Tucheng. ### Ming dynasty In 1368, soon after declaring the new Hongwu era of the Ming dynasty, the rebel leader Zhu Yuanzhang captured Dadu/Khanbaliq and razed the Yuan palaces to the ground. Since the Yuan continued to occupy Shangdu and Mongolia, Dadu was used to supply the Ming military garrisons in the area and renamed Beiping (Wade–Giles: Peip'ing, "Northern Peace"). Under the Hongwu Emperor's feudal policies, Beiping was given to his son Zhu Di, who was created "Prince of Yan". The early death of Zhu Yuanzhang's heir led to a succession struggle upon his death, one that ended with the victory of Zhu Di and the declaration of the new Yongle era. Since his harsh treatment of the Ming capital Yingtian (modern Nanjing) alienated many there, he established his fief as a new co-capital. The city of Beiping became Beijing ("Northern Capital") or Shuntian in 1403. The construction of the new imperial residence, the Forbidden City, took from 1406 to 1420; this period was also responsible for several other of the modern city's major attractions, such as the Temple of Heaven and Tian'anmen. On 28 October 1420, the city was officially designated the capital of the Ming dynasty in the same year that the Forbidden City was completed. Beijing became the empire's primary capital, and Yingtian, also called Nanjing ("Southern Capital"), became the co-capital. (A 1425 order by Zhu Di's son, the Hongxi Emperor, to return the primary capital to Nanjing was never carried out: he died, probably of a heart attack, the next month. He was buried, like almost every Ming emperor to follow him, in an elaborate necropolis to Beijing's north.) By the 15th century, Beijing had essentially taken its current shape. The Ming city wall continued to serve until modern times, when it was pulled down and the 2nd Ring Road was built in its place. It is generally believed that Beijing was the largest city in the world for most of the 15th, 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. The first known church was constructed by Catholics in 1652 at the former site of Matteo Ricci's chapel; the modern Nantang Cathedral was later built upon the same site. The capture of Beijing by Li Zicheng's peasant army in 1644 ended the dynasty, but he and his Shun court abandoned the city without a fight when the Manchu army of Prince Dorgon arrived 40 days later. ### Qing dynasty Dorgon established the Qing dynasty as a direct successor of the Ming (delegitimising Li Zicheng and his followers) and Beijing became China's sole capital. The Qing emperors made some modifications to the Imperial residence but, in large part, the Ming buildings and the general layout remained unchanged. Facilities for Manchu worship were introduced, but the Qing also continued the traditional state rituals. Signage was bilingual or Chinese. This early Qing Beijing later formed the setting for the Chinese novel *Dream of the Red Chamber*. Northwest of the city, Qing emperors built several large palatial gardens including the Old Summer Palace and the Summer Palace. During the Second Opium War, Anglo-French forces captured the outskirts of the city, looting and burning the Old Summer Palace in 1860. Under the Convention of Peking ending that war, Western powers for the first time secured the right to establish permanent diplomatic presences within the city. From 14 to 15 August 1900 the Battle of Peking was fought. This battle was part of the Boxer Rebellion. The attempt by the Boxers to eradicate this presence, as well as Chinese Christian converts, led to Beijing's reoccupation by eight foreign powers. During the fighting, several important structures were destroyed, including the Hanlin Academy and the (new) Summer Palace. A peace agreement was concluded between the Eight-Nation Alliance and representatives of the Chinese government Li Hongzhang and Yikuang on 7 September 1901. The treaty required China to pay an indemnity of US$335 million (over US$4 billion in current dollars) plus interest over a period of 39 years. Also required was the execution or exile of government supporters of the Boxers and the destruction of Chinese forts and other defenses in much of northern China. Ten days after the treaty was signed the foreign armies left Beijing, although legation guards would remain there until World War II. With the treaty signed the Empress Dowager Cixi returned to Beijing from her "tour of inspection" on 7 January 1902 and the rule of the Qing dynasty over China was restored, albeit much weakened by the defeat it had suffered in the Boxer Rebellion and by the indemnity and stipulations of the peace treaty. The Dowager died in 1908 and the dynasty imploded in 1911. ### Republic of China The fomenters of the Xinhai Revolution of 1911 sought to replace Qing rule with a republic and leaders like Sun Yat-sen originally intended to return the capital to Nanjing. After the Qing general Yuan Shikai forced the abdication of the last Qing emperor and ensured the success of the revolution, the revolutionaries accepted him as president of the new Republic of China. Yuan maintained his capital at Beijing and quickly consolidated power, declaring himself emperor in 1915. His death less than a year later left China under the control of the warlords commanding the regional armies. Following the success of the Kuomintang's Northern Expedition, the capital was formally moved to Nanjing in 1928. On 28 June the same year, Beijing's name was returned to Beiping (written at the time as "Peiping"). On 7 July 1937, the 29th Army and the Japanese army in China exchanged fire at the Marco Polo Bridge near the Wanping Fortress southwest of the city. The Marco Polo Bridge Incident triggered the Second Sino-Japanese War, World War II as it is known in China. During the war, Beijing fell to Japan on 29 July 1937 and was made the seat of the Provisional Government of the Republic of China, a puppet state that ruled the ethnic-Chinese portions of Japanese-occupied northern China. This government was later merged into the larger Wang Jingwei government based in Nanjing. ### People's Republic of China In the final phases of the Chinese Civil War, the People's Liberation Army seized control of the city peacefully on 31 January 1949 in the course of the Pingjin Campaign. On 1 October that year, Mao Zedong announced the creation of the People's Republic of China from atop Tian'anmen. He restored the name of the city, as the new capital, to Beijing, a decision that had been reached by the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference just a few days earlier. In the 1950s, the city began to expand beyond the old walled city and its surrounding neighborhoods, with heavy industries in the west and residential neighborhoods in the north. Many areas of the Beijing city wall were torn down in the 1960s to make way for the construction of the Beijing Subway and the 2nd Ring Road. During the Cultural Revolution from 1966 to 1976, the Red Guard movement began in Beijing and the city's government fell victim to one of the first purges. By the autumn of 1966, all city schools were shut down and over a million Red Guards from across the country gathered in Beijing for eight rallies in Tian'anmen Square with Mao. In April 1976, a large public gathering of Beijing residents against the Gang of Four and the Cultural Revolution in Tiananmen Square was forcefully suppressed. In October 1976, the Gang was arrested in Zhongnanhai and the Cultural Revolution came to an end. In December 1978, the Third Plenum of the 11th Party Congress in Beijing under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping reversed the verdicts against victims of the Cultural Revolution and instituted the "policy of reform and opening up." Since the early 1980s, the urban area of Beijing has expanded greatly with the completion of the 2nd Ring Road in 1981 and the subsequent addition of the 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th Ring Roads. According to one 2005 newspaper report, the size of newly developed Beijing was one-and-a-half times larger than before. Wangfujing and Xidan have developed into flourishing shopping districts, while Zhongguancun has become a major center of electronics in China. In recent years, the expansion of Beijing has also brought to the forefront some problems of urbanization, such as heavy traffic, poor air quality, the loss of historic neighborhoods, and a significant influx of migrant workers from less-developed rural areas of the country. Beijing has also been the location of many significant events in recent Chinese history, principally the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. The city has also hosted major international events, including the 2008 Summer Olympics and the 2015 World Championships in Athletics, and the 2022 Winter Olympics, making it the first city to ever host both Winter and Summer Olympics. Geography --------- Beijing is situated at the northern tip of the roughly triangular North China Plain, which opens to the south and east of the city. Mountains to the north, northwest and west shield the city and northern China's agricultural heartland from the encroaching desert steppes. The northwestern part of the municipality, especially Yanqing District and Huairou District, are dominated by the Jundu Mountains, while the western part is framed by *Xishan* or the Western Hills. The Great Wall of China across the northern part of Beijing Municipality was built on the rugged topography to defend against nomadic incursions from the steppes. Mount Dongling, in the Western Hills and on the border with Hebei, is the municipality's highest point, with an altitude of 2,303 metres (7,556 ft). Major rivers flowing through the municipality, including the Chaobai, Yongding, Juma, are all tributaries in the Hai River system, and flow in a southeasterly direction. The Miyun Reservoir, on the upper reaches of the Chaobai River, is the largest reservoir within the municipality. Beijing is also the northern terminus of the Grand Canal to Hangzhou, which was built over 1,400 years ago as a transportation route, and the South–North Water Transfer Project, constructed in the past decade to bring water from the Yangtze River basin. The urban area of Beijing, on the plains in the south-central of the municipality with elevation of 40 to 60 metres (130–200 feet), occupies a relatively small but expanding portion of the municipality's area. The city spreads out in concentric ring roads. The Second Ring Road traces the old city walls and the Sixth Ring Road connects satellite towns in the surrounding suburbs. Tian'anmen and Tian'anmen Square are at the center of Beijing, directly to the south of the Forbidden City, the former residence of the emperors of China. To the west of Tian'anmen is Zhongnanhai, the residence of China's current leaders. Chang'an Avenue, which cuts between Tiananmen and the Square, forms the city's main east–west axis. ### Cityscape A panorama of the Forbidden City, viewed from the Jingshan Park ### Architecture Three styles of architecture are predominant in urban Beijing. First, there is the traditional architecture of imperial China, perhaps best exemplified by the massive Tian'anmen (Gate of Heavenly Peace), which remains the People's Republic of China's trademark edifice, the Forbidden City, the Imperial Ancestral Temple and the Temple of Heaven. Next, there is what is sometimes referred to as the "Sino-Sov" style, with structures tending to be boxy and sometimes poorly constructed, which were built between the 1950s and the 1970s. Finally, there are much more modern architectural forms, most noticeably in the area of the Beijing CBD in east Beijing such as the new CCTV Headquarters, in addition to buildings in other locations around the city such as the Beijing National Stadium and National Center for the Performing Arts. Since 2007, buildings in Beijing have received the CTBUH Skyscraper Award for best overall tall building twice, for the Linked Hybrid building in 2009 and the CCTV Headquarters in 2013. The CTBUH Skyscraper award for best tall overall building is given to only one building around the world every year. In the early 21st century, Beijing has witnessed tremendous growth of new building constructions, exhibiting various modern styles from international designers, most pronounced in the CBD region. A mixture of both 1950s design and neofuturistic style of architecture can be seen at the 798 Art Zone, which mixes the old with the new. Beijing's tallest building is the 528-meter China Zun. Beijing is famous for its *siheyuans*, a type of residence where a common courtyard is shared by the surrounding buildings. Among the more grand examples are the Prince Gong Mansion and Residence of Soong Ching-ling. These courtyards are usually connected by alleys called *hutongs*. The *hutongs* are generally straight and run east to west so that doorways face north and south for good Feng Shui. They vary in width; some are so narrow only a few pedestrians can pass through at a time. Once ubiquitous in Beijing, *siheyuans* and *hutongs* are rapidly disappearing, as entire city blocks of *hutongs* are replaced by high-rise buildings. Residents of the *hutongs* are entitled to live in the new buildings in apartments of at least the same size as their former residences. Many complain, however, that the traditional sense of community and street life of the *hutongs* cannot be replaced, and these properties are often government owned. ### Climate Beijing has a monsoon-influenced humid continental climate (Köppen: *Dwa*), bordering on a cold semi-arid climate (Köppen: *BSk*), characterized by hot, humid summers due to the East Asian monsoon, and brief but cold, dry winters that reflect the influence of the vast Siberian anticyclone. Spring can bear witness to sandstorms blowing in from the Gobi Desert across the Mongolian steppe, accompanied by rapidly warming, but generally dry, conditions. Autumn, similar to spring, is a season of transition and minimal precipitation. The monthly daily average temperature in January is −3.5 °C (25.7 °F), while in July it is 26.8 °C (80.2 °F). Precipitation averages around 577 mm (23 in) annually, with close to three-quarters of that total falling from June to August. With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 47% in July to 65% in January and February, the city receives 2,455 hours of bright sunshine annually. Extremes since 1951 have ranged from −27.4 °C (−17.3 °F) on 22 February 1966 to 41.9 °C (107.4 °F) on 24 July 1999 (unofficial record of 42.6 °C (108.7 °F) was set on 15 June 1942). | Climate data for Beijing (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1951–present) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 14.3(57.7) | 25.6(78.1) | 29.5(85.1) | 33.5(92.3) | 41.1(106.0) | 41.1(106.0) | 41.9(107.4) | 38.3(100.9) | 35.0(95.0) | 31.0(87.8) | 23.3(73.9) | 19.5(67.1) | 41.9(107.4) | | Average high °C (°F) | 2.3(36.1) | 6.1(43.0) | 13.2(55.8) | 21.0(69.8) | 27.2(81.0) | 30.8(87.4) | 31.8(89.2) | 30.7(87.3) | 26.5(79.7) | 19.3(66.7) | 10.3(50.5) | 3.7(38.7) | 18.6(65.4) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | −2.7(27.1) | 0.6(33.1) | 7.5(45.5) | 15.1(59.2) | 21.3(70.3) | 25.3(77.5) | 27.2(81.0) | 26.1(79.0) | 21.2(70.2) | 13.8(56.8) | 5.2(41.4) | −1.0(30.2) | 13.3(55.9) | | Average low °C (°F) | −6.9(19.6) | −4.2(24.4) | 1.9(35.4) | 9.0(48.2) | 15.1(59.2) | 20.0(68.0) | 23.0(73.4) | 22.0(71.6) | 16.3(61.3) | 8.8(47.8) | 0.7(33.3) | −5.0(23.0) | 8.4(47.1) | | Record low °C (°F) | −22.8(−9.0) | −27.4(−17.3) | −15(5) | −3.2(26.2) | 2.5(36.5) | 9.8(49.6) | 15.3(59.5) | 11.4(52.5) | 3.7(38.7) | −3.5(25.7) | −12.3(9.9) | −18.3(−0.9) | −27.4(−17.3) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 2.2(0.09) | 5.8(0.23) | 8.6(0.34) | 21.7(0.85) | 36.1(1.42) | 72.4(2.85) | 169.7(6.68) | 113.4(4.46) | 53.7(2.11) | 28.7(1.13) | 13.5(0.53) | 2.2(0.09) | 528(20.78) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) | 1.6 | 2.3 | 3.0 | 4.7 | 6.0 | 10.0 | 11.9 | 10.5 | 7.1 | 5.2 | 2.9 | 1.6 | 66.8 | | Average snowy days | 2.8 | 2.5 | 1.3 | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 1.7 | 2.8 | 11.2 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 43 | 42 | 40 | 43 | 47 | 58 | 69 | 71 | 64 | 58 | 54 | 46 | 53 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 188.1 | 189.1 | 231.1 | 243.2 | 265.1 | 221.6 | 190.5 | 205.3 | 206.1 | 199.9 | 173.4 | 177.1 | 2,490.5 | | Percent possible sunshine | 62 | 62 | 62 | 61 | 59 | 50 | 42 | 49 | 56 | 59 | 59 | 61 | 57 | | Average ultraviolet index | 2 | 3 | 4 | 6 | 8 | 9 | 9 | 8 | 6 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 5 | | Source 1: China Meteorological Administration | | Source 2: Extremes and Weather Atlas | #### Note 1. ↑ When Europeans first came into sustained contact with China, "Pekin" and "Peking" were the most popular ways of romanizing the name of Beijing. 2. ↑ All-time record high, February record high, May record high, June record high See or edit raw graph data. ### Environmental issues Beijing has a long history of environmental problems. Between 2000 and 2009 Beijing's urban extent quadrupled, which not only strongly increased the extent of anthropogenic emissions, but also changed the meteorological situation fundamentally, even if emissions of human society are not included. For example, surface albedo, wind speed and humidity near the surface were decreased, whereas ground and near-surface air temperatures, vertical air dilution and ozone levels were increased. Because of the combined factors of urbanization and pollution caused by burning of fossil fuel, Beijing is often affected by serious environmental problems, which lead to health issues of many inhabitants. In 2013 heavy smog struck Beijing and most parts of northern China, impacting a total of 600 million people. After this "pollution shock" air pollution became an important economic and social concern in China. After that the government of Beijing announced measures to reduce air pollution, for example by lowering the share of coal from 24% in 2012 to 10% in 2017, while the national government ordered heavily polluting vehicles to be removed from 2015 to 2017 and increased its efforts to transition the energy system to clean sources. #### Air quality Joint research between American and Chinese researchers in 2006 concluded that much of the city's pollution comes from surrounding cities and provinces. On average 35–60% of the ozone can be traced to sources outside the city. Shandong Province and Tianjin Municipality have a "significant influence on Beijing's air quality", partly due to the prevailing south/southeasterly flow during the summer and the mountains to the north and northwest. In preparation for the 2008 Summer Olympics and to fulfill promises to clean up the city's air, nearly US$17 billion was spent. Beijing implemented a number of air improvement schemes for the duration of the Games, including halting work at all construction sites, closing many factories in Beijing permanently, temporarily shutting industry in neighboring regions, closing some gas stations, and cutting motor traffic by half by limiting drivers to odd or even days (based on their license plate numbers), reducing bus and subway fares, opening new subway lines, and banning high-emission vehicles. The city further assembled 3,800 natural gas-powered buses, one of the largest fleets in the world. Beijing became the first city in China to require the Chinese equivalent to the Euro 4 emission standard. Coal burning accounts for about 40% of the PM 2.5 in Beijing and is also the chief source of nitrogen and sulphur dioxide. Since 2012, the city has been converting coal-fired power stations to burn natural gas and aims to cap annual coal consumption at 20 million tons. In 2011, the city burned 26.3 million tons of coal, 73% of which for heating and power generation and the remainder for industry. Much of the city's air pollutants are emitted by neighboring regions. Coal consumption in neighboring Tianjin is expected to increase from 48 to 63 million tons from 2011 to 2015. Hebei Province burned over 300 million tons of coal in 2011, more than all of Germany, of which only 30% were used for power generation and a considerable portion for steel and cement making. Power plants in the coal-mining regions of Shanxi, Inner Mongolia and Shaanxi, where coal consumption has tripled since 2000, and Shandong also contribute to air pollution in Beijing. Shandong, Shanxi, Hebei and Inner Mongolia, respectively rank from first to fourth, among Chinese provinces by coal consumption. There were four major coal-fired power plants in the city to provide electricity as well as heating during the winter. The first one (Gaojing Thermal Power Plant) was shut down in 2014. Another two were shut in March 2015. The last one (Huaneng Thermal Power Plant) would be shut in 2016. Between 2013 and 2017, the city planned to reduce 13 million tons of coal consumption and cap coal consumption to 15 million tons in 2015. The government sometimes uses cloud-seeding measures to increase the likelihood of rain showers in the region to clear the air prior to large events, such as prior to the 60th anniversary parade in 2009 as well as to combat drought conditions in the area. More recently, however, the government has increased its usage of such measures as closing factories temporarily and implementing greater restrictions for cars on the road, as in the case of "APEC blue" and "parade blue," short periods during and immediately preceding the APEC China 2014 and the 2015 China Victory Day Parade, respectively. During and prior to these events, Beijing's air quality improved dramatically, only to fall back to unhealthy levels shortly after. Beijing air quality is often poor, especially in winter. In mid-January 2013, Beijing's air quality was measured on top of the city's US embassy at a PM2.5 density of 755 micrograms per cubic meter, which is more than 75 times the safe level established by the WHO, and went off the US Environmental Protection Agency's air quality index. It was widely reported, originally through a Twitter account, that the category was "crazy bad". This was later changed to "beyond index". On 8 and 9 December 2015 Beijing had its first smog alert which shut down a majority of the industry and other commercial businesses in the city. Later in the month another smog "red alert" was issued. According to Beijing's environmental protection bureau's announcement in November 2016, starting from 2017 highly polluting old cars will be banned from being driven whenever Smog "red alerts" are issued in the city or neighboring regions. In recent years, there has been measurable reductions in pollutants after the "war on pollution" was declared in 2014, with Beijing seeing a 35% reduction in fine particulates in 2017. ### Readings Due to Beijing's high level of air pollution, there are various readings by different sources on the subject. Daily pollution readings at 27 monitoring stations around the city are reported on the website of the Beijing Environmental Protection Bureau (BJEPB). The American Embassy of Beijing also reports hourly fine particulate (PM2.5) and ozone levels on Twitter. Since the BJEPB and US Embassy measure different pollutants according to different criteria, the pollution levels and the impact to human health reported by the BJEPB are often lower than that reported by the US Embassy. The smog is causing harm and danger to the population. The air pollution does directly result in significant impact on the mobility rate of cardiovascular disease and respiratory disease in Beijing. Exposure to large concentrations of polluted air can cause respiratory and cardiovascular problems, emergency room visits, and even death. #### Dust storms Dust from the erosion of deserts in northern and northwestern China results in seasonal dust storms that plague the city; the Beijing Weather Modification Office sometimes artificially induces rainfall to fight such storms and mitigate their effects. In the first four months of 2006 alone, there were no fewer than eight such storms. In April 2002, one dust storm alone dumped nearly 50,000 tons of dust onto the city before moving on to Japan and Korea. Government ---------- The municipal government is regulated by the local Chinese Communist Party (CCP), led by the Beijing CCP Secretary (Chinese: 中共北京市委书记). The local CCP issues administrative orders, collects taxes, manages the economy, and directs a standing committee of the Municipal People's Congress in making policy decisions and overseeing the local government. Government officials include the mayor (Chinese: 市长) and vice-mayor. Numerous bureaus focus on law, public security, and other affairs. Additionally, as the capital of China, Beijing houses all of the important national governmental and political institutions, including the National People's Congress. ### Administrative divisions Beijing Municipality currently comprises 16 administrative county-level subdivisions including 16 urban, suburban, and rural districts. On 1 July 2010, Chongwen and Xuanwu were merged into Dongcheng and Xicheng, respectively. On 13 November 2015 Miyun and Yanqing were upgraded to districts. | **Administrative divisions of Beijing** | | --- | | **Dongcheng** **Xicheng** **Chaoyang** **Fengtai** **Shijingshan** **Haidian** **Mentougou** **Fangshan** **Tongzhou** **Shunyi** **Changping** **Daxing** **Huairou** **Pinggu** **Miyun** **Yanqing** | | Division code | Division | Area in km2 | Total population 2010 | Urban areapopulation 2010 | Seat | Postal code | Subdivisions[*full citation needed*] | | Subdistricts | Towns | Townships | Residential communities | Villages | | 110000 | Beijing | 16406.16 | 19,612,368 | 16,858,692 | Dongcheng / Tongzhou | 100000 | 149 | 143 | 38 | 2538 | 3857 | | 110101 | Dongcheng | 41.82 | 919,253 | Jingshan Subdistrict | 100000 | 17 |   |   | 216 |   | | 110102 | Xicheng | 50.33 | 1,243,315 | Jinrong Street Subdistrict | 100000 | 15 |   |   | 259 |   | | 110105 | Chaoyang | 454.78 | 3,545,137 | 3,532,257 | Chaowai Subdistrict | 100000 | 24 |   | 19 | 358 | 5 | | 110106 | Fengtai | 305.53 | 2,112,162 | 2,098,632 | Fengtai Subdistrict | 100000 | 16 | 2 | 3 | 254 | 73 | | 110107 | Shijingshan | 84.38 | 616,083 | Lugu Subdistrict | 100000 | 9 |   |   | 130 |   | | 110108 | Haidian | 430.77 | 3,280,670 | 3,208,563 | Haidian Subdistrict | 100000 | 22 | 7 |   | 603 | 84 | | 110109 | Mentougou | 1447.85 | 290,476 | 248,547 | Dayu Subdistrict | 102300 | 4 | 9 |   | 124 | 179 | | 110111 | Fangshan | 1994.73 | 944,832 | 635,282 | Gongchen Subdistrict | 102400 | 8 | 14 | 6 | 108 | 462 | | 110112 | Tongzhou | 905.79 | 1,184,256 | 724,228 | Beiyuan Subdistrict | 101100 | 6 | 10 | 1 | 40 | 480 | | 110113 | Shunyi | 1019.51 | 876,620 | 471,459 | Shengli Subdistrict | 101300 | 6 | 19 |   | 61 | 449 | | 110114 | Changping | 1342.47 | 1,660,501 | 1,310,617 | Chengbei Subdistrict | 102200 | 8 | 14 |   | 180 | 303 | | 110115 | Daxing | 1036.34 | 1,365,112 | 965,683 | Xingfeng Subdistrict | 102600 | 5 | 14 |   | 64 | 547 | | 110116 | Huairou | 2122.82 | 372,887 | 253,088 | Longshan Subdistrict | 101400 | 2 | 12 | 2 | 27 | 286 | | 110117 | Pinggu | 948.24 | 415,958 | 219,850 | Binhe Subdistrict | 101200 | 2 | 14 | 2 | 23 | 275 | | 110118 | Miyun | 2225.92 | 467,680 | 257,449 | Gulou Subdistrict | 101500 | 2 | 17 | 1 | 57 | 338 | | 110119 | Yanqing | 1994.89 | 317,426 | 154,386 | Rulin Subdistrict | 102100 | 3 | 11 | 4 | 34 | 376 | | Divisions in Chinese | | --- | | English | Chinese | Pinyin | | Beijing Municipality | 北京市 | Běijīng Shì | | Dongcheng District | 东城区 | Dōngchéng Qū | | Xicheng District | 西城区 | Xīchéng Qū | | Chaoyang District | 朝阳区 | Cháoyáng Qū | | Fengtai District | 丰台区 | Fēngtái Qū | | Shijingshan District | 石景山区 | Shíjǐngshān Qū | | Haidian District | 海淀区 | Hǎidiàn Qū | | Mentougou District | 门头沟区 | Méntóugōu Qū | | Fangshan District | 房山区 | Fángshān Qū | | Tongzhou District | 通州区 | Tōngzhōu Qū | | Shunyi District | 顺义区 | Shùnyì Qū | | Changping District | 昌平区 | Chāngpíng Qū | | Daxing District | 大兴区 | Dàxīng Qū | | Huairou District | 怀柔区 | Huáiróu Qū | | Pinggu District | 平谷区 | Pínggǔ Qū | | Miyun District | 密云区 | Mìyún Qū | | Yanqing District | 延庆区 | Yánqìng Qū | 1. ↑ Including Ethnic townships & other township related subdivisions. #### Towns Beijing's 16 county-level divisions (districts) are further subdivided into 273 lower third-level administrative units at the township level: 119 towns, 24 townships, 5 ethnic townships and 125 subdistricts. Towns within Beijing Municipality but outside the urban area include (but are not limited to): * Changping 昌平 * Huairou 怀柔 * Miyun 密云 * Liangxiang 良乡 * Liulimiao 琉璃庙 * Tongzhou 通州 * Yizhuang 亦庄 * Tiantongyuan 天通苑 * Beiyuan 北苑 * Xiaotangshan 小汤山 Several place names in Beijing end with *mén* (门), meaning "gate", as they were the locations of gates in the former Beijing city wall. Other place names end in *cūn* (村), meaning "village", as they were originally villages outside the city wall. ### Judiciary and procuracy The judicial system in Beijing consists of the Supreme People's Court, the highest court in the country, the Beijing Municipal High People's Court, the high people's court of the municipality, three intermediate people's courts, one intermediate railway transport court, 14 basic people's court (one for each of the municipality's districts and counties), and one basic railway transport court. The Beijing No. 1 Intermediate People's Court in Shijingshan oversees the basic courts of Haidian, Shijingshan, Mentougou, Changping and Yanqing. The Beijing No. 2 Intermediate People's Court in Fengtai oversees the basic courts of Dongcheng, Xicheng, Fengtai, Fangshan and Daxing. The Beijing No. 3 Intermediate People's Court in Laiguangying, is the newest of the three intermediate people's courts and opened on 21 August 2013. It oversees the district courts of Chaoyang, Tongzhou, Shunyi, Huairou, Pinggu and Miyun. Each court in Beijing has a corresponding people's procuratorate. Economy ------- As of 2022[update], Beijing's nominal GDP was CN￥4.16 trillion ($619 billion in nominal, $1.016 trillion in PPP), about 3.44% of the country's GDP and ranked 13th among province-level administrative units; its nominal GDP per capita was US$28,258 (CN￥190,059) and ranked the 1st in the country. It also ranks the tenth largest in the metropolitan economies in the world. Beijing's nominal GDP is projected to reach US$1.1 trillion in 2035, ranking among the world's top 10 largest cities (together with Shanghai, Guangzhou and Shenzhen in China) according to a study by Oxford Economics, and its nominal GDP per capita will reach US$45,000 in 2030. Due to the concentration of state owned enterprises in the national capital, Beijing in 2013 had more Fortune Global 500 Company headquarters than any other city in the world. As of August 2022, Beijing has 54 Fortune Global 500 companies, more than Japan (47), the third-place country after China (145) and the United States (124). Beijing has also been described as the "billionaire capital of the world". In 2020, Beijing is the fifth wealthiest city in the world, with a total wealth amounts to $2 trillion. Beijing is classified as an Alpha+ (global first-tier) city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network, indicating its influence in the region and worldwide and making it one of the world's Top 10 major cities. In the 2021 Global Financial Centres Index, Beijing was ranked as having the sixth-most competitive financial center in the world and fourth-most competitive in the whole Asia & Oceania region (behind Shanghai, Hong Kong and Singapore). As of 2021, Beijing was ranked first globally in terms of "*Global City Competitiveness*" in the *2020–2021 Global Urban Competitiveness Report* jointly released by the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS) and the United Nations Programme for Human Settlements (UN-Habitat). Historical GDP of Beijing for 1978–present (SNA2008) (purchasing power parity of Chinese Yuan, as international dollar based on IMF WEO October 2022)| Year | CNY(millions) | USD(millions) | PPP(Int'l$)(millions) | Real growth(%) | CNYper capita\* | USDper capita\* | PPP(Int'l$.)per capita\* | Reference index:USD 1to CNY | Reference index:Int'l$. 1to CNY | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 2021 | 4,026,960 | 624,190 | 957,432 | 8.5 | 183,980 | 28,517 | 43,742 | 6.4515 | 4.206 | | 2020 | 3,594,330 | 521,099 | 846,920 | 1.1 | 164,158 | 23,799 | 38,680 | 6.8976 | 4.244 | | 2019 | 3,544,510 | 513,809 | 835,575 | 6.1 | 161,776 | 23,451 | 38,137 | 6.8985 | 4.242 | | 2018 | 3,310,600 | 500,287 | 782,833 | 6.7 | 150,962 | 22,813 | 35,697 | 6.6174 | 4.229 | | 2017 | 2,988,300 | 442,593 | 714,221 | 6.8 | 136,172 | 20,168 | 32,546 | 6.7518 | 4.184 | | 2016 | 2,704,120 | 407,106 | 677,894 | 6.9 | 123,391 | 18,577 | 30,932 | 6.6423 | 3.989 | | 2015 | 2,477,910 | 397,841 | 640,121 | 6.9 | 113,692 | 18,253 | 29,370 | 6.2284 | 3.871 | | 2014 | 2,292,600 | 373,217 | 609,846 | 7.4 | 106,732 | 17,375 | 28,394 | 6.1428 | 3.759 | | 2013 | 2,113,460 | 341,255 | 576,818 | 7.7 | 100,569 | 16,240 | 27,448 | 6.1932 | 3.664 | | 2012 | 1,902,470 | 301,381 | 534,252 | 7.7 | 92,758 | 14,694 | 26,048 | 6.3125 | 3.561 | | 2011 | 1,718,880 | 266,130 | 487,764 | 8.1 | 86,246 | 13,353 | 24,474 | 6.4588 | 3.524 | | 2010 | 1,496,400 | 221,050 | 440,910 | 10.4 | 78,307 | 11,568 | 23,544 | 6.7695 | 3.326 | | 2009 | 1,290,900 | 188,977 | 407,481 | 10.0 | 71,059 | 10,402 | 22,430 | 6.8310 | 3.168 | | 2008 | 1,181,310 | 170,093 | 369,969 | 9.0 | 68,541 | 9,869 | 21,466 | 6.9451 | 3.193 | | 2007 | 1,042,550 | 137,105 | 343,736 | 14.4 | 63,629 | 8,368 | 20,979 | 7.6040 | 3.033 | | 2006 | 838,700 | 105,208 | 290,308 | 12.8 | 53,438 | 6,703 | 18,497 | 7.9718 | 2.889 | | 2005 | 714,980 | 87,281 | 249,296 | 12.3 | 47,182 | 5,760 | 16,451 | 8.1917 | 2.868 | | 2000 | 327,780 | 38,809 | 118,148 | 12.0 | 22,054 | 3,022 | 8,081 | 8.2784 | 2.729 | | 1995 | 151,620 | 18,156 | 55,275 | 12.0 | 12,762 | 1,529 | 4,653 | 8.3510 | 2.743 | | 1990 | 50,080 | 10,470 | 29,184 | 5.2 | 4,635 | 969 | 2,701 | 4.7832 | 1.716 | | 1985 | 25,710 | 8,755 | 18,312 | 8.7 | 2,643 | 972 | 1,882 | 2.9367 | 1.404 | | 1980 | 13,910 | 9,283 | 9,273 | 11.8 | 1,544 | 1,009 | 1,029 | 1.4984 | 1.500 | | 1978 | 10,880 | 6,462 | | 10.5 | 1,257 | 797 | | 1.684 | | \* Per-capita GDP is based on mid-year population. ### Sector composition The city has a post-industrial economy that is dominated by the tertiary sector (services), which generated 83.8% of output, followed by the secondary sector (manufacturing, construction) at 15.8% and the primary sector (agriculture, mining) at 0.26%. The services sector is broadly diversified with professional services, wholesale and retail, information technology, commercial real estate, scientific research, and residential real estate each contributing at least 6% to the city's economy in 2022. The single largest sub-sector remains industry, whose share of overall output has shrunk to 12.1% in 2022. The mix of industrial output has changed significantly since 2010 when the city announced that 140 highly-polluting, energy and water resource intensive enterprises would be relocated from the city in five years. The relocation of Capital Steel to neighboring Hebei province had begun in 2005. In 2013, output of automobiles, aerospace products, semiconductors, pharmaceuticals, and food processing all increased. In the farmland around Beijing, vegetables and fruits have displaced grain as the primary crops under cultivation. In 2013, the tonnage of vegetable, edible fungus and fruit harvested was over three times that of grain. In 2013, overall acreage under cultivation shrank along with most categories of produce as more land was reforested for environmental reasons. ### Economic zones In 2006, the city government identified six high-end economic output zones around Beijing as the primary engines for local economic growth. In 2012, the six zones produced 43.3% of the city's GDP, up from 36.5% in 2007. The six zones are: 1. Zhongguancun, China's silicon village in Haidian District northwest of the city, is home to both established and start-up tech companies. In the first two quarters of 2014, 9,895 companies registered in the six zones, among which 6,150 were based in Zhongguancun. Zhongguancun is also the center of Beijing-Tianjin-Shijiazhuang Hi-Tech Industrial Belt. 2. Beijing Financial Street, in Xicheng District on the west side of the city between Fuxingmen and Fuchengmen, is lined with headquarters of large state banks and insurance companies. The country's financial regulatory agencies including the central bank, bank regulator, securities regulator, and foreign exchange authority are located in the neighborhood. 3. Beijing Central Business District (CBD), is actually located to the east of downtown, near the embassies along the eastern Third Ring Road between Jianguomenwai and Chaoyangmenwai. The CBD is home to most of the city's skyscraper office buildings. Most of the city's foreign companies and professional service firms are based in the CBD. 4. Beijing Economic and Technological Development Area, better known as Yizhuang, is an industrial park the straddles the southern Fifth Ring Road in Daxing District. It has attracted pharmaceutical, information technology, and materials engineering companies. 5. Beijing Airport Economic Zone was created in 1993 and surrounds the Beijing Capital International Airport in Shunyi District northeast of the city. In addition to logistics, airline services, and trading firms, this zone is also home to Beijing's automobile assembly plants. 6. Beijing Olympic Center Zone surrounds the Olympic Green due north of downtown and is developing into an entertainment, sports, tourism and business convention center. Shijingshan, on the western outskirts of the city, is a traditional heavy industrial base for steel-making. Chemical plants are concentrated in the far eastern suburbs. Less legitimate enterprises also exist. Urban Beijing is known for being a center of infringed goods; anything from the latest designer clothing to DVDs can be found in markets all over the city, often marketed to expatriates and international visitors. Demographics ------------ Historical population| Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. | | --- | --- | --- | | 1953 | 2,768,149 | —     | | 1964 | 7,568,495 | +9.57% | | 1982 | 9,230,687 | +1.11% | | 1990 | 10,819,407 | +2.00% | | 2000 | 13,569,194 | +2.29% | | 2010 | 19,612,368 | +3.75% | | 2020 | 21,893,095 | +1.11% | | Population size may be affected by changes on administrative divisions. | In 2021, Beijing had a total population of 21.89 million within the municipality, of which 19.16 million (87.5 percent) resided in urban districts or suburban townships and 2.73 million (12.5) lived in rural villages. The encompassing metropolitan area was estimated by the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) to have, as of 2010[update], a population of 24.9 million. Within China, the city ranked second in urban population after Shanghai and the third in municipal population after Shanghai and Chongqing. Beijing also ranks among the most populous cities in the world, a distinction the city has held for much of the past 800 years, especially during the 15th to early 19th centuries when it was the largest city in the world. About 13 million of the city's residents in 2013 had local *hukou* permits, which entitles them to permanent residence in Beijing. The remaining 8 million residents had *hukou* permits elsewhere and were not eligible to receive some social benefits provided by the Beijing municipal government. The population increased in 2013 by 455,000 or about 7% from the previous year and continued a decade-long trend of rapid growth. The total population in 2004 was 14.213 million. The population gains are driven largely by migration. The population's rate of natural increase in 2013 was a mere 0.441%, based on a birth rate of 8.93 and a mortality rate of 4.52. The gender balance was 51.6% males and 48.4% females. Working age people account for nearly 73.6% of the population. Compared to 2004, residents age 0–14 as a proportion of the population dropped from 9.95% to 9.92% in 2013, but again increased to 12.1% in 2021. Residents over the age of 65 declined from 11.12% to 8.58%, but increased to 14.2% in 2021. From 2002 to 2011, the percentage of city residents with at least some college education nearly doubled, from 20.4% to 37.3%, and further increased to 49.1% by 2021. About 66.4% have senior secondary school education and 88.2% had reached middle school. According to the 2010 census, nearly 96% of Beijing's population are ethnic Han Chinese. Of the 800,000 ethnic minority population living in the capital, Manchu (336,000), Hui (249,000), Korean (77,000), Mongol (37,000) and Tujia (24,000) constitute the five largest groups. In addition, there were 8,045 Hong Kong residents, 500 Macau residents, and 7,772 Taiwan residents along with 91,128 registered foreigners living in Beijing. A study by the Beijing Academy of Sciences estimates that in 2010 there were on average 200,000 foreigners living in Beijing on any given day including students, business travellers and tourists that are not counted as registered residents. In 2017 the Chinese government implemented population controls for Beijing and Shanghai to fight what it called the "big city disease" which includes congestion, pollution, and shortages of education and health care services. From this policy, Beijing's population declined by 20,000 from 2016 to 2017. Some low-income people are being forcibly removed from the city as both legal and illegal housing is being demolished in some high-density residential neighborhoods. The population is being redistributed to Jing-Jin-Ji and Xiong'an New Area, the transfer to the latter expected to include 300,000-500,000 people working in government research, universities, and corporate headquarters. Education and research ---------------------- Beijing is a world leading center for scientific and technological innovation and has been ranked the No.1 city in the world with the largest scientific research output, as tracked by the Nature Index since 2016. The city is also leading the world with the highest share of articles published in the fields of physical sciences, chemistry, and earth and environmental sciences, especially in the United Nations'17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) related output. Beijing has over 90 public colleges and universities, which is the largest urban public university system in Asia and the first city in China with most higher education institutions, and it is home to the two best universities (Tsinghua and Peking) in the whole of Asia-Oceania region and emerging countries with its shared rankings at 16th place in the world by the 2022 Times Higher Education World University Rankings. Both are members of the C9 League, an alliance of elite Chinese universities offering comprehensive and leading education. Beijing also has the highest number of universities of any city in the country, representing more than one-fifth of 147 Double First-Class Universities, a national plan to develop elite Chinese universities into world-class institutions by the end of 2050. A number of Beijing's most prestigious universities consistently rank among the best in the Asia-Pacific and the world, including Peking University, Tsinghua University, Renmin University of China, Beijing Normal University, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beihang University, Beijing Institute of Technology, China Agricultural University, Minzu University of China, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, University of International Business and Economics, University of Chinese Academy of Social Sciences and Central University of Finance and Economics. These universities were selected as "985 universities" or "211 universities" by the Chinese government in order to build world-class universities. Some of the national key universities in Beijing are: * Beijing Forestry University * Beijing Jiaotong University * Beijing University of Technology * Beijing University of Chinese Medicine * Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications * Beijing Electronic Science and Technology Institute * Beijing Foreign Studies University * Beijing Language and Culture University * Beijing Sport University * Central Conservatory of Music * Central Academy of Fine Arts * Central Academy of Drama * China University of Geosciences (Beijing) * China University of Petroleum (Beijing) * China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing) * China University of Political Science and Law * China Foreign Affairs University * Chinese People's Public Security University * China Women's University * China Youth University for Political Sciences * China Institute of Industrial Relations * Communication University of China * North China Electric Power University * Peking Union Medical College * University of International Relations Beijing is also home to several religious institutions, Some of them are listed as follows: * China Islamic Institute [zh] (中国伊斯兰教经学院) * Beijing Islamic Institute [zh] (北京伊斯兰教经学院) * The Buddhist Academy of China [zh] (中国佛学院) * High-level Tibetan Buddhism College of China [zh] (中国藏语系高级佛学院) * National Seminary of Catholic Church in China (中国天主教神哲学院) The city is a seat of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, which has been consistently ranked the No.1 research institute in the world by *Nature Index* since the list's inception in 2014, by Nature Research. Beijing is also a site of Chinese Academy of Engineering, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences and National Natural Science Foundation of China. The city's compulsory education system is among the best in the world: in 2018, 15-year-old students from Beijing (together with Shanghai, Zhejiang and Jiangsu) outperformed all of the other 78 participating countries in all categories (math, reading, and science) in the Program for International Student Assessment, a worldwide study of academic performance conducted by the OECD. Culture ------- People native to urban Beijing speak the Beijing dialect, which belongs to the Mandarin subdivision of spoken Chinese. This speech is the basis for *putonghua*, the standard spoken language used in mainland China and Taiwan, and one of the four official languages of Singapore. Rural areas of Beijing Municipality have their own dialects akin to those of Hebei province, which surrounds Beijing Municipality. Beijing or Peking opera is a traditional form of Chinese theater well known throughout the nation. Commonly lauded as one of the highest achievements of Chinese culture, Beijing opera is performed through a combination of song, spoken dialogue, and codified action sequences involving gestures, movement, fighting and acrobatics. Much of Beijing opera is carried out in an archaic stage dialect quite different from Modern Standard Chinese and from the modern Beijing dialect. Beijing cuisine is the local style of cooking. Peking duck is perhaps the best known dish. Fuling jiabing, a traditional Beijing snack food, is a pancake (*bing*) resembling a flat disk with a filling made from *fu ling*, a fungus used in traditional Chinese medicine. Teahouses are also common in Beijing. The cloisonné (or *Jingtailan*, literally "Blue of Jingtai") metalworking technique and tradition is a Beijing art speciality, and is one of the most revered traditional crafts in China. Cloisonné making requires elaborate and complicated processes which include base-hammering, copper-strip inlay, soldering, enamel-filling, enamel-firing, surface polishing and gilding. Beijing's lacquerware is also well known for its sophisticated and intricate patterns and images carved into its surface, and the various decoration techniques of lacquer include "carved lacquer" and "engraved gold". Younger residents of Beijing have become more attracted to the nightlife, which has flourished in recent decades, breaking prior cultural traditions that had practically restricted it to the upper class. Today, Houhai, Sanlitun and Wudaokou are Beijing's nightlife hotspots. In 2012 Beijing was named as City of Design and became part of the UNESCO Creative Cities Network. ### Places of interest > ...the city remains an epicenter of tradition with the treasures of nearly 2,000 years as the imperial capital still on view—in the famed Forbidden City and in the city's lush pavilions and gardens... > > — National Geographic At the historical heart of Beijing lies the Forbidden City, the enormous palace compound that was the home of the emperors of the Ming and Qing dynasties; the Forbidden City hosts the Palace Museum, which contains imperial collections of Chinese art. Surrounding the Forbidden City are several former imperial gardens, parks and scenic areas, notably Beihai, Shichahai, Zhongnanhai, Jingshan and Zhongshan. These places, particularly Beihai Park, are described as masterpieces of Chinese gardening art, and are tourist destinations of historical importance; in the modern era, Zhongnanhai has also been the political heart of various Chinese governments and regimes and is now the headquarters of the Chinese Communist Party and the State Council. From Tiananmen Square, right across from the Forbidden City, there are several notable sites, such as the Tiananmen, Qianmen, the Great Hall of the People, the National Museum of China, the Monument to the People's Heroes, and the Mausoleum of Mao Zedong. The Summer Palace and the Old Summer Palace both lie at the western part of the city; the former, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, contains a comprehensive collection of imperial gardens and palaces that served as the summer retreats for the Qing imperial family. Among the best known religious sites in the city is the Temple of Heaven (*Tiantan*), located in southeastern Beijing, also a UNESCO World Heritage Site, where emperors of the Ming and Qing dynasties made visits for annual ceremonies of prayers to Heaven for good harvest. In the north of the city is the Temple of Earth (*Ditan*), while the Temple of the Sun (*Ritan*) and the Temple of the Moon (*Yuetan*) lie in the eastern and western urban areas respectively. Other well-known temple sites include the Dongyue Temple, Tanzhe Temple, Miaoying Temple, White Cloud Temple, Yonghe Temple, Fayuan Temple, Wanshou Temple and Big Bell Temple. The city also has its own Confucius Temple, and a Guozijian or Imperial Academy. The Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception, built in 1605, is the oldest Catholic church in Beijing. The Niujie Mosque is the oldest mosque in Beijing, with a history stretching back over a thousand years. Beijing contains several well-preserved pagodas and stone pagodas, such as the towering Pagoda of Tianning Temple, which was built during the Liao dynasty from 1100 to 1120, and the Pagoda of Cishou Temple, which was built in 1576 during the Ming dynasty. Historically noteworthy stone bridges include the 12th-century Lugou Bridge, the 17th-century Baliqiao bridge, and the 18th-century Jade Belt Bridge. The Beijing Ancient Observatory displays pre-telescopic spheres dating back to the Ming and Qing dynasties. The Fragrant Hills (*Xiangshan*) is a public park that consists of natural landscaped areas as well as traditional and cultural relics. The Beijing Botanical Garden exhibits over 6,000 species of plants, including a variety of trees, bushes and flowers, and an extensive peony garden. The Taoranting, Longtan, Chaoyang, Haidian, Milu Yuan and Zizhu Yuan parks are some of the notable recreational parks in the city. The Beijing Zoo is a center of zoological research that also contains rare animals from various continents, including the Chinese giant panda. There are 144 museums and galleries (as of June 2008[update]) in the city. In addition to the Palace Museum in the Forbidden City and the National Museum of China, other major museums include the National Art Museum of China, the Capital Museum, the Beijing Art Museum, the Military Museum of the Chinese People's Revolution, the Geological Museum of China, the Beijing Museum of Natural History and the Paleozoological Museum of China. Located at the outskirts of urban Beijing, but within its municipality are the Thirteen Tombs of the Ming dynasty, the lavish and elaborate burial sites of thirteen Ming emperors, which have been designated as part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties. The archaeological Peking Man site at Zhoukoudian is another World Heritage Site within the municipality, containing a wealth of discoveries, among them one of the first specimens of *Homo erectus* and an assemblage of bones of the gigantic hyena *Pachycrocuta brevirostris*. There are several sections of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Great Wall of China, most notably Badaling, Jinshanling, Simatai and Mutianyu. According to the World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC), Beijing is the second highest earning tourist city in the world after Shanghai. ### Intangible cultural heritage The cultural heritage of Beijing is rich and diverse. Starting 2006, the Beijing government started the process of selecting and preserving cultural heritages. Five cultural heritage lists have been published over the years. 288 distinct practices are categorized as cultural heritage. These 288 cultural heritages are further divided into ten categories, namely folk music, folk dance, traditional opera, melodious art, juggling and game, folk art, traditional handicraft, traditional medicine, folk literature and folklore. * Folk music + Zhihua Temple music + Tongzhou shanty * Folk dance + Tongzhou Dragon dance + Miliangtun Stilts * Traditional opera + Kunqu + Peking opera * Melodious art + Xiangsheng * Acrobatic Performance and game + Weiqi(Go) + Xiangqi * Folk art + Ivory carving * Traditional handicraft + Peking duck manufacturing techniques + Cloisonné manufacturing techniques * Traditional medicine + Tong Ren Tang culture * Folk literature + Yongding River legend[*permanent dead link*] * Folklore + Miaohui + Lantern Festival ### Religion The religious heritage of Beijing is rich and diverse as Chinese folk religion, Taoism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Islam and Christianity all have significant historical presence in the city. As the national capital, the city also hosts the State Administration for Religious Affairs and various state-sponsored institutions of the leading religions. In recent decades, foreign residents have brought other religions to the city. According to Wang Zhiyun of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences in 2010 there were 2.2 million Buddhists in the city, equal to 11.2% of the total population. According to the Chinese General Social Survey of 2009, Christians constitute 0.78% of the city's population. According to a 2010 survey, Muslims constitute 1.76% of the population of Beijing. ### Chinese folk religion and Taoism Beijing has many temples dedicated to folk religious and communal deities, many of which are being reconstructed or refurbished in the 2000s and 2010s. Yearly sacrifices to the God of Heaven (祭天; *jìtiān*) at the Temple of Heaven have been resumed by Confucian groups in the 2010s. There are temples dedicated to the worship of the Goddess (娘娘; *Niángniáng*) in the city, one of them near the Olympic Village, and they revolve around a major cult center at Mount Miaofeng. There are also many temples consecrated to the Dragon God, to the Medicine Master (药王; *Yàowáng*), to Divus Guan (Guan Yu), to the Fire God (火神; *Huǒshén*), to the Wealth God, temples of the City God, and at least one temple consecrated to the Yellow Deity of the Chariot Shaft (轩辕黄帝; *Xuānyuán Huángdì*) in Pinggu District. Many of these temples are governed by the Beijing Taoist Association, such as the Fire God Temple of the Shicha Lake, while many others are not and are governed by popular committees and locals. A great Temple of Xuanyuan Huangdi will be built in Pinggu (possibly as an expansion of the already existing shrine) within 2020, and the temple will feature a statue of the deity which will be amongst the tallest in the world. The national Chinese Taoist Association and Chinese Taoist College have their headquarters at the White Cloud Temple of Quanzhen Taoism, which was founded in 741 and rebuilt numerous times. The Beijing Dongyue Temple outside Chaoyangmen is the largest temple of Zhengyi Taoism in the city. The local Beijing Taoist Association has its headquarters at the Lüzu Temple near Fuxingmen. ### Buddhism 11% of the population of Beijing practices East Asian Buddhism. The Buddhist Association of China, the state's supervisory organ overseeing all Buddhist institutions in mainland China, is headquartered in the Guangji Temple, a temple founded over 800 years ago during the Jin dynasty (1115–1234) in what is now Fuchengmennei (阜成门内). The Beijing Buddhist Association along with the Buddhist Choir and Orchestra are based in the Guanghua Temple, which dates to the Yuan dynasty over 700 years ago. The Buddhist Academy of China and its library are housed in the Fayuan Temple near Caishikou. The Fayuan Temple, which dates to the Tang dynasty 1300 years ago, is the oldest temple in urban Beijing. The Tongjiao Temple inside Dongzhimen is the city's only Buddhist nunnery. The Xihuang Temple originally dates to the Liao dynasty. In 1651, the temple was commissioned by the Qing Emperor Shunzhi to host the visit of the Fifth Dalai Lama to Beijing. Since then, this temple has hosted the 13th Dalai Lama as well as the Sixth, Ninth and Tenth Panchen Lamas. The largest Tibetan Buddhist Temple in Beijing is the Yonghe Temple, which was decreed by the Qing Emperor Qianlong in 1744 to serve as the residence and research facility for his Buddhist preceptor of Rölpé Dorjé the third Changkya (or living Buddha of Inner Mongolia). The Yonghe Temple is so-named because it was the childhood residence of the Yongzheng Emperor, and retains the glazed tiles reserved for imperial palaces. While the "High-level Tibetan Buddhism College of China", China's highest institution college of Tibetan Buddhism, situated near the Yonghe Temple. The Lingguang Temple of Badachu in the Western Hills also dates to the Tang dynasty. The temple's Zhaoxian Pagoda (招仙塔) was first built in 1071 during the Liao dynasty to hold a tooth relic of the Buddha. The pagoda was destroyed during the Boxer Rebellion and the tooth was discovered from its foundation. A new pagoda was built in 1964. The six aforementioned temples: Guangji, Guanghua, Tongjiao, Xihuang, Yonghe and Lingguang have been designated National Key Buddhist Temples in Han Chinese Area. In addition, other notable temples in Beijing include the Tanzhe Temple (founded in the Jin dynasty (266–420) is the oldest in the municipality), the Tianning Temple (oldest pagoda in the city), the Miaoying Temple (famed for Yuan-era white pagoda), the Wanshou Temple (home to the Beijing Art Museum) and the Big Bell Temple (Dazhong Temple). ### Islam Beijing has about 70 mosques recognized by the Islamic Association of China, whose headquarters are located next to the Niujie Mosque, the oldest mosque in the city. The Niujie Mosque was founded in 996 during the Liao dynasty and is frequently visited by Muslim dignitaries. The Chinese Muslim community reportedly celebrated Ramadan and made Eid prayers at the mosque on 2021. The largest mosque in Beijing is ChangYing mosque, located in ChaoYang district, with an area of 8,400 square meters. Other notable mosques in the old city include the Dongsi Mosque, founded in 1346; the Huashi Mosque, founded in 1415; Nan Douya Mosque, near Chaoyangmen; Jinshifang Street Mosque, in Xicheng District; and the Dongzhimen Mosque. There are large mosques in outlying Muslim communities in Haidian, Madian, Tongzhou, Changping, Changying, Shijingshan and Miyun. The China Islamic Institute is located in the Niujie neighborhood in Xicheng District. ### Christianity #### Catholicism In 1289, John of Montecorvino came to Beijing as a Franciscan missionary with the order from the Pope. After meeting and receiving the support of Kublai Khan in 1293, he built the first Catholic church in Beijing in 1305. The Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association (CPCA), based in Houhai is the government oversight body for Catholics in mainland China. Notable Catholic churches in Beijing include: * the Nantang or Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception also known as the Xuanwumen Church, which was founded in 1605 and whose current archbishop, Joseph Li Shan, is one of the few bishops in China to have the support of both the Vatican and the CPCA. * the Dongtang or St. Joseph's Church, better known as the Wangfujing Church, founded in 1653. * the Beitang or Church of the Saviour, also known as the Xishiku Church, founded in 1703. * the Xitang or Church of Our Lady of Mount Carmel also known as the Xizhimen Church, founded in 1723. The National Seminary of Catholic Church in China is located in Daxing District. #### Protestantism The earliest Protestant churches in Beijing were founded by British and American missionaries in the second half of the 19th century. Protestant missionaries also opened schools, universities and hospitals which have become important civic institutions. Most of Beijing's Protestant churches were destroyed during the Boxer Rebellion and afterwards rebuilt. In 1958, the 64 Protestant churches in the city are reorganized into four and overseen by the state through the Three-Self Patriotic Movement. #### Eastern Orthodox There was a significant amount of Orthodox Christians in Beijing. Orthodoxy came to Beijing with Russian prisoners from the Sino-Russian border conflicts of the 17th century. In 1956, Viktor, the bishop of Beijing returned to the Soviet Union, and the Soviet embassy took over the old cathedral and demolished it. In 2007, the Russian embassy built a new church in its garden to serve the Russian Orthodox Christians in Beijing. ### Media #### Television and radio Beijing Television broadcasts on channels 1 through 10, and China Central Television, China's largest television network, maintains its headquarters in Beijing. Three radio stations feature programmes in English: *Hit FM* on FM 88.7, *Easy FM* by China Radio International on FM 91.5, and the newly launched *Radio 774* on AM 774. Beijing Radio Stations is the family of radio stations serving the city. #### Press The well-known *Beijing Evening News*, covering news about Beijing in Chinese, is distributed every afternoon. Other newspapers include *Beijing Daily*, *The Beijing News*, the *Beijing Star Daily*, the *Beijing Morning News*, and the *Beijing Youth Daily*, as well as English-language weeklies *Beijing Weekend* and *Beijing Today*. The *People's Daily*, *Global Times* and the *China Daily* (English) are published in Beijing as well. Publications primarily aimed at international visitors and the expatriate community include the English-language periodicals *Time Out Beijing*, *City Weekend*, *Beijing This Month*, *Beijing Talk*, *That's Beijing*, and *The Beijinger*. #### Beijing rock Beijing rock (Chinese:  北京摇滚) is a wide variety of rock and roll music made by rock bands and solo artists from Beijing. The first rock band in Beijing is Peking All-Stars, which was formed in 1979 by foreigners. Famous rock bands and solo artists from Beijing include Cui Jian, Dou Wei, He Yong, Pu Shu, Tang Dynasty, Black Panther, The Flowers, 43 Baojia Street, etc. Beijing born celebrities ------------------------ **Mei Lanfang** (22 October 1894 – 8 August 1961) is a Beijing opera singer. At age 15, he became an orphan and was adopted by his uncle's family. He started stage life in 1905 and became famous at 25 years old during performances in Japan. He was a pre-modern superstar, and famous for his portrayal of the Dan role, the elegant female archetype. After the Communist revolution, he served as an opera and performing art counselor in China. In November 2007, a theater namely Mei Lanfang Grand Theater opened in Xicheng District, Beijing to memorize him. **Yuan Longping** (7 September 1930- 22 May 2021) is a Chinese agronomist. He studied at Southwest Agricultural University. He encountered national famine at the beginning of his career. This made him determined to solve the food shortage in China. He worked as a pioneer on hybrid rice back in 1960. His research on cross breeding wild abortive rice with mutated male-sterile rice was later involve a lot of research around the globe. In 2004, Yuan Longping was awarded the World Food Prize because he conducted pioneer research that helped transform China from food deficiency to food security within three decades. **Cui Jian** (August 1960 – present) is a Chinese rock singer. Various media praised him as the father of China's rock music. He introduces western Rock to China in 1986 and mixed it with Chinese traditional music. Some of his songs are associated with movements in Chinese society such as "Nothing to My Name" and "Rock 'n' Roll on the New Long March". He also directed one movie called "Blue Sky Bones" at age 52. **Yang Jiang** (17 July 1911- 25 May 2016) is a Chinese writer and translator. She was educated at a Chinese university and Oxford University. Ms. Yang was known for her fiction, plays, essay, and nonfiction. She is the first person who translates "Don Quixote" into Chinese. Later, she taught at Tsinghua University for many years and retired in 1980. Some of her representative works are the essay collection "We three" and the novel "Baptism". She died on 25 May 2016, at a hospital in Beijing. **Shu Qingchun** (3 Feb 1899 – 24 August 1966), pen name Lao She, is a Chinese writer, linguist, and artist. He wrote eight million Chinese characters in entire life, is famous for long novels and scripts. In his iconic works, there are two long novels, two novellas, six short stories, and three scripts. Most of his works are depicting the poor life of Chinese citizens in the late Qing dynasty. He has been living in Britain, Singapore, and United States. During the Chinese Culture Revolution, he committed suicide by drowning in Taiping Lake. Sports ------ ### Events Beijing has hosted numerous international and national sporting events, the most notable was the 2008 Summer Olympic and Paralympic Games. Other multi-sport international events held in Beijing include the 2001 Universiade and the 1990 Asian Games. Single-sport international competitions include the Beijing Marathon (annually since 1981), China Open of Tennis (1993–97, annually since 2004), ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating Cup of China (2003, 2004, 2005, 2008, 2009 and 2010), WPBSA China Open for Snooker (annually since 2005), Union Cycliste Internationale Tour of Beijing (since 2011), 1961 World Table Tennis Championships, 1987 IBF Badminton World Championships, the 2004 AFC Asian Cup (football), and 2009 Barclays Asia Trophy (football). Beijing hosted the 2015 IAAF World Championships in Athletics. Beijing's LeSports Center is one of the main venues for the 2019 FIBA Basketball World Cup. The city hosted the second Chinese National Games in 1914 and the first four National Games of China in 1959, 1965, 1975, 1979, respectively, and co-hosted the 1993 National Games with Sichuan and Qingdao. Beijing also hosted the inaugural National Peasants' Games in 1988 and the sixth National Minority Games in 1999. In November 2013, Beijing made a bid to host the 2022 Winter Olympics. On 31 July 2015, the International Olympic Committee awarded the 2022 Winter Olympics to the city becoming the first ever to host both Summer and Winter Olympics also for the 2022 Winter Paralympics becoming the first ever to host both Summer and Winter Paralympics. ### Venues Major sporting venues in the city include the MasterCard Center at Wukesong west of downtown; the Workers' Stadium and Workers' Arena in Sanlitun just east of downtown and the Capital Arena in Baishiqiao, northeast of downtown. In addition, many universities in the city have their own sport facilities. The Olympic Green is a stadium cluster centered on the National Stadium. It was originally developed for the 2008 Summer Olympics and modified for the 2022 Winter Olympics. The Big Air Shougang ski jump is in the western suburbs and was built for the 2022 Winter Olympics. ### Clubs Professional sports teams based in Beijing include: * China Baseball League + Beijing Tigers * Chinese Basketball Association + Beijing Ducks + Beijing Royal Fighters * Women's Chinese Basketball Association + Beijing Shougang * Kontinental Hockey League + HC Kunlun Red Star * Chinese Super League + Beijing Guoan * China League Two + Beijing BIT * Chinese Women's National League + Beijing BG Phoenix The Beijing Olympians of the American Basketball Association, formerly a Chinese Basketball Association team, kept their name and maintained a roster of primarily Chinese players after moving to Maywood, California in 2005. China Bandy Federation is based in Beijing, one of several cities in which the potential for bandy development is explored. Transportation -------------- Beijing is an important transport hub in North China with six ring roads, 1167 km (725 miles) of expressways, 15 National Highways, nine conventional railways, and six high-speed railways converging on the city. ### Rail and high-speed rail Beijing serves as a large rail hub in China's railway network. Ten conventional rail lines radiate from the city to: Shanghai (Jinghu Line), Guangzhou (Jingguang Line), Kowloon (Jingjiu Line), Harbin (Jingha Line) (including Qinhuangdao (Jingqin Line)), Baotou (Jingbao Line), Chengde (Jingcheng Line), Tongliao, Inner Mongolia (Jingtong Line), Yuanping, Shanxi (Jingyuan Line) and Shacheng, Hebei (Fengsha Line). In addition, the Datong–Qinhuangdao railway passes through the municipality to the north of the city. Beijing also has six high-speed rail lines: the Beijing–Tianjin intercity railway, which opened in 2008; the Beijing–Shanghai high-speed railway, which opened in 2011; the Beijing–Guangzhou high-speed railway, which opened in 2012; and the Beijing–Xiong'an intercity railway and the Beijing–Zhangjiakou intercity railway, both of which opened in 2019. The Beijing–Shenyang high-speed railway was completed in 2021. The city's main railway stations are the Beijing railway station, which opened in 1959; the Beijing West railway station, which opened in 1996; and the Beijing South railway station, which was rebuilt into the city's high-speed railway station in 2008; The Beijing North railway station, was first built in 1905 and expanded in 2009; The Qinghe railway station, was first built in 1905 and expanded in 2019; The Beijing Chaoyang railway station opened in 2021; The Beijing Fengtai railway station opened in 2022; and the Beijing Sub-Center railway station is under construction. Smaller stations in the city including Beijing East railway station and Daxing Airport station handle mainly commuter passenger traffic. In outlying suburbs and counties of Beijing, there are over 40 railway stations. From Beijing, direct passenger train service is available to most large cities in China. International train service is available to Mongolia, Russia, Vietnam and North Korea. Passenger trains in China are numbered according to their direction in relation to Beijing. ### Roads and expressways Beijing is connected by road links to all parts of China as part of the National Trunk Road Network. Many expressways of China serve Beijing, as do 15 China National Highways. Beijing's urban transport is dependent upon the "ring roads" that concentrically surround the city, with the Forbidden City area marked as the geographical center for the ring roads. The ring roads appear more rectangular than ring-shaped. There is no official "1st Ring Road". The 2nd Ring Road is located in the inner city. Ring roads tend to resemble expressways progressively as they extend outwards, with the 5th and 6th Ring Roads being full-standard national expressways, linked to other roads only by interchanges. Expressways to other regions of China are generally accessible from the 3rd Ring Road outward. A final outer orbital, the Capital Area Loop Expressway (G95), was fully opened in 2018 and will extend into neighboring Tianjin and Hebei. Within the urban core, city streets generally follow the checkerboard pattern of the ancient capital. Many of Beijing's boulevards and streets with "inner" and "outer" are still named in relation to gates in the city wall, though most gates no longer stand. Traffic jams are a major concern. Even outside of rush hour, several roads still remain clogged with traffic. Beijing's urban design layout further exacerbates transportation problems. The authorities have introduced several bus lanes, which only public buses can use during rush hour. In the beginning of 2010, Beijing had 4 million registered automobiles. By the end of 2010, the government forecast 5 million. In 2010, new car registrations in Beijing averaged 15,500 per week. Towards the end of 2010, the city government announced a series of drastic measures to tackle traffic jams, including limiting the number of new license plates issued to passenger cars to 20,000 a month and barring cars with non-Beijing plates from entering areas within the Fifth Ring Road during rush hour. More restrictive measures are also reserved during major events or heavily polluted weather. Road signs began to be standardized with both Chinese and English names displayed, with location names using pinyin, in 2008. ### Air #### Beijing Capital International Airport Beijing has two of the world's largest airports. The Beijing Capital International Airport (IATA: PEK) located 32 kilometres (20 mi) northeast of the city center in Chaoyang District bordering Shunyi District, is the second busiest airport in the world after Atlanta's Hartsfield-Jackson International Airport. Capital Airport's Terminal 3, built during the expansion for the 2008 Olympics, is one of the largest in the world. Capital Airport is the main hub for Air China and Hainan Airlines. The Airport Expressway and Second Airport Expressway, connect to Capital Airport from the northeast and east of the city center, respectively. Driving time from city center is about 40 minutes under normal traffic conditions. The Capital Airport Express line of Beijing Subway and the Capital Airport Bus serves the Capital Airport. #### Beijing Daxing International Airport The Beijing Daxing International Airport (IATA: PKX) located 46 kilometres (29 mi) south of the city in Daxing District bordering the city of Langfang, Hebei Province, opened on 25 September 2019. The Daxing Airport has one of the world's largest terminal buildings and is expected to be a major airport serving Beijing, Tianjin and northern Hebei Province. Daxing Airport is connected to the city via the Beijing–Xiong'an intercity railway, the Daxing Airport Express line of the Beijing Subway and two expressways. #### Other airports With the opening of the Daxing Airport in September 2019, the Beijing Nanyuan Airport (IATA:NAY), located 13 kilometres (8.1 mi) south of center in Fengtai District, has been closed to civilian airline service. Other airports in the city at Liangxiang, Xijiao, Shahe and Badaling are primarily for military use. #### Visa requirements for air passengers As of 1 January 2013[update], tourists from 45 countries are permitted a 72-hour visa-free stay in Beijing. The 45 countries include Singapore, Japan, the United States, Canada, all EU and EEA countries (except Norway and Liechtenstein), Switzerland, Brazil, Argentina and Australia. The programme benefits transit and business travellers with the 72 hours calculated starting from the moment visitors receive their transit stay permits rather than the time of their plane's arrival. Foreign visitors are not permitted to leave Beijing for other Chinese cities during the 72 hours. ### Public transit The Beijing Subway, which began operating in 1969, now has 25 lines, 459 stations, and 783 km (487 mi) of lines. It is the longest subway system in the world and first in annual ridership with 3.66 billion rides delivered in 2016. In 2013, with a flat fare of ¥2.00 (US$0.31) per ride with unlimited transfers on all lines except the Airport Express, the subway was also the most affordable rapid transit system in China. The subway is undergoing rapid expansion and is expected to reach 30 lines, 450 stations, 1,050 kilometres (650 mi) in length by 2022. When fully implemented, 95% of residents inside the Fourth Ring Road will be able to walk to a station in 15 minutes. The Beijing Suburban Railway provides commuter rail service to outlying suburbs of the municipality. On 28 December 2014, the Beijing Subway switched to a distance-based fare system from a fixed fare for all lines except the Airport Express. Under the new system a trip under 6 km (3+1⁄2 mi) will cost ¥3.00(US$0.49), an additional ¥1.00 will be added for the next 6 km (3+1⁄2 mi) and the next 10 km (6 mi) until the distance for the trip reaches 32 km (20 mi). For every 20 kilometres (12 miles) after the original 32 kilometres (20 miles) an additional ¥1.00 is added. For example, a 50-kilometre (31-mile) trip would cost ¥ 8.00. There are nearly 1,000 public bus and trolleybus lines in the city, including four bus rapid transit lines. Standard bus fares are as low as ¥1.00 when purchased with the *Yikatong* metrocard. ### Taxi Metered taxi in Beijing start at ¥13 for the first 3 kilometres (1.9 mi), ¥2.3 Renminbi per additional 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) and ¥1 per ride fuel surcharge, not counting idling fees which are ¥2.3 (¥4.6 during rush hours of 7–9 am and 5–7 pm) per 5 minutes of standing or running at speeds lower than 12 kilometres per hour (7.5 mph). Most taxis are Hyundai Elantras, Hyundai Sonatas, Peugeots, Citroëns and Volkswagen Jettas. After 15 kilometres (9.3 mi), the base fare increases by 50% (but is only applied to the portion *over* that distance). Different companies have special colours combinations painted on their vehicles. Usually registered taxis have yellowish brown as basic hue, with another color of Prussian blue, hunter green, white, umber, tyrian purple, rufous, or sea green. Between 11 pm and 5 am, there is also a 20% fee increase. Rides over 15 km (9 mi) and between 23:00 and 06:00 incur both charges, for a total increase of 80%. Tolls during trip should be covered by customers and the costs of trips beyond Beijing city limits should be negotiated with the driver. The cost of unregistered taxis is also subject to negotiation with the driver. ### Bicycles Beijing has long been well known for the number of bicycles on its streets. Although the rise of motor traffic has created a great deal of congestion and bicycle use has declined, bicycles are still an important form of local transportation. Many cyclists can be seen on most roads in the city, and most of the main roads have dedicated bicycle lanes. Beijing is relatively flat, which makes cycling convenient. The rise of electric bicycles and electric scooters, which have similar speeds and use the same cycle lanes, may have brought about a revival in bicycle-speed two-wheeled transport. It is possible to cycle to most parts of the city. Because of the growing traffic congestion, the authorities have indicated more than once that they wish to encourage cycling, but it is not clear whether there is sufficient will to translate that into action on a significant scale. On 30 March 2019, a 6.5 km (4 mile) bicycle-dedicated lane was opened, easing the traffic congestion between Huilongguan and Shangdi where there are many high-tech companies. Cycling has seen a resurgence in popularity spurred by the emergence of a large number of dockless app based bikeshares such as Mobike, Bluegogo and Ofo since 2016. Defence and aerospace --------------------- The command headquarters of China's military forces are based in Beijing. The Central Military Commission, the political organ in charge of the military, is housed inside the Ministry of National Defense, located next to the Military Museum of the Chinese People's Revolution in western Beijing. The Second Artillery Corps, which controls the country's strategic missile and nuclear weapons, has its command in Qinghe, Haidian District. The headquarters of the Central Theater Command, one of five nationally, is based further west in Gaojing. The CTR oversees the Beijing Capital Garrison as well as the 27th, 38th and 65th Armies, which are based in Hebei. Military institutions in Beijing also include academies and thinktanks such as the PLA National Defence University and Academy of Military Science, military hospitals such as the 301, 307 and the Academy of Military Medical Sciences, and army-affiliated cultural entities such as 1 August Film Studios and the PLA Song and Dance Troupe. The China National Space Administration, which oversees country's space program, and several space-related state owned companies such as CASTC and CASIC are all based in Beijing. The Beijing Aerospace Command and Control Center, in Haidian District tracks the country's crewed and uncrewed flight and other space exploration initiatives. Nature and wildlife ------------------- Beijing Municipality has 20 nature reserves that have a total area of 1,339.7 km2 (517.3 sq mi). The mountains to the west and north of the city are home to a number of protected wildlife species including leopard, leopard cat, wolf, red fox, wild boar, masked palm civet, raccoon dog, hog badger, Siberian weasel, Amur hedgehog, roe deer, and mandarin rat snake. The Beijing Aquatic Wildlife Rescue and Conservation Center protects the Chinese giant salamander, Amur stickleback and mandarin duck on the Huaijiu and Huaisha Rivers in Huairou District. The Beijing Milu Park south of the city is home to one of the largest herds of Père David's deer, now extinct in the wild. The Beijing barbastelle, a species of vesper bat discovered in caves of Fangshan District in 2001 and identified as a distinct species in 2007, is endemic to Beijing. The mountains of Fangshan are also habitat for the more common Beijing mouse-eared bat, large myotis, greater horseshoe bat and Rickett's big-footed bat. Each year, Beijing hosts 200–300 species of migratory birds including the common crane, black-headed gull, swan, mallard, common cuckoo and the endangered yellow-breasted bunting. In May 2016, Common cuckoos nesting in the wetlands of Cuihu (Haidian), Hanshiqiao (Shunyi), Yeyahu (Yanqing) were tagged and have been traced to far as India, Kenya and Mozambique. In the fall of 2016, the Beijing Forest Police undertook a month-long campaign to crack down on illegal hunting and trapping of migratory birds for sale in local bird markets. Over 1,000 rescued birds of protected species including streptopelia, Eurasian siskin, crested myna, coal tit and great tit were handed to the Beijing Wildlife Protection and Rescue Center for repatriation to the wild. The city flowers are the Chinese rose and chrysanthemum. The city trees are the Chinese arborvitae, an evergreen in the cypress family and the pagoda tree, also called the Chinese scholar tree, a deciduous tree of the family Fabaceae. The oldest scholar tree in the city was planted in what is now Beihai Park during the Tang dynasty. International relations ----------------------- The capital is the home of the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, a multilateral development bank that aims to improve economic and social outcomes in Asia and the Silk Road Fund, an investment fund of the Chinese government to foster increased investment and provide financial supports in countries along the One Belt, One Road. Beijing is also home to the headquarters of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), making it an important city for international diplomacy. ### Twin towns and sister cities Beijing is twinned with the following regions, cities, and counties: * Addis Ababa, Ethiopia * Ankara, Turkey * Astana, Kazakhstan * Athens, Greece * Bangkok, Thailand * Berlin, Germany * Brussels, Belgium * Bucharest, Romania * Budapest, Hungary * Buenos Aires, Argentina * Cairo, Egypt * Canberra, Australia * Cologne, Germany * Copenhagen, Denmark * Delhi, India * Doha, Qatar * Dublin, Ireland * Hanoi, Vietnam * Havana, Cuba * Île-de-France, France * Islamabad, Pakistan * Jakarta, Indonesia * Johannesburg, South Africa * Kyiv, Ukraine * Lima, Peru * London, England, United Kingdom * Manila, Philippines * Minsk, Belarus * Mexico City, Mexico * Moscow, Russia * Canberra, Australia * New York City, United States * Ottawa, Canada * Phnom Penh, Cambodia * Riga, Latvia * Rio de Janeiro, Brazil * San José, Costa Rica * Santiago, Chile * Seoul, South Korea * Estonia Tallinn, Estonia * Tehran, Iran * Tel Aviv, Israel * Tirana, Albania * Tokyo, Japan * Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia * Vientiane, Laos * Washington D.C., United States * Wellington, New Zealand ### Foreign embassies and consulates In 2019, China had the largest diplomatic network in the world. China hosts a large diplomatic community in its capital city of Beijing. At present, the capital of Beijing hosts 172 embassies, 1 consulate and 3 representatives, excluding Hong Kong and Macau trade office. * Afghanistan * Albania * Algeria * Angola * Argentina * Armenia * Australia * Austria * Azerbaijan * Bahamas * Bahrain * Bangladesh * Barbados * Belarus * Belgium * Benin * Bolivia * Bosnia and Herzegovina * Botswana * Brazil * Brunei * Bulgaria * Burkina Faso * Burundi * Cambodia * Cameroon * Canada * Cape Verde * Central African Republic * Chad * Chile * Colombia * Comoros * Republic of the Congo * Democratic Republic of the Congo * Costa Rica * Croatia * Cuba * Cyprus * Czech Republic * Denmark * Djibouti * Dominica * Dominican Republic * East Timor * Ecuador * Egypt * El Salvador * Equatorial Guinea * Eritrea * Estonia * Ethiopia * Fiji * Finland * France * Gabon * Gambia * Georgia * Germany * Ghana * Greece * Grenada * Guinea * Guinea-Bissau * Guyana * Hungary * Iceland * India * Indonesia * Iran * Iraq * Ireland * Israel * Italy * Ivory Coast * Jamaica * Japan * Jordan * Kazakhstan * Kenya * Kuwait * Kyrgyzstan * Laos * Latvia * Lebanon * Lesotho * Liberia * Libya * Lithuania * Luxembourg * Madagascar * Malawi * Malaysia * Maldives * Mali * Malta * Mauritania * Mauritius * Mexico * Micronesia * Moldova * Mongolia * Monaco (consulate) * Montenegro * Morocco * Mozambique * Myanmar * Namibia * Nepal * Netherlands * New Zealand * Niger * Nigeria * North Korea * North Macedonia * Norway * Oman * Pakistan * Palestine * Panama * Papua New Guinea * Peru * Philippines * Poland * Portugal * Qatar * Romania * Russia * Rwanda * Samoa * São Tomé and Príncipe * Saudi Arabia * Senegal * Serbia * Seychelles * Sierra Leone * Singapore * Slovakia * Slovenia * Solomon Islands * Somalia * South Africa * South Korea * South Sudan * Spain * Sri Lanka * Sudan * Suriname * Sweden * Switzerland * Syria * Tajikistan * Tanzania * Thailand * Togo * Tonga * Trinidad and Tobago * Tunisia * Turkey * Turkmenistan * Uganda * Ukraine * United Arab Emirates * United Kingdom * United States * Uruguay * Uzbekistan * Vanuatu * Venezuela * Vietnam * Yemen * Zambia * Zimbabwe ### Representative offices and delegations * Haiti (Representative Office) * Faroe Islands (Representative Office) * European Union (Delegation of the European Union to China) See also -------- * Beijing city fortifications * Historical capitals of China * Large Cities Climate Leadership Group * List of hospitals in Beijing * List of mayors of Beijing * List of twin towns and sister cities in China * List of diplomatic missions in China References ---------- ### Sources * Elliott, Mark C. (2001). *The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China*. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-4684-7. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 22 July 2009. * Li, Lillian; Dray-Novey, Alison; Kong, Haili (2007). *Beijing: From Imperial Capital to Olympic City*. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-6473-1. * MacKerras, Colin; Yorke, Amanda (1991). *The Cambridge Handbook of Contemporary China*. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38755-2. Retrieved 22 July 2009. beiping beijing. Further reading --------------- * Cotterell, Arthur. (2007). *The Imperial Capitals of China: An Inside View of the Celestial Empire*. London: Pimlico. ISBN 978-1-84595-009-5. * Bonino, Michele; De Pieri, Filippo (2015). *Beijing Danwei: Industrial Heritage in the Contemporary City*. Berlin: Jovis. ISBN 978-3-86859-382-2. Archived from the original on 22 February 2021. Retrieved 10 October 2015. * Cammelli, Stefano (2004). *Storia di Pechino e di come divenne capitale della Cina*. Bologna: Il Mulino. ISBN 978-88-15-09910-5. * Chen, Gaohua (2015). *The Capital of the Yuan Dynasty*. [Dadu or Khanbaliq]: Silkroad Press. ISBN 978-981-4332-44-6, 978-981-4339-55-1 (Print & eBook). * Harper, Damian (2007). *Beijing: City Guide* (7th ed.). Oakland, California: Lonely Planet Publications. | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | Preceded byLin'an (Song dynasty) | **Capital of China (as Dadu of Yuan)** 1264–1368 | Succeeded byNanjing (Ming dynasty) | | Preceded byNanjing (Ming dynasty) | **Capital of China** 1420–1928 | Succeeded byNanjing (ROC) | | Preceded byNanjing (ROC) | **Capital of the People's Republic of China** 1949–present | Succeeded bypresent capital |

Beijing

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing

The **Strait of Malacca** is a narrow stretch of water, 500 mi (800 km) long and from 40 to 155 mi (65–250 km) wide, between the Malay Peninsula (Peninsular Malaysia) to the northeast and the Indonesian island of Sumatra to the southwest, connecting the Andaman Sea (Indian Ocean) and the South China Sea (Pacific Ocean). As the main shipping channel between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is one of the most important shipping lanes in the world. It is named after the Malacca Sultanate that ruled over the strait between 1400 and 1511, the center of administration of which was located in the modern-day state of Malacca, Malaysia. Extent ------ The International Hydrographic Organization define the limits of the Strait of Malacca as follows: > > *On the west.* A line joining Pedropunt, the northernmost point of Sumatra (5°40′N 95°26′E / 5.667°N 95.433°E / 5.667; 95.433), and Lem Voalan, the southern extremity of Goh Puket [Phromthep Cape on Phuket Island] in Siam [Thailand] (7°45′N 98°18′E / 7.750°N 98.300°E / 7.750; 98.300). > > > *On the east.* A line joining Tanjong Piai (Bulus), the southern extremity of the Malay Peninsula (1°16′N 103°31′E / 1.267°N 103.517°E / 1.267; 103.517), and The Brothers (1°11.5′N 103°21′E / 1.1917°N 103.350°E / 1.1917; 103.350), and thence to Klein Karimoen (1°10′N 103°23.5′E / 1.167°N 103.3917°E / 1.167; 103.3917). > > > *On the north.* The southwestern coast of the Malay Peninsula. > > > *On the south.* The northeastern coast of Sumatra as far to the eastward as Tanjong Kedabu (1°06′N 102°58′E / 1.100°N 102.967°E / 1.100; 102.967), thence to Klein Karimoen. > > History ------- Early traders from Arabia, Africa, Persia, and Southern India reached Kedah before arriving at Guangzhou. Kedah served as a western port on the Malay Peninsula. They traded glassware, camphor, cotton goods, brocades, ivory, sandalwood, perfume, and precious stones. These traders sailed to Kedah via the monsoon winds between June and November. They returned between December and May. Kedah provided accommodations, porters, small vessels, bamboo rafts, elephants, as well as tax collections for goods to be transported overland toward the eastern ports of the Malay Peninsula such as Langkasuka and Kelantan. After the tenth century, ships from China began to trade at these eastern trading posts and ports. Kedah and Funan were famous ports throughout the 6th century, before shipping began to use the Strait of Malacca itself as a trade route. In the 7th century the maritime empire of Srivijaya, based in Palembang, Sumatra, rose to power, and its influence expanded to the Malay peninsula and Java. The empire gained effective control of two major choke points in maritime Southeast Asia: the Strait of Malacca and the Sunda Strait. By launching a series of conquests and raids on potential rival ports on both sides of the strait, Srivijaya ensured its economic and military domination in the region, which lasted for about 700 years. Srivijaya gained great benefits from the lucrative spice trade, e.g. the tributary trade system with China, and trade with Indian and Arab merchants. The Strait of Malacca became an important maritime trade route between India and China. The importance of the Strait of Malacca in global trade networks continued well into later centuries with the rise of the Malacca Sultanate in the 15th century, the Johor Sultanate, and the modern city-state of Singapore. Since the 17th century, the strait has been the main shipping channel between the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean. Various major regional powers have managed the straits during different historical periods. Economic importance ------------------- From an economic and strategic perspective, the Strait of Malacca is one of the most important shipping lanes in the world. The strait is the main shipping channel between the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean, linking major Asian economies such as India, Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Vietnam, China, Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea. The Strait of Malacca is part of the Maritime Silk Road that runs from the Chinese coast towards the southern tip of India to Mombasa, from there through the Red Sea via the Suez Canal to the Mediterranean, there to the Upper Adriatic region to the northern Italian hub of Trieste with its rail connections to Central Europe and the North Sea. Over 94,000 vessels pass through the strait each year (2008) making it the busiest strait in the world, carrying about 25% of the world's traded goods, including oil, Chinese manufactured products, coal, palm oil and Indonesian coffee. About a quarter of all oil carried by sea passes through the Strait, mainly from Persian Gulf suppliers to Asian markets. In 2007, an estimated 13.7 million barrels per day were transported through the strait, increasing to an estimated 15.2 million barrels per day in 2011. In addition, it is also one of the world's most congested shipping choke points because it narrows to only 2.8 km (1.5 nautical miles) wide at the Phillip Channel (close to the south of Singapore). The draught of some of the world's largest ships (mostly oil tankers) exceeds the Strait's minimum depth of 25 metres (82 feet). This shallow point occurs in the Singapore Strait. The maximum size of a vessel that can pass through the Strait is referred to as the Malaccamax. The next closest passageway to the east, the Sunda Strait between Sumatra and Java, is even shallower and narrower, meaning that ships exceeding the Malaccamax must detour a few thousand nautical miles and use the Lombok Strait, Makassar Strait, Sibutu Passage, and Mindoro Strait instead. Shipping hazards ---------------- Piracy has been a problem in the strait. Piracy had been high in the 2000s, with additional increase after the events of September 11, 2001. After attacks rose again in the first half of 2004, regional navies stepped up their patrols of the area in July 2004. Subsequently, attacks on ships in the Strait of Malacca dropped, to 79 in 2005 and 50 in 2006. Attacks have dropped to near zero in recent years. There are 34 shipwrecks, some dating to the 1880s, in the local TSS channel (the channel for commercial ships under the global Traffic Separation Scheme). These pose a collision hazard in the narrow and shallow strait. On 20 August 2017, the United States Navy destroyer USS *John S. McCain* lost ten of its crew's lives in a collision with the merchant ship *Alnic MC* a short distance east of the strait whilst full steering capabilities had been lost. The ship had made a series of errors in attempted mitigation, its external lights being changed to "red over red" ("vessel not under command"). Another risk is the annual haze due to wildfires in Sumatra, Indonesia. It may reduce visibility to 200 metres (660 ft), forcing ships to slow in the busy strait. The strait is frequently used by ships longer than 350 metres (1,150 ft). Proposals to relieve the strait ------------------------------- Thailand has developed plans to divert much of the strait's traffic and hence some of its economic significance to a shorter route: the Thai government has several times proposed cutting a canal through the Isthmus of Kra, saving around 960 kilometres (600 mi) from the journey between the two oceans. China has offered to cover the costs, according to a report leaked to *The Washington Times* in 2004. Nevertheless, and despite the support of several Thai politicians, the prohibitive financial and ecological costs suggest that such a canal will not be built. An alternative is to install a pipeline across the Isthmus of Kra to carry oil to ships waiting on the other side. Proponents calculate it would cut the cost of oil delivery to Asia by about $0.50/barrel ($3/m3). Myanmar has also made a similar pipeline proposal. See also -------- Geostrategic context * Andaman and Nicobar Command * Andaman Sea * Bay of Bengal * Exclusive economic zone of Indonesia * Exclusive economic zone of Malaysia * Exclusive economic zone of Thailand * Exclusive economic zone of India Local context * Malacca City + Malaccamax + Lingga Roads + Malacca Strait Bridge * George Town, Penang * History of Kedah + Kedah Sultanate + Action of 10 September 1782 + Battle of Penang + Action of 13 November 1943 + Action of 11 January 1944 + Action of 14 February 1944 + Action of 17 July 1944 + Battle of the Malacca Strait * Mangroves of the Straits of Malacca * Piracy in the Strait of Malacca Further reading --------------- * Borschberg, Peter, *The Singapore and Melaka Straits: Violence, Security and Diplomacy in the 17th Century* (Singapore and Leiden: NUS Press and KITLV Press, 2010). https://www.academia.edu/4302722 * Borschberg, Peter, ed., *Iberians in the Singapore-Melaka Area and Adjacent Regions (16th to 18th Century)* (Wiesbaden and Lisbon: Harrassowitz and Fundação Oriente, 2004). https://www.academia.edu/4302708 * Borschberg, Peter, ed. *The Memoirs and Memorials of Jacques de Coutre. Security, Trade and Society in 17th Century Southeast Asia* (Singapore: NUS Press, 2013). https://www.academia.edu/4302722 * Borschberg, Peter, ed., *Journal, Memorials and Letters of Cornelis Matelieff de Jonge. Security, Diplomacy and Commerce in 17th Century Southeast Asia* (Singapore: NUS Press, 2015). https://www.academia.edu/4302783 * Borschberg, Peter, "The value of Admiral Matelieff's writings for the history of Southeast Asia, c. 1600–1620", *Journal of Southeast Asian Studies,* 48(3), pp. 414–435. doi:10.1017/S002246341700056X * Borschberg P. and M. Krieger, ed., *Water and State in Asia and Europe* (New Delhi: Manohar, 2008). https://www.academia.edu/4311610

Strait of Malacca

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Malacca

**Norwich** (/ˈnɒrɪdʒ, -ɪtʃ/ ()) is a cathedral city and district of the English county of Norfolk, of which it is the county town. Norwich is by the River Wensum, about 100 mi (160 km) north-east of London, 40 mi (64 km) north of Ipswich and 65 mi (105 km) east of Peterborough. As the seat of the See of Norwich, with one of the country's largest medieval cathedrals, it is the largest settlement and has the largest urban area in East Anglia. The population of the Norwich City Council local authority area was estimated to be 144,000 in 2021, which was an increase from 143,135 in 2019. The wider built-up area had a population of 213,166 in 2019. Heritage and status ------------------- Norwich claims to be the most complete medieval city in the United Kingdom. It includes cobbled streets such as Elm Hill, Timber Hill and Tombland; ancient buildings such as St Andrew's Hall; half-timbered houses such as Dragon Hall, The Guildhall and Strangers' Hall; the Art Nouveau of the 1899 Royal Arcade; many medieval lanes; and the winding River Wensum that flows through the city centre towards Norwich Castle. In May 2012, Norwich was designated England's first UNESCO City of Literature. One of the UK's popular tourist destinations, it was voted by *The Guardian* in 2016 as the "happiest city to work in the UK" and in 2013 as one of the best small cities in the world by *The Times Good University Guide*. In 2018, 2019 and 2020, Norwich was voted one of the "Best Places To Live" in the UK by *The Sunday Times*. History ------- ### Origin The capital of the Iceni tribe was a settlement located near to the village of Caistor St Edmund on the River Tas about 5 mi (8 km) to the south of modern Norwich. After an uprising led by Boudica in about 60 AD, the Caistor area became the Roman capital of East Anglia named *Venta Icenorum*, literally "marketplace of the Iceni". This fell into disuse about 450. The Anglo-Saxons settled the site of the modern city sometime between the 5th and 7th centuries, founding the towns of *Northwic* ("North Farm"), from which Norwich takes its name, and *Westwic* (at Norwich-over-the-Water) and a lesser settlement at Thorpe. Norwich became settled as a town in the 10th century and then became a prominent centre of East Anglian trade and commerce. ### Early English and Norman conquest It is possible that three separate early Anglo-Saxon settlements, one north of the river and two either side on the south, joined as they grew; or that a single Anglo-Saxon settlement, north of the river, emerged in the mid-7th century after the abandonment of the previous three. The ancient city was a thriving centre for trade and commerce in East Anglia in 1004 when it was raided and burnt by Swein Forkbeard the Viking king of Denmark. Mercian coins and shards of pottery from the Rhineland dating from the 8th century suggest that long-distance trade was happening long before this. Between 924 and 939, Norwich became fully established as a town, with its own mint. The word *Norvic* appears on coins across Europe minted during this period, in the reign of King Athelstan. The Vikings were a strong cultural influence in Norwich for 40 to 50 years at the end of the 9th century, setting up an Anglo-Scandinavian district near the north end of present-day King Street. At the time of the Norman Conquest, the city was one of the largest in England. The Domesday Book states that it had approximately 25 churches and a population of between 5,000 and 10,000. It also records the site of an Anglo-Saxon church in Tombland, the site of the Saxon market place and the later Norman cathedral. Norwich continued to be a major centre for trade, described officially as the Port of Norwich. Quern stones and other artefacts from Scandinavia and the Rhineland have been found during excavations in Norwich city centre. These date from the 11th century onwards. Norwich Castle was founded soon after the Norman Conquest. The Domesday Book records that 98 Saxon homes were demolished to make way for the castle. The Normans established a new focus of settlement around the Castle and the area to the west of it: this became known as the "New" or "French" borough, centred on the Normans' own market place, which survives today as Norwich Market, the largest permanent undercover market in Europe. In 1096, Herbert de Losinga, Bishop of Thetford, began construction of Norwich Cathedral. The chief building material for the Cathedral was limestone, imported from Caen in Normandy. To transport the building stone to the site, a canal was cut from the river (from the site of present-day Pulls Ferry) up to the east wall. Herbert de Losinga then moved his See there, to what became the cathedral church for the Diocese of Norwich. The Bishop of Norwich still signs himself *Norvic*. Norwich received a royal charter from Henry II in 1158, and another from Richard *the Lionheart* in 1194. After a riot in the city in 1274, Norwich has the distinction of being the only complete English city to be excommunicated by the Pope. ### Middle Ages The first recorded presence of Jews in Norwich is 1134. In 1144, the Jews of Norwich were falsely accused of ritual murder after a boy (William of Norwich) was found dead with stab wounds. William acquired the status of martyr and was subsequently canonised. Pilgrims made offerings to a shrine at the Cathedral (largely finished by 1140) up to the 16th century, but the records suggest there were few of them. In 1174, Norwich was sacked by the Flemings. In February 1190, all the Jews of Norwich were massacred except for a few who found refuge in the castle. At the site of a medieval well, the bones of 17 individuals, including 11 children, were found in 2004 by workers preparing the ground for construction of a Norwich shopping centre. The remains were determined by forensic scientists to be most probably the remains of such murdered Jews, and a DNA expert determined that the victims were all related so that they probably came from one Ashkenazi Jewish family. The study of the remains featured in an episode of the BBC television documentary series *History Cold Case*. A research paper from August 30, 2022 confirmed the remains were most likely Ashkenazi Jews. The paper found that many of the victims had certain medical disorders most often seen in Ashkenazi communities, suggesting that a population bottleneck had occurred among Ashkenazim before the 12th century. This challenged traditional views among historians that the bottleneck had happened between the 14th and 16th centuries. In 1216, the castle fell to Louis, Dauphin of France and Hildebrand's Hospital was founded, followed ten years later by the Franciscan Friary and Dominican Friary. The Great Hospital dates from 1249 and the College of St Mary in the Field from 1250. In 1256, Whitefriars was founded. In 1266 the city was sacked by the "Disinherited". It has the distinction of being the only English city ever to be excommunicated, following a riot between citizens and monks in 1274. As a penance, St Ethelbert's Gate, one of the entrances to the cathedral priory, was constructed by Norwich citizens. In 1278 the Cathedral received final consecration. In 1290 the city flooded. Austin Friary was founded in that year. The engine of trade was wool from Norfolk's sheepwalks. Wool made England rich, and the staple port of Norwich "in her state doth stand With towns of high'st regard the fourth of all the land", as Michael Drayton noted in *Poly-Olbion* (1612). The wealth generated by the wool trade throughout the Middle Ages financed the construction of many fine churches, so that Norwich still has more medieval churches than any other city in Western Europe north of the Alps. Throughout this period Norwich established wide-ranging trading links with other parts of Europe, its markets stretching from Scandinavia to Spain and the city housing a Hanseatic warehouse. To organise and control its exports to the Low Countries, Great Yarmouth, as the port for Norwich, was designated one of the staple ports under the terms of the 1353 Statute of the Staple. From 1280 to 1340 the city walls were built. At around 2+1⁄2 mi (4.0 km), these walls, along with the river, enclosed a larger area than that of the City of London. However, when the city walls were constructed it was made illegal to build outside them, inhibiting the expansion of the city. Around this time, the city was made a county corporate and became the seat of one of the most densely populated and prosperous counties of England. Part of these walls remains standing today. ### Early modern period (1485–1640) Hand-in-hand with the wool industry, this key religious centre experienced a Reformation significantly different from that in other parts of England. The magistracy in Tudor Norwich unusually found ways of managing religious discord whilst maintaining civic harmony. The summer of 1549 saw an unprecedented rebellion in Norfolk. Unlike popular challenges elsewhere in the Tudor period, it appears to have been Protestant in nature. For several weeks, rebels led by Robert Kett camped outside Norwich on Mousehold Heath and took control of the city on 29 July 1549 with the support of many of its poorer inhabitants. Kett's Rebellion was particularly in response to the enclosure of land by landlords, leaving peasants with nowhere to graze their animals and the general abuses of power by the nobility. The uprising ended on 27 August when the rebels were defeated by an army. Kett was convicted of treason and hanged from the walls of Norwich Castle. Unusually in England, the rebellion divided the city and appears to have linked Protestantism with the plight of the urban poor. In the case of Norwich, this process was underscored later by the arrival of Dutch and Flemish "Strangers" fleeing persecution from the Catholics and eventually numbering as many as one-third of the city's population. Large numbers of such exiles came to the city, especially Flemish Protestants from the Westkwartier ("Western Quarter"), a region in the Southern Netherlands where the first Calvinist fires of the Dutch Revolt had spread. Inhabitants of Ypres, in particular, chose Norwich above other destinations. Perhaps in response to Kett, Norwich became the first provincial city to initiate compulsory payments for a civic scheme of poor relief, which it has been claimed led to its wider introduction, forming the basis of the later Elizabethan Poor Law of 1597–1598. Norwich has traditionally been the home of various minorities, notably Flemish and Belgian Walloon communities in the 16th and 17th centuries. The great "stranger" immigration of 1567 brought a substantial Flemish and Walloon community of Protestant weavers to Norwich, where they are said to have been made welcome. The merchant's house which was their earliest base in the city — now a museum — is still known as Strangers' Hall. It seems that the strangers integrated into the local community without much animosity, at least among the business fraternity, who had the most to gain from their skills. Their arrival in Norwich boosted trade with mainland Europe and fostered a movement towards religious reform and radical politics in the city. By contrast, after being persecuted by the Anglican church for his Puritan beliefs, Michael Metcalf, a 17th-century Norwich weaver, fled the city and settled in Dedham, Massachusetts. The Norwich Canary was first introduced into England by Flemings fleeing from Spanish persecution in the 16th century. Along with their advanced techniques in textile working, they brought pet canaries which they began to breed locally, eventually becoming in the 20th century a mascot of the city and the emblem of its football club, Norwich City F.C.: "The Canaries". Printing was introduced to the city in 1567 by Anthony de Solempne, one of the strangers, but it did not take root and had died out by about 1572. Norwich's coat of arms was first recorded in 1562. It is described as: *Gules a Castle triple-towered and domed Argent in base a Lion passant guardant [or Leopard] Or.* The castle is supposed to represent Norwich Castle and the lion, taken from the Royal Arms of England, may have been granted by King Edward III. ### Civil War to Victorian era In the English Civil War, across the Eastern Counties, Oliver Cromwell's powerful Eastern Association was eventually dominant. However, to begin with, there had been a large element of Royalist sympathy within Norwich, which seems to have experienced a continuity of its two-sided political tradition throughout the period. Bishop Matthew Wren was a forceful supporter of Charles I. Nonetheless, Parliamentary recruitment took hold. The strong Royalist party was stifled by a lack of commitment from the aldermen and isolation from Royalist-held regions. Serious inter-factional disturbances culminated in "The Great Blow" of 1648 when Parliamentary forces tried to quell a Royalist riot. The latter's gunpowder was set off by accident in the city centre, causing mayhem. According to Hopper, the explosion "ranks among the largest of the century". Stoutly defended though East Anglia was by the Parliamentary army, there were said to have been pubs in Norwich where the king's health was still drunk and the name of the Protector sung to ribald verse. At the cost of some discomfort to the Mayor, the moderate Joseph Hall was targeted because of his position as Bishop of Norwich. Norwich was marked in the period after the Restoration of 1660 and the ensuing century by a golden age of its cloth industry, comparable only to those in the West Country and Yorkshire,[*page needed*] but unlike other cloth-manufacturing regions, Norwich weaving brought greater urbanisation, mainly concentrated in the surrounds of the city itself, creating an urban society, with features such as leisure time, alehouses and other public forums of debate and argument. Norwich in the late 17th century was riven politically. Churchman Humphrey Prideaux described "two factions, Whig and Tory, and both contend for their way with the utmost violence." Nor did the city accept the outcome of the 1688 Glorious Revolution with a unified voice. The pre-eminent citizen, Bishop William Lloyd, would not take the oaths of allegiance to the new monarchs. One report has it that in 1704 the landlord of Fowler's alehouse "with a glass of beer in hand, went down on his knees and drank a health to James the third, wishing the Crowne [sic] well and settled on his head." Writing of the early 18th century, Pound describes the city's rich cultural life, the winter theatre season, the festivities accompanying the summer assizes, and other popular entertainments. Norwich was the wealthiest town in England, with a sophisticated system of poor relief, and a large influx of foreign refugees. Despite severe outbreaks of plague, the city had a population of almost 30,000. This made Norwich unique in England, although there were some 50 cities of similar size in Europe. In some, like Lyon and Dresden, this was, as in the case of Norwich, linked to an important proto-industry, such as textiles or china pottery, in some, such as Vienna, Madrid and Dublin, to the city's status as an administrative capital, and in some such as Antwerp, Marseilles and Cologne to a position on an important maritime or river trade route. In 1716, at a play at the *New Inn*, the Pretender was cheered and the audience booed and hissed every time King George's name was mentioned. In 1722 supporters of the king were said to be "hiss'd at and curst as they go in the streets," and in 1731 "a Tory mobb, in a great body, went through several parts of this city, in a riotous manner, cursing and abusing such as they knew to be friends of the government." However the Whigs gradually gained control and by the 1720s they had successfully petitioned Parliament to allow all adult males working in the textile industry to take up the freedom, on the correct assumption that they would vote Whig. But it had the effect of boosting the city's popular Jacobitism, says Knights, and contests of the kind described continued in Norwich well into a period in which political stability had been discerned at a national level. The city's Jacobitism perhaps only ended with 1745, well after it had ceased to be a significant movement outside Scotland. Despite the Highlanders reaching Derby and Norwich citizens mustering themselves into an association to protect the city, some Tories refused to join in, and the vestry of St Peter Mancroft resolved that it would not ring its bells to summon the defence. Still, it was the end of the road for Norwich Jacobites, and the Whigs organised a notable celebration after the Battle of Culloden. The events of this period illustrate how Norwich had a strong tradition of popular protest favouring Church and Stuarts and attached to the street and alehouse. Knights tells how in 1716 the mayoral election had ended in a riot, with both sides throwing "brick-ends and great paving stones" at each other. A renowned Jacobite watering-hole, the *Blue Bell Inn* (nowadays *The Bell Hotel*), owned in the early 18th century by the high-church Helwys family, became the central rendezvous of the Norwich Revolution Society in the 1790s. Britain's first provincial newspaper, the *Norwich Post*, appeared in 1701. By 1726 there were rival Whig and Tory presses, and as early as mid-century, three-quarters of the males in some parishes were literate. The Norwich municipal library claims an excellent collection of these newspapers, also a folio collection of scrapbooks on 18th-century Norwich politics, which Knights says are "valuable and important". Norwich alehouses had 281 clubs and societies meeting in them in 1701, and at least 138 more were formed before 1758. The Theatre Royal opened in 1758, alongside the city's stage productions in inns and puppet shows in rowdy alehouses. In 1750 Norwich could boast nine booksellers and after 1780 a "growing number of circulating and subscription libraries". Knights 2004 says: "[All this] made for a lively political culture, in which independence from governmental lines was particularly strong, evident in campaigns against the war with America and for reform... in which trade and the impact of war with Revolutionary France were key ingredients. The open and contestable structure of local government, the press, the clubs and societies, and dissent all ensured that politics overlapped with communities bound by economics, religion, ideology and print in a world in which public opinion could not be ignored." Amid this metropolitan culture, the city burghers had built a sophisticated political structure. Freemen, who had the right to trade and to vote at elections, numbered about 2,000 in 1690, rising to over 3,300 by the mid-1730s. With growth partly the result of political manipulation, their numbers did at one point reach one-third of the adult male population. This was notoriously the age of "rotten" and "pocket" boroughs and Norwich was unusual in having such a high proportion of its citizens able to vote. "Of the political centres where the Jacobin propaganda had penetrated most deeply only Norwich and Nottingham had a franchise deep enough to allow radicals to make use of the electoral process." "Apart from London, Norwich was probably still the largest of those boroughs which were democratically governed," says Jewson 1975, describing other towns under the control of a single fiefdom. In Norwich, he says, a powerful Anglican establishment, symbolised by the Cathedral and the great church of St Peter Mancroft was matched by scarcely less powerful congeries of Dissenters headed by the wealthy literate body [of Unitarians] worshipping at the Octagon Chapel. In the middle of political disorders of the late 18th century, Norwich intellectual life flourished. Harriet Martineau wrote of the city's *literati* of the period, including such people as William Taylor, one of England's first scholars of German. The city "boasted of her intellectual supper-parties, where, amidst a pedantry which would now make laughter hold both his sides, there was much that was pleasant and salutary: and finally she called herself *The Athens of England*." Despite Norwich's longstanding industrial prosperity, by the 1790s its wool trade had begun facing intense competition, at first from Yorkshire woollens and then, increasingly, from Lancashire cotton. The effects were aggravated by the loss of continental markets after Britain went to war with France in 1793. The early 19th century saw de-industrialisation accompanied by bitter squabbles. The 1820s were marked by wage cuts and personal recrimination against owners. So amid the rich commercial and cultural heritage of its recent past, Norwich suffered in the 1790s from incipient decline exacerbated by a serious trade recession. As early in the war as 1793, a major city manufacturer and government supporter, Robert Harvey, complained of low order books, languid trade and doubling of the poor rate. Like many of their Norwich forebears, the hungry poor took their complaints onto the streets. Hayes describes a meeting of 200 people in a Norwich public house, where "Citizen Stanhope" spoke. The gathering "[roared its] applause at Stanhope's declaration that the Ministers unless they changed their policy, deserved to have their heads brought to the block; – and if there was a people still in England, the event might turn out to be so." Hayes says that "the outbreak of war, in bringing the worsted manufacture almost to a standstill and so plunging the mass of the Norwich weavers into sudden distress made it almost inevitable that a crude appeal to working-class resentment should take the place of a temperate process of education which the earliest reformers had intended." At this period opposition to Pitt's government and their war came – in their case almost unanimously – from a circle of radical Dissenting intellectuals of interest in their own right. They included the Rigby, Taylor, Aitkin, Barbold, and Alderson families – all Unitarians - and some of the Quaker Gurneys (one of whose girls, Elizabeth, was later, under her married name of Fry, to become a noted campaigner for prison reform). Their activities included visits to revolutionary France (before the execution of Louis XVI), the earliest British research into German literature, studies on medical science, petitioning for parliamentary reform, and publishing a highbrow literary magazine called "The Cabinet", in 1795. Their blend of politics, religion and social campaigning was seen by Pitt and Windham as suspicious, prompting Pitt to denounce Norwich as "the Jacobin city". Edmund Burke attacked John Gurney in print for sponsoring anti-war protests. In the 1790s, Norwich was second only to London as an active intellectual centre in England, and that it did not regain that level of prominence until the University of East Anglia was established in the late 20th century. By 1795, it was not just the Norwich rabble who were causing the government concern. In April of that year, the Norwich Patriotic Society was founded, its manifesto declaring "that the great end of civil society was general happiness; that every individual had a right to share in the government." In December the price of bread reached a new peak, and in May 1796, when William Windham was forced to seek re-election after his appointment as war secretary, he only just held his seat. Amid the disorder and violence that was such a common feature of Norwich election campaigns, it was only by the narrowest margin that the radical Bartlett Gurney ("Peace and Gurney – No More War – No more Barley Bread") failed to unseat him. Though informed by issues of recent national importance, the bipartisan political culture of Norwich in the 1790s cannot be divorced from local tradition. Two features stand out from a political continuum of three centuries. The first is a dichotomous power balance. From at least the time of the Reformation, Norwich was recorded as a "two-party city". In the mid-16th century, the weaving parishes fell under the control of opposition forces, as Kett's rebels held the north of the river, in support of poor clothworkers. Indeed there seems to be a case for saying that with this tradition of two-sided disputation, the city had steadily developed an infrastructure, evident in its many cultural and institutional networks of politics, religion, society, news media and the arts, whereby argument could be managed short of outright confrontation. Indeed, at a time of hunger and tension on the Norwich streets, with alehouse crowds ready to have "a Minister's head brought to the block", the Anglican and Dissenting clergy exerted themselves to conduct a collegial dialogue, seeking common ground and reinforcing the well-mannered civic tradition of earlier periods. In 1797 Thomas Bignold, a 36-year-old wine merchant and banker founded the first Norwich Union Society. Some years earlier, when he moved from Kent to Norwich, Bignold had been unable to find anyone willing to insure him against the threat from highwaymen. With the entrepreneurial thought that nothing was impossible, and aware that in a city built largely of wood the threat of fire was uppermost in people's minds, Bignold formed the "Norwich Union Society for the Insurance of Houses, Stock and Merchandise from Fire". The new business, which became known as the Norwich Union Fire Insurance Office, was a "mutual" enterprise. Norwich Union would later become the country's largest insurance giant. From earliest times, Norwich was a textile centre. In the 1780s the manufacture of Norwich shawls became an important industry and remained so for nearly a hundred years. The shawls were a high-quality fashion product and rivalled those of other towns such as Paisley, which had entered shawl manufacturing in about 1805, some 20 or more years after Norwich. With changes in women's fashion in the later Victorian period, the popularity of shawls declined and eventually manufacture ceased. Examples of Norwich shawls are now sought after by collectors of textiles. Norwich's geographical isolation was such that until 1845, when a railway link was established, it was often quicker to travel to Amsterdam by boat than to London. The railway was introduced to Norwich by Morton Peto, who also built a line to Great Yarmouth. From 1808 to 1814, Norwich had a station in the shutter telegraph chain that connected the Admiralty in London to its naval ships in the port of Great Yarmouth. A permanent military presence was established in the city with the completion of Britannia Barracks in 1897. The Bethel Street and Cattle Market Street drill halls were built around the same time. ### 20th century In the early 20th century, Norwich still had several major manufacturing industries. Among them were the large-scale and bespoke manufacture of shoes (for example the Start-rite and Van Dal brands, Bowhill & Elliott and Cheney & Sons Ltd respectively), clothing, joinery (including the cabinet makers and furniture retailer Arthur Brett and Sons, which continues in business in the 21st century), structural engineering, and aircraft design and manufacture. Notable employers included Boulton & Paul, Barnards (iron founders and inventors of machine-produced wire netting), and the electrical engineers Laurence Scott and Electromotors. Norwich also has a long association with chocolate making, mainly through the local firm of Caley's, which began as a manufacturer and bottler of mineral water and later diversified into chocolate and Christmas crackers. The Caley's cracker-manufacturing business was taken over by Tom Smith in 1953, and the Norwich factory in Salhouse Road closed in 1998. Caley's was acquired by Mackintosh in the 1930s and merged with Rowntree's in 1969 to become Rowntree-Mackintosh. Finally, it was bought by Nestlé and closed in 1996, with all operations moving to York after a Norwich association of 120 years. The demolished factory stood where the Chapelfield development is now. Caley's chocolate has since reappeared as a brand in the city, though it is no longer made there. HMSO, once the official publishing and stationery arm of the British government and one of the largest print buyers, printers and suppliers of office equipment in the UK, moved most of its operations from London to Norwich in the 1970s. It occupied the purpose-built 1968 Sovereign House building, near Anglia Square, which in 2017 stood empty and due for demolition if a long-postponed redevelopment of Anglia Square went ahead. Jarrolds, established in 1810, was a nationally well-known printer and publisher. In 2004, after nearly 200 years, the printing and publishing businesses were sold. Today, the company remains privately owned and the Jarrold name is best recognised as being that of Norwich's only independent department store. The company is also active in property development in Norwich and has a business training division. #### Pubs and brewing The city had a long tradition of brewing. Several large breweries continued into the second half of the 20th century, notably Morgans, Steward & Patteson, Youngs Crawshay and Youngs, Bullard and Son, and the Norwich Brewery. Despite takeovers and consolidation in the 1950s and 1960s, only the Norwich Brewery (owned by Watney Mann and on the site of Morgans) remained by the 1970s. That too closed in 1985 and was then demolished. Only microbreweries remain today. It was stated by Walter Wicks in his book that Norwich once had "a pub for every day of the year and a church for every Sunday". This was in fact significantly under the actual amount: the highest number of pubs in the city was in the year 1870, with over 780 beer-houses. The Licensing Act of 1872 had several detrimental effects for landlords and customers, with the total pub numbers dropping to 634. A "Drink Map" produced in 1892 by the Norwich and Norfolk Gospel Temperance Union showed 631 pubs in and around the city centre. By 1900, the number had dropped to 441 pubs within the City Walls. The title of a pub for every day of the year survived until 1966, when the Chief Constable informed the Licensing Justices that only 355 licences were still operative, with the number still shrinking: over 25 had closed in the last decade. In 2018, about 100 pubs remained open around the city centre. #### Second World War Norwich suffered extensive bomb damage during World War II, affecting large parts of the old city centre and Victorian terrace housing around the centre. Industry and the rail infrastructure also suffered. The heaviest raids occurred on the nights of 27/28 and 29/30 April 1942; as part of the Baedeker raids (so-called because Baedeker's series of tourist guides to the British Isles were used to select propaganda-rich targets of cultural and historic significance rather than strategic importance). Lord Haw-Haw made reference to the imminent destruction of Norwich's new City Hall (completed in 1938), although in the event it survived unscathed. Significant targets hit included the Morgan's Brewery building, Colman's Wincarnis works, City Station, the Mackintosh chocolate factory, and shopping areas including St Stephen's St and St Benedict's St, the site of Bond's department store (now John Lewis) and Curl's (later Debenhams) department store. 229 citizens were killed in the two Baedeker raids with 1,000 others injured, and 340 by bombing throughout the war — giving Norwich the highest air raid casualties in Eastern England. Out of the 35,000 domestic dwellings in Norwich, 2,000 were destroyed, and another 27,000 suffered some damage. In 1945 the city was also the intended target of a brief V-2 rocket campaign, though all these missed the city itself. #### Post-war redevelopment As the war ended, the city council revealed what it had been working on before the war. It was published as a book – *The City of Norwich Plan 1945* or commonly known as "The '45 Plan" – a grandiose scheme of massive redevelopment which never properly materialised. However, throughout the 1960s to early 1970, the city was completely altered and large areas of Norwich were cleared to make way for modern redevelopment. In 1960, the inner-city district of Richmond, between Ber Street and King Street, locally known as "the Village on the Hill", was condemned as slums and many residents were forced to leave by compulsory purchase orders on the old terraces and lanes. The whole borough demolished consisted of some 56 acres of existing streets, including 833 dwellings (612 classed as unfit for human habitation), 42 shops, four offices, 22 public houses and two schools. Communities were moved to high-rise buildings such as Normandie Tower and new housing estates such as Tuckswood, which were being built at the time. A new road, Rouen Road, was developed instead, consisting mainly of light industrial units and council flats. Ber Street, a once historic main road into the city, had its whole eastern side demolished. About this time, the final part of St Peters Street, opposite St Peter Mancroft Church, were demolished along with large Georgian townhouses at the top of Bethel Street, to make way for the new City Library in 1961. This burnt down on 1 August 1994 and was replaced in 2001 by The Forum. A controversial plan was implemented for Norwich's inner ring-road in the late 1960s. In 1931, the city architect Robert Atkinson, referring to the City Wall, remarked that "in almost every position are slum dwellings put up during the last 50 years. It would be a great adventure to clear them all out and open up the road following the wall which has always been a natural highway. Do this, and you will have a wonderful circulating boulevard all around the city and its cost would be comparatively nothing." To accommodate the road, many more buildings were demolished, including an ancient road junction – Stump Cross. Magdalen Street, Botolph Street, St George's Street, Calvert Street and notably Pitt Street, all lined with Tudor and Georgian buildings, were cleared to make way for a fly-over and a Brutalist concrete shopping centre – Anglia Square – as well as office blocks such as an HMSO building, Sovereign House. Other areas affected were Grapes Hill, a once narrow lane lined with 19th-century Georgian cottages, which was cleared and widened into a dual carriageway leading to a roundabout. Shortly before construction of the roundabout, the city's old Drill Hall was demolished, along with sections of the original city wall and other large townhouses along the start of Unthank Road (named after the Unthank family, local landowners). The roundabout also required the north-west corner of Chapelfield Gardens to be demolished. About a mile of Georgian and Victorian terrace houses along Chapelfield Road and Queens Road, including many houses built into the city walls, was bulldozed in 1964. This included the surrounding district off Vauxhall Street, consisting of swathes of terrace housing that were condemned as slums. This also included the whole West Pottergate district, which contained a mix of 18th and 19th-century cottages and terraced housing, pubs and shops. Post-war housing and maisonettes flats now stand where the Rookery slums once did. Some aspects of The '45 Plan were put into action, which saw large three-story Edwardian houses in Grove Avenue and Grove Road, and other large properties on Southwell Road, demolished in 1962 to make way for flat-roofed single-story style maisonettes that still stand today. Heigham Hall, a large Victorian manor house off Old Palace Road was also demolished in 1963, to build Dolphin Grove flats, which housed many Norwich families displaced by slum clearance. Other housing developments in the private and public sector took place after the Second World War, partly to accommodate the growing population of the city and to replace condemned and bomb-damaged areas, such as the Heigham Grove district between Barn Road and Old Palace Road, where some 200 terraced houses, shops and pubs were all flattened. Only St Barnabas church and one public house, The West End Retreat, now remain. Another central street bulldozed during the 1960s was St Stephens Street. It was widened, clearing away many historically significant buildings in the process, firstly for Norwich Union's new office blocks and shortly after with new buildings, after it suffered damage during the Baedeker raids. In Surrey Street, several grand six-storey Georgian townhouses were demolished to make way for Norwich Union's office. Other notable buildings that were lost were three theatres (the Norwich Hippodrome on St Giles Street, which is now a multi-storey car park, the Grosvenor Rooms and Electric Theatre in Prince of Wales Road) The Norwich Corn Exchange in Exchange Street (built 1861, demolished 1964), the Free Library in Duke Street (built 1857, demolished 1963) and the Great Eastern Hotel, which faced Norwich Station. Two large churches, the Chapel Field East Congregational church (built 1858, demolished 1972) was pulled down, as well as the 100-foot (30 m) tall Presbyterian church in Theatre Street, built in 1874 and designed by local architect Edward Boardman. It has been said that more of Norwich's architecture was destroyed by the council in post-war redevelopment schemes than during the Second World War. #### Other events In 1976 the city's pioneering spirit was on show when Motum Road in Norwich, allegedly the scene of "a number of accidents over the years", became the third road in Britain to be equipped with sleeping policemen, intended to encourage adherence to the road's 30 mph (48 km/h) speed limit. The bumps, installed at intervals of 50 and 150 yards (46 and 137 m), stretched 12 feet (3.7 m) across the width of the road and their curved profile was, at its highest point, 4 in (10 cm) high. The responsible quango gave an assurance that the experimental devices would be removed not more than one year after installation. From 1980 to 1985 the city became a frequent focus of national media due to squatting in Argyle Street, a Victorian street that was demolished in 1986, despite being the last street to survive the Richmond Hill redevelopment. On 23 November 1981, a minor F0/T1 tornado struck Norwich as part of a record-breaking nationwide tornado outbreak, causing minor damage in Norwich city centre and surrounding suburbs. ### Government Norwich has been governed by two tiers of local government since the implementation of the Local Government Act 1972. Norfolk County Council manages services such as schools, social services and libraries across Norfolk. Norwich City Council manages services such as housing, planning, leisure and tourism. Norwich elects 13 county councillors to the 84-member county council. The city is divided into single-member electoral divisions, with county councillors elected every four years. Norwich City Council consists of 39 councillors elected to 13 wards. Each year (except in the year of county council elections) one councillor in every ward is elected for a four-year term. Ward boundary changes caused all 39 seats to be contested in the 2019 Norwich City Council election. Since the 2019 election, the distribution of seats is Labour 27, Green Party 9, and Liberal Democrats 3, with Labour retaining overall control. ### Lord mayoralty and shrievalty The ceremonial head of the city is the Lord Mayor; though now simply a ceremonial position, in the past the office carried considerable authority, with executive powers over the finances and affairs of the city council. The office of Mayor of Norwich dates from 1403 and was raised to the dignity of lord mayor in 1910 by Edward VII "in view of the position occupied by that city as the chief city of East Anglia and of its close association with His Majesty". The title was regranted on local government reorganisation in 1974. From 1404 the citizens of Norwich, as a county corporate, had the privilege of electing two sheriffs. Under the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 this was reduced to one and became a ceremonial post. Both Lord Mayor and Sheriff are elected for a year's term of office at the council's annual meeting, but the term of office was temporarily extended to two years for the periods 2019-2021 and 2021-2023, the normal annual elections having been disrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic in the years 2020-2022. ### Unitary status proposal In October 2006, the Department for Communities and Local Government produced a Local Government White Paper inviting councils to submit proposals for unitary restructuring. Norwich submitted its proposal in January 2007, which was rejected in December 2007, as it did not meet all the rigorous criteria for acceptance. In February 2008, the Boundary Committee for England, was asked to consider alternative proposals for the whole or part of Norfolk, including whether Norwich should become a unitary authority, separate from Norfolk County Council. In December 2009, the Boundary Committee recommended a single unitary authority covering all Norfolk including Norwich. However, it was announced in February 2010 that despite a December 2009 recommendation of the Boundary Committee, Norwich would gain separate unitary status. The proposal was resisted notably by Norfolk County Council and the Conservative opposition in Parliament. Reacting to the announcement, Norfolk County Council said it would look to challenge the decision in the courts. A letter was leaked to the local media, in which the Permanent Secretary for the Department for Communities and Local Government noted that the decision did not meet all the criteria and that the risk of it "being successfully challenged in judicial review proceedings is very high." The Shadow Local Government and Planning Minister, Bob Neill, stated that if the Conservative Party won the 2010 general election, it would reverse the decision. After the 2010 general election, Eric Pickles was appointed Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government in a Conservative–Liberal Democrat coalition government. There were press reports that he instructed his department to take urgent steps to reverse the decision and maintain the status quo in line with the Conservative Party manifesto. However, the unitary plans were backed by the Liberal Democrat group on the city council and by Simon Wright, Liberal Democrat MP for Norwich South, who would lobby the party leadership to allow the changes to go ahead. The Local Government Act 2010 to reverse the unitary decision for Norwich (and Exeter and Suffolk) received Royal Assent in December 2010. The disputed award of unitary status had meanwhile been referred to the High Court, which ruled it unlawful and revoked it in June 2010; the city failed to attain unitary status. ### Westminster Since 1298 Norwich has returned two members of Parliament to the House of Commons. Until 1950 the city was an undivided constituency, returning two MPs. Since that date, the area has been two single-member constituencies: Norwich North and Norwich South. Both proved to be marginal seats in recent elections until 2010, switching between the Labour and Conservative parties. Norwich North, which includes some rural wards of Broadland District, was held by Labour from 1950 to 1983 when it was gained by the Conservatives. Labour regained the seat in 1997, holding it until a by-election in 2009. The current MP is the Conservative, Chloe Smith, who held the seat in the 2015 General Election. Norwich South, which includes part of South Norfolk District, was held by Labour from February 1974 to 1983, when it was gained by the Conservatives. John Garrett regained the seat for Labour in 1987. Charles Clarke became Labour MP for Norwich South in 1997. In the 2010 General Election, Labour lost the seat to the Liberal Democrats, with Simon Wright becoming MP. At the 2015 General Election, Clive Lewis regained the seat for Labour. In both the 2017 General Election and 2019 General Election, the two incumbent 2015 MPs held their seats. Demography ---------- Population Change| | Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1801 | 35,633 | —     | | 1821 | 48,792 | +36.9% | | 1841 | 60,418 | +23.8% | | 1861 | 70,958 | +17.4% | | 1881 | 79,977 | +12.7% | | 1901 | 100,815 | +26.1% | | | Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1921 | 112,533 | +11.6% | | 1941 | 112,669 | +0.1% | | 1951 | 110,633 | −1.8% | | 1961 | 116,231 | +5.1% | | 1971 | 122,118 | +5.1% | | 1981 | 119,764 | −1.9% | | | Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1991 | 127,074 | +6.1% | | 2001 | 121,553 | −4.3% | | 2011 | 132,512 | +9.0% | | 2021 | 144,000 | +8.7% | | | | The 2021 United Kingdom census reported a resident population for the City of Norwich of approximately 144,000, a 8.7 per cent increase over the 2011 census. The urban, built-up area of Norwich had a population of 213,166 according to the 2011 census. This area extends beyond the city boundary, with extensive suburban areas on the western, northern and eastern sides, including Costessey, Taverham, Hellesdon, Bowthorpe, Old Catton, Sprowston and Thorpe St Andrew. The parliamentary seats cross over into adjacent local-government districts. The population of the Norwich travel to work area (i. e. the self-contained labour-market area in and around Norwich in which most people live and commute to work) was estimated at 282,000 in 2009. Norwich is one of the most densely populated local-government districts in the East of England, with 3,690 people per square kilometre (9,600 people/sq mi). In 2022 the ethnic composition of Norwich's population was 87.1% White, 5.5% Asian, 3.2% of mixed race, 2.6% Black, 0.6% Arab and 1.1% of other ethnic heritage. In religion, 33.6% of the population are Christian, 3% Muslim, 1.2% Hindu, 0.7% Buddhist, 0.2% Jewish, 0.1% Sikh, 0.9% of another religion, 53.5% with no religion and 6.8% unwilling to state their religion. In the 2001 and 2011 censuses, Norwich was found to be the least religious city in England, with the highest proportion of respondents with no reported religion, compared to 25.1% across England and Wales. The largest quinary group consists of the 20 to 24-year-olds (14.6%) because of the high university student population. ### Ethnicity | Ethnic Group | 1991 | 2001 | 2011 | 2021 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | | | | | | | | | | White: Total | 118,843 | 98.3% | 117,701 | 96.8% | 120,375 | 90.9% | 125,421 | 87.1% | | White: British | – | – | 113,600 | 93.5% | 112,237 | 84.7% | 111,623 | 77.6% | | White: Irish | – | – | 843 | | 874 | 0.7% | 885 | 0.6% | | White: Gypsy or Irish Traveller | – | – | – | – | 127 | 0.1% | 214 | 0.1% | | White: Roma | – | – | – | – | – | – | 214 | 0.1% | | White: Other | – | – | 3,258 | | 7,137 | 5.4% | 12,485 | 8.7% | | Asian or Asian British: Total | 1,010 | 0.8% | 1,506 | 1.2% | 5,844 | 4.5% | 7,867 | 5.5% | | Asian or Asian British: Indian | 314 | | 525 | | 1,684 | 1.3% | 2,570 | 1.8% | | Asian or Asian British: Pakistani | 78 | | 93 | | 255 | 0.2% | 528 | 0.4% | | Asian or Asian British: Bangladeshi | 123 | | 216 | | 540 | 0.4% | 839 | 0.6% | | Asian or Asian British: Chinese | 286 | | 468 | | 1,679 | 1.3% | 1,627 | 1.1% | | Asian or Asian British: Other Asian | 209 | | 204 | | 1,686 | 1.3% | 2,303 | 1.6% | | Black or Black British: Total | 506 | 0.4% | 433 | 0.4% | 2,147 | 1.6% | 3,578 | 2.6% | | Black or Black British: Caribbean | 98 | | 123 | | 272 | 0.2% | 395 | 0.3% | | Black or Black British: African | 168 | | 267 | | 1,727 | 1.3% | 2,807 | 2.0% | | Black or Black British: Other Black | 240 | | 43 | | 148 | 0.1% | 376 | 0.3% | | Mixed or British Mixed: Total | – | – | 1,321 | 1.1% | 3,039 | 2.3% | 4,519 | 3.2% | | Mixed: White and Black Caribbean | – | – | 311 | | 684 | 0.5% | 939 | 0.7% | | Mixed: White and Black African | – | – | 187 | | 660 | 0.5% | 966 | 0.7% | | Mixed: White and Asian | – | – | 391 | | 876 | 0.7% | 1,287 | 0.9% | | Mixed: Other Mixed | – | – | 432 | | 819 | 0.6% | 1,327 | 0.9% | | Other: Total | 536 | 0.4% | 589 | 0.5% | 1,107 | 0.9% | 2,539 | 1.7% | | Other: Arab | – | – | – | – | 643 | 0.5% | 900 | 0.6% | | Other: Any other ethnic group | 536 | 0.4% | 589 | 0.5% | 464 | 0.4% | 1,639 | 1.1% | | | | | | | | | | Total | 120,895 | 100% | 121,550 | 100% | 132,512 | 100% | 143,924 | 100% | ### Religion | Religion | 2001 | 2011 | 2021 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | | | | | | | | Holds religious beliefs | 76,108 | 62.6 | 65,417 | 49.4 | 57,189 | 39.7 | | Christian | 73,428 | 60.4 | 59,515 | 44.9 | 48,399 | 33.6 | | Buddhist | 485 | 0.4 | 978 | 0.7 | 983 | 0.7 | | Hindu | 348 | 0.3 | 1,017 | 0.8 | 1,719 | 1.2 | | Jewish | 239 | 0.2 | 241 | 0.2 | 331 | 0.2 | | Muslim | 887 | 0.7 | 2,612 | 2.0 | 4,289 | 3.0 | | Sikh | 102 | 0.1 | 168 | 0.1 | 185 | 0.1 | | Other religion | 619 | 0.5 | 886 | 0.7 | 1283 | 0.9 | | *(No religion and Religion not stated)* | 45,442 | 37.4 | 67,095 | 50.7 | 86,733 | 60.3 | | No religion | 33,766 | 27.8 | 56,268 | 42.5 | 76,973 | 53.5 | | Religion not stated | 11,676 | 9.6 | 10,827 | 8.2 | 9,760 | 6.8 | | | | | | | | Total population | 121,550 | 100.0 | 132,512 | 100.0 | 143,922 | 100.0 | Education --------- ### Primary and secondary The city has 56 primary schools (including 16 academies and free schools) and 13 secondary schools, 11 of which are academies. The city's eight independent schools include Norwich School and Norwich High School for Girls. There are five schools for children with learning disabilities. The former Norwich High School for Boys in Upper St Giles Street has a blue plaque commemorating Sir John Mills, who was a pupil there. ### Universities and colleges Norwich has two universities: the University of East Anglia and Norwich University of the Arts. The student population is around 15,000, many of them from overseas. The University of East Anglia, founded in 1963, is located on the outskirts of the city. It has a creative writing programme, established by Malcolm Bradbury and Angus Wilson, whose graduates include Kazuo Ishiguro and Ian McEwan. It has done work on climate research and climate change. Its campus is home to the Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts, which houses several important art collections. The Norwich University of the Arts dates back to 1845 as the Norwich School of Design. Founded by artists and followers of the Norwich School art movement, it was founded to provide designers for local industries. Previously a specialist art school (the Norwich School of Art and Design), it achieved university status in 2013. Norwich has three further education colleges. City College Norwich, situated on Ipswich Road, was founded in 1891 and is one of the largest such colleges in the country. Access to Music is located on Magdalen Street at Epic Studios, and Easton & Otley College's Easton Campus is located 7 mi (11 km) west of the city. Culture and attractions ----------------------- Historically Norwich has been associated with art, literature and publishing. This continues. It was the site of England's first provincial library, which opened in 1608, and the first city to implement the Public Libraries Act 1850. The *Norwich Post* was the first provincial newspaper outside London, founded in 1701. The Norwich School of artists was the first provincial art movement, with nationally acclaimed artists such as John Crome associated with the movement. Other literary firsts include Julian of Norwich's *Revelations of Divine Love*, published in 1395, which was the first book written in the English language by a woman, and the first poem written in blank verse, composed by Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, in the 16th century. Today the city is a regional centre for publishing, with 5 per cent of the UK's independent publishing sector based in the city in 2012. In 2006 Norwich became the UK's first City of Refuge, part of the International Cities of Refuge Network (ICORN) which promotes free speech. Norwich made the shortlist for the first city to be designated UK City of Culture, but in July 2010 it was announced that Derry had been selected. In May 2012 Norwich was designated as England's first UNESCO City of Literature. ### Attractions Norwich is a popular destination for a city break. Attractions include Norwich Cathedral, the cobbled streets and museums of old Norwich, Norwich Castle, Cow Tower, Dragon Hall and The Forum. Norwich is one of the UK's top ten shopping destinations, with a mix of chain retailers and independent stores, and Norwich Market as one of the largest outdoor markets in England. The Forum, designed by Michael Hopkins and Partners and opened in 2002 is a building designed to house the Norfolk and Norwich Millennium Library, a replacement for the Norwich Central Library building which burnt down in 1994, and the regional headquarters and television centre for BBC East. In 2006–2013 it was the most visited library in the UK, with 1.3 million visits in 2013. The collections contains the 2nd Air Division Memorial Library, a collection of material about American culture and the American relationship with East Anglia, especially the role of the United States Air Force on UK airbases throughout the Second World War and Cold War. Much of the collection was lost in the 1994 fire, but the collection has been restored by contributions from many veterans of the war, European and American. The building also provides a venue for art exhibitions, concerts and events, although the city still lacks a dedicated concert venue. Recent attempts to shed the backwater image of Norwich and market it as a popular tourist destination, as well as a centre for science, commerce, culture and the arts, have included refurbishment of the Norwich Castle Museum and the opening of the Forum. The proposed new slogan for Norwich as *England's Other City* has been the subject of much discussion and controversy. It remains to be seen whether it will be adopted. Several signs at the city's approaches still display the traditional phrase: "Norwich — a fine city". The city promotes its architectural heritage through a collection of notable buildings in Norwich called the "Norwich 12". The group consists of: Norwich Castle, Norwich Cathedral, the Great Hospital, St Andrew's Hall and Blackfriars' Hall, The Guildhall, Dragon Hall, The Assembly House, St James Mill, St John the Baptist RC Cathedral, Surrey House, City Hall and The Forum. ### Art and music Each year the Norfolk and Norwich Festival celebrates the arts, drawing many visitors into the city from all over eastern England. The Norwich Twenty Group, founded in 1944, presents exhibitions of its members to promote awareness of modern art. Norwich was home to the first arts festival in Britain in 1772. Norwich Arts Centre is a notable live music venue, concert hall and theatre located in St Benedict's Street. The King of Hearts in Fye Bridge Street is another centre for art and music. Norwich has a thriving music scene based around local venues such as the University of East Anglia LCR, Norwich Arts Centre, The Waterfront and Epic Studios. Live music, mostly contemporary musical genres, is also to be heard at a number of other public house and club venues around the city. The city is host to many artists that have achieved national and international recognition such as Cord, The Kabeedies, Serious Drinking, Tim Bowness, Sennen, Magoo, Let's Eat Grandma and KaitO. Norwich hosted BBC Radio 1's Big Weekend in 2015. The event was held on 23–24 May in Earlham Park. Established record labels in Norwich include All Sorted Records, NR ONE, Hungry Audio and Burning Shed. The British artist Stella Vine lived in Norwich from the age of seven, including for a short while in Argyle Street, Norwich and again later in life with her son Jamie. Vine depicted the city in a large painting, *Welcome to Norwich a fine city* (2006). ### Theatres Norwich has theatres ranging in capacity from 100 to 1,300 seats and offering a wide variety of programmes. The Theatre Royal is the largest and has been on its present site for nearly 250 years, through several rebuildings and many alterations. It has 1,300 seats and hosts a mix of national touring productions including musicals, dance, drama, family shows, stand-up comedians, opera and pop. The Maddermarket Theatre opened in 1921 as the first permanent recreation of an Elizabethan theatre. The founder was Nugent Monck who had worked with William Poel. The theatre is a Shakespearean-style playhouse and has a seating capacity of 310. Norwich Puppet Theatre was founded in 1979 by Ray and Joan DaSilva as a permanent base for their touring company and was first opened as a public venue in 1980, following the conversion of the medieval church of St James in the heart of Norwich. Under subsequent artistic directors — Barry Smith and Luis Z. Boy — the theatre established its current pattern of operation. It is a nationally unique venue dedicated to puppetry, and currently houses a 185-seat raked auditorium, the 50-seat Octagon Studio, workshops, an exhibition gallery, shop and licensed bar. It is the only theatre in the Eastern region with a year-round programme of family-centred entertainment. Norwich Arts Centre theatre opened in 1977 in St Benedict's Street and has a capacity of 290. The Norwich Playhouse, which opened in 1995 and has a seating capacity of 300, is a venue in the heart of the city and one of the most modern performance spaces of its size in East Anglia. The Garage studio theatre seats up to 110 in a range of layouts, or can be used for standing events for up to 180. Platform Theatre is in the grounds of the City College Norwich. Productions are staged mainly in the autumn and summer months. The theatre is raked and seats about 250. On 20 April 2012, it held a large relaunch event with an evening performance, showcasing it with previews of coming performances and scenes from past ones. The Whiffler Theatre, built in 1981, was given to the people of Norwich by the local newspaper group Eastern Daily Press. It is an open-air facility in Norwich Castle Gardens, with fixed-raked seating for up to 80 and standing for another 30 on the balcony. The stage is brick-built and has its dressing rooms set in a small building to stage left. The Whiffler mainly plays small Shakespeare productions. Sewell Barn Theatre is the smallest theatre in Norwich and has a seating capacity of just 100. The auditorium features raked seating on three sides of an open acting space. This staging helps to draw the audience closer into the performance. Public performance spaces include the Forum in the city centre, with a large open-air amphitheatre for performances of many types throughout the year. Additionally, the cloisters of Norwich Cathedral are used for open-air performances as part of an annual Shakespeare festival. ### Museums Norwich has several museums to reflect the history of the city and of Norfolk, and wider interests. The largest, Norwich Castle Museum, has extensive collections of archaeological finds from Norfolk, art (including a fine collection of paintings by the Norwich School of painters), ceramics (including the largest collection of British teapots), silver, and natural history. Of particular interest are dioramas of Norfolk scenery showing wildlife and landscape. It has been much remodelled to enhance the display of the collections and hosts frequent temporary exhibitions of art and other subjects. The Museum of Norwich in Bridewell Alley (until 2014 the Bridewell Museum) closed in 2010 for refurbishment of the building and overhaul of the displays, and re-opened in July 2012. The several galleries and groups of displays include "Life in Norwich: Our City 1900–1945"; "Life in Norwich: Our City 1945 Onwards"; and "England's Second City" depicting Norwich in the 18th century. "Made in Norwich", "Industrious City" and "Shoemakers" have exhibits connected with historic industries of Norwich, including weaving, shoe and bootmaking, iron foundries, and manufacture of metal goods, engineering, milling, brewing, chocolate-making and other food manufacturing. "Shopping and Trading" extends from the early 19th century to the 1960s. Strangers' Hall, at Charing Cross, is one of the oldest buildings in Norwich: a merchant's house from the early 14th century. The many rooms are furnished and equipped in the styles of different eras, from the Early Tudor to the Late Victorian. Exhibits include costumes and textiles, domestic objects, children's toys and games and children's books. The last two collections are seen to be of national importance. The Royal Norfolk Regimental Museum was, until 2011, housed in part of the former Shirehall, close to the castle. Although archives and the reserve collections are still held in the Shirehall, the principal museum display there closed in September 2011 and was relocated to the main Norwich Castle Museum, reopening fully in 2013. It illustrates the history of the regiment from its 17th-century origins to its incorporation into the Royal Anglian Regiment in 1964, along with many aspects of its military life. There is an extensive, representative display of medals awarded to soldiers of the regiment, including two of the six Victoria Crosses won. The City of Norwich Aviation Museum is at Horsham St Faith, on the northern edge of the city, close to Norwich Airport. It has static displays of military and civil aircraft, with various collective exhibits, including one for the United States 8th Army Air Force. Formerly known as The John Jarrold Printing Museum, The Norwich Printing Museum covers the history of printing, with examples of printing machinery, presses, books and related equipment considered of national and international importance. Exhibits date from the early 19th century to the present day. Some machinery and equipment are shown in use. Many items were donated by Jarrold Printing. In November 2018, redevelopment plans for the museum site at Whitefriars caused uncertainty about its future. The museum closed its Whitefriars premises on 23 October 2019, with a plan to relocate to the vacant medieval church of St Peter Parmentergate in King Street in 2020, but this site was later found to be unsuitable. In 2021, the museum trustees were offered space at Blickling Hall, near Aylsham, and, as "The Norwich Printing Museum", it reopened there as a fully-working museum in July 2021. Whilst the museum continues in its temporary home at Blickling, as at March 2023 the trustees were seeking permanent quarters in Norwich. Dragon Hall in King Street exemplifies a medieval merchants' trading hall. Mostly dating from about 1430, it is unique in Western Europe. In 2006 the building underwent restoration. Its architecture is complemented by displays on the history of the building and its role in Norwich through the ages. The Norwich Castle Study Centre at the Shirehall in Market Avenue has some important collections, including one of more than 20,000 costume and textile items built up over some 130 years and previously kept in other Norwich museums. Although not a publicly open museum in the usual sense, items are accessible to the public, students and researchers by prior appointment. ### Entertainment Norwich has three cinema complexes. Odeon Norwich is located in the Riverside Leisure Centre, Vue inside the Castle Mall and previously the Hollywood Cinema (closed 2019) at Anglia Square, north of the city centre. Cinema City is an art-house cinema showing non-mainstream productions, operated by Picturehouse in St Andrews Street opposite St Andrew's Hall, whose patron was actor John Hurt. Norwich has a large number of pubs throughout the city. Prince of Wales Road in the city centre, running from the Riverside district near Norwich railway station to Norwich Castle, is home to many of them, along with bars and clubs. ### Media and film Norwich is the headquarters of BBC East, its presence in the East of England, and BBC Radio Norfolk, *BBC Look East*, *Inside Out* and *The Politics Show* are broadcast from studios in The Forum. Independent radio stations based in Norwich include Heart East, Smooth East Anglia, Greatest Hits Radio Norfolk and North Suffolk, and the University of East Anglia's Livewire 1350, an online station. A community station, Future Radio, was launched on 6 August 2007. ITV Anglia, formerly Anglia Television, is based in Norwich. Although one of the smaller ITV companies, it supplied the network with some of its most popular shows such as *Tales of the Unexpected*, *Survival* and *Sale of the Century* (1971–1983), which began each edition with John Benson's enthusiastic announcement: "And now from Norwich, it's the quiz of the week!" The company also had a subsidiary called Anglia Multimedia, which produced educational content on CD and DVD mainly for schools, and was one of the three companies, along with Granada TV and the BBC vying for the right to produce a digital television station for English schools and colleges. Launched in 1959, Anglia Television lost its independence in 1994 with a takeover by Meridian Broadcasting. Subsequent mergers have seen it reduced from a significant producer of programmes to a regional news centre. The company is still based in Anglia House, the former Norfolk and Norwich Agricultural Hall, on Agricultural Hall Plain near Prince of Wales Road. Despite the contraction of Anglia, television production in Norwich has by no means ended. Anglia's former network production centre at Magdalen Street has been taken over by Norfolk County Council and revamped. After a total investment of £4 million from the East of England Development Agency (EEDA) it has re-opened as Epic Studios (East of England Production Innovation Centre). Degree courses in film and video are run at the centre by Norwich University of the Arts. Epic has commercial, broadcast-quality post-production facilities, a real-time virtual studio and a smaller HD discussion studio. The main studio opened as an HD facility in November 2008, when it began concentrating on the development of new TV formats and has worked on pilot shows. Archant publishes two dailies in Norwich, the *Norwich Evening News* and the regional *Eastern Daily Press* (EDP). It had its own television operation, Mustard TV, which closed after being bought out by the That's TV group. Mustard TV is now That's Norfolk. The character of Alan Partridge in the sitcom *I'm Alan Partridge* (1997–2002) and the comedy film *Alan Partridge: Alpha Papa* (2013) is a Norwich broadcaster played by Steve Coogan. ### Esoteric associations Because Norwich was England's second city in the medieval and Renaissance periods, it has some little acknowledged, but significant associations with esoteric spirituality. It was the home of William Cuningham, a physician who published *An Invective Epistle in Defense of Astrologers* in 1560. The Elizabethan dramatist Robert Greene, author of Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay, was born in Norwich in 1558. The city was the retirement residence of Arthur Dee (died Norwich, 1651), eldest son of the alchemist John Dee. Norwich was the residence of the physician and hermetic philosopher Sir Thomas Browne, author of The Garden of Cyrus (1658). Many influential esoteric titles are listed as once in Browne's library. His coffin-plate, on display at the church of St Peter Mancroft, alludes to Paracelsian medicine and alchemy. Translated from Latin it reads, "Great Virtues, ...sleeping here the dust of his spagyric body converts the lead to gold." Browne was also a significant figure in the history of physiognomy. The Church of St John Maddermarket's graveyard includes the Crabtree headstone, which has the pre-Christian symbol of the Ouroboros along with Masonic Square and Compasses carved upon it. Within the church is the Layer Monument, a rare example of an alchemical mandala in European funerary art. From 1787 the congregation of the New Jerusalem Church of Swedenborgians, followers of the mystic Emanuel Swedenborg, worshipped at the Church of St Mary the Less; in 1852 they moved to Park Lane, Norwich to establish the Swedenborgian Chapel. Architecture ------------ Norwich's medieval period is represented by the 11th-century Norwich Cathedral, 12th-century castle (now a museum) and several parish churches. In the Middle Ages, 57 churches stood within the city wall; 31 still exist and seven are still used for worship. There was a common regional saying that it had a church for every week of the year and a pub for every day. Norwich is said to have more standing medieval churches than any city north of the Alps. The *Adam and Eve* is believed to be the oldest pub in the city, with the earliest known reference made in 1249. Most medieval buildings are in the city centre. Notable secular examples are Dragon Hall, built about 1430, and The Guildhall, built in 1407–1413 with later additions. From the 18th century, the pre-eminent local name is Thomas Ivory, who built the Assembly Rooms (1776), the Octagon Chapel (1756), St Helen's House (1752) in the grounds of the Great Hospital, and innovative speculative housing in Surrey Street (c. 1761). Ivory should not be confused with the Irish architect of the same name and a similar period. The 19th century saw an explosion in Norwich's size and much of its housing stock, as well as commercial building in the city centre. The local architect of the Victorian and Edwardian periods who continues to command most respect was George Skipper (1856–1948). Examples of his work include the Norwich Union headquarters in Surrey Street the Modern Style (British Art Nouveau style) Royal Arcade, and the Hotel de Paris in the nearby seaside town of Cromer. The neo-Gothic Roman Catholic St John the Baptist Cathedral in Earlham Road was begun in 1882 by George Gilbert Scott Junior and his brother, John Oldrid Scott. George Skipper had great influence on the appearance of the city. John Betjeman compared it to Gaudi's influence on Barcelona. The city continued to grow through the 20th century. Much housing, particularly in areas further from the city centre, dates from that century. The first notable building since Skipper was the City Hall by C. H. James and S. R. Pierce, opened in 1938. At the same time they moved the City War Memorial, designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens, to a memorial garden between the city hall and the market place. Bombing during the Second World War, resulting in relatively little loss of life, caused marked damage to the housing stock in the city centre. Much of the post-war replacement stock was designed by the local-authority architect, David Percival. However, the major post-war architectural development in Norwich was the opening of the University of East Anglia in 1964. Originally designed by Denys Lasdun (his design was never completely executed), it has been added to over subsequent decades by major names such as Norman Foster and Rick Mather. * Norwich Cathedral lies close to Tombland in the city centre.Norwich Cathedral lies close to Tombland in the city centre. * Elm Hill is an intact medieval street.Elm Hill is an intact medieval street. * Cow Tower stands on the banks of the River Wensum.Cow Tower stands on the banks of the River Wensum. * The varying styles of architecture along Gentleman's WalkThe varying styles of architecture along Gentleman's Walk ### Parks, gardens and open spaces *See also List of parks, gardens and open spaces in Norwich* Chapelfield Gardens in central Norwich became the city's first public park in November 1880. From the start of the 20th century, Norwich Corporation began buying and leasing land to develop parks when funds became available. Sewell Park and James Stuart Gardens are examples of land donated by benefactors. After the First World War the Corporation applied government grants to lay out a series of formal parks as a means to alleviate unemployment. Under Parks Superintendent Captain Sandys-Winsch, Heigham Park was completed in 1924, Wensum Park in 1925, Eaton Park in 1928 and Waterloo Park in 1933. These retain many features from Sandys-Winsch's plans and have joined the English Heritage Register of Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest. As of 2015, the city has 23 parks, 95 open spaces and 59 natural areas managed by the local authority. In addition there are several private gardens occasionally opened to the public in aid of charity. The Plantation Garden, also private, opens daily. Sport ----- The principal local football club is Norwich City, known as the *Canaries*. In 2020–21 it finished first in the second tier of English football, the Championship, earning promotion to the Premier League for 2021–22. Majority-owned by celebrity chef Delia Smith and her husband Michael Wynn-Jones, its ground is Carrow Road Stadium. It has strong East Anglian rivalry with Ipswich Town. The club's current manager is Dean Smith. The club has enjoyed much success in the past, having played in the top division regularly since 1972, its longest spell being a nine-year run from 1986 to 1995. It has won two Football League Cups, and finished third in the inaugural Premier League in 1993. The club was relegated two years later and did not reclaim its place for nine years, going down again after just one season, only to return in 2011 after two successive promotions. In 1993, the club eliminated German giants Bayern Munich from the UEFA Cup, in what is to date Norwich City's only season in European competitions; it had qualified for the UEFA Cup three times between 1985 and 1989 but been unable to compete as there was a ban on English clubs in European competitions at the time. Before emerging as a top division club, it famously eliminated Manchester United from the FA Cup in 1959 and went on to reach the semi-finals of the domestic cup competition, a run it achieved again in 1989 and most recently in 1992. In the 1980s and early 1990s, the club produced some highly-rated talent of that era, including striker Chris Sutton, winger Ruel Fox, defender Andy Linighan, midfielder Mike Phelan, midfielder Tim Sherwood and striker Justin Fashanu. The club's successful managers have included Ken Brown, Ron Saunders, Dave Stringer, Mike Walker, Nigel Worthington, Paul Lambert and Daniel Farke. The city's second club, Norwich United, is based in Blofield some 5 mi (8.0 km) east of the city. Along with Norwich CBS, it plays in the Eastern Counties League. The now-defunct Gothic was also based in Norwich. Local football clubs are served by the Norwich and District Saturday Football League. Norwich has an athletics club, City of Norwich AC (CoNAC), a rugby club, the Norwich Lions, a handball Club, Norwich HC, and five field hockey clubs. In the 2012–2013 season, the club playing at the highest level on the men's side was Norwich City Hockey Club in the East Hockey Premier B, which is two levels below the National League. The second highest is Norwich Dragons in Division Two North, then the students only University of East Anglia Men's Hockey Club in Division Three North East, then Norfolk Nomads Men's Hockey Club in Division Six North East. On the Ladies' side of the game, both Norwich City Hockey Club and Norwich Dragons Hockey club play in East Hockey's Division One North, two levels below National League. Following them, the students from the University of East Anglia Women's Hockey Club play in the Norfolk Premier Division. Also in Norwich, there is a veterans-only side, Norwich Exiles. Outside the city boundary, the dry ski and snowboarding slopes of Norfolk Ski Club are located at Whitlingham Lane in Trowse. Close by in the parish of Whitlingham is Whitlingham Country Park, home to the Outdoor Education Centre. The centre is based on the south bank of the Great Broad which is also used by scuba divers from one of the city's three diving schools, and by other water and land sports. Of Norwich's two main rowing clubs, the Yare Boat Club is the older but smaller of the two. It is based on an island on the River Yare accessed from beside the *Rivergarden* pub in Thorpe Road. The larger Norwich Rowing Club, in partnership with Norwich Canoe Club, UEA Boat Club, Norwich School Boat Club and Norwich High School Rowing Club, has built a boathouse alongside Whitlingham Little Broad and the River Yare. Norwich Canoe Club specialises in sprint and marathon racing. It holds the highest British Canoe Union Top Club Gold accreditation, and is one of the more successful clubs in the UK. Ian Wynne, 2004 Olympics K1 500m bronze medallist, is an honorary member. Speedway racing was staged in Norwich before and after World War II at The Firs Stadium in Holt Road, Hellesdon. The Norwich Stars raced in the Northern League of 1946 and the National League Division Two between 1947 and 1951, winning it in 1951. They were later elevated to the National League and raced at the top flight until the stadium was closed at the end of the 1964 season. One meet was staged at a venue at Hevingham, but without an official permit, and it did not lead to a revival of the sport in the Norwich area. In boxing, Norwich can boast former European and British lightweight champion Jon Thaxton, reigning English light heavyweight champion Danny McIntosh and heavyweight Sam Sexton, a former winner of the Prizefighter tournament. Based in Norwich, Herbie Hide has been WBO Heavyweight World Champion twice, winning the championship in 1994–95 and for a second time in 1997. Norwich has a UK baseball team, the Norwich Iceni, which competes at the Single-A level of the BBF. It was founded in 2015 with players from the UEA Blue Sox, who wished to carry on playing after university. The team officially joined the league in 2017 and was crowned BBF Single-A champions in its first season, going undefeated with 17 wins. Statistics ---------- Norwich was the second city of England after London for several centuries before industrialisation, which came late to Norwich due to its isolation and lack of raw materials. In November 2006 the city was voted the greenest in the UK. There is currently an initiative to make it a transition town. Norwich has been the scene of open discussions in public spaces, known as "meet in the street", to cover social and political issues. Articles in the past suggested that compared with other UK cities, Norwich was top of the league by percentage of population among who use the popular Internet auction site eBay. The city also unveiled the then-biggest free Wi-Fi network in the UK in July 2006. In August 2007 Norwich was listed among nine finalists in its population group for the International Awards for Liveable Communities. The city eventually won a silver award in the small-city category. Economy and infrastructure -------------------------- Norwich's economy was historically manufacturing-based, including a large shoemaking industry, but it transitioned in the 1980s and 1990s into a service-based economy. The greater-Norwich economy (including Norwich, Broadland and South Norfolk government districts) as measured by GVA was estimated at £7.4 billion in 2011 (2011 GVA at 2006 prices). The city's largest employment sectors are business and financial services (31%), public services (26%), retail (12%), manufacturing (8%) and tourism (7%). The proportion of working-age adults in Norwich claiming unemployment benefits is 3.3% compared with 3.6% across the UK. New developments on the former Boulton and Paul site include a Riverside entertainment complex with nightclubs and other venues featuring the usual national leisure brands. Nearby, the football stadium is being upgraded with more residential property development alongside the River Wensum. Archant, formerly Eastern Counties Newspapers (ECN), is a national publishing group that has grown out of the city's local newspapers and is headquartered in Norwich. Norwich has long been associated with the making of mustard. The world-famous Colman's brand, with its yellow packaging, was founded in 1814 and operated from a factory at Carrow, latterly owned by Unilever. This site closed in 2019, with mustard now being made by Condimentum at Honingham, in a supply deal with Unilever. Colman's is exported worldwide, putting Norwich on the map of British heritage brands. The Colman's Mustard Shop, which sold Colman's products and related gifts, was until 2017 located in the Royal Arcade in the centre of Norwich but closed in that year. Situated to the south-west of the city is the Norwich Research Park, a community of research organisations, including the Institute of Food Research and the John Innes Centre, and over 30 science and technology-based businesses, the University of East Anglia and the Norfolk and Norwich University Hospital. Norwich's night-time economy of bars and night clubs is mainly located in Tombland, Prince of Wales Road and the Riverside area adjacent to Norwich railway station. Norwich's location in a mainly-agricultural county provided opportunities for the supply of services to that industry. Prior to 1960, a large area below the Castle Mound was given over to Norwich Livestock Market. In that year, the Livestock Market moved from the centre of the city to a new site at Harford and, although now diminished in size, it continues to hold regular auctions of poultry, cattle, sheep and farm machinery. ### Retail Norwich was the eighth most prosperous shopping destination in the UK in 2006. It has an ancient marketplace established by the Normans in 1071–1074, which is today the largest six-day-a-week open-air market in England. In 2006, the market was downsized and redeveloped; the new market stalls have proved controversial: with 20% less floor space than the originals, higher rental and other charges, and inadequate rainwater handling, which has been unpopular with many stallholders and customers. In 2007 the local *Norwich Evening News* called Norwich Market an ongoing conflict between market traders and its operator, Norwich City Council. The Castle Quarter, a shopping centre designed by the local practice Lambert, Scott & Innes and opened in 1993, presents an ingenious solution to the problem of accommodating retail space in a historic city-centre environment — the building is largely concealed underground and built into the side of a hill, with a public park created on its roof in the area south of the castle. A second shopping centre, Chantry Place (formally Chapelfield) was opened in 2005 on the site of a closed Caley's (later Rowntree Mackintosh and Nestlé) chocolate factory, featuring as its flagship department store House of Fraser. Following a change of ownership in 2020, it was renamed Chantry Place. Detractors have criticised the centre as unnecessary and damaging to local businesses, prompting smaller retailers to band together to promote their virtues. Despite this, in August 2006 it was reported by the Javelin Group that Norwich was one of the top five retail destinations in the UK, and in October 2006 the city centre was voted best in the UK in a shopping satisfaction survey run by Goldfish Credit Card. A section of central Norwich roughly bounded by Bethel Street/Upper St Giles Street, Grapes Hill, St Benedict's and St Andrew's Hill/London Street/Castle Meadow is now known and promoted as Norwich Lanes. As a series of mostly pedestrianised lanes, alleyways and streets, it is noted for independent retailers and eating and drinking establishments. It also contains several of the city's cultural attractions, including museums, theatres and other venues. Norwich Lanes, as part of a nationwide drive to recognise the importance and maintain the character and individuality of Britain's high streets, was the Great British High Street Awards 2014 national winner in the "City" category. To the north is Anglia Square shopping centre. The owners of the site want it redeveloped; demolition work was due to start in 2010 after an archaeological dig, conducted in 2009 and due to the centre being located around the site of a Saxon fortified settlement. The Twentieth Century Society has objected to demolish on the ground of the architectural merits of one of the few Brutalists shopping centres left in the UK and the 35,900 tonnes of embodied carbon. The development is planned to be a mix of shops and housing, unlike the original offices, shops and cinema. In February 2009, an initial delay to the plans was blamed on the economic climate, and developers were unable to say when work would begin. Further delays occurred in the years following. In 2014, it was bought by investment manager Threadneedle Investments for £7.5 million. The owners and their partner Weston Homes announced in November 2016 they had been holding talks with chief officers at Norwich City Hall. Plans submitted included demolishing Anglia Square, the former stationery office and Gildengate House. Over a thousand homes were planned above shop units and a public square. In early 2018, Weston Homes and landowner Columbia Threadneedle submitted regeneration plans to include 1,200 homes, a 20-storey tower block, a supermarket, a hotel, green squares and central courtyards. The controversial 2018 plans were rejected by the Secretary of State for Housing, Communities and Local Government in 2020, and in 2021 the developer resubmitted revised plans. ### Electricity supply Temporary electric street lighting in Norwich started in 1882. The first permanent supply came in 1893 from a generating station in Duke Street. This supplied local industry and domestic users and from 1900 the Norwich Electric Tramways. In the late 1920s, a new 40 MW power station was built at Thorpe, to which was added in 1937 30 MW "high pressure" generating plant. These operated until 1975. A gas turbine plant was installed in 1964 to provide power at times of peak demand. This closed in 1986 and the entire Thorpe power station site was demolished and cleared in 1981–1982. Two tall electricity pylons stood near the site until they were dismantled in 2017. Further details appear in Norwich power stations. Transport --------- ### Road Norwich stands north of the A47 (bypassed to the south of the city), which connects it with Great Yarmouth to the east, and King's Lynn and Peterborough to the west. There are plans to upgrade the A47, especially sections that are still single-carriageway, prompted partly by ongoing construction of Great Yarmouth Outer Harbour. Norwich is linked to Cambridge via the A11, which leads to the M11 motorway for London and the M25. It is linked to Ipswich to the south by the A140 and to Lowestoft to the south-east by the A146. Norwich has the UK's largest independent car club. ### Railway Norwich railway station is sited in the east of the city centre and is managed by Greater Anglia, who also operate most passenger services. It is the northern terminus of the Great Eastern Main Line. There are half-hourly inter-city services to London Liverpool Street, via Ipswich, Colchester and Chelmsford; they are worked by Class 745 electric multiple units. Hourly regional services to Cambridge, and out of Norwich as far as Ely, are run along the Breckland Line. There are also hourly local services to Great Yarmouth and Lowestoft (using the Wherry Lines) and to Sheringham (using the Bittern Line). They all use Class 755 bi-mode units. East Midlands Railway operate a direct route to the Midlands and North West England, with hourly services to Liverpool Lime Street, calling at Peterborough, Nottingham, Sheffield and Manchester Piccadilly. Class 158 diesel multiple units are employed on this route. Norwich is the site of Crown Point TMD, a depot that maintains the trains used in the area. ### Bus and coach The main bus companies operating routes in and around Norwich are First Eastern Counties, Konectbus and Sanders Coaches; destinations throughout the city and the rest of Norfolk are served, as are Peterborough and Lowestoft. National Express runs ten coaches a day to three main London airports: Stansted, Heathrow and Gatwick; there are also five services each day to London and one a day to Birmingham. Megabus also operates a daily service to London. Most bus and coach services run from Norwich bus station or Castle Meadow. The Norwich park and ride network has six sites run by Konectbus, as one of the larger UK park & ride operations. Almost 5,000 parking spaces are provided and, in 2006, 3.4 million passengers used the service. ### Air Norwich Airport (ICAO code EGSH) is a feeder to the Dutch airline KLM's Schiphol hub. Loganair and TUI Airways both serve Norwich, with flights to Aberdeen and European holiday destinations respectively. Through Bristow Helicopters, Norwich Airport caters for the offshore oil and gas industry. There is also a strong holiday charter business there. The airport was originally the airfield of RAF Horsham St Faith. One of the old RAF hangars became the home of Air UK, which grew out of Air Anglia and was then absorbed by KLM. ### Cycling National Cycle Route 1 connects Dover and Tain, in the Scottish Highlands; it passes through Norwich, Beccles and Fakenham. ### Waterways The River Yare is navigable from the sea at Great Yarmouth up to Trowse, south of the city. From there, the River Wensum is navigable into Norwich and up to New Mills; it is crossed by the Novi Sad Friendship Bridge. Scheduled trips through the city and out to the nearby *Broads* are run by *City Boats* from outside of Norwich station and Elm Hill. In June 2012, Norwich City Council gave permission for punting on the River Wensum. ### Proposed developments In 2017, the first part of the new 12 mi (19 km) Norwich Northern Distributor Road, linking the A1067 in the north-west of the city to the A47 road in the east, was opened. The remainder of the road opened in 2018. There is also some discussion in building the Norwich Western Link section from the A1067 to the A47 southern bypass to the west, as originally proposed. Other proposals in the *Norwich Transport Strategy* include limiting traffic on some roads, introducing five rapid bus links into the city and creating a train/tram link to the Rackheath eco-town. Geography --------- Norwich is 100 miles (160 km) north-east of London, 40 miles (64 km) north of Ipswich and 65 miles (105 km) east of Peterborough. ### Climate Norwich, like the rest of the British Isles, has a temperate maritime climate. It does not suffer extreme temperatures, and benefits from rainfall fairly evenly spread throughout the year. Coltishall, about 11 mi (18 km) to the north-east, was the nearest official met-office weather station for which records are available, although it ceased reporting in early 2006 – Norwich airport now provides readings. Norwich's position in East Anglia, jutting out into the North Sea can produce weather conditions that have less effect on other parts of the country, such as snow or sleet showers during the winter months on a northerly or easterly wind, or sea fog/haar during the summer half of the year. An example of Norwich being afflicted by sea fog is shown in the adjacent image. The highest temperature recorded at Coltishall was 33.1 °C (91.6 °F) during June 1976. However, going back further to 1932, and Norwich's absolute record high reached 35.6 °C (96.1 °F)., while 37.0 °C was reached in July 2022 at Norwich Weather Centre. Typically the warmest day of the year should reach 28.8 °C (83.8 °F) and 9.9 days should register a temperature of 25.1 °C (77.2 °F) or higher. The lowest temperature recorded at Coltishall was −15.3 °C (4.5 °F) during January 1979. In a typical year however, the coldest night should only fall to −7.5 °C (18.5 °F). On average 39.4 air frosts will be recorded during the course of the year More recently, the temperature at Norwich Airport fell to −14.4 °C (6.1 °F) on 18 December 2010 with unofficial weather stations reporting localised readings of −17 and −18 °C (1 and 0 °F). The nearest sunshine monitoring weather station for which records are available is Morley agricultural research centre, about 11 mi (18 km) south-west of Norwich city centre. For the 1961–1990 period, it averaged 1558 hours of sunshine a year, a relatively high total for an inland part of the British Isles outside of southern England. Rainfall, at around 650 mm (26 in), is low, although as much as 100 mm (3.9 in) higher than other, more sheltered parts of East Anglia, as Norwich is more prone to showers originating from the North Sea. Travellers' comments -------------------- In 1507 the poet John Skelton (1460–1529) wrote of two destructive fires in his *Lament for the City of Norwich*. "All life is brief, and frail all man's estate. City, farewell: I mourn thy cruel fate." Thomas Fuller in his *The Worthies of England* described the City in 1662 as: "Either a city in an orchard or an orchard in a city, so equally are houses and trees blended in it, so that the pleasure of the country and the populousness of the city meet here together. Yet in this mixture, the inhabitants participate nothing of the rusticalness of the one, but altogether the urbanity and civility of the other." Celia Fiennes (1662–1741) visited Norwich in 1698 and described it as "a city walled full round of towers, except on the riverside which serves as a wall; they seem the best in repair of any walled city I know." She also records that three times a year the city held: "great fairs – to which resort a vast concourse of people and wares a full trade", Norwich being "a rich, thriving industrious place full of weaving, knitting and dyeing". Daniel Defoe in *Tour thro' the whole Island of Great Britain* (1724) wrote: "The inhabitants being all busy at their manufactures, dwell in their garrets at their looms, in their combing-shops, so they call them, twisting-mills, and other work-houses; almost all the works they are employed in being done within doors." John Evelyn (1620–1706), royalist, traveller and diarist, wrote to Sir Thomas Browne: "I hear Norwich is a place very much addicted to the flowery part." He visited the City as a courtier to King Charles II in 1671 and described it thus: "The suburbs are large, the prospect sweet, and other amenities, not omitting the flower-garden, which all the Inhabitants excel in of this City, the fabric of stuffs, which affords the Merchants, and brings a vast trade to this populous Town." James Woodforde (1740–1803), clergyman, on his first visit to Norwich, wrote in his diary on 14 April 1775: "We took a walk over the City in the morning, and we both agreed that it was the finest City in England by far, in the center of it is a high Hill and on that a prodigious large old Castle almost perfect and forms a compleat square, round it is a fine Terrass Walk which commands the whole City. There are in the City 36 noble Churches mostly built with flint, besides many meeting Houses of divers sorts. A noble River runs almost thro the Center of the City. The City walls are also very perfect and all round the City but where the River is. On the Hills round the City stand many Wind Mills about a dozen, to be seen from Castle Mount." George Borrow in his semi-autobiographical novel Lavengro (1851) wrote of Norwich as: "A fine old city, perhaps the most curious specimen at present extant of the genuine old English Town ….There it spreads from north to south, with its venerable houses, its numerous gardens, its thrice twelve churches, its mighty mound...There is an old grey castle on top of that mighty mound: and yonder rising three hundred feet above the soil, from amongst those noble forest trees, behold that old Norman master-work, that cloud-enriched cathedral spire... Now who can wonder that the children of that fine old city are proud, and offer up prayers for her prosperity?" Borrow wrote far less favourably of the City in his translation of Faust: "They found the people of the place modelled after so unsightly a pattern, with such ugly figures and flat features that the devil owned he had never seen them equalled, except by the inhabitants of an English town, called Norwich, when dressed in their Sunday's best." In 1812, Andrew Robertson wrote to the painter Constable: "I arrived here a week ago and find it a place where the arts are very much cultivated … some branches of knowledge, chemistry, botany, etc. are carried to a great length. General literature seems to be pursued with an ardour which is astonishing when we consider that it does not contain a university, as is merely a manufacturing town." In 1962, Sir Nikolaus Pevsner stated in his North-West Norfolk and Norwich volume of *The Buildings of England*: "Norwich is distinguished by a prouder sense of civic responsibility than any other town of about the same size in Britain." Notable people -------------- Twin cities ----------- Norwich has town twinning agreements with four cities: FranceRouen, Normandy, France, since 1951 GermanyKoblenz, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany, since 1978 SerbiaNovi Sad, Vojvodina, Serbia, since 1985 NicaraguaEl Viejo, Chinandega Department, Nicaragua, since 1996 Freedom of the City ------------------- The following people, military units and organisation have received the Freedom of the City of Norwich. ### Individuals * Ove Fundin * Colin Self * Arthur Miller * Sir Robert and Lady Sainsbury ### Military units * 1st East Anglian Regiment: 1964 * 1st Battalion The Royal Anglian Regiment: 1984 * RAF Marham: 2008 * 2nd Air Division, USAAF Association ### Organisations and groups * Anglia TV * Norwich City Football Club: 2002 * Norfolk Constabulary * Norwich Union * The Jarrold Group: June 2020 Key to English Place-names Sources ------- * Adams, David (2005). *An Archaeological Evaluation at 17–27 Fishergate, Norwich, Norfolk* (PDF). NORFOLK ARCHAEOLOGICAL UNIT. doi:10.5284/1002151. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 May 2021. Retrieved 18 October 2016. * Blackwell, Michael P.; Blackwell, Carole A. (2007). *Norwich Theatre Royal – The First 250 years*. with a foreword by Harriet Walter. Norwich: Connaught. ISBN 978-0-9557454-0-9. * Chandler, D. (1998). "The Conflict: Hannah Brand and Theatre politics in the 1790s". *Romanticism on the Net* (12). doi:10.7202/005819ar. Archived from the original on 7 June 2011. Retrieved 5 October 2010. * Cundall, Herbert Minton (1920). Holme, Charles Geoffrey (ed.). *The Norwich School*. The Studio. OCLC 1356134 – via Archive.org. * Fagel, Raymond (2003). "Immigrant Roots: The Geographical Origins of Newcomers from the Low Countries in Tudor England". In Goose, Nigel; Luu, Lien (eds.). *Immigrants in Tudor and Early Stuart England*. Brighton: Sussex Academic. ISBN 978-1-903900-14-7. * Faulkner, Kevin (2013). "The Layer Monument". Pride.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: url-status (link)[*dead link*] * Fleay, Frederick Gard (1891). *A biographical chronicle of the English drama, 1559–1642*. Reeves and Turner. * Harfield, C. G. (1991). "A Hand-list of Castles Recorded in the Domesday Book". *English Historical Review*. OUP. **106** (419): 371–392. doi:10.1093/ehr/cvi.ccccxix.371. JSTOR 573107. * Hayes, B. D. (1958). *Politics in Norfolk, 1750–1832* (PhD). University of Cambridge. EThOS: uk.bl.ethos.603880. * Houlbroke, Ralph; McClendon, Muriel (2004). "The Reformation". In Rawcliffe, Carole; Wilson, Richard (eds.). *Medieval Norwich*. Hambledon. ISBN 978-1-85285-449-2. * Jewish Telegraphic Agency, Toby Axelrod (27 June 2011). "Jewish bones found in medieval well in England". Archived from the original on 25 July 2015. Retrieved 17 October 2016. * Jewson, Charles Boardman (1975). *The Jacobin City – a Portrait of Norwich in its Reaction to the French Revolution: 1788–1802*. Glasgow: Blackie. ISBN 978-0-216-89874-5. * Ketton-Cremer, Robert Wyndham (1957). *The Coming of the Strangers*. *Norfolk assembly*. Faber and Faber. OCLC 2768949. * Knights, Mark (2004). *Politics, 1660–1835*. Vol. 7. pp. 167–192. * Martineau, Harriet (1870). *Biographical Sketches 1852–1868*. Macmillan. * McClendon, Muriel C. (1999). *The Quiet Reformation: Magistrates and the Emergence of Protestantism in Tudor Norwich*. Stanford UP. ISBN 978-0-8047-3513-1. * Blomefield, Francis (1806). "Chap. 13: Of the city in Edward the First's time". *An Essay Towards A Topographical History of the County of Norfolk: Volume 3, the History of the City and County of Norwich, Part I*. *The city of Norwich*. London: W Miller. Archived from the original on 30 January 2016. Retrieved 15 October 2016 – via British History Online. * Morley, Sarah (23 June 2006). "10-Year Archaeological Project For Caistor Roman Town". *Culture24*. Archived from the original on 2 January 2016. Retrieved 11 January 2013. * Nilson, Benjamin John (2001). *Cathedral Shrines of Medieval England*. Boydell. ISBN 978-0-85115-808-2. * Rawcliffe, Carole; Wilson, Richard; Clark, Christine, eds. (2004). *Norwich since 1550*. Hambledon. ISBN 978-1-85285-450-8. * Wilson, John (2004). *The Changing Face of Norwich*. Vol. Introduction. pp. 1–34. * Pound, John (2004). *Government to 1660*. Vol. 1. pp. 35–62. * Hopper, Andrew (2004). *The Civil War*. Vol. 4. pp. 89–116. * Corfield, Penelope J. (2004). *From Second City to Regional Capital*. Vol. 6. pp. 139–166. * Knight, Mark (2004). *Politics, 1660–1835*. Vol. 7. pp. 167–192. * Dain, Angela (2004). *An Enlightened and Polite Society*. Vol. 8. pp. 193–218. * Wilson, Richard (2004). *The Textile Industry*. Vol. 9. pp. 219–242. * Stenton, Frank M. (1970). "Key to Anglo-Saxon Place-names". *Anglo-Saxon England*. Oxford History of England (3rd ed.). OUP. ISBN 978-0-19-821716-9. * Stoker, David A. (1981). "Anthony de Solempne: attributions to his press". *The Library*. OUP / Bibliographical Society. **s6-3** (1): 17–32. doi:10.1093/library/s6-3.1.17. Archived from the original on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 18 October 2016. * Thompson, Edward Palmer (1968). *The Making of the English Working Class*. Harmondsworth. ISBN 978-0-14-021000-2. * Thompson, Edward Palmer (1994). "Hunting the Jacobin Fox". *Past & Present*. OUP / The Past and Present Society. **142** (1): 94–140. doi:10.1093/past/142.1.94. * Williams, Laura; Jones, Alexandra; Lee, Neil; Griffiths, Simon (2006). "Enabling Norwich in the Knowledge Economy". *Ideopolis: Knowledge City-Regions*. Lancaster University: The Work Foundation. Archived from the original on 21 August 2016. Retrieved 14 July 2017. * Youngs, Frederic A. (1979). *Guide to the Local Administrative Units of England*. Vol. 1: Southern England. Royal Historical Society. ISBN 978-0-901050-67-0.

Norwich

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwich

**Atlantic herring** (***Clupea harengus***) is a herring in the family Clupeidae. It is one of the most abundant fish species in the world. Atlantic herrings can be found on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean, congregating in large schools. They can grow up to 45 centimetres (18 in) in length and weigh up to 1.1 kilograms (2.4 lb). They feed on copepods, krill and small fish, while their natural predators are seals, whales, cod and other larger fish. The Atlantic herring fishery has long been an important part of the economy of New England and the Atlantic provinces of Canada. This is because the fish congregate relatively near to the coast in massive schools, notably in the cold waters of the semi-enclosed Gulf of Maine and Gulf of St. Lawrence. North Atlantic herring schools have been measured up to 4 cubic kilometres (0.96 cu mi) in size, containing an estimated four billion fish. Description ----------- Atlantic herring have a fusiform body. Gill rakers in their mouths filter incoming water, trapping any zooplankton and phytoplankton. Atlantic herring are in general fragile. They have large and delicate gill surfaces, and contact with foreign matter can strip away their large scales. They have retreated from many estuaries worldwide due to excess water pollution although in some estuaries that have been cleaned up, herring have returned. The presence of their larvae indicates cleaner and more–oxygenated waters. Range and habitat ----------------- Atlantic herring can be found on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. They range, shoaling and schooling across North Atlantic waters such as the Gulf of Maine, the Gulf of St Lawrence, the Bay of Fundy, the Labrador Sea, the Davis Straits, the Beaufort Sea, the Denmark Strait, the Norwegian Sea, the North Sea, the Skagerrak, the English Channel, the Celtic Sea, the Irish Sea, the Bay of Biscay and Sea of the Hebrides. Although Atlantic herring are found in the northern waters surrounding the Arctic, they are not considered to be an Arctic species. Baltic herring -------------- The small-sized herring in the inner parts of the Baltic Sea, which is also less fatty than the true Atlantic herring (*Clupea harengus harengus*), is considered a distinct subspecies, **"Baltic herring"** (*Clupea harengus membras*), despite the lack of a distinctive genome. The Baltic herring has a specific name in many local languages (Swedish *strömming*, Finnish *silakka*, Estonian *räim*, *silk*, Livonian *siļk*, Russian салака, Polish *śledź bałtycki*, Latvian *reņģes*, Lithuanian s*trimelė*) and is popularly and in cuisine considered distinct from herring. For example, the Swedish dish surströmming is made from Baltic herring. Fisheries for Baltic herring have been at unsustainable levels since the Middle Ages. Around this time, the primary Baltic herring catch consisted of an autumn-spawning population. Cooling in the mid-16th century related to the Little Ice Age, combined with this overfishing, led to a dramatic loss of productivity in the population of autumn-spawning herring that rendered it nearly extinct. Due to this, the autumn-spawning herring were largely replaced by a spring-spawning population, which has since comprised most of the Baltic herring fisheries; this population is also at risk of overfishing. Life cycle ---------- Herrings reach sexual maturity when they are 3 to 5 years old. The life expectancy once mature is 12 to 16 years. Atlantic herring may have different spawning components within a single stock which spawn during different seasons. They spawn in estuaries, coastal waters or in offshore banks. Fertilization is external like with most other fish, the female releases between 20,000 and 40,000 eggs and the males simultaneously release masses of milt so that they mix freely in the sea. Once fertilized the 1 to 1.4 mm diameter eggs sinks to the sea bed where its sticky surface adheres to gravel or weed and will mature in 1–3 weeks, in 14-19 °C water it takes 6–8 days, in 7,5 °C it takes 17 days. It will only mature if its temperature stays below 19 °C. The hatched larvae are 3 to 4 mm long and transparent except for the eyes which have some pigmentation. Population ---------- Herrings are most seen in the North Atlantic Ocean, from the coast of South Carolina until Greenland, and from the Baltic Sea until Novaya Zemlya. In the North Sea people can distinguish four different main populations. The different herring families are spawning in different periods: * The Buchan-Shetland-herrings spawns in August and September near the Scottish and Shetland coasts. * On the Dogger Bank spawns the herrings from August until October. * The more south population will spawn later, from November until January. These are the herrings from the Southern Bight of Downs. * The Soused herring spawns every spring in the Baltic Sea, and travels via Skagerrak to the North Sea. These four populations live outside of the spawn season interchangeably. In their spawn season, each population gathers together on their own spawn grounds. In the past, there was another, fifth distinct population, the Zuiderzee herring, which spawned in the former Zuiderzee. This population disappeared when the Zuiderzee was drained by the Dutch as part of the larger Zuiderzee Works. Ecology ------- Herring-like fish are the most important fish group on the planet. They are also the most populous fish. They are the dominant converter of zooplankton into fish, consuming copepods, arrow worms chaetognatha, pelagic amphipods hyperiidae, mysids and krill in the pelagic zone. Conversely, they are a central prey item or forage fish for higher trophic levels. The reasons for this success are still enigmatic; one speculation attributes their dominance to the huge, extremely fast cruising schools they inhabit. Orca, cod, dolphins, porpoises, sharks, rockfish, seabirds, whales, squid, sea lions, seals, tuna, salmon, and fishermen are among the predators of these fishes. Herring's pelagic–prey includes copepods (e.g. Centropagidae, *Calanus* spp., *Acartia* spp., *Temora* spp.), amphipods like *Hyperia* spp., larval snails, diatoms by larvae below 20 millimetres (0.79 in), peridinians, molluscan larvae, fish eggs, krill like *Meganyctiphanes norvegica*, mysids, small fishes, menhaden larvae, pteropods, annelids, tintinnids by larvae below 45 millimetres (1.8 in), Haplosphaera, *Pseudocalanus*. Schooling --------- School of juvenile herring ram feeding close to the surface Atlantic herring can school in immense numbers. Radakov estimated herring schools in the North Atlantic can occupy up to 4.8 cubic kilometres with fish densities between 0.5 and 1.0 fish/cubic metre, equivalent to several billion fish in one school. Herring are amongst the most spectacular schoolers ("obligate schoolers" under older terminology). They aggregate in groups that consist of thousands to hundreds of thousands or even millions of individuals. The schools traverse the open oceans. Schools have a very precise spatial arrangement that allows the school to maintain a relatively constant cruising speed. Schools from an individual stock generally travel in a triangular pattern between their spawning grounds, e.g. Southern Norway, their feeding grounds (Iceland) and their nursery grounds (Northern Norway). Such wide triangular journeys are probably important because feeding herrings cannot distinguish their own offspring. They have excellent hearing, and a school can react very quickly to evade predators. Herring schools keep a certain distance from a moving scuba diver or a cruising predator like a killer whale, forming a vacuole which looks like a doughnut from a spotter plane. The phenomenon of schooling is far from understood, especially the implications on swimming and feeding-energetics. Many hypotheses have been put forward to explain the function of schooling, such as predator confusion, reduced risk of being found, better orientation, and synchronized hunting. However, schooling has disadvantages such as: oxygen- and food-depletion and excretion buildup in the breathing media. The school-array probably gives advantages in energy saving although this is a highly controversial and much debated field. Schools of herring can on calm days sometimes be detected at the surface from more than a mile away by the little waves they form, or from a few meters at night when they trigger bioluminescence in surrounding plankton ("firing"). All underwater recordings show herring constantly cruising reaching speeds up to 108 centimetres (43 in) per second, and much higher escape speeds. Relationship with humans ------------------------ ### Fisheries The Atlantic herring fishery is managed by multiple organizations that work together on the rules and regulations applying to herring. As of 2010 the species was not threatened by overfishing. They are an important bait fish for recreational fishermen. * Purse seining for Atlantic herringPurse seining for Atlantic herring * Harvesting with the purse seineHarvesting with the purse seine * The catchThe catch ### Aquariums Because of their feeding habits, cruising desire, collective behavior and fragility they survive in very few aquaria worldwide despite their abundance in the ocean. Even the best facilities leave them slim and slow compared to healthy wild schools. Other references ---------------- * "Clupea harengus". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 11 March 2006. * Kils, U., The ecoSCOPE and dynIMAGE: Microscale Tools for *in situ* Studies of Predator Prey Interactions Archived 21 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Arch Hydrobiol Beih 36:83-96;1992 * Atlantic herring *NOAA FishWatch*. Retrieved 7 November 2012. Further reading --------------- * Bigelow, H.B., M.G. Bradbury, J.R. Dymond, J.R. Greeley, S.F. Hildebrand, G.W. Mead, R.R. Miller, L.R. Rivas, W.L. Schroeder, R.D. Suttkus and V.D. Vladykov (1963) *Fishes of the western North Atlantic. Part three* New Haven, Sears Found. Mar. Res., Yale Univ. * Eschmeyer, William N., ed. 1998 *Catalog of Fishes* Special Publication of the Center for Biodiversity Research and Information, no. 1, vol 1–3. California Academy of Sciences. San Francisco, California, USA. 2905. ISBN 0-940228-47-5. * Fish, M.P. and W.H. Mowbray (1970) *Sounds of Western North Atlantic fishes. A reference file of biological underwater sounds* The Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore. * Flower, S.S. (1935) *Further notes on the duration of life in animals. I. Fishes: as determined by otolith and scale-readings and direct observations on living individuals* Proc. Zool. Soc. London 2:265-304. * Food and Agriculture Organization (1992). FAO yearbook 1990. *Fishery statistics. Catches and landings* FAO Fish. Ser. (38). FAO Stat. Ser. 70:(105):647 p. * Joensen, J.S. and Å. Vedel Tåning (1970) *Marine and freshwater fishes. Zoology of the Faroes LXII - LXIII*, 241 p. Reprinted from, * Jonsson, G. (1992). Islenskir fiskar. Fiolvi, Reykjavik, 568 pp. * Kinzer, J. (1983) *Aquarium Kiel: Beschreibungen zur Biologie der ausgestellten Tierarten.* Institut für Meereskunde an der Universität Kiel. pag. var. * Koli, L. (1990) *Suomen kalat. [Fishes of Finland]* Werner Söderström Osakeyhtiö. Helsinki. 357 p. (in Finnish). * Laffaille, P., E. Feunteun and J.C. Lefeuvre (2000) *Composition of fish communities in a European macrotidal salt marsh (the Mont Saint-Michel Bay, France)* Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 51(4):429-438. * Landbrugs -og Fiskeriministeriet. (1995). Fiskeriårbogen 1996 *Årbog for den danske fiskerflåde* Fiskeriårbogens Forlag ved Iver C. Weilbach & Co A/S, Toldbodgade 35, Postbox 1560, DK-1253 København K, Denmark. p 333–338, 388, 389 (in Danish). * Linnaeus, C. (1758) *Systema Naturae per Regna Tria Naturae secundum Classes, Ordinus, Genera, Species cum Characteribus, Differentiis Synonymis, Locis* 10th ed., Vol. 1. Holmiae Salvii. 824 p. * Munroe, Thomas, A. / Collette, Bruce B., and Grace Klein-MacPhee, eds. 2002 *Herrings: Family Clupeidae. Bigelow and Schroeder's Fishes of the Gulf of Maine*, Third Edition. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, DC, USA. 111–160. ISBN 1-56098-951-3. * Murdy, Edward O., Ray S. Birdsong, and John A. Musick 1997 *Fishes of Chesapeake Bay* Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, DC, USA. xi + 324. ISBN 1-56098-638-7. * Muus, B., F. Salomonsen and C. Vibe (1990) *Grønlands fauna (Fisk, Fugle, Pattedyr)* Gyldendalske Boghandel, Nordisk Forlag A/S København, 464 p. (in Danish). * Muus, B.J. and J.G. Nielsen (1999) *Sea fish. Scandinavian Fishing Year Book* Hedehusene, Denmark. 340 p. * Muus, B.J. and P. Dahlström (1974) *Collins guide to the sea fishes of Britain and North-Western Europe* Collins, London, UK. 244 p. * Reid RN, Cargnelli LM, Griesbach SJ, Packer DB, Johnson DL, Zetlin CA, Morse WW and Berrien PL (1999) *Atlantic Herring, Clupea harengus, Life History and Habitat Characteristics* NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-NE-126, NOAA. * Robins, Richard C., Reeve M. Bailey, Carl E. Bond, James R. Brooker, Ernest A. Lachner, et al. 1991 *Common and Scientific Names of Fishes from the United States and Canada*, Fifth Edition. American Fisheries Society Special Publication, no. 20. American Fisheries Society. Bethesda, Maryland, USA. 183. ISBN 0-913235-70-9. * Robins, Richard C., Reeve M. Bailey, Carl E. Bond, James R. Brooker, Ernest A. Lachner, et al. 1991 *Common and Scientific Names of Fishes from the United States and Canada*, Fifth Edition. American Fisheries Society Special Publication, no. 20. American Fisheries Society. Bethesda, Maryland, USA. 183. ISBN 0-913235-70-9. * Whitehead, Peter J. P. 1985. *Clupeoid Fishes of the World (Suborder Clupeoidei): An Annotated and Illustrated Catalogue of the Herrings, Sardines, Pilchards, Sprats, Shads, Anchovies and Wolf-herrings: Part 1 - Chirocentridae, Clupeidae and Pristigasteridae* FAO Fisheries Synopsis, no. 125, vol. 7, pt. 1. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome, Italy. x + 303. ISBN 92-5-102340-9.

Atlantic herring

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_herring

An **honor killing** (American English), **honour killing** (Commonwealth English), or **shame killing** is the murder of an individual, either an outsider or a member of a family, by someone seeking to protect what they see as the dignity and honor of themselves or their family. Honor killings are often connected to religion, caste, and other forms of hierarchical social stratification, or to sexuality. Most often, it involves the murder of a woman or girl by male family members, due to the perpetrators' belief that the victim has brought dishonor or shame upon the family name, reputation or prestige. Honor killings are believed to have originated from tribal customs. They are prevalent in various parts of the world, as well as in immigrant communities in countries which do not otherwise have societal norms that encourage honor killings. Honor killings are often associated with rural and tribal areas, but they occur in urban areas as well. Although condemned by international conventions and human rights organizations, honor killings are often justified and encouraged by various communities. In cases where the victim is an outsider, not murdering this individual would, in some regions, cause family members to be accused of cowardice, a moral defect, and subsequently be morally stigmatized in their community. In cases when the victim is a family member, the murdering evolves from the perpetrators' perception that the victim has brought shame or dishonor upon the entire family, which could lead to social ostracization, by violating the moral norms of a community. Typical reasons include being in a relationship or having associations with social groups outside the family that may lead to social exclusion of a family (stigma-by-association). Examples are having premarital, extramarital or postmarital sex (in case of divorce or widowship), refusing to enter into an arranged marriage, seeking a divorce or separation, engaging in interfaith relations or relations with persons from a different caste, being the victim of a sexual crime, dressing in clothing, jewelry, and accessories that are associated with sexual deviance, engaging in a relationship in spite of moral marriage impediments or bans, and homosexuality. Though both men and women commit and are victims of honor killings, in many communities conformity to moral standards implies different behavior for men and women, including stricter standards for chastity for women. In many families, the honor motive is used by men as a pretext to restrict the rights of women. Honor killings are performed in communities with the intent to punish violations of social, sexual, religious or family norms or hierarchies. In many cases, the honor killings are committed by family members against a female relative considered to have disgraced her family. Honor killings are primarily associated with Greater Middle East and South Asian countries such as Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan but are also rooted in other cultures, such as the Philippines. Definitions ----------- Human Rights Watch defines "honor killings" as follows: > Honor crimes are acts of violence, usually murder, committed by male family members against female family members who are perceived to have brought dishonor upon the family. A woman can be targeted by her family for a variety of reasons including, refusing to enter into an arranged marriage, being the victim of a sexual assault, seeking a divorce—even from an abusive husband—or committing adultery. The mere perception that a woman has acted in a manner to bring "dishonor" to the family is sufficient to trigger an attack. > > Men can also be the victims of honor killings, either committed by members of the family of a woman with whom they are perceived to have an inappropriate relationship; or by the members of their own families, the latter often connected to homosexuality. General characteristics ----------------------- Many honor killings are planned by multiple members of a family, sometimes through a formal "family council". The threat of murder is used as a means to control behavior, especially concerning sexuality and marriage, which may be seen as a duty for some or all family members to uphold. Family members may feel compelled to act to preserve the reputation of the family in the community and avoid stigma or shunning, particularly in tight-knit communities. Perpetrators often do not face negative stigma within their communities, because their behavior is seen as justified. Extent ------ Reliable figures of honor killings are hard to obtain, in large part because "honor" is either improperly defined or is defined in ways other than in *Article 12* of the UDHR (block-quoted above) without a clear follow-up explanation. As a result, criteria are hardly ever given for objectively determining whether a given case is an instance of honor killing. Because of the lack of both a clear definition of "honor" and coherent criteria, it is often presupposed that more women than men are victims of honor killings, and victim counts often contain women exclusively. Honor killings occur in many parts of the world, but are most widely reported in the Middle East, South Asia and North Africa. Historically, honor killings were also common in Southern Europe, “there have been acts of ‘honour’ killings within living memory within Mediterranean countries such as Italy and Greece." Methods ------- Methods of murdering include stoning, stabbing, beating, burning, beheading, hanging, throat slashing, lethal acid attacks, shooting, and strangulation. Sometimes, communities perform murders in public to warn others in the community of the possible consequences of engaging in what is seen as illicit behavior. Use of minors as perpetrators ----------------------------- Often, minor girls and boys are selected by the family to act as the murderers, so that the murderer may benefit from the most favorable legal outcome. Boys and sometimes women in the family are often asked to closely control and monitor the behavior of their sisters or other females in the family, to ensure that the females do not do anything to tarnish the 'honor' and 'reputation' of the family. The boys are often asked to carry out the murder, and if they refuse, they may face serious repercussions from the family and community for failing to perform their "duty". Culture ------- The cultural features which lead to honor killings are complex. Honor killings involve violence and fear as a tool for maintaining control. Honor killings are argued to have their origins among nomadic peoples and herdsmen: such populations carry all their valuables with them and risk having them stolen, and they do not have proper recourse to law. As a result, inspiring fear, using aggression, and cultivating a reputation for violent revenge to protect property is preferable to other behaviors. In societies where there is a weak rule of law, people must build fierce reputations. In many cultures where honor is of a central value, men are sources, or active generators/agents, of that honor, while the only effect that women can have on honor is to destroy it. Once the family's or clan's honor is considered to have been destroyed by a woman, there is a need for immediate revenge to restore it, for the family to avoid losing face in the community. As Amnesty International statement notes: > The regime of honor is unforgiving: women on whom suspicion has fallen are not allowed to defend themselves, and family members have no socially acceptable alternative but to remove the stain on their honor by attacking the woman. > > The relation between social views on female sexuality and honor killings are complex. The way through which women in honor-based societies are considered to bring dishonor to men is often through their sexual behavior. Indeed, violence related to female sexual expression has been documented since Ancient Rome, when the pater familias had the right to kill an unmarried sexually active daughter or an adulterous wife. In medieval Europe, early Jewish law mandated stoning for an adulterous wife and her partner. Carolyn Fluehr-Lobban, an anthropology professor at Rhode Island College, writes that an act, or even alleged act, of any female sexual misconduct, upsets the moral order of the culture, and bloodshed is the only way to remove any shame brought by the actions and restore social equilibrium. However, the relation between honor and female sexuality is a complicated one, and some authors argue that it is not women's sexuality *per se* that is the 'problem', but rather women's self-determination in regard to it, as well as fertility. Sharif Kanaana, professor of anthropology at Birzeit University, says that honor killing is: > A complicated issue that cuts deep into the history of Islamic society. .. What the men of the family, clan, or tribe seek control of in a patrilineal society is reproductive power. Women for the tribe were considered a factory for making men. Honor killing is not a means to control sexual power or behavior. What's behind it is the issue of fertility or reproductive power. > > In some cultures, honor killings are considered less serious than other murders simply because they arise from long-standing cultural traditions and are thus deemed appropriate or justifiable. Additionally, according to a poll done by the BBC's Asian network, 1 in 10 of the 500 young South Asians surveyed said they would condone any murder of someone who threatened their family's honor. Nighat Taufeeq of the women's resource center Shirkatgah in Lahore, Pakistan says: "It is an unholy alliance that works against women: the killers take pride in what they have done, the tribal leaders condone the act and protect the killers and the police connive the cover-up." The lawyer and human rights activist Hina Jilani says, "The right to life of women in Pakistan is conditional on their obeying social norms and traditions." A July 2008 Turkish study by a team from Dicle University on honor killings in the Southeastern Anatolia Region, the predominantly Kurdish area of Turkey, has so far shown that little if any social stigma is attached to honor killing. It also comments that the practice is not related to a feudal societal structure, "there are also perpetrators who are well-educated university graduates. Of all those surveyed, 60 percent are either high school or university graduates or at the very least, literate." In contemporary times, the changing cultural and economic status of women has also been used to explain the occurrences of honor killings. Women in largely patriarchal cultures who have gained economic independence from their families go against their male-dominated culture. Some researchers argue that the shift towards greater responsibility for women and less for their fathers may cause their male family members to act in oppressive and sometimes violent manners to regain authority. Fareena Alam, editor of a Muslim magazine, writes that honor killings which arise in Western cultures such as Britain are a tactic for immigrant families to cope with the alienating consequences of urbanization. Alam argues that immigrants remain close to the home culture and their relatives because it provides a safety net. She writes that > In villages "back home", a man's sphere of control was broader, with a large support system. In our cities full of strangers, there is virtually no control over who one's family members sit, talk or work with. > > Alam argues that it is thus the attempt to regain control and the feelings of alienation that ultimately leads to an honor killing. Specific triggers of honor killings ----------------------------------- ### Refusal of an arranged or forced marriage Refusal of an arranged marriage or forced marriage is often a cause of an honor killing. The family that has prearranged the marriage risks disgrace if the marriage does not proceed, and the betrothed is indulged in a relationship with another individual without prior knowledge of the family members. ### Seeking a divorce A woman attempting to obtain a divorce or separation without the consent of the husband/extended family can also be a trigger for honor killings. In cultures where marriages are arranged and goods are often exchanged between families, a woman's desire to seek a divorce is often viewed as an insult to the men who negotiated the deal. By making their marital problems known outside the family, the women are seen as exposing the family to public dishonor. ### Allegations and rumors about a family member In certain cultures, an *allegation* against a woman can be enough to tarnish her family's reputation, and to trigger an honor killing: the family's fear of being ostracized by the community is enormous. ### Victims of rape In many cultures, victims of rape face severe violence, including honor killings, from their families and relatives. In many parts of the world, women who have been raped are considered to have brought 'dishonor' or 'disgrace' to their families. This is especially the case if the victim becomes pregnant. Central to the code of honor, a woman's virginity, in many societies must be preserved until marriage. ### Homosexuality There is evidence that homosexuality can also be perceived as grounds for honor killing by relatives. It is not only same-sex sexual acts that trigger violence—behaviors that are regarded as inappropriate gender expression (e.g. male acting or dressing in a "feminine way") can also raise suspicion and lead to honor violence. In one case, a gay Jordanian man was shot and wounded by his brother. In another case, in 2008, a homosexual Turkish-Kurdish student, Ahmet Yıldız, was shot outside a cafe and later died in the hospital. Sociologists have called this Turkey's first publicized gay honor killing. In 2012, a 17-year-old gay youth was murdered by his father in Turkey in the southeastern province of Diyarbakır. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees states that "claims made by LGBT persons often reveal exposure to physical and sexual violence, extended periods of detention, medical abuse, the threat of execution and honor killing." A 2019 study found that antigay "honor" abuse found more support in four surveyed Asian countries (India, Iran, Malaysia, and Pakistan) and among Asian British people than in a White British sample. The study also found that women and younger people were less likely to support such "honor" abuse. Muslims and Hindus were substantially more likely to approve of "honor" abuse than Christians or Buddhists, who scored lowest of the examined religious groups. ### Forbidden male partners In many honor-based cultures, a woman maintains her honor through her modesty. If a man disrupts a woman's modesty, through dating her, having sex with her (especially if her virginity was lost), the man has dishonored the woman, even if the relationship is consensual. Thus to restore the woman's lost honor, the male members of her family will often beat and murder the offender. Sometimes, violence extends to the offender's family members, since honor feud attacks are seen as family conflicts. ### Outside the caste relations Some cultures have very strong caste social systems, based on social stratification characterized by endogamy, hereditary transmission of a style of life which often includes an occupation, ritual status in a hierarchy, customary social interaction, and exclusion based on cultural notions of purity and pollution. The caste system in India is such an example. In such cultures, it is often expected that one marries and forms closed associations only within one's caste, and avoids lower castes. When these rules are violated, this can result in violence, including honor killings. ### Socializing outside the home In some cultures, women are expected to have a primarily domestic role. Such ideas are often based on practices like purdah. Purdah is a religious and social practice of female seclusion prevalent among some Muslim and Hindu communities; it often requires having women stay indoors, the avoiding of socialization between men and women, and full body covering of women, such as Burqa and hijab. When these rules are violated, including by dressing in a way deemed inappropriate or displaying behavior seen as disobedient, the family may respond with violence up to honor killings. ### Renouncing or changing religion and interfaith relations Violating religious dogma, such as changing or renouncing religion can trigger honor killings. Such ideas are supported by laws in some countries: blasphemy is punishable by death in Afghanistan, Iran, Nigeria, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and Somalia; and punishable by prison in many other countries. Apostasy is also illegal in 25 countries, in some punishable with the death penalty. Refusing to wear clothes associated with a culture or a religion, such as burqa, or otherwise choosing to wear what is seen as 'foreign' or 'western' types of clothing can trigger honor killings. Marriage or relations between people of different religions can result in violence and killings. Causes ------ There are multiple causes for which honor killings occur, and numerous factors interact with each other. ### Views on women Honor killings are often a result of strongly misogynistic views towards women and the position of women in society. In these traditionally male-dominated societies, women are dependent first on their father and then on their husbands, whom they are expected to obey. Women are viewed as property and not as individuals with their own agency. As such, they must submit to male authority figures in the family—failure to do so can result in extreme violence as punishment. Violence is seen as a way of ensuring compliance and preventing rebellion. According to Shahid Khan, a professor at the Aga Khan University in Pakistan: "Women are considered the property of the males in their family irrespective of their class, ethnic, or religious group. The owner of the property has the right to decide its fate. The concept of ownership has turned women into a commodity which can be exchanged, bought and sold". In such cultures, women are not allowed to take control over their bodies and sexuality: these are the property of the males of the family, the father (and other male relatives) who must ensure virginity until marriage; and then the husband to whom his wife's sexuality is subordinated—a woman must not undermine the ownership rights of her guardian by engaging in premarital sex or adultery. ### Cultures of honor and shame The concept of family honor is extremely important in many communities worldwide. The UN estimates that 5,000 women and girls are murdered each year in honor killings, which are widely reported in the Middle East and South Asia, but they occur in countries as varied as Brazil, Canada, Iran, Israel, Italy, Jordan, Egypt, Sweden, Syria, Uganda, United Kingdom, the United States, and other countries. In honor cultures, managing reputation is an important social ethic. Men are expected to act tough and be intolerant of disrespect and women are expected to be loyal to the family and be chaste. An insult to your personal or family honor must be met with a response, or the stain of dishonor can affect many others in the family and the wider community. Such acts often include female behaviors that are related to sex outside marriage or way of dressing, but may also include male homosexuality (like the emo killings in Iraq). The family may lose respect in the community and may be shunned by relatives. The only way they perceive that shame can be erased is through an honor killing. The cultures in which honor killings take place are usually considered "collectivist cultures", where the family is more important than the individual, and individual autonomy is seen as a threat to the family and its honor. Though it may seem in a modern context that honor killings are tied to certain religious traditions, the data does not support this claim. Research in Jordan found that teenagers who strongly endorsed honor killings in fact did not come from more religious households than teens who rejected it. The ideology of honor is a cultural phenomenon that does not appear to be related to religion, be it Middle Eastern or Western countries, and honor killings likely have a long history in human societies which predate many modern religions. In the US, a rural trend known as the "small-town effect" exhibit elevated incidents of argument-related homicides among white males, particularly in honor-oriented states in the South and the West, where everyone "knows your name and knows your shame." This is similarly observed in rural areas in other parts of the world. Honor cultures pervade in places of economic vulnerability and with the absence of the rule of law, where law enforcement cannot be counted on to protect them. People then resort to their reputations to protect them from social exploitation and a man must "stand up for himself" and not rely on others to do so. To lose your honor is to lose this protective barrier. Possessing honor in such a society can grant social status and economic and social opportunities. When honor is ruined, a person or family in an honor culture can be socially ostracized, face restricted economic opportunities, and have a difficult time finding a mate. ### Laws and European colonialism Legal frameworks can encourage honor killings. Such laws include on one side leniency towards such murdering, and on the other side criminalization of various behaviors, such as extramarital sex, "indecent" dressing in public places, or homosexual sexual acts, with these laws acting as a way of reassuring perpetrators of honor killings that people engaging in these behaviors deserve punishment. In the Roman Empire the Roman law *Lex Julia de adulteriis coercendis* implemented by Augustus Caesar permitted the murder of daughters and their lovers who committed adultery at the hands of their fathers and also permitted the murder of the adulterous wife's lover at the hand of her husband. Provocation in English law and related laws on adultery in English law, as well as Article 324 of the French penal code of 1810 were legal concepts which allowed for reduced punishment for the murder committed by a husband against his wife and her lover if the husband had caught them in the act of adultery. On 7 November 1975, Law no. 617/75 Article 17 repealed the 1810 French Penal Code Article 324. The 1810 penal code Article 324 passed by Napoleon was copied by Middle Eastern Arab countries. It inspired Jordan's Article 340 which permitted the murder of a wife and her lover if caught in the act at the hands of her husband (today the article provides for mitigating circumstances). France's 1810 Penal Code Article 324 also inspired the 1858 Ottoman Penal Code's Article 188, both the French Article 324 and Ottoman article 188 were drawn on to create Jordan's Article 340 which was retained even after a 1944 revision of Jordan's laws which did not touch public conduct and family law; article 340 still applies to this day in a modified form. France's Mandate over Lebanon resulted in its penal code being imposed there in 1943–1944, with the French-inspired Lebanese law for adultery allowing the mere accusation of adultery against women resulting in a maximum punishment of two years in prison while men have to be caught in the act and not merely accused, and are punished with only one year in prison. France's Article 324 inspired laws in other Arab countries such as: * Algeria's 1991 Penal Code Article 279 * Egypt's 1937 Penal Code no. 58 Article 237 * Iraq's 1966 Penal Code Article 409 * Jordan's 1960 Penal Code no. 16 Article 340 * Kuwait's Penal Code Article 153 * Lebanon's Penal Code Articles 193, 252, 253 and 562 + These were amended in 1983, 1994, 1995, 1996, and 1999 and were eventually repealed by the Lebanese Parliament on 4 August 2011 * Libya's Penal Code Article 375 * Morocco's 1963 amended Penal Code Article 418 * Oman's Penal Code Article 252 * Palestine, which had two codes: Jordan's 1960 Penal Code 1960 in the West Bank and British Mandate Criminal Code Article 18 in the Gaza Strip + These were respectively repealed by Article 1 and Article 2 and both by Article 3 of the 2011 Law no. 71 which was signed on 5 May 2011 by president Mahmoud Abbas into the 10 October 2011 Official Gazette no. 91 applying in the Criminal Code of Palestine's Northern Governorates and Southern Governorates * Syria's 1953 amended 1949 Penal Code Article 548 * Tunisia's 1991 Penal Code Article 207 (which was repealed) * United Arab Emirate's law no.3/1978 Article 334 * Yemen's law no. 12/1994 Article 232 In Pakistan, the law was based upon on the 1860 Indian Penal Code (IPC) implemented by the colonial authorities in British India, which allowed for mitigation of punishment for charges of assault or criminal force in the case of a "grave and sudden provocation". This clause was used to justify the legal status of honor killing in Pakistan, although the IPC makes no mention of it. In 1990, the Pakistani government reformed this law to bring it in terms with the Shari'a, and the Pakistani Federal Shariat Court declared that "according to the teachings of Islam, provocation, no matter how grave and sudden it is, does not lessen the intensity of crime of murder". However, Pakistani judges still sometimes hand down lenient sentences for honor killings, justified by still citing the IPC's mention of a "grave and sudden provocation." Forced suicide as a substitute ------------------------------ A forced suicide may be a substitute for an honor killing. In this case, the family members do not directly murder the victim themselves, but force him or her to commit suicide, in order to avoid punishment. Such suicides are reported to be common in southeastern Turkey. It was reported that in 2001, 565 women lost their lives in honor-related crimes in Ilam, Iran, of which 375 were reportedly staged as self-immolation. In 2008, self-immolation "occurred in all the areas of Kurdish settlement (in Iran), where it was more common than in other parts of Iran". It is claimed that in Iraqi Kurdistan many deaths are reported as "female suicides" in order to conceal honor-related crimes. Restoring honor through a forced marriage ----------------------------------------- In the case of an unmarried woman or girl associating herself with a man, losing virginity, or being raped, the family may attempt to restore its honor with a "shotgun wedding". The groom will usually be the man who has 'dishonored' the woman or girl, but if this is not possible the family may try to arrange a marriage with another man, often a man who is part of the extended family of the one who has committed the acts with the woman or girl. This being an alternative to an honor killing, the woman or girl has no choice but to accept the marriage. The family of the man is expected to cooperate and provide a groom for the woman. Religion -------- Widney Brown, the advocacy director of Human Rights Watch, said that the practice "goes across cultures and religions". Resolution 1327 (2003) of the Council of Europe states that: > The Assembly notes that whilst so-called "honor crimes" emanate from cultural and not religious roots and are perpetrated worldwide (mainly in patriarchal societies or communities), the majority of reported cases in Europe have been among Muslim or migrant Muslim communities (although Islam itself does not support the death penalty for honor-related misconduct). > > Many Muslim commentators and organizations condemn honor killings as an un-Islamic cultural practice. There is no mention of honor killing (extrajudicial killing by a woman's family) in the Qur'an, and the practice violates Islamic law. Tahira Shaid Khan, a professor of women's issues at Aga Khan University, blames such murdering on attitudes (across different classes, ethnic, and religious groups) that view women as property with no rights of their own as the motivation for honor killings. Ali Gomaa, Egypt's former Grand Mufti, has also spoken out forcefully against honor killings. As a more generic statement reflecting the wider Islamic scholarly trend, Jonathan A. C. Brown says that "questions about honor killings have regularly found their way into the inboxes of muftis like Yusuf Qaradawi or the late scholar Muhammad Husayn Fadlallah. Their responses reflect a rare consensus. No Muslim scholar of any note, either medieval or modern, has sanctioned a man killing his wife or sister for tarnishing her or the family's honor. If a woman or man found together were to deserve the death penalty for fornication, this would have to be established by the evidence required by the Koran: either a confession or the testimony of four male witnesses, all upstanding in the eyes of the court, who actually saw penetration occur." Further, while honor killings are common in Muslim countries like Pakistan, it is a practically unknown practice in other Muslim countries, such as Indonesia, Bangladesh, and Senegal. This fact supports the idea that honor killings are to do with culture rather than religion. The late Yemeni Muslim scholar Muḥammad Shawkānī wrote that one reason the Shari'a stipulates execution as a potential punishment for men who murder women is to counter honor killings for alleged slights of honor. He wrote, "There is no doubt that laxity on this matter is one of the greatest means leading to women's lives being destroyed, especially in the Bedouin regions, which are characterized by harsh-hardheartedness and a strong sense of honor and shame stemming from Pre-Islamic times". In history ---------- Matthew A. Goldstein, J.D. (Arizona), has noted that honor killings were encouraged in ancient Rome, where male family members who did not take action against the female adulterers in their families were "actively persecuted". The origin of honor killings and the control of women is evidenced throughout history in the cultures and traditions of many regions. The Roman law of pater familias gave complete control to the men of the family over both their children and wives. Under these laws, the lives of children and wives were at the discretion of the men in their families. Ancient Roman Law also justified honor killings by stating that women who were found guilty of adultery could be killed by their husbands. During the Qing dynasty in China, fathers and husbands had the right to kill daughters who were deemed to have dishonored the family. Among the Indigenous Aztecs and Incas, adultery was punishable by death. During John Calvin's rule of Geneva, women found guilty of adultery were punished by being drowned in the Rhône river. Honor killings have a long tradition in Mediterranean Europe. According to the *Honour Related Violence – European Resource Book and Good Practice* (page 234): "Honor in the Mediterranean world is a code of conduct, a way of life and an ideal of the social order, which defines the lives, the customs and the values of many of the peoples in the Mediterranean moral". By region --------- According to the UN in 2002: > The report of the Special Rapporteur... concerning cultural practices in the family that are violent towards women (E/CN.4/2002/83), indicated that honor killings had been reported in Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon (the Lebanese Parliament abolished the Honor killing in August 2011), Morocco, Pakistan, the Syrian Arab Republic, Turkey, Yemen, and other Mediterranean and Persian Gulf countries, and that they had also taken place in western countries such as France, Germany and the United Kingdom, within migrant communities. > > In addition, the United Nations Commission on Human Rights gathered reports from several countries and considering only the countries that submitted reports it was shown that honor killings have occurred in Bangladesh, Great Britain, Brazil, Ecuador, Egypt, India, Israel, Italy, Jordan, Pakistan, Morocco, Sweden, Turkey, and Uganda. According to Widney Brown, advocacy director for Human Rights Watch, the practice of honor killing "goes across cultures and religions." International response ---------------------- Honor killings are condemned as a serious human rights violation and are addressed by several international instruments. Honor killings are opposed by United Nations General Assembly Resolution 55/66 (adopted in 2000) and subsequent resolutions, which have generated various reports. The Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence addresses this issue. Article 42 reads: > Article 42 – Unacceptable justifications for crimes, including crimes committed in the name of so-called honor > > > 1. Parties shall take the necessary legislative or other measures to ensure that, in criminal proceedings initiated following the commission of any of the acts of violence covered by the scope of this Convention, culture, custom, religion, tradition, or so-called honor shall not be regarded as justification for such acts. This covers, in particular, claims that the victim has transgressed cultural, religious, social, or traditional norms or customs of appropriate behavior. > > > 2. Parties shall take the necessary legislative or other measures to ensure that incitement by any person of a child to commit any of the acts referred to in paragraph 1 shall not diminish the criminal liability of that person for the acts committed. > > > The World Health Organization (WHO) addressed the issue of honor killings and stated: "Murders of women to 'save the family honor' are among the most tragic consequences and explicit illustrations of embedded, culturally accepted discrimination against women and girls." According to the UNODC: "Honour crimes, including killing, are one of history's oldest forms of gender-based violence. It assumes that a woman's behavior casts a reflection on the family and the community. ... In some communities, a father, brother, or cousin will publicly take pride in a murder committed to preserving the 'honor' of a family. In some such cases, local justice officials may side with the family and take no formal action to prevent similar deaths." In national legal codes ----------------------- Legislation on this issue varies, but today the vast majority of countries no longer allow a husband to legally murder a wife for adultery (although adultery itself continues to be punishable by death in some countries) or to commit other forms of honor killings. However, in many places, adultery and other "immoral" sexual behaviors by female family members can be considered mitigating circumstances in the case when they are murdered, leading to significantly shorter sentences. Contemporary laws which allow for mitigating circumstances or acquittals for men who murder female family members due to sexual behaviors are, for the most part, inspired by the French Napoleonic Code (France's crime of passion law, which remained in force until 1975). The Middle East, including the Arab countries of North Africa, Iran and non-Arab minorities within Arabic countries, have high recorded level of honor crimes, and these regions are the most likely to have laws offering complete or partial defenses to honor killings. However, with the exception of Iran, laws which provide leniency for honor killings are not derived from Islamic law, but from the penal codes of the Napoleonic Empire. French culture shows a higher level of toleration of such crimes among the public, compared to other Western countries; and indeed, recent surveys have shown the French public to be more accepting of these practices than the public in other countries. One 2008 Gallup survey compared the views of the French, German and British public and those of French, German and British Muslims on several social issues: 4% of the French public said "honor killings" were "morally acceptable" and 8% of the French public said "crimes of passion" were "morally acceptable"; honor killings were seen as acceptable by 1% of German public and also 1% of the British public; crimes of passion were seen as acceptable by 1% of German public and 2% of the British public. Among Muslims, 5% in Paris, 3% in Berlin, and 3% in London saw honor killings as acceptable, and 4% in Paris (less than the French public), 1% in Berlin, and 3% in London saw crimes of passion as acceptable. According to the report of the United Nations Special Rapporteur submitted to the 58th session of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights in 2002 concerning cultural practices in the family that reflect violence against women (E/CN.4/2002/83): > The Special Rapporteur indicated that there had been contradictory decisions with regard to the honor defense in Brazil, and that legislative provisions allowing for partial or complete defence in that context could be found in the penal codes of Argentina, Ecuador, Egypt, Guatemala, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Peru, Syria, Venezuela and the Palestinian National Authority. > > As of 2022, most countries with complete or partial defenses for killings due to sexual behaviors or parental disobedience are MENA countries, but there are some notable exceptions, namely Philippines. The legal aspects of honor killings in different countries are discussed below: * Yemen: laws effectively exonerate fathers who murder their children; also the blood money paid for females that are murdered is less than that for males that are murdered. * Iran: Article 630 exempts a husband from punishment if he murders his wife or her lover upon discovering them in the act of adultery; article 301 stipulates that a father and paternal grandfather are not to be retaliated against for murdering their child/grandchild. * Jordan: In recent years, Jordan has amended its Code to modify its laws, which used to offer a complete defense for honor killings. * Syria: In 2009, Article 548 of the Syrian Law code was amended. Beforehand, the article waived any punishment for males who murdered a female family member for inappropriate sexual acts. Article 548 states that "He who catches his wife or one of his ascendants, descendants or sister committing adultery (*flagrante delicto*) or illegitimate sexual acts with another and he killed or injured one or both of them benefits from a reduced penalty, that should not be less than two years in prison in case of killing." Article 192 states that a judge may opt for reduced punishments (such as short-term imprisonment) if the murder was done with an honorable intent. In addition to this, Article 242 says that a judge may reduce a sentence for murders that were done in rage and caused by an illegal act committed by the victim. * In Brazil, an explicit defense to murder in case of adultery has never been part of the criminal code, but a defense of "honor" (not part of the criminal code) has been widely used by lawyers in such cases to obtain acquittals. Although this defense has been generally rejected in modern parts of the country (such as big cities) since the 1950s, it has been very successful in the interior of the country. In 1991 Brazil's Supreme Court explicitly rejected the "honor" defense as having no basis in Brazilian law. * Turkey: In Turkey, persons found guilty of this crime are sentenced to life in prison. There are well documented cases, where Turkish courts have sentenced whole families to life imprisonment for an honor killing. The most recent was on 13 January 2009, where a Turkish Court sentenced five members of the same Kurdish family to life imprisonment for the honor killing of Naile Erdas, 16, who got pregnant as a result of rape. * Pakistan: Honor killings are known as *karo kari* (Sindhi: ڪارو ڪاري) (Urdu: کاروکاری). The practice is supposed to be prosecuted as an ordinary killing, but in practice police and prosecutors often ignore it. Often, a man who has committed murder must simply claim it was for his honor and he will avoid punishment. Nilofar Bakhtiar, an advisor to Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz, stated that as many as 1,261 women were murdered in honor killings in 2003. The Hudood Ordinances, enacted in 1979 by President Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, had the effect of reducing legal protections for women, especially regarding sex outside marriage. This law made it much riskier for women to come forward with accusations of rape. On 8 December 2004, under international and domestic pressure, Pakistan enacted a new law that made honor killings punishable by a prison term of seven years, or by the death penalty in the most extreme cases. In 2006, the Women's Protection Bill amended the Hudood Ordinances. In 2016, Pakistan repealed a loophole which allowed the perpetrators of honor killings to avoid punishment by seeking forgiveness for the crime from another family member, and thus be legally pardoned. * Egypt: Several studies on honor crimes by The Centre of Islamic and Middle Eastern Law, at the School of Oriental and African Studies in London, includes one which reports on Egypt's legal system, noting a gender bias in favor of men in general, and notably article 17 of the Penal Code: judicial discretion to allow reduced punishment in certain circumstance, often used in honor killings case. * Haiti: In 2005, the laws were changed, abolishing the right of a husband to be excused for murdering his wife due to adultery. Adultery was also decriminalized. * Uruguay: until December 2017, article 36 of the Penal Code provided for the exoneration for murder of a spouse due to "the passion provoked by adultery". The case of violence against women in Uruguay has been debated in the context that it is otherwise a liberal country; nevertheless, domestic violence is a very serious problem; according to a 2018 United Nations study, Uruguay has the second-highest rate of killings of women by current or former partners in Latin America, after the Dominican Republic. Despite having a reputation of being a progressive country, Uruguay has lagged behind with regard to its approach to domestic violence; for example, in Chile, considered one of the most socially conservative countries of the region, similar legislation permitting such honor killings was repealed in 1953. * Philippines: murdering one's spouse upon being caught in the act of adultery or one's daughter upon being caught in the act of premarital sex is punished by *destierro* (Art. 247) (destierro is banishment from a geographical area for a period of time). Normally, the act of killing one's spouse or child is punishable by *reclusion perpetua* or imprisonment from 20 years and 1 day to 40 years under Article 246 of the Revised Penal Code for the crime of parricide. The penalty for a woman killing her own child less than three days old also carries a reduced penalty if the killing is done in order to conceal her dishonor under Article 255 of the Revised Penal Code. Philippine maintains several other traditionalist laws: it is the only country in the world (except Vatican City) that bans divorce; it is one of 20 countries that still has a marry-your-rapist law (that is, a law that exonerates a rapist from punishment if he marries the victim after the attack); and Philippine is also one of the few non-Muslim majority countries to have a criminal law against adultery (Philippine's adultery law also differentiates by gender defining and punishing adultery more severely if committed by women – see articles 333 and 334) Support and sanction -------------------- Actions of Pakistani police officers and judges (particularly at the lower level of the judiciary) have, in the past, seemed to support the act of honor killings in the name of family honor. Police enforcement, in situations of admitted murder, does not always take action against the perpetrator. Also, judges in Pakistan (particularly at the lower level of the judiciary), rather than ruling cases with gender equality in mind, also seem to reinforce inequality and in some cases sanction the murder of women considered dishonorable. Often, a suspected honor killing never even reaches court, but in cases where they do, the alleged killer is often not charged or is given a reduced sentence of three to four years in jail. In a case study of 150 honor killings, the proceeding judges rejected only eight claims that the women were murdered for the honor. The rest were sentenced lightly. In many cases in Pakistan, one of the reasons honor killing cases never make it to the courts, is because, according to some lawyers and women's right activists, Pakistani law enforcement do not get involved. Under the encouragement of the killer, police often declare the killing as a domestic case that warrants no involvement. In other cases, the women and victims are too afraid to speak up or press charges. Police officials, however, claim that these cases are never brought to them, or are not major enough to be pursued on a large scale. The general indifference to the issue of honor killing within Pakistan is due to a deep-rooted gender bias in law, the police force, and the judiciary. In its report, "Pakistan: Honor Killings of Girls and Women", published in September 1999, Amnesty International criticized governmental indifference and called for state responsibility in protecting human rights of female victims. To elaborate, Amnesty strongly requested the Government of Pakistan to take 1) legal, 2) preventive, and 3) protective measures. First of all, legal measures refer to a modification of the government's criminal laws to guarantee equal legal protection of females. On top of that, Amnesty insisted the government assure legal access for the victims of crime in the name of honor. When it comes to preventive measures, Amnesty underlined the critical need to promote public awareness through the means of media, education, and public announcements. Finally, protective measures include ensuring a safe environment for activists, lawyers, and women's groups to facilitate the eradication of honor killings. Also, Amnesty argued for the expansion of victim support services such as shelters. Kremlin-appointed Chechen president Ramzan Kadyrov said that honor killings were perpetrated on those who deserved to die. He said that those who are killed have "loose morals" and are rightfully shot by relatives in honor killings. He did not vilify women alone but added that "If a woman runs around and if a man runs around with her, both of them are killed." In 2007, a famous Norwegian Supreme Court advocate stated that he wanted the punishment for the killing reduced from 17 years in prison to 15 years in the case of honor killings practiced in Norway. He explained that the Norwegian public did not understand other cultures who practiced honor killings, or understand their thinking, and that Norwegian culture "is self-righteous". In 2008, Israr Ullah Zehri, a Pakistani politician in Balochistan, defended the honor killings of five women belonging to the Umrani tribe by a relative of a local Umrani politician. Zehri defended the murdering in Parliament and asked his fellow legislators not to make a fuss about the incident. He said, "These are centuries-old traditions, and I will continue to defend them. Only those who indulge in immoral acts should be afraid." Nilofar Bakhtiar, who was Minister for Tourism and Advisor to Pakistan Prime Minister on Women's Affairs, campaigned against honor killings in Pakistan while in office. ### Victims *This is an incomplete list of notable victims of Honor killing*. *See also Category:Victims of honor killing* * Rania Alayed (UK) * Noor Faleh Almaleki * Shafilea Ahmed – Murdered by the family for rejecting a marriage partner. * Du'a Khalil Aswad – Yazidi girl who was killed for supposedly converting to Islam to date a Muslim boy in Iraq * Surjit Athwal (Murder planned in the UK and carried out in India) * Gelareh Bagherzadeh (US) - For encouraging her friend Nesreen Irsan to leave Islam (US) * Qandeel Baloch * Coty Beavers - for marrying Nesreen Irsan (US) * Anooshe Sediq Ghulam * Tulay Goren (UK) * Leila Hussein and her daughter Rand Abdel-Qader * Palestina Isa * Manoj and Babli * Sandeela Kanwal * Nitish Katara * Ghazala Khan – Murdered by her brother for marrying against the will of the family. * Katya Koren (Ukraine) * Banaz Mahmod. Her story was chronicled in the 2012 documentary film *Banaz: A Love Story*. * Rukhsana Naz (UK) * Samaira Nazir * Morsal Obeidi (Germany) * Aqsa Parvez * Uzma Rahan and her children: sons, Adam and Abbas, and daughter, Henna (UK) * Caneze Riaz and her four daughters, Sayrah, Sophia, Alicia and Hannah (UK) * Fadime Sahindal * Tursunoy Saidazimova * Amina and Sarah Said * Hina Salem (Italy) * Samia Sarwar * Zainab, Sahar, and Geeti Shafia, and Rona Amir Mohammad * Sadia Sheikh * Jaswinder Kaur Sidhu * Hatun Sürücü * Swera (Switzerland) * Heshu Yones (UK) * Nurkhon Yuldasheva * Aasiya Zubair * Rona Muhammad Omar and three of her husband's children (Canada) Comparison to other forms of murdering -------------------------------------- Honor killings are, along with dowry killings (most of which are committed in South Asia), gang-related murderings of women as revenge (killings of female members of rival gang members' families—most of which are committed in Latin America) and witchcraft accusation killings (most of which are committed in Africa and Oceania) are some of the most recognized forms of femicide. Human rights advocates have compared "honor killings" to "crimes of passion" in Latin America (which are sometimes treated extremely leniently) and the murdering of women for lack of dowry in India. Some commentators have stressed the point that the focus on honor killings should not lead people to ignore other forms of gender-based murdering of women, in particular, those which occur in Latin America (femicides such as "crimes of passion" and gang-related killings); the murder rate of women in this region is extremely high, with El Salvador being reported as the country with the highest rate of murders of women in the world. In 2002, Widney Brown, advocacy director for Human Rights Watch, stated that "crimes of passion have a similar dynamic in that the women are murdered by male family members and the crimes are perceived as excusable or understandable". See also -------- * Blood atonement – a controversial practice in the history of Mormonism which is similar to the practice of honor killing. * Child abuse * Child murder * *Chronicle of a Death Foretold* * Convention on the Rights of the Child * Corrective rape * Crime of passion * Crimes against humanity * Domestic violence * Extramarital sex * Face (sociological concept), a classification of honor * Femicide * Filicide * Fornication * Gender apartheid * Gendercide * Guilt–shame–fear spectrum of cultures * Hate crime * Honor suicide * Human rights * Human sacrifice * Infanticide * Izzat (honour) * Ka-Mer * Kiri-sute gomen * LGBT rights by country or territory * Lynching * Memini * Namus * Premarital sex * Religious violence * Sati (practice) * Slut-shaming * Universal Declaration of Human Rights * Violence against LGBT people * Violence against women * Women's rights * Youth rights Further reading --------------- * Keiner, Robert (2012). "Honor Killings". *Issues in Comparative Politics*. pp. 397–424. doi:10.4135/9781483349275.n14. ISBN 9781608718313. * *NDTV*. Honour killing in Delhi 4 Sep 2012. Archived 3 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine * Burke, Jason. *The Guardian*. Triple murder in India highlights increase in 'honour killings' Archived 20 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine. 25 June 2010. * Emery, James. Reputation is Everything: Honor Killing among the Palestinians Archived 11 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine. 2003. * "Jordan Parliament Supports Impunity for Honor Killing", Washington, D.C.: Human Rights Watch news release, January 2000. * *Burned Alive: A Victim of the Law of Men*. (ISBN 0-446-53346-7) Alleged first-person account of Souad, a victim of an attempted honor killing. The authenticity of this work has been questioned, as it is based on a repressed memory report. + Knox, Malcolm (13 April 2005). "Historian challenges Palestinian bestseller". *The Sydney Morning Herald*. Retrieved 13 April 2005. * Schulze, Kirsten, Martin Stokes and Colm Campbell (1996) (eds.), *Nationalism, Minorities and Diasporas: Identities and Rights in the Middle East* (London: I.B. Tauris) * Tintori, Karen, 2007. *Unto the Daughters: The Legacy of an Honor Killing in a Sicilian-American Family*. St. Martin's Press. * Wikan, Unni, 2002. *Generous Betrayal: Politics of Culture in the New Europe*. University of Chicago Press. * Yavuz, Ercan. "Honor killings a misunderstood concept, study finds". *Today's Zaman*. 1 August 2010. * Sanghera, Jasvinder, 2009. "Daughters of shame" * Ermers Robert. 2018. "Honor Related Violence. A New Social Psychological Perspective", Routledge. Honor Related Violence: A New Social Psychological Perspective Archived 9 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine * Ercan, Selen A., 2014. 'Same Problem, Different Solutions: The Case of 'Honour Killing' in Germany and Britain', In: Gill, Aisha K., Carolyn Strange, and Karl Roberts, 'Honour' Killing and Violence. Theory, Policy and Practice, London: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 199–218. * Ercan, Selen A., 2014. Dangerous silence: Debating ' honor killings'. Open Democracy, 1 July 2014 * Robert Fisk *The crimewave that shames the world* Archived 19 May 2019 at the Wayback Machine *The Independent*, 7 September 2010

Honor killing

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honor_killing

According to the Book of Revelation in the New Testament of the Christian Bible, **Armageddon** (/ˌɑːrməˈɡɛdən/, from Ancient Greek: Ἁρμαγεδών *Harmagedōn*, Late Latin: *Armagedōn*, from Hebrew: הַר מְגִדּוֹ‎ *Har Məgīddō*) is the prophesied location of a gathering of armies for a battle during the end times, which is variously interpreted as either a literal or a symbolic location. The term is also used in a generic sense to refer to any end-of-the-world scenario. In Islamic theology, Armageddon is also mentioned in Hadith as the Greatest Armageddon or Al-Malhama Al-Kubra (the great battle). The "mount" of Megiddo in northern Israel is not actually a mountain, but a tell (a mound or hill created by many generations of people living and rebuilding on the same spot) on which ancient forts were built to guard the Via Maris, an ancient trade route linking Egypt with the northern empires of Syria, Anatolia and Mesopotamia. Megiddo was the location of various ancient battles, including one in the 15th century BC and one in 609 BC. The nearby modern Megiddo is a kibbutz in the Kishon River area. Etymology --------- The word *Armageddon* appears only once in the Greek New Testament, in Revelation 16:16. The word is a Greek transliteration of the Hebrew *har məgiddô* (הר מגידו). *Har* means "a mountain or range of hills". This is a shortened form of *harar* meaning "to loom up; a mountain". *Megiddo* refers to a fortification made by King Ahab that dominated the Plain of Jezreel. Its name means "place of crowds". Adam Clarke wrote in his Bible commentary (1817) on Revelation 16:16: > Armageddon - The original of this word has been variously formed, and variously translated. It is הר־מגדון har-megiddon, "the mount of the assembly;" or חרמה גדהון chormah gedehon, "the destruction of their army;" or it is הר־מגדו har-megiddo, "Mount Megiddo," > > Christianity ------------ Megiddo is mentioned twelve times in the Old Testament, ten times in reference to the ancient city of Megiddo, and twice with reference to "the plain of Megiddo", most probably simply meaning "the plain next to the city". None of these Old Testament passages describes the city of Megiddo as being associated with any particular prophetic beliefs. The one New Testament reference to the city of Armageddon found in Revelation 16:16 makes no specific mention of any armies being predicted to one day gather in this city, either, but instead seems to predict only that "they (will gather) the kings together to ... Armageddon". The text does however seem to imply, based on the text from the earlier passage of Revelation 16:14, that the purpose of this gathering of kings in the "place called Armageddon" is "for the war of the great day of God, the Almighty". Because of the seemingly highly symbolic and even cryptic language of this one New Testament passage, some Christian scholars conclude that Mount Armageddon must be an idealized location. R. J. Rushdoony says, "There are no mountains of Megiddo, only the Plains of Megiddo. This is a deliberate destruction of the vision of any literal reference to the place." Other scholars, including C. C. Torrey, Kline and Jordan, argue that the word is derived from the Hebrew *moed* (מועד), meaning "assembly". Thus, "Armageddon" would mean "Mountain of Assembly", which Jordan says is "a reference to the assembly at Mount Sinai, and to its replacement, Mount Zion". Most traditions interpret this Bible prophecy to be symbolic of the progression of the world toward the "great day of God, the Almighty" in which God pours out his just and holy wrath against unrepentant sinners, led by Satan, in a literal end-of-the-world final confrontation. 'Armageddon' is the symbolic name given to this event based on scripture references regarding divine obliteration of God's enemies. The hermeneutical method supports this position by referencing Judges 4 and 5 where God miraculously destroys the enemy of their elect, Israel, at Megiddo. Christian scholar William Hendriksen writes: > For this cause, Har Magedon is the symbol of every battle in which, when the need is greatest and believers are oppressed, the Lord suddenly reveals His power in the interest of His distressed people and defeats the enemy. When Sennacherib's 185,000 are slain by the Angel of Jehovah, that is a shadow of the final Har-Magedon. When God grants a little handful of Maccabees a glorious victory over an enemy which far outnumbers it, that is a type of Har-Magedon. But the real, the great, the final Har Magedon coincides with the time of Satan’s little season. Then the world, under the leadership of Satan, anti-Christian government, and anti-Christian religion – the dragon, the beast, and the false prophet – is gathered against the Church for the final battle, and the need is greatest; when God's children, oppressed on every side, cry for help; then suddenly, Christ will appear on the clouds of glory to deliver his people; that is Har-Magedon. > > ### Dispensationalism In his discussion of Armageddon, J. Dwight Pentecost has devoted a chapter to the subject, "The Campaign of Armageddon", in which he discusses it as a campaign and not a specific battle, which will be fought in the Middle East. Pentecost writes: > It has been held commonly that the battle of Armageddon is an isolated event transpiring just prior to the second advent of Christ to the earth. The extent of this great movement in which God deals with "the kings of the earth and of the whole world" will not be seen unless it is realized that the "battle of that great day of God Almighty" is not an isolated battle, but rather a campaign that extends over the last half of the tribulation period. The Greek word "polemo", translated "battle" in Revelation 16:14, signifies a war or campaign, while "machē" signifies a battle, and sometimes even single combat. This distinction is observed by Trench (see Richard C. Trench, *New Testament Synonyms*, pp. 301–32) and is followed by Thayer (see Joseph Henry Thayer, *Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament*, p. 528) and Vincent (see Marvin R. Vincent, *Word Studies in the New Testament*, II, 541). The use of the word *polemos* (campaign) in Revelation 16:14 signifies that God views the events culminating in the gathering at Armageddon at the second advent as one connected campaign. > > — Pentecost, p. 340 Pentecost then discusses the location of this campaign, and mentions the "hill of Megiddo" and other geographic locations such as "the valley of Jehoshaphat" and "the valley of the passengers", "Lord coming from Edom or Idumea, south of Jerusalem, when he returns from the judgment"; and Jerusalem itself. Pentecost further describes the area involved: > This wide area would cover the entire land of Israel and this campaign, with all its parts, would confirm what Ezekiel pictures when he says the invaders will 'cover the land'. This area would conform to the extent pictured by John in Revelation 14:20. > > Pentecost then outlines the biblical time period for this campaign to occur and with further arguments concludes that it must take place with the 70th week of Daniel. The invasion of Israel by the Northern Confederacy "will bring the Beast and his armies to the defense of Israel as her protector". He then uses Daniel to further clarify his thinking. Again, events are listed by Pentecost in his book: 1. "The movement of the campaign begins when the King of the South moves against the Beast–False Prophet coalition, which takes place 'at the time of the end'." 2. The King of the South gets in battle with the North King and the Northern Confederacy. Jerusalem is destroyed as a result of this attack, and, in turn, the armies of the Northern Confederacy are destroyed. 3. "The full armies of the Beast move into Israel and shall conquer all that territory. Edom, Moab, and Ammon alone escape." 4. "... a report that causes alarm is brought to the Beast" 5. "The Beast moves his headquarters into the land of Israel and assembles his armies there." 6. "It is there that his destruction will come." After the destruction of the Beast at the Second Coming of Jesus, the promised Kingdom is set up, in which Jesus and the saints will rule for a thousand years. Satan is then loosed "for a season" and goes out to deceive the nations, specifically Gog and Magog. The army mentioned attacks the saints in the New Jerusalem, they are defeated by a judgment of fire coming down from heaven, and then comes the Great White Throne judgment, which includes all of those through the ages and these are cast into the Lake of Fire, which event is also known as the "second death" and Gehenna, not to be confused with Hell, which is Satan's domain. Pentecost describes this as follows: > The destiny of the lost is a place in the lake of fire. This lake of fire is described as everlasting fire and as unquenchable fire, emphasizing the eternal character of retribution of the lost. > > — Pentecost, p. 555 ### Jehovah's Witnesses Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Armageddon is the means by which God will fulfill his purpose for the Earth to be populated with happy healthy humans who will be free from sin and death. They teach that the armies of heaven will eradicate all who oppose the Kingdom of God, wiping out all wicked humans on Earth, only leaving righteous mankind. They believe that the gathering of all of the nations of the earth refers to the uniting of the world's political powers, as a gradual process which began in 1914 and was later seen in manifestations such as the League of Nations and the United Nations following the First and Second World Wars.[*full citation needed*] These political powers are said to be influenced by Satan and his demons in opposition to God's kingdom. Babylon the Great is interpreted as being the world empire of false religions, and it will be destroyed by the beast just prior to Armageddon.[*full citation needed*] Witnesses believe that after all other religions have been destroyed, the governments of the world will begin persecuting Witnesses, and God will then intervene, precipitating Armageddon. Jehovah's Witnesses teach that the armies of heaven, led by Jesus, will then destroy all forms of human government and then Jesus, along with a selected 144,000 humans, will rule Earth for 1,000 years. They believe that Satan and his demons will be bound for that period, unable to influence mankind. After the 1,000 years are ended, and the second resurrection has taken place, Satan is released and allowed to tempt the perfect human race one last time. Those who follow Satan will be destroyed, along with him, leaving the earth, and humankind at peace with God forever, free from sin and death. The religion's current teaching on Armageddon originated in 1925 with former Watch Tower Society president J. F. Rutherford, who based his interpretations on passages that are found in the books of Exodus, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Psalms as well as additional passages that are found in the books of Samuel, Kings and Chronicles. The doctrine marked a further break from the teachings of the Watch Tower Society's founder Charles Taze Russell, who for decades had taught that the final war would be an anarchistic struggle for domination on earth. Tony Wills, the author of a historical study of Jehovah's Witnesses, wrote that Rutherford seemed to relish his descriptions of how completely the wicked would be destroyed at Armageddon, dwelling at great length on prophecies of destruction. He stated that towards the close of his ministry, Rutherford allocated about half the space that was available in *The Watchtower* magazines to discussions about Armageddon. ### Seventh-day Adventist The teachings of the Seventh-day Adventist Church state that the terms "Armageddon", "Day of the Lord" and "The Second Coming of Christ" all describe the same event.[*verification needed*] Seventh-day Adventists further teach that the current religious movements taking place in the world are setting the stage for Armageddon, and they are concerned by an anticipated unity between spiritualism, American Protestantism and Roman Catholicism. A further significant difference in Seventh-day Adventist theology is the teaching that the events of Armageddon will leave the earth desolate for the duration of the millennium.[*full citation needed*] They teach that the righteous will be taken to heaven while the rest of humanity will be destroyed, leaving Satan with no one to tempt and effectively "bound". The final re-creation of a "new heaven and a new earth"; then follows the millennium. ### Christadelphians For Christadelphians, Armageddon marks the "great climax of history when the nations would be gathered together 'into a place called in the Hebrew tongue Armageddon', and the judgment on them would herald the setting up of the Kingdom of God." Baháʼí Faith ------------ From Baháʼí literature, a number of interpretations of the expectations surrounding the Battle of Armageddon may be inferred, three of them being associated with events surrounding the World Wars. The first interpretation deals with a series of tablets written by Bahá'u'lláh, founder of the Baháʼí Faith, to be sent to various kings and rulers. The second, and best-known one, relates to events near the end of World War I involving General Allenby and the Battle of Megiddo (1918) wherein World Powers are said to have drawn soldiers from many parts of the world to engage in battle at Megiddo. In winning this battle Allenby also prevented the Ottomans from killing 'Abdu'l-Baha, then head of the Baháʼí Faith, whom they had intended to crucify. A third interpretation reviews the overall progress of the World Wars, and the situation in the world before and after. See also -------- * 1 Maccabees * *Al-Malhama Al-Kubra* * World War III * Amik Valley * Antiochus Epiphanes * Apocalyptic literature * *Armageddon* (novel) * Futurist view of the Book of Revelation * Historicist interpretations of the Book of Revelation * List of dates predicted for apocalyptic events * *Megiddo: The Omega Code 2* * Millenarianism * Millennialism * Preterist interpretation of the Book of Revelation * Ragnarök * Siege of Jerusalem (70) * *Waiting for Armageddon* 32°35′06″N 35°11′06″E / 32.58500°N 35.18500°E / 32.58500; 35.18500

Armageddon

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armageddon

**Krk** (pronounced [kr̩̂k]; Italian: *Veglia*; Istro Romanian: *Krk*; Vegliot Dalmatian: *Vikla*; archaic German: *Vegl,* Latin: *Curicta*; Greek: Κύρικον, translit. **Kyrikon**) is a Croatian island in the northern Adriatic Sea, located near Rijeka in the Bay of Kvarner and part of Primorje-Gorski Kotar county. Krk is tied with Cres as the largest Adriatic island, depending on the methodology used to measure the coastline. Krk is the most populous island in the Adriatic, with multiple towns and villages that contain a total of 19,383 (2011) inhabitants. History ------- ### Prehistory Archeological findings indicate that the island was inhabited continuously since Neolithic, although very few information the earliest people is known. In later periods, Greek and Latin sources refer to *Κύριστα* (Ancient Greek) or *Curicta* (Latin) as one of the Apsyrtidian or Electridian islands held by the people known as Liburnians. The Liburnians called the island "Curicum", which name is assumed to be given the island by its original inhabitants. There are the remains of prehistoric settlements near Draga Bašćanska, as well as Bronze and Iron Age earthworks near Malinska, Dobrinj, Vrbnik and Baška. ### Roman era Krk came under Roman rule once they defeated the Liburnians. The Town of Krk (Curicum) became a town with Italic law whose status evolved to give it the rights of a municipality. Nothing is known about the internal organizations of the town of Krk during this time. Near the present day Franciscan monastery, the remains of thermal baths have been found. The defensive walls of Roman Curicum were among the most secure of all the towns on the Eastern Adriatic fortified by the Romans. Work began on their construction during the Civil War in Rome (50 BCE) and they were further strengthened in the 60s of the 2nd century CE, to enable them to withstand attacks by the Quadi and the Marcamanni who were at that time threatening the Adriatic. Not far from Krk in 49 BCE there was a decisive sea battle between Caesar and Pompey, which was described impressively by the Roman writer Lucan (39–65 CE) in his work *Pharsalia*. When the Empire was divided, Krk came under the Eastern Roman Empire. ### Migration Period The walls of the town of Krk could not withstand attacks by the Avars (7th century), but in contrast to Salona, Scardona and Aeona, life in Krk quickly returned to normal, and Krk functioned as one of the Dalmatian city-states. The Croats penetrated into the town on several occasions. They retained many of the Roman names they found there and so it is said that Krk has a "mosaic dialect". Following the Treaty of Aachen (812) the entire island was ceded to the Byzantine Empire and was governed according to the norms of that Empire. During the reign of Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus (10th century), Krk was known as *Vekla*, of which the Romanized variant, also used by the Venetians, was *Veglia*. ### Reign of Croatian Counts and Kings There are no extant documents showing when Krk became part of the Croatian state. It is known that from around 875 the Byzantine town paid the Croatian rulers 110 gold pieces a year to be able peacefully to keep their hold there. While the Croatian state was being established, Krk found itself on the Venetians' route to the Mediterranean. The Venetians conquered the town for the first time in 1001, and from then Krk's history was closely linked with the history of the Republic of Venice for seven centuries. During the reign of Peter Krešimir IV the Croatian rulers regained their power, but the Venetians took Krk for the second time in 1118. ### Reign of the Krk Counts (from 1430 on – the Frankopan family) When the Venetians conquered Krk for the second time in 1118, the local noble family, the unknown Dujams, received Krk as part of a pact with Venice, and they became Counts. When Dujam died in 1163, Venice allowed his sons to make their position hereditary, after a payment of 350 Byzantine gold pieces as tax. In a short time the Krk Counts became so powerful, that at one time from 1244 to 1260, Venice rescinded their authority. This failed to impede their rise, however. They increased economic exploitation, but they also endeavoured to strengthen old traditions and rights with various statutes (the Vinodol Code 1288 and the Vrbnik Statute, 1388). Dujam's youngest son, who died in 1209, succeeded in extending his authority to the mainland, began to serve the Croatian-Hungarian King and received the district of Modruš. Due to his economic strength and social standing, his opponents fought each other for his favour. The Counts became so strong that no power could threaten them (until the Turks). Members of his family were leaders in Split, Trogir and Senj, and from 1392 one of them (Ivan V), became a Croatian-Dalmatian Ban. In 1430 they took the surname Frankopan (Frangipane), claiming to have Roman origins. That year they adopted a coat of arms showing two lions breaking a piece of bread (Latin: frangere panem, break bread). From 1449, the descendants of Nikola IV founded eight branches of his family, and together with the Zrinski Counts were the ruling feudal family in the whole of Croatia right up to 1671. The Frankopans produced seven Croatian Bans, and many of them were patrons of Croatian artists. Ivan VII Frankopan in particular was the only prince of the semi-independent Principality of Krk. He also promoted the settlement of Morlachs and Vlachs (originally Romanians who later split into Istro-Romanians) in the island (specifically in the areas of Dubašnica and Poljica and between the castles of Dobrinj and Omišalj) to have a bigger manpower. Thus, these Istro-Romanians would form a community in Krk that would influence the local Croatian dialect and leave several toponyms on the island. The Istro-Romanians of Krk disappeared in 1875 after the death of the last speaker of the local Istro-Romanian dialect, which some Croatian scholars named "Krko-Romanian". Nowadays, this ethnic group only inhabits Istria. ### Venetian Rule (1480–1797) The island of Krk was a final Adriatic island to become part of the Venetian Empire. Due to its location, proximity to the Uskoks of Senj, it served as a lookout point, as well as first line of defence against the Uskoks. From that time on, the ruler was a Venetian noble, but the Small and the Large Councils both held a certain autonomy. The doge controlled the clergy but public documents were written in a Glagolitic script, which was widespread here more than anywhere else. At the beginning of 16th century the inhabitants of inland Croatia began to settle in on Krk, as a result of their flight from the Ottoman Turk invasions. Nonetheless, Krk still saw a decline, just like all the other Venetian lands. In year 1527 the town was recorded to have 10,461 inhabitants, while in 1527[*clarification needed*] it had 8,000. ### Austrian Rule Austrian rule over the island came after the fall of Venice in 1797 and was briefly (1806–1813) interrupted by the existence of Napoleon's Illyrian Provinces. In 1822 the Austrians separated the island from Dalmatia and linked it to Istria, therefore bringing the islands of Krk, Cres and Lošinj under direct rule from Vienna. This switch contributed to the appearance of Croatian National Revival, so along with nearby coastal town Kastav, the town of Krk played a major role in spreading of Croatian education and culture in the area. ### 20th century The Italian Occupation (1918–1920) was brief, and Krk was handed over to Croatia, then in Yugoslavia, by the Treaty of Rapallo, Italy took Krk again in the Second World War (1941–1943), and German occupation followed from 1943 to 1945. The post-war development of Krk was led by tourism. The building of an airport and then a bridge over to the mainland ensures the future of the development of tourism on this island. In Omišalj there has also been industrial development. The bridge is at the north end of Krk island and uses the small island of Otoćić Sveti Marko (St. Mark's Islet) as a mid-support. Economics and infrastructure ---------------------------- Krk is located rather near the mainland and has been connected to it via a 1,430 m (4,692 ft) two-arch concrete bridge since 1980, one of the longest concrete bridges in the world. Due to the proximity to the city of Rijeka, Omišalj also hosts the Rijeka International Airport as well as an oil terminal representing a part of the Port of Rijeka and a petrochemical plant. Since January 2021,there is an active Krk LNG terminal storage and regasification ship moored in Omisalj, north of Krk, able to receive large LNG carrier ships and then to pump the gas into trans-European pipelines. Krk is a popular tourist destination, due to its proximity to Slovenia, southern Germany, Austria, and northern Italy. Since the collapse of the Eastern Bloc, many tourists have appeared from Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, and other former Eastern Bloc countries. ### Fiber access network In 2009 the municipality started the project of building a fiber-optic network on the whole area of the city (the town of Krk and 14 neighboring villages) as part of the town infrastructure. Thereby the focus is on building the passive part of the network, which is the most expensive one and the prerequisite for service providers being able to provide ultra-fast Internet connections and new e-Services. The project is covering 6,243 inhabitants and 6,000 households. The first issue was the elaboration of a cost-benefit analysis in 2009/2010 followed by a preliminary network planning. At the beginning of 2013 the building authority issued the relevant approval. The next step is the elaboration of the main project which is the condition for getting the building permission and by which the project can apply for EU structural funds. Geography --------- Krk is like many Croatian islands, it is rocky and hilly. The rock is mostly karst. The southeast portion of the island is mostly bare as a result of the bora winds. Some prominent features include: * Obzova, the highest point at 568 msl * Vela Luka a harbor on the southeastern end of the island Culture and religion -------------------- Krk has historically been a center of Croatian culture. Various literature in the Glagolitic alphabet was created and in part preserved on Krk (notably the Baška tablet, one of the oldest preserved texts in Croatian). A monastery lies on the small island of Košljun in a bay off the coast of Krk. Krk belonged to the Republic of Venice during much of the Middle Ages until its dissolution, when its destinies followed those of Dalmatia. It became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later called Yugoslavia) after World War I, in 1920. After that date, the village of Veglia/Krk remained the only predominantly Italian-speaking municipality in Yugoslavia. After World War II, most of the Italians left. The island of Krk is a participant in the 2020 European Capital of Culture project. Through the program "27 neighborhoods", the city of Krk, Malinska and Vrbnik will be involved in different events during the entire year. Along with them, the Municipality of Baška participated in the program "Lungomare Art", based on which a permanent art installation "Drops" was set up, which puts emphasis on traditional drywall architecture. Monuments and sights -------------------- * The Baška tablet in Jurandvor that was made in 1100. * Church of St. Lucy in Jurandvor, where the famous Baška tablet was found. * Art installation "Drops" on the hill above Baška * Krk Cathedral that is dedicated to the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary. * Krk Bridge which connects the island of Krk with the mainland since July 19, 1980. Language -------- Krk is well known for its historical language diversity. The Middle Chakavian dialect of Croatian is the primary dialect used on the island. Five languages used to be spoken on the island: Venetian, Italian, Croatian, Dalmatian and Istro-Romanian, although the latter two have gone extinct in the island (and everywhere else in the case of Dalmatian). It must be noted the Croatian dialect of Krk has notable Istro-Romanian influence. Municipalities -------------- The municipalities and larger settlements on Krk include: * The eponymous city of Krk (Italian: *Veglia*), with 6,243 inhabitants (2011), located at 45°13′N 14°32′E / 45.217°N 14.533°E / 45.217; 14.533. * Omišalj (Italian: *Castelmuschio*; German: *Moschau*): 2,987 people * Malinska-Dubašnica – Malinska, the capital of municipality (Italian: *Malinsca*; German: *Durischal*): 3,142 people * Punat (Italian: *Ponte*; German: *Sankt Maria*): 1,953 people * Dobrinj (Italian: *Dobrigno*; German: *Dobrauen*): 2,023 people * Baška (Italian: *Besca*; German: *Weschke*): 1,668 people * Vrbnik (Italian: *Verbenico*; German: *Vörbnick*): 1,270 people * Gabonjin * Krašica * Anton * Pinezići * Glavotok * Valbiska * Njivice * Poljice * Nenadići * Sveti Vid Miholjice Roman Catholic bishopric ------------------------ * Church of St. Dunat Other ----- The fictional island Everon from the video game *Operation Flashpoint: Cold War Crisis* is based on Krk. The 45th parallel north passes through the island of Krk, making it positioned halfway between the Equator and the North Pole. The crossing of the 45th parallel is marked with a signpost. Genetics The frequency of Haplogroup I, rare elsewhere in Croatia and most of Europe, is high among the population. See also -------- * List of islands in the Adriatic * Cres Further reading --------------- * *Anton Bozanić: Mahnić i njegova Staroslavenska akademija. Krk u. Rijeka 2002*.

Krk

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krk

Historically, **cavalry** (from the French word *cavalerie*, itself derived from "cheval" meaning "horse") are soldiers or warriors who fight mounted on horseback. Cavalry were the most mobile of the combat arms, operating as light cavalry in the roles of reconnaissance, screening, and skirmishing in many armies, or as heavy cavalry for decisive shock attacks in other armies. An individual soldier in the cavalry is known by a number of designations depending on era and tactics, such as a **cavalryman**, horseman, trooper, cataphract, knight, drabant, hussar, uhlan, mamluk, cuirassier, lancer, dragoon, or horse archer. The designation of *cavalry* was not usually given to any military forces that used other animals for mounts, such as camels or elephants. Infantry who moved on horseback, but dismounted to fight on foot, were known in the early 17th to the early 18th century as *dragoons*, a class of mounted infantry which in most armies later evolved into standard cavalry while retaining their historic designation. Cavalry had the advantage of improved mobility, and a soldier fighting from horseback also had the advantages of greater height, speed, and inertial mass over an opponent on foot. Another element of horse mounted warfare is the psychological impact a mounted soldier can inflict on an opponent. The speed, mobility, and shock value of cavalry was greatly appreciated and exploited in armed forces in the Ancient and Middle Ages; some forces were mostly cavalry, particularly in nomadic societies of Asia, notably the Huns of Attila and the later Mongol armies. In Europe, cavalry became increasingly armoured (heavy), and eventually evolving into the mounted knights of the medieval period. During the 17th century, cavalry in Europe discarded most of its armor, which was ineffective against the muskets and cannons that were coming into common use, and by the mid-18th century armor had mainly fallen into obsolescence, although some regiments retained a small thickened cuirass that offered protection against lances, sabres, and bayonets; including some protection against a shot from distance. In the interwar period, while some cavalry still served during World War II (notably in the Red Army, the Mongolian People's Army, the Royal Italian Army, the Royal Hungarian Army, the Romanian Army, the Polish Land Forces, and German light reconnaissance units within the Waffen SS) many cavalry units were converted into motorized infantry and mechanized infantry units, or reformed as tank troops. The cavalry tank or cruiser tank was one designed with a speed and purpose beyond that of infantry tanks and would subsequently develop into the main battle tank. Most cavalry units that are horse-mounted in modern armies serve in purely ceremonial roles, or as mounted infantry in difficult terrain such as mountains or heavily forested areas. Modern usage of the term generally refers to units performing the role of reconnaissance, surveillance, and target acquisition (analogous to historical light cavalry) or main battle tank units (analogous to historical heavy cavalry). Role ---- Historically, cavalry was divided into light cavalry and heavy cavalry. The differences were their roles in combat, the size of their mounts, and how much armor was worn by the mount and rider. Heavy cavalry, such as Byzantine cataphracts and knights of the Early Middle Ages in Europe, were used as shock troops, charging the main body of the enemy at the height of a battle; in many cases their actions decided the outcome of the battle, hence the later term *battle cavalry*. Light cavalry, such as horse archers, hussars, and Cossack cavalry, were assigned all the numerous roles that were ill-suited to more narrowly-focused heavy forces. This includes scouting, deterring enemy scouts, foraging, raiding, skirmishing, pursuit of retreating enemy forces, screening of retreating friendly forces, linking separated friendly forces, and countering enemy light forces in all these same roles. the heavy cavalry were more respected. Light and heavy cavalry roles continued through early modern warfare, but armor was reduced, with light cavalry mostly unarmored. Yet many cavalry units still retained cuirasses and helmets for their protective value against sword and bayonet strikes, and the morale boost these provide to the wearers, despite these giving little protection from firearms. By this time the main difference between light and heavy cavalry was their training and weight; the former was regarded as best suited for harassment and reconnaissance, while the latter was considered best for close-order charges. By the start of the 20th century, as total battlefield firepower increased, all cavalry tended to become dragoons in practice, riding mounted between battles, but dismounting to act as infantry during any battle, even if many retained their unit names that reflected their older cavalry roles. With the development of armored warfare, the heavy cavalry role of decisive shock troops had been taken over by armored units employing medium and heavy tanks, and later main battle tanks. Despite horse-born cavalry becoming obsolete, the term *cavalry* is still used, referring in modern times to units continuing to fulfill the traditional light cavalry roles, employing fast armored cars, light tanks, and infantry fighting vehicles instead of horses, while air cavalry employs helicopters. Early history ------------- ### Origins Before the Iron Age, the role of cavalry on the battlefield was largely performed by light chariots. The chariot originated with the Sintashta-Petrovka culture in Central Asia and spread by nomadic or semi-nomadic Indo-Iranians. The chariot was quickly adopted by settled peoples both as a military technology and an object of ceremonial status, especially by the pharaohs of the New Kingdom of Egypt from 1550 BC as well as the Assyrian army and Babylonian royalty. The power of mobility given by mounted units was recognized early on, but was offset by the difficulty of raising large forces and by the inability of horses (then mostly small) to carry heavy armor. Nonetheless, there are indications that, from the 15th century BC onwards, horseback riding was practiced amongst the military elites of the great states of the ancient Near East, most notably those in Egypt, Assyria, the Hittite Empire, and Mycenaean Greece. Cavalry techniques, and the rise of true cavalry, were an innovation of equestrian nomads of the Central Asian and Iranian steppe and pastoralist tribes such as the Iranic Parthians and Sarmatians. Together with a core of armoured lancers, these were predominantly horse archers using the Parthian shot tactic. The photograph straight above shows Assyrian cavalry from reliefs of 865–860 BC. At this time, the men had no spurs, saddles, saddle cloths, or stirrups. Fighting from the back of a horse was much more difficult than mere riding. The cavalry acted in pairs; the reins of the mounted archer were controlled by his neighbour's hand. Even at this early time, cavalry used swords, shields, spears, and bows. The sculpture implies two types of cavalry, but this might be a simplification by the artist. Later images of Assyrian cavalry show saddle cloths as primitive saddles, allowing each archer to control his own horse. As early as 490 BC a breed of large horses was bred in the Nisaean plain in Media to carry men with increasing amounts of armour (Herodotus 7,40 & 9,20), but large horses were still very exceptional at this time. By the fourth century BC the Chinese during the Warring States period (403–221 BC) began to use cavalry against rival states, and by 331 BC when Alexander the Great defeated the Persians the use of chariots in battle was obsolete in most nations; despite a few ineffective attempts to revive scythed chariots. The last recorded use of chariots as a shock force in continental Europe was during the Battle of Telamon in 225 BC. However, chariots remained in use for ceremonial purposes such as carrying the victorious general in a Roman triumph, or for racing. Outside of mainland Europe, the southern Britons met Julius Caesar with chariots in 55 and 54 BC, but by the time of the Roman conquest of Britain a century later chariots were obsolete, even in Britannia. The last mention of chariot use in Britain was by the Caledonians at the Mons Graupius, in 84 AD. ### Ancient Greece: city-states, Thebes, Thessaly and Macedonia During the classical Greek period cavalry were usually limited to those citizens who could afford expensive war-horses. Three types of cavalry became common: light cavalry, whose riders, armed with javelins, could harass and skirmish; heavy cavalry, whose troopers, using lances, had the ability to close in on their opponents; and finally those whose equipment allowed them to fight either on horseback or foot. The role of horsemen did however remain secondary to that of the hoplites or heavy infantry who comprised the main strength of the citizen levies of the various city states. Cavalry played a relatively minor role in ancient Greek city-states, with conflicts decided by massed armored infantry. However, Thebes produced Pelopidas, their first great cavalry commander, whose tactics and skills were absorbed by Philip II of Macedon when Philip was a guest-hostage in Thebes. Thessaly was widely known for producing competent cavalrymen, and later experiences in wars both with and against the Persians taught the Greeks the value of cavalry in skirmishing and pursuit. The Athenian author and soldier Xenophon in particular advocated the creation of a small but well-trained cavalry force; to that end, he wrote several manuals on horsemanship and cavalry operations. The Macedonian Kingdom in the north, on the other hand, developed a strong cavalry force that culminated in the *hetairoi* (Companion cavalry) of Philip II of Macedon and Alexander the Great. In addition to these heavy cavalry, the Macedonian army also employed lighter horsemen called prodromoi for scouting and screening, as well as the Macedonian pike phalanx and various kinds of light infantry. There were also the *Ippiko* (or "Horserider"), Greek "heavy" cavalry, armed with kontos (or cavalry lance), and sword. These wore leather armour or mail plus a helmet. They were medium rather than heavy cavalry, meaning that they were better suited to be scouts, skirmishers, and pursuers rather than front line fighters. The effectiveness of this combination of cavalry and infantry helped to break enemy lines and was most dramatically demonstrated in Alexander's conquests of Persia, Bactria, and northwestern India. ### Roman Republic and Early Empire The cavalry in the early Roman Republic remained the preserve of the wealthy landed class known as the *equites*—men who could afford the expense of maintaining a horse in addition to arms and armor heavier than those of the common legions. Horses were provided by the Republic and could be withdrawn if neglected or misused, together with the status of being a cavalryman. As the class grew to be more of a social elite instead of a functional property-based military grouping, the Romans began to employ Italian socii for filling the ranks of their cavalry. The weakness of Roman cavalry was demonstrated by Hannibal Barca during the Second Punic War where he used his superior mounted forces to win several battles. The most notable of these was the Battle of Cannae, where he inflicted a catastrophic defeat on the Romans. At about the same time the Romans began to recruit foreign auxiliary cavalry from among Gauls, Iberians, and Numidians, the last being highly valued as mounted skirmishers and scouts (see Numidian cavalry). Julius Caesar had a high opinion of his escort of Germanic mixed cavalry, giving rise to the *Cohortes Equitatae*. Early emperors maintained an ala of Batavian cavalry as their personal bodyguards until the unit was dismissed by Galba after the Batavian Rebellion. For the most part, Roman cavalry during the early Republic functioned as an adjunct to the legionary infantry and formed only one-fifth of the standing force comprising a consular army. Except in times of major mobilisation about 1,800 horsemen were maintained, with three hundred attached to each legion. The relatively low ratio of horsemen to infantry does not mean that the utility of cavalry should be underestimated, as its strategic role in scouting, skirmishing, and outpost duties was crucial to the Romans' capability to conduct operations over long distances in hostile or unfamiliar territory. On some occasions Roman cavalry also proved its ability to strike a decisive tactical blow against a weakened or unprepared enemy, such as the final charge at the Battle of Aquilonia. After defeats such as the Battle of Carrhae, the Romans learned the importance of large cavalry formations from the Parthians. At the same time heavy spears and shields modelled on those favoured by the horsemen of the Greek city-states were adopted to replace the lighter weaponry of early Rome. These improvements in tactics and equipment reflected those of a thousand years earlier when the first Iranians to reach the Iranian Plateau forced the Assyrians to undertake similar reform. Nonetheless, the Romans would continue to rely mainly on their heavy infantry supported by auxiliary cavalry. ### Late Roman Empire and the Migration Period In the army of the late Roman Empire, cavalry played an increasingly important role. The Spatha, the classical sword throughout most of the 1st millennium was adopted as the standard model for the Empire's cavalry forces. By the 6th century these had evolved into lengthy straight weapons influenced by Persian and other eastern patterns. The most widespread employment of heavy cavalry at this time was found in the forces of the Iranian empires, the Parthians and their Persian Sasanian successors. Both, but especially the former, were famed for the cataphract (fully armored cavalry armed with lances) even though the majority of their forces consisted of lighter horse archers. The West first encountered this eastern heavy cavalry during the Hellenistic period with further intensive contacts during the eight centuries of the Roman–Persian Wars. At first the Parthians' mobility greatly confounded the Romans, whose armoured close-order infantry proved unable to match the speed of the Parthians. However, later the Romans would successfully adapt such heavy armor and cavalry tactics by creating their own units of cataphracts and *clibanarii*. The decline of the Roman infrastructure made it more difficult to field large infantry forces, and during the 4th and 5th centuries cavalry began to take a more dominant role on the European battlefield, also in part made possible by the appearance of new, larger breeds of horses. The replacement of the Roman saddle by variants on the Scythian model, with pommel and cantle, was also a significant factor as was the adoption of stirrups and the concomitant increase in stability of the rider's seat. Armored cataphracts began to be deployed in eastern Europe and the Near East, following the precedents established by Persian forces, as the main striking force of the armies in contrast to the earlier roles of cavalry as scouts, raiders, and outflankers. The late-Roman cavalry tradition of organized units in a standing army differed fundamentally from the nobility of the Germanic invaders—individual warriors who could afford to provide their own horses and equipment. While there was no direct linkage with these predecessors the early medieval knight also developed as a member of a social and martial elite, able to meet the considerable expenses required by his role from grants of land and other incomes. Asia ---- ### Central Asia Xiongnu, Tujue, Avars, Kipchaks, Khitans, Mongols, Don Cossacks and the various Turkic peoples are also examples of the horse-mounted groups that managed to gain substantial successes in military conflicts with settled agrarian and urban societies, due to their strategic and tactical mobility. As European states began to assume the character of bureaucratic nation-states supporting professional standing armies, recruitment of these mounted warriors was undertaken in order to fill the strategic roles of scouts and raiders. The best known instance of the continued employment of mounted tribal auxiliaries were the Cossack cavalry regiments of the Russian Empire. In Eastern Europe, and out onto the steppes, cavalry remained important much longer and dominated the scene of warfare until the early 17th century and even beyond, as the strategic mobility of cavalry was crucial for the semi-nomadic pastoralist lives that many steppe cultures led. Tibetans also had a tradition of cavalry warfare, in several military engagements with the Chinese Tang dynasty (618–907 AD). #### Khanates of Central Asia * Mongol mounted archer of Genghis Khan late 12th century.Mongol mounted archer of Genghis Khan late 12th century. * Tatar vanguard in Eastern Europe 13th–14th centuries.Tatar vanguard in Eastern Europe 13th–14th centuries. * Mongols at war 14th centuryMongols at war 14th century ### East Asia #### China An Eastern Han glazed ceramic statue of a horse with bridle and halter headgear, from Sichuan, late 2nd century to early 3rd century AD Further east, the military history of China, specifically northern China, held a long tradition of intense military exchange between Han Chinese infantry forces of the settled dynastic empires and the mounted nomads or "barbarians" of the north. The naval history of China was centered more to the south, where mountains, rivers, and large lakes necessitated the employment of a large and well-kept navy. In 307 BC, King Wuling of Zhao, the ruler of the former state of Jin, ordered his commanders and troops to adopt the trousers of the nomads as well as practice the nomads' form of mounted archery to hone their new cavalry skills. The adoption of massed cavalry in China also broke the tradition of the chariot-riding Chinese aristocracy in battle, which had been in use since the ancient Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1050 BC). By this time large Chinese infantry-based armies of 100,000 to 200,000 troops were now buttressed with several hundred thousand mounted cavalry in support or as an effective striking force. The handheld pistol-and-trigger crossbow was invented in China in the fourth century BC; it was written by the Song dynasty scholars Zeng Gongliang, Ding Du, and Yang Weide in their book *Wujing Zongyao* (1044 AD) that massed missile fire by crossbowmen was the most effective defense against enemy cavalry charges. On many occasions the Chinese studied nomadic cavalry tactics and applied the lessons in creating their own potent cavalry forces, while in others they simply recruited the tribal horsemen wholesale into their armies; and in yet other cases nomadic empires proved eager to enlist Chinese infantry and engineering, as in the case of the Mongol Empire and its sinicized part, the Yuan dynasty (1279–1368). The Chinese recognized early on during the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) that they were at a disadvantage in lacking the number of horses the northern nomadic peoples mustered in their armies. Emperor Wu of Han (r 141–87 BC) went to war with the Dayuan for this reason, since the Dayuan were hoarding a massive amount of tall, strong, Central Asian bred horses in the Hellenized–Greek region of Fergana (established slightly earlier by Alexander the Great). Although experiencing some defeats early on in the campaign, Emperor Wu's war from 104 BC to 102 BC succeeded in gathering the prized tribute of horses from Fergana. Cavalry tactics in China were enhanced by the invention of the saddle-attached stirrup by at least the 4th century, as the oldest reliable depiction of a rider with paired stirrups was found in a Jin dynasty tomb of the year 322 AD. The Chinese invention of the horse collar by the 5th century was also a great improvement from the breast harness, allowing the horse to haul greater weight without heavy burden on its skeletal structure. #### Korea The horse warfare of Korea was first started during the ancient Korean kingdom Gojoseon. Since at least the 3rd century BC, there was influence of northern nomadic peoples and Yemaek peoples on Korean warfare. By roughly the first century BC, the ancient kingdom of Buyeo also had mounted warriors. The cavalry of Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, were called *Gaemamusa* (개마무사, 鎧馬武士), and were renowned as a fearsome heavy cavalry force. King Gwanggaeto the Great often led expeditions into the Baekje, Gaya confederacy, Buyeo, Later Yan and against Japanese invaders with his cavalry. In the 12th century, Jurchen tribes began to violate the Goryeo–Jurchen borders, and eventually invaded Goryeo Korea. After experiencing the invasion by the Jurchen, Korean general Yun Gwan realized that Goryeo lacked efficient cavalry units. He reorganized the Goryeo military into a professional army that would contain decent and well-trained cavalry units. In 1107, the Jurchen were ultimately defeated, and surrendered to Yun Gwan. To mark the victory, General Yun built nine fortresses to the northeast of the Goryeo–Jurchen borders (동북 9성, 東北 九城). #### Japan The ancient Japanese of the Kofun period also adopted cavalry and equine culture by the 5th century AD. The emergence of the samurai aristocracy led to the development of armoured horse archers, themselves to develop into charging lancer cavalry as gunpowder weapons rendered bows obsolete. Japanese cavalry was largely made up of landowners who would be upon a horse to better survey the troops they were called upon to bring to an engagement, rather than traditional mounted warfare seen in other cultures with massed cavalry units. An example is Yabusame (流鏑馬), a type of mounted archery in traditional Japanese archery. An archer on a running horse shoots three special "turnip-headed" arrows successively at three wooden targets. This style of archery has its origins at the beginning of the Kamakura period. Minamoto no Yoritomo became alarmed at the lack of archery skills his samurai had. He organized yabusame as a form of practice. Currently, the best places to see yabusame performed are at the Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū in Kamakura and Shimogamo Shrine in Kyoto (during Aoi Matsuri in early May). It is also performed in Samukawa and on the beach at Zushi, as well as other locations. Kasagake or Kasakake (笠懸, かさがけ lit. "hat shooting") is a type of Japanese mounted archery. In contrast to yabusame, the types of targets are various and the archer shoots without stopping the horse. While yabusame has been played as a part of formal ceremonies, kasagake has developed as a game or practice of martial arts, focusing on technical elements of horse archery. ### South Asia #### Indian subcontinent In the Indian subcontinent, cavalry played a major role from the Gupta dynasty (320–600) period onwards. India has also the oldest evidence for the introduction of toe-stirrups. Indian literature contains numerous references to the mounted warriors of the Central Asian horse nomads, notably the Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas and Paradas. Numerous Puranic texts refer to a conflict in ancient India (16th century BC) in which the horsemen of five nations, called the "Five Hordes" (*pañca.ganan*) or Kṣatriya hordes (*Kṣatriya ganah*), attacked and captured the state of Ayudhya by dethroning its Vedic King Bahu The Mahabharata, Ramayana, numerous Puranas and some foreign sources attest that the Kamboja cavalry frequently played role in ancient wars. V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar writes: "Both the Puranas and the epics agree that the horses of the Sindhu and Kamboja regions were of the finest breed, and that the services of the Kambojas as cavalry troopers were utilised in ancient wars". J.A.O.S. writes: "Most famous horses are said to come either from Sindhu or Kamboja; of the latter (i.e. the Kamboja), the Indian epic Mahabharata speaks among the finest horsemen". The Mahabharata speaks of the esteemed cavalry of the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas and Tusharas, all of whom had participated in the Kurukshetra war under the supreme command of Kamboja ruler Sudakshin Kamboj. Mahabharata and Vishnudharmottara Purana pay especial attention to the Kambojas, Yavansa, Gandharas etc. being *ashva.yuddha.kushalah* (expert cavalrymen). In the Mahabharata war, the Kamboja cavalry along with that of the Sakas, Yavanas is reported to have been enlisted by the Kuru king Duryodhana of Hastinapura. Herodotus (c. 484 – c. 425 BC) attests that the Gandarian mercenaries (i.e. *Gandharans/Kambojans* of Gandari Strapy of Achaemenids) from the 20th strapy of the Achaemenids were recruited in the army of emperor Xerxes I (486–465 BC), which he led against the Hellas. Similarly, the *men of the Mountain Land* from north of Kabul-River equivalent to medieval Kohistan (Pakistan), figure in the army of Darius III against Alexander at Arbela, providing a cavalry force and 15 elephants. This obviously refers to Kamboja cavalry south of Hindukush. The Kambojas were famous for their horses, as well as cavalrymen (*asva-yuddha-Kushalah*). On account of their supreme position in horse (Ashva) culture, they were also popularly known as Ashvakas, i.e. the "horsemen" and their land was known as "Home of Horses". They are the Assakenoi and Aspasioi of the Classical writings, and the Ashvakayanas and Ashvayanas in Pāṇini's Ashtadhyayi. The Assakenoi had faced Alexander with 30,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry and 30 war elephants. Scholars have identified the Assakenoi and Aspasioi clans of Kunar and Swat valleys as a section of the Kambojas. These hardy tribes had offered stubborn resistance to Alexander (c. 326 BC) during latter's campaign of the Kabul, Kunar and Swat valleys and had even extracted the praise of the Alexander's historians. These highlanders, designated as *"parvatiya Ayudhajivinah"* in Pāṇini's Astadhyayi, were rebellious, fiercely independent and freedom-loving cavalrymen who never easily yielded to any overlord. The Sanskrit drama *Mudra-rakashas* by *Visakha Dutta* and the Jaina work *Parishishtaparvan* refer to Chandragupta's (c. 320 BC – c. 298 BC) alliance with Himalayan king *Parvataka*. The Himalayan alliance gave Chandragupta a formidable composite army made up of the cavalry forces of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Kiratas, Parasikas and Bahlikas as attested by Mudra-Rakashas (Mudra-Rakshasa 2). These hordes had helped Chandragupta Maurya defeat the ruler of Magadha and placed Chandragupta on the throne, thus laying the foundations of Mauryan dynasty in Northern India. The cavalry of Hunas and the Kambojas is also attested in the Raghu Vamsa epic poem of Sanskrit poet Kalidasa. Raghu of Kalidasa is believed to be Chandragupta II (*Vikaramaditya*) (375–413/15 AD), of the well-known Gupta dynasty. As late as the mediaeval era, the Kamboja cavalry had also formed part of the Gurjara-Pratihara armed forces from the eighth to the 10th centuries AD. They had come to Bengal with the Pratiharas when the latter conquered part of the province. Ancient Kambojas organised military *sanghas* and shrenis (corporations) to manage their political and military affairs, as Arthashastra of Kautiliya as well as the Mahabharata record. They are described as *Ayuddha-jivi* or *Shastr-opajivis* (nations-in-arms), which also means that the Kamboja cavalry offered its military services to other nations as well. There are numerous references to Kambojas having been requisitioned as cavalry troopers in ancient wars by outside nations. #### Mughal Empire The Mughal armies (*lashkar*) were primarily a cavalry force. The elite corps were the *ahadi* who provided direct service to the Emperor and acted as guard cavalry. Supplementary cavalry or *dakhilis* were recruited, equipped and paid by the central state. This was in contrast to the *tabinan* horsemen who were the followers of individual noblemen. Their training and equipment varied widely but they made up the backbone of the Mughal cavalry. Finally there were tribal irregulars led by and loyal to tributary chiefs. These included Hindus, Afghans and Turks summoned for military service when their autonomous leaders were called on by the Imperial government. European Middle Ages -------------------- As the quality and availability of heavy infantry declined in Europe with the fall of the Roman Empire, heavy cavalry became more effective. Infantry that lack the cohesion and discipline of tight formations are more susceptible to being broken and scattered by shock combat—the main role of heavy cavalry, which rose to become the dominant force on the European battlefield. As heavy cavalry increased in importance, it became the main focus of military development. The arms and armour for heavy cavalry increased, the high-backed saddle developed, and stirrups and spurs were added, increasing the advantage of heavy cavalry even more. This shift in military importance was reflected in an increasingly hierarchical society as well. From the late 10th century onwards heavily armed horsemen, *milites* or knights, emerged as an expensive elite taking centre stage both on and off the battlefield. This class of aristocratic warriors was considered the "ultimate" in heavy cavalry: well-equipped with the best weapons, state-of-the-art armour from head to foot, leading with the lance in battle in a full-gallop, close-formation "knightly charge" that might prove irresistible, winning the battle almost as soon as it began. But knights remained the minority of total available combat forces; the expense of arms, armour, and horses was only affordable to a select few. While mounted men-at-arms focused on a narrow combat role of shock combat, medieval armies relied on a large variety of foot troops to fulfill all the rest (skirmishing, flank guards, scouting, holding ground, etc.). Medieval chroniclers tended to pay undue attention to the knights at the expense of the common soldiers, which led early students of military history to suppose that heavy cavalry was the only force that mattered on medieval European battlefields. But well-trained and disciplined infantry could defeat knights. Massed English longbowmen triumphed over French cavalry at Crécy, Poitiers and Agincourt, while at Gisors (1188), Bannockburn (1314), and Laupen (1339), foot-soldiers proved they could resist cavalry charges as long as they held their formation. Once the Swiss developed their pike squares for offensive as well as defensive use, infantry started to become the principal arm. This aggressive new doctrine gave the Swiss victory over a range of adversaries, and their enemies found that the only reliable way to defeat them was by the use of an even more comprehensive combined arms doctrine, as evidenced in the Battle of Marignano. The introduction of missile weapons that required less skill than the longbow, such as the crossbow and hand cannon, also helped remove the focus somewhat from cavalry elites to masses of cheap infantry equipped with easy-to-learn weapons. These missile weapons were very successfully used in the Hussite Wars, in combination with Wagenburg tactics. This gradual rise in the dominance of infantry led to the adoption of dismounted tactics. From the earliest times knights and mounted men-at-arms had frequently dismounted to handle enemies they could not overcome on horseback, such as in the Battle of the Dyle (891) and the Battle of Bremule (1119), but after the 1350s this trend became more marked with the dismounted men-at-arms fighting as super-heavy infantry with two-handed swords and poleaxes. In any case, warfare in the Middle Ages tended to be dominated by raids and sieges rather than pitched battles, and mounted men-at-arms rarely had any choice other than dismounting when faced with the prospect of assaulting a fortified position. Greater Middle East ------------------- ### Arabs The Islamic Prophet Muhammad made use of cavalry in many of his military campaigns including the Expedition of Dhu Qarad, and the expedition of Zaid ibn Haritha in al-Is which took place in September, 627 AD, fifth month of 6 AH of the Islamic calendar. Early organized Arab mounted forces under the Rashidun caliphate comprised a light cavalry armed with lance and sword. Its main role was to attack the enemy flanks and rear. These relatively lightly armored horsemen formed the most effective element of the Muslim armies during the later stages of the Islamic conquest of the Levant. The best use of this lightly armed fast moving cavalry was revealed at the **Battle of Yarmouk** (636 AD) in which Khalid ibn Walid, knowing the skills of his horsemen, used them to turn the tables at every critical instance of the battle with their ability to engage, disengage, then turn back and attack again from the flank or rear. A strong cavalry regiment was formed by Khalid ibn Walid which included the veterans of the campaign of Iraq and Syria. Early Muslim historians have given it the name *Tali'a mutaharrikah*(طليعة متحركة), or the Mobile guard. This was used as an advance guard and a strong striking force to route the opposing armies with its greater mobility that give it an upper hand when maneuvering against any Byzantine army. With this mobile striking force, the conquest of Syria was made easy. The Battle of Talas in 751 AD was a conflict between the Arab Abbasid Caliphate and the Chinese Tang dynasty over the control of Central Asia. Chinese infantry were routed by Arab cavalry near the bank of the River Talas. Later Mamluks were trained as cavalry soldiers. Mamluks were to follow the dictates of al-furusiyya, a code of conduct that included values like courage and generosity but also doctrine of cavalry tactics, horsemanship, archery and treatment of wounds. ### Maghreb The Islamic Berber states of North Africa employed elite horse mounted cavalry armed with spears and following the model of the original Arab occupiers of the region. Horse-harness and weapons were manufactured locally and the six-monthly stipends for horsemen were double those of their infantry counterparts. During the 8th century Islamic conquest of Iberia large numbers of horses and riders were shipped from North Africa, to specialise in raiding and the provision of support for the massed Berber footmen of the main armies. Maghrebi traditions of mounted warfare eventually influenced a number of sub-Saharan African polities in the medieval era. The Esos of Ikoyi, military aristocrats of the Yoruba peoples, were a notable manifestation of this phenomenon. ### Al-Andalus ### Iran Qizilbash, were a class of Safavid militant warriors in Iran during the 15th to 18th centuries, who often fought as elite cavalry. * Manikin of a Safavid Qizilbash, showing characteristic red cap (Sa'dabad Palace, Tehran).Manikin of a Safavid Qizilbash, showing characteristic red cap (Sa'dabad Palace, Tehran). * Persian Zamburak.Persian Zamburak. ### Ottoman During its period of greatest expansion, from the 14th to 17th centuries, cavalry formed the powerful core of the Ottoman armies. Registers dated 1475 record 22,000 *Sipahi* feudal cavalry levied in Europe, 17,000 *Sipahis* recruited from Anatolia, and 3,000 *Kapikulu* (regular body-guard cavalry). During the 18th century however the Ottoman mounted troops evolved into light cavalry serving in the thinly populated regions of the Middle East and North Africa. Such frontier horsemen were largely raised by local governors and were separate from the main field armies of the Ottoman Empire. At the beginning of the 19th century modernised *Nizam-I Credit* ("New Army") regiments appeared, including full-time cavalry units officered from the horse guards of the Sultan. * Ottoman Sipahi.Ottoman Sipahi. * An Ottoman Mamluk cavalryman from 1810, armed with a pistol.An Ottoman Mamluk cavalryman from 1810, armed with a pistol. * Akinci of the Balkans.Akinci of the Balkans. * Ottoman Ghazi cavalrymen during the Battle of Nicopolis.Ottoman Ghazi cavalrymen during the Battle of Nicopolis. Renaissance Europe ------------------ Ironically, the rise of infantry in the early 16th century coincided with the "golden age" of heavy cavalry; a French or Spanish army at the beginning of the century could have up to half its numbers made up of various kinds of light and heavy cavalry, whereas in earlier medieval and later 17th-century armies the proportion of cavalry was seldom more than a quarter. Knighthood largely lost its military functions and became more closely tied to social and economic prestige in an increasingly capitalistic Western society. With the rise of drilled and trained infantry, the mounted men-at-arms, now sometimes called *gendarmes* and often part of the standing army themselves, adopted the same role as in the Hellenistic age, that of delivering a decisive blow once the battle was already engaged, either by charging the enemy in the flank or attacking their commander-in-chief. From the 1550s onwards, the use of gunpowder weapons solidified infantry's dominance of the battlefield and began to allow true mass armies to develop. This is closely related to the increase in the size of armies throughout the early modern period; heavily armored cavalrymen were expensive to raise and maintain and it took years to train a skilled horseman or a horse, while arquebusiers and later musketeers could be trained and kept in the field at much lower cost, and were much easier to recruit. The Spanish tercio and later formations relegated cavalry to a supporting role. The pistol was specifically developed to try to bring cavalry back into the conflict, together with manoeuvres such as the caracole. The caracole was not particularly successful, however, and the charge (whether with lance, sword, or pistol) remained as the primary mode of employment for many types of European cavalry, although by this time it was delivered in much deeper formations and with greater discipline than before. The demi-lancers and the heavily armored sword-and-pistol reiters were among the types of cavalry whose heyday was in the 16th and 17th centuries. During this period the Polish Winged hussars were a dominating heavy cavalry force in Eastern Europe that initially achieved great success against Swedes, Russians, Turks and other, until repeatably beaten by either combined arms tactics, increase in firepower or beaten in melee with the Drabant cavalry of the Swedish Empire. From their last engagement in 1702 (at the Battle of Kliszów) until 1776, the obsolete Winged hussars were demoted and largely assigned to ceremonial roles. The Polish Winged hussars military prowess peaked at the Siege of Vienna in 1683, when hussar banners participated in the largest cavalry charge in history and successfully repelled the Ottoman attack. 18th-century Europe and Napoleonic Wars --------------------------------------- Cavalry retained an important role in this age of regularization and standardization across European armies. They remained the primary choice for confronting enemy cavalry. Attacking an unbroken infantry force head-on usually resulted in failure, but extended linear infantry formations were vulnerable to flank or rear attacks. Cavalry was important at Blenheim (1704), Rossbach (1757), Marengo (1800), Eylau and Friedland (1807), remaining significant throughout the Napoleonic Wars. Even with the increasing prominence of infantry, cavalry still had an irreplaceable role in armies, due to their greater mobility. Their non-battle duties often included patrolling the fringes of army encampments, with standing orders to intercept suspected shirkers and deserters, as well as, serving as outpost pickets in advance of the main body. During battle, lighter cavalry such as hussars and uhlans might skirmish with other cavalry, attack light infantry, or charge and either capture enemy artillery or render them useless by plugging the touchholes with iron spikes. Heavier cavalry such as cuirassiers, dragoons, and carabiniers usually charged towards infantry formations or opposing cavalry in order to rout them. Both light and heavy cavalry pursued retreating enemies, the point where most battle casualties occurred. The greatest cavalry charge of modern history was at the 1807 Battle of Eylau, when the entire 11,000-strong French cavalry reserve, led by Joachim Murat, launched a huge charge on and through the Russian infantry lines. Cavalry's dominating and menacing presence on the battlefield was countered by the use of infantry squares. The most notable examples are at the Battle of Quatre Bras and later at the Battle of Waterloo, the latter which the repeated charges by up to 9,000 French cavalrymen ordered by Michel Ney failed to break the British-Allied army, who had formed into squares. Massed infantry, especially those formed in squares were deadly to cavalry, but offered an excellent target for artillery. Once a bombardment had disordered the infantry formation, cavalry were able to rout and pursue the scattered foot soldiers. It was not until individual firearms gained accuracy and improved rates of fire that cavalry was diminished in this role as well. Even then light cavalry remained an indispensable tool for scouting, screening the army's movements, and harassing the enemy's supply lines until military aircraft supplanted them in this role in the early stages of World War I. 19th century ------------ ### Europe By the beginning of the 19th century, European cavalry fell into four main categories: * Cuirassiers, heavy cavalry, adorned with body armor, especially a cuirass, and primarily armed with pistols and a sword * Dragoons, originally mounted infantry, but later regarded as medium cavalry * Hussars, light cavalry, primarily armed with sabres * Lancers or Uhlans, light cavalry, primarily armed with lances There were cavalry variations for individual nations as well: France had the *chasseurs à cheval*; Prussia had the *Jäger zu Pferde*; Bavaria, Saxony and Austria had the *Chevaulegers*; and Russia had Cossacks. Britain, from the mid-18th century, had Light Dragoons as light cavalry and Dragoons, Dragoon Guards and Household Cavalry as heavy cavalry. Only after the end of the Napoleonic wars were the Household Cavalry equipped with cuirasses, and some other regiments were converted to lancers. In the United States Army prior to 1862 the cavalry were almost always dragoons. The Imperial Japanese Army had its cavalry uniformed as hussars, but they fought as dragoons. In the Crimean War, the Charge of the Light Brigade and the Thin Red Line at the Battle of Balaclava showed the vulnerability of cavalry, when deployed without effective support. #### Franco-Prussian War During the Franco-Prussian War, at the Battle of Mars-la-Tour in 1870, a Prussian cavalry brigade decisively smashed the centre of the French battle line, after skilfully concealing their approach. This event became known as **Von Bredow's Death Ride** after the brigade commander Adalbert von Bredow; it would be used in the following decades to argue that massed cavalry charges still had a place on the modern battlefield. #### Imperial expansion Cavalry found a new role in colonial campaigns (irregular warfare), where modern weapons were lacking and the slow moving infantry-artillery train or fixed fortifications were often ineffective against indigenous insurgents (unless the latter offered a fight on an equal footing, as at Tel-el-Kebir, Omdurman, etc.). Cavalry "flying columns" proved effective, or at least cost-effective, in many campaigns—although an astute native commander (like Samori in western Africa, Shamil in the Caucasus, or any of the better Boer commanders) could turn the tables and use the greater mobility of their cavalry to offset their relative lack of firepower compared with European forces. In 1903 the British Indian Army maintained forty regiments of cavalry, numbering about 25,000 Indian sowars (cavalrymen), with British and Indian officers. ``` Among the more famous regiments in the lineages of the modern Indian and Pakistani armies are: ``` * Governor General's Bodyguard (now President's Bodyguard) * Skinner's Horse (now India's 1st Horse (Skinner's Horse)) * Gardner's Lancers (now India's 2nd Lancers (Gardner's Horse)) * Hodson's Horse (now India's 3rd Horse (Hodson's)) of the Bengal Lancers fame * 6th Bengal Cavalry (later amalgamated with 7th Hariana Lancers to form 18th King Edward's Own Cavalry) now 18th Cavalry of the Indian Army * Probyn's Horse (now 5th Horse, Pakistan) * Royal Deccan Horse (now India's The Deccan Horse) * Poona Horse (now India's The Poona Horse) * Scinde Horse (now India's The Scinde Horse) * Queen's Own Guides Cavalry (now Pakistan). * 11th Prince Albert Victor's Own Cavalry (Frontier Force) (now 11th Cavalry (Frontier Force), Pakistan) Several of these formations are still active, though they now are armoured formations, for example the Guides Cavalry of Pakistan. The French Army maintained substantial cavalry forces in Algeria and Morocco from 1830 until the end of the Second World War. Much of the Mediterranean coastal terrain was suitable for mounted action and there was a long established culture of horsemanship amongst the Arab and Berber inhabitants. The French forces included Spahis, Chasseurs d' Afrique, Foreign Legion cavalry and mounted Goumiers. Both Spain and Italy raised cavalry regiments from amongst the indigenous horsemen of their North African territories (see regulares, Italian Spahis and savari respectively). Imperial Germany employed mounted formations in South West Africa as part of the Schutztruppen (colonial army) garrisoning the territory. ### United States In the early American Civil War the regular United States Army mounted rifle, dragoon, and two existing cavalry regiments were reorganized and renamed cavalry regiments, of which there were six. Over a hundred other federal and state cavalry regiments were organized, but the infantry played a much larger role in many battles due to its larger numbers, lower cost per rifle fielded, and much easier recruitment. However, cavalry saw a role as part of screening forces and in foraging and scouting. The later phases of the war saw the Federal army developing a truly effective cavalry force fighting as scouts, raiders, and, with repeating rifles, as mounted infantry. The distinguished 1st Virginia Cavalry ranks as one of the most effectual and successful cavalry units on the Confederate side. Noted cavalry commanders included Confederate general J.E.B. Stuart, Nathan Bedford Forrest, and John Singleton Mosby (a.k.a. "The Grey Ghost") and on the Union side, Philip Sheridan and George Armstrong Custer. Post Civil War, as the volunteer armies disbanded, the regular army cavalry regiments increased in number from six to ten, among them Custer's U.S. 7th Cavalry Regiment of Little Bighorn fame, and the African-American U.S. 9th Cavalry Regiment and U.S. 10th Cavalry Regiment. The black units, along with others (both cavalry and infantry), collectively became known as the Buffalo Soldiers. According to Robert M. Utley: the frontier army was a conventional military force trying to control, by conventional military methods, a people that did not behave like conventional enemies and, indeed, quite often were not enemies at all. This is the most difficult of all military assignments, whether in Africa, Asia, or the American West. These regiments, which rarely took the field as complete organizations, served throughout the American Indian Wars through the close of the frontier in the 1890s. Volunteer cavalry regiments like the Rough Riders consisted of horsemen such as cowboys, ranchers and other outdoorsmen, that served as a cavalry in the United States Military. Developments 1900–1914 ---------------------- At the beginning of the 20th century, all armies still maintained substantial cavalry forces, although there was contention over whether their role should revert to that of mounted infantry (the historic dragoon function). With motorised vehicles and aircraft still under development, horse mounted troops remained the only fully mobile forces available for manoeuvre warfare until 1914. ### England Following the experience of the South African War of 1899–1902 (where mounted Boer citizen commandos fighting on foot from cover proved more effective than regular cavalry), the British Army withdrew lances for all but ceremonial purposes and placed a new emphasis on training for dismounted action in 1903. Lances were however readopted for active service in 1912. ### Russia In 1882, the Imperial Russian Army converted all its line hussar and lancer regiments to dragoons, with an emphasis on mounted infantry training. In 1910 these regiments reverted to their historic roles, designations and uniforms. ### Germany By 1909, official regulations dictating the role of the Imperial German cavalry had been revised to indicate an increasing realization of the realities of modern warfare. The massive cavalry charge in three waves which had previously marked the end of annual maneuvers was discontinued and a new emphasis was placed in training on scouting, raiding and pursuit; rather than main battle involvement. The perceived importance of cavalry was however still evident, with thirteen new regiments of mounted rifles (*Jäger zu Pferde*) being raised shortly before the outbreak of war in 1914. ### France In spite of significant experience in mounted warfare in Morocco during 1908–14, the French cavalry remained a highly conservative institution. The traditional tactical distinctions between heavy, medium, and light cavalry branches were retained. French cuirassiers wore breastplates and plumed helmets unchanged from the Napoleonic period, during the early months of World War I. Dragoons were similarly equipped, though they did not wear cuirasses and did carry lances. Light cavalry were described as being "a blaze of colour". French cavalry of all branches were well mounted and were trained to change position and charge at full gallop. One weakness in training was that French cavalrymen seldom dismounted on the march and their horses suffered heavily from raw backs in August 1914. First World War --------------- ### Opening stages ### Europe 1914 In August 1914, all combatant armies still retained substantial numbers of cavalry and the mobile nature of the opening battles on both Eastern and Western Fronts provided a number of instances of traditional cavalry actions, though on a smaller and more scattered scale than those of previous wars. The 110 regiments of Imperial German cavalry, while as colourful and traditional as any in peacetime appearance, had adopted a practice of falling back on infantry support when any substantial opposition was encountered. These cautious tactics aroused derision amongst their more conservative French and Russian opponents but proved appropriate to the new nature of warfare. A single attempt by the German army, on 12 August 1914, to use six regiments of massed cavalry to cut off the Belgian field army from Antwerp floundered when they were driven back in disorder by rifle fire. The two German cavalry brigades involved lost 492 men and 843 horses in repeated charges against dismounted Belgian lancers and infantry. One of the last recorded charges by French cavalry took place on the night of 9/10 September 1914 when a squadron of the 16th Dragoons overran a German airfield at Soissons, while suffering heavy losses. Once the front lines stabilised on the Western Front with the start of Trench Warfare, a combination of barbed wire, uneven muddy terrain, machine guns and rapid fire rifles proved deadly to horse mounted troops and by early 1915 most cavalry units were no longer seeing front line action. On the Eastern Front, a more fluid form of warfare arose from flat open terrain favorable to mounted warfare. On the outbreak of war in 1914 the bulk of the Russian cavalry was deployed at full strength in frontier garrisons and, during the period that the main armies were mobilizing, scouting and raiding into East Prussia and Austrian Galicia was undertaken by mounted troops trained to fight with sabre and lance in the traditional style. On 21 August 1914 the 4th Austro-Hungarian *Kavalleriedivison* fought a major mounted engagement at Jaroslavic with the Russian 10th Cavalry Division, in what was arguably the final historic battle to involve thousands of horsemen on both sides. While this was the last massed cavalry encounter on the Eastern Front, the absence of good roads limited the use of mechanized transport and even the technologically advanced Imperial German Army continued to deploy up to twenty-four horse-mounted divisions in the East, as late as 1917. ### Europe 1915–1918 For the remainder of the War on the Western Front, cavalry had virtually no role to play. The British and French armies dismounted many of their cavalry regiments and used them in infantry and other roles: the Life Guards for example spent the last months of the War as a machine gun corps; and the Australian Light Horse served as light infantry during the Gallipoli campaign. In September 1914 cavalry comprised 9.28% of the total manpower of the British Expeditionary Force in France—by July 1918 this proportion had fallen to 1.65%. As early as the first winter of the war most French cavalry regiments had dismounted a squadron each, for service in the trenches. The French cavalry numbered 102,000 in May 1915 but had been reduced to 63,000 by October 1918. The German Army dismounted nearly all their cavalry in the West, maintaining only one mounted division on that front by January 1917. Italy entered the war in 1915 with thirty regiments of line cavalry, lancers and light horse. While employed effectively against their Austro-Hungarian counterparts during the initial offensives across the Isonzo River, the Italian mounted forces ceased to have a significant role as the front shifted into mountainous terrain. By 1916 most cavalry machine-gun sections and two complete cavalry divisions had been dismounted and seconded to the infantry. Some cavalry were retained as mounted troops in reserve behind the lines, in anticipation of a penetration of the opposing trenches that it seemed would never come. Tanks, introduced on the Western Front by the British in September 1916 during the Battle of the Somme, had the capacity to achieve such breakthroughs but did not have the reliable range to exploit them. In their first major use at the Battle of Cambrai (1917), the plan was for a cavalry division to follow behind the tanks, however they were not able to cross a canal because a tank had broken the only bridge. On a few other occasions, throughout the war, cavalry were readied in significant numbers for involvement in major offensives; such as in the Battle of Caporetto and the Battle of Moreuil Wood. However it was not until the German Army had been forced to retreat in the Hundred Days Offensive of 1918, that limited numbers of cavalry were again able to operate with any effectiveness in their intended role. There was a successful charge by the British 7th Dragoon Guards on the last day of the war. In the wider spaces of the Eastern Front, a more fluid form of warfare continued and there was still a use for mounted troops. Some wide-ranging actions were fought, again mostly in the early months of the war. However, even here the value of cavalry was overrated and the maintenance of large mounted formations at the front by the Russian Army put a major strain on the railway system, to little strategic advantage. In February 1917, the Russian regular cavalry (exclusive of Cossacks) was reduced by nearly a third from its peak number of 200,000, as two squadrons of each regiment were dismounted and incorporated into additional infantry battalions. Their Austro-Hungarian opponents, plagued by a shortage of trained infantry, had been obliged to progressively convert most horse cavalry regiments to dismounted rifle units starting in late 1914. ### Middle East In the Middle East, during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign mounted forces (British, Indian, Ottoman, Australian, Arab and New Zealand) retained an important strategic role both as mounted infantry and cavalry. In Egypt, the mounted infantry formations like the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade and Australian Light Horse of ANZAC Mounted Division, operating as mounted infantry, drove German and Ottoman forces back from Romani to Magdhaba and Rafa and out of the Egyptian Sinai Peninsula in 1916. After a stalemate on the Gaza–Beersheba line between March and October 1917, Beersheba was captured by the Australian Mounted Division's 4th Light Horse Brigade. Their mounted charge succeeded after a coordinated attack by the British Infantry and Yeomanry cavalry and the Australian and New Zealand Light Horse and Mounted Rifles brigades. A series of coordinated attacks by these Egyptian Expeditionary Force infantry and mounted troops were also successful at the Battle of Mughar Ridge, during which the British infantry divisions and the Desert Mounted Corps drove two Ottoman armies back to the Jaffa—Jerusalem line. The infantry with mainly dismounted cavalry and mounted infantry fought in the Judean Hills to eventually almost encircle Jerusalem which was occupied shortly after. During a pause in operations necessitated by the German spring offensive in 1918 on the Western Front, joint infantry and mounted infantry attacks towards Amman and Es Salt resulted in retreats back to the Jordan Valley which continued to be occupied by mounted divisions during the summer of 1918. The Australian Mounted Division was armed with swords and in September, after the successful breaching of the Ottoman line on the Mediterranean coast by the British Empire infantry XXI Corps was followed by cavalry attacks by the 4th Cavalry Division, 5th Cavalry Division and Australian Mounted Divisions which almost encircled two Ottoman armies in the Judean Hills forcing their retreat. Meanwhile, Chaytor's Force of infantry and mounted infantry in ANZAC Mounted Division held the Jordan Valley, covering the right flank to later advance eastwards to capture Es Salt and Amman and half of a third Ottoman army. A subsequent pursuit by the 4th Cavalry Division and the Australian Mounted Division followed by the 5th Cavalry Division to Damascus. Armoured cars and 5th Cavalry Division lancers were continuing the pursuit of Ottoman units north of Aleppo when the Armistice of Mudros was signed by the Ottoman Empire. Post–World War I ---------------- A combination of military conservatism in almost all armies and post-war financial constraints prevented the lessons of 1914–1918 being acted on immediately. There was a general reduction in the number of cavalry regiments in the British, French, Italian and other Western armies but it was still argued with conviction (for example in the 1922 edition of the *Encyclopædia Britannica*) that mounted troops had a major role to play in future warfare. The 1920s saw an interim period during which cavalry remained as a proud and conspicuous element of all major armies, though much less so than prior to 1914. Cavalry was extensively used in the Russian Civil War and the Soviet-Polish War. The last major cavalry battle was the Battle of Komarów in 1920, between Poland and the Russian Bolsheviks. Colonial warfare in Morocco, Syria, the Middle East and the North West Frontier of India provided some opportunities for mounted action against enemies lacking advanced weaponry. The post-war German Army (Reichsheer) was permitted a large proportion of cavalry (18 regiments or 16.4% of total manpower) under the conditions of the Treaty of Versailles. The British Army mechanised all cavalry regiments between 1929 and 1941, redefining their role from horse to armoured vehicles to form the Royal Armoured Corps together with the Royal Tank Regiment. The U.S. Cavalry abandoned its sabres in 1934 and commenced the conversion of its horsed regiments to mechanized cavalry, starting with the First Regiment of Cavalry in January 1933. During the Turkish War of Independence, Turkish cavalry under General Fahrettin Altay was instrumental in the Kemalist victory over the invading Greek Army in 1922 during the Battle of Dumlupınar. The 5th Cavalry Division was able to slip behind the main Greek army, cutting off all communication and supply lines as well as retreat options. This forced the surrender of the remaining Greek forces and may have been the last time in history that cavalry played a definitive role in the outcome of a battle. During the 1930s, the French Army experimented with integrating mounted and mechanised cavalry units into larger formations. Dragoon regiments were converted to motorised infantry (trucks and motor cycles), and cuirassiers to armoured units; while light cavalry (chasseurs a' cheval, hussars and spahis) remained as mounted sabre squadrons. The theory was that mixed forces comprising these diverse units could utilise the strengths of each according to circumstances. In practice mounted troops proved unable to keep up with fast moving mechanised units over any distance. The 39 cavalry regiments of the British Indian Army were reduced to 21 as the result of a series of amalgamations immediately following World War I. The new establishment remained unchanged until 1936 when three regiments were redesignated as permanent training units, each with six, still mounted, regiments linked to them. In 1938, the process of mechanization began with the conversion of a full cavalry brigade (two Indian regiments and one British) to armoured car and tank units. By the end of 1940, all of the Indian cavalry had been mechanized, initially and in the majority of cases, to motorized infantry transported in 15cwt trucks. The last horsed regiment of the British Indian Army (other than the Viceroy's Bodyguard and some Indian States Forces regiments) was the 19th King George's Own Lancers which had its final mounted parade at Rawalpindi on 28 October 1939. This unit still exists in the Pakistan Army as an armored regiment. World War II ------------ While most armies still maintained cavalry units at the outbreak of World War II in 1939, significant mounted action was largely restricted to the Polish, Balkan, and Soviet campaigns. Rather than charge their mounts into battle, cavalry units were either used as mounted infantry (using horses to move into position and then dismounting for combat) or as reconnaissance units (especially in areas not suited to tracked or wheeled vehicles). ### Polish A popular myth is that Polish cavalry armed with lances charged German tanks during the September 1939 campaign. This arose from misreporting of a single clash on 1 September near Krojanty, when two squadrons of the Polish 18th Lancers armed with sabres scattered German infantry before being caught in the open by German armoured cars. Two examples illustrate how the myth developed. First, because motorised vehicles were in short supply, the Poles used horses to pull anti-tank weapons into position. Second, there were a few incidents when Polish cavalry was trapped by German tanks, and attempted to fight free. However, this did not mean that the Polish army chose to attack tanks with horse cavalry. Later, on the Eastern Front, the Red Army did deploy cavalry units effectively against the Germans. A more correct term would be "mounted infantry" instead of "cavalry", as horses were primarily used as a means of transportation, for which they were very suitable in view of the very poor road conditions in pre-war Poland. Another myth describes Polish cavalry as being armed with both sabres and lances; lances were used for peacetime ceremonial purposes only and the primary weapon of the Polish cavalryman in 1939 was a rifle. Individual equipment did include a sabre, probably because of well-established tradition, and in the case of a melee combat this secondary weapon would probably be more effective than a rifle and bayonet. Moreover, the Polish cavalry brigade order of battle in 1939 included, apart from the mounted soldiers themselves, light and heavy machine guns (wheeled), the Anti-tank rifle, model 35, anti-aircraft weapons, anti tank artillery such as the Bofors 37 mm, also light and scout tanks, etc. The last cavalry vs. cavalry mutual charge in Europe took place in Poland during the Battle of Krasnobród, when Polish and German cavalry units clashed with each other. The last classical cavalry charge of the war took place on March 1, 1945, during the Battle of Schoenfeld by the 1st "Warsaw" Independent Cavalry Brigade. Infantry and tanks had been employed to little effect against the German position, both of which floundered in the open wetlands only to be dominated by infantry and antitank fire from the German fortifications on the forward slope of Hill 157, overlooking the wetlands. The Germans had not taken cavalry into consideration when fortifying their position which, combined with the "Warsaw"s swift assault, overran the German anti-tank guns and consolidated into an attack into the village itself, now supported by infantry and tanks. ### Greek The Italian invasion of Greece in October 1940 saw mounted cavalry used effectively by the Greek defenders along the mountainous frontier with Albania. Three Greek cavalry regiments (two mounted and one partially mechanized) played an important role in the Italian defeat in this difficult terrain. ### Soviet The contribution of Soviet cavalry to the development of modern military operational doctrine and its importance in defeating Nazi Germany has been eclipsed by the higher profile of tanks and airplanes. Soviet cavalry contributed significantly to the defeat of the Axis armies. They were able to provide the most mobile troops available in the early stages, when trucks and other equipment were low in quality; as well as providing cover for retreating forces. Considering their relatively limited numbers, the Soviet cavalry played a significant role in giving Germany its first real defeats in the early stages of the war. The continuing potential of mounted troops was demonstrated during the Battle of Moscow, against Guderian and the powerful central German 9th Army. Pavel Belov was given by Stavka a mobile group including the elite 9th tank brigade, ski battalions, Katyusha rocket launcher battalion among others, the unit additionally received new weapons. This newly created group became the first to carry the Soviet counter-offensive in late November, when the general offensive began on December 5. These mobile units often played major roles in both defensive and offensive operations. Cavalry were amongst the first Soviet units to complete the encirclement in the Battle of Stalingrad, thus sealing the fate of the German 6th Army. Mounted Soviet forces also played a role in the encirclement of Berlin, with some Cossack cavalry units reaching the Reichstag in April 1945. Throughout the war they performed important tasks such as the capture of bridgeheads which is considered one of the hardest jobs in battle, often doing so with inferior numbers. For instance the 8th Guards Cavalry Regiment of the 2nd Guards Cavalry Division (Soviet Union), 1st Guards Cavalry Corps often fought outnumbered against elite German units. By the final stages of the war only the Soviet Union was still fielding mounted units in substantial numbers, some in combined mechanized and horse units. The main advantage of this tactical approach was in enabling mounted infantry to keep pace with advancing tanks. Other factors favoring the retention of mounted forces included the high quality of Russian Cossacks, which provided about half of all mounted Soviet cavalry throughout the war. They excelled in warfare manoeuvers, since the lack of roads limited the effectiveness of wheeled vehicles in many parts of the Eastern Front. Another consideration was that sufficient logistic capacity was often not available to support very large motorized forces, whereas cavalry was relatively easy to maintain when detached from the main army and acting on its own initiative. The main usage of the Soviet cavalry involved infiltration through front lines with subsequent deep raids, which disorganized German supply lines. Another role was the pursuit of retreating enemy forces during major front-line operations and breakthroughs. ### Hungarian During World War II, the Royal Hungarian Army's hussars were typically only used to undertake reconnaissance tasks against Soviet forces, and then only in detachments of section or squadron strength. The last documented hussar attack was conducted by Lieutenant Colonel Kálmán Mikecz on August 16, 1941, at Nikolaev. The hussars arriving as reinforcements, were employed to break through Russian positions ahead of German troops. The hussars equipped with swords and submachine guns broke through the Russian lines in a single attack. An eyewitness account of the last hussar attack by Erich Kern, a German officer, was written in his memoir in 1948: > … We were again in a tough fight with the desperately defensive enemy who dug himself along a high railway embankment. We've been attacked four times already, and we've been kicked back all four times. The battalion commander swore, but the company commanders were helpless. Then, instead of the artillery support we asked for countless times, a Hungarian hussar regiment appeared on the scene. We laughed. What the hell do they want here with their graceful, elegant horses? We froze at once: these Hungarians went crazy. Cavalry Squadron approached after a cavalry squadron. The command word rang. The bronze-brown, slender riders almost grew to their saddle. > Their shining colonel of golden parolis jerked his sword. Four or five armored cars cut out of the wings, and the regiment slashed across the wide plain with flashing swords in the afternoon sun. Seydlitz attacked like this once before. Forgetting all caution, we climbed out of our covers. It was all like a great equestrian movie. The first shots rumbled, then became less frequent. With astonished eyes, in disbelief, we watched as the Soviet regiment, which had so far repulsed our attacks with desperate determination, now turned around and left its positions in panic. And the triumphant Hungarians chased the Russian in front of them and shredded them with their glittering sabers. The hussar sword, it seems, was a bit much for the nerves of Russians. Now, for once, the ancient weapon has triumphed over modern equipment .... > > ### Italian The last mounted sabre charge by Italian cavalry occurred on August 24, 1942, at Isbuscenski (Russia), when a squadron of the Savoia Cavalry Regiment charged the 812th Siberian Infantry Regiment. The remainder of the regiment, together with the Novara Lancers made a dismounted attack in an action that ended with the retreat of the Russians after heavy losses on both sides. The final Italian cavalry action occurred on October 17, 1942, in Poloj (now Croatia) by a squadron of the Alexandria Cavalry Regiment against a large group of Yugoslav partisans. ### Other Axis Powers Romanian, Hungarian and Italian cavalry were dispersed or disbanded following the retreat of the Axis forces from Russia. Germany still maintained some mounted (mixed with bicycles) SS and Cossack units until the last days of the War. ### Finnish Finland used mounted troops against Russian forces effectively in forested terrain during the Continuation War. The last Finnish cavalry unit was not disbanded until 1947. ### American The U.S. Army's last horse cavalry actions were fought during World War II: a) by the 26th Cavalry Regiment—a small mounted regiment of Philippine Scouts which fought the Japanese during the retreat down the Bataan peninsula, until it was effectively destroyed by January 1942; and b) on captured German horses by the mounted reconnaissance section of the U.S. 10th Mountain Division in a spearhead pursuit of the German Army across the Po Valley in Italy in April 1945. The last horsed U.S. Cavalry (the Second Cavalry Division) were dismounted in March 1944. ### British All British Army cavalry regiments had been mechanised since 1 March 1942 when the Queen's Own Yorkshire Dragoons (Yeomanry) was converted to a motorised role, following mounted service against the Vichy French in Syria the previous year. The final cavalry charge by British Empire forces occurred on 21 March 1942 when a 60 strong patrol of the Burma Frontier Force encountered Japanese infantry near Toungoo airfield in central Myanmar. The Sikh sowars of the Frontier Force cavalry, led by Captain Arthur Sandeman of The Central India Horse (21st King George V's Own Horse), charged in the old style with sabres and most were killed. ### Mongolian In the early stages of World War II, mounted units of the Mongolian People's Army were involved in the Battle of Khalkhin Gol against invading Japanese forces. Soviet forces under the command of Georgy Zhukov, together with Mongolian forces, defeated the Japanese Sixth army and effectively ended the Soviet–Japanese Border Wars. After the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact of 1941, Mongolia remained neutral throughout most of the war, but its geographical situation meant that the country served as a buffer between Japanese forces and the Soviet Union. In addition to keeping around 10% of the population under arms, Mongolia provided half a million trained horses for use by the Soviet Army. In 1945 a partially mounted Soviet-Mongolian Cavalry Mechanized Group played a supporting role on the western flank of the Soviet invasion of Manchuria. The last active service seen by cavalry units of the Mongolian Army occurred in 1946–1948, during border clashes between Mongolia and the Republic of China. Post–World War II to the present day ------------------------------------ While most modern "cavalry" units have some historic connection with formerly mounted troops this is not always the case. The modern Irish Defence Forces (DF) includes a "Cavalry Corps" equipped with armoured cars and Scorpion tracked combat reconnaissance vehicles. The DF has never included horse cavalry since its establishment in 1922 (other than a small mounted escort of Blue Hussars drawn from the Artillery Corps when required for ceremonial occasions). However, the mystique of the cavalry is such that the name has been introduced for what was always a mechanised force. Some engagements in late 20th and early 21st century guerrilla wars involved mounted troops, particularly against partisan or guerrilla fighters in areas with poor transport infrastructure. Such units were not used as cavalry but rather as mounted infantry. Examples occurred in Afghanistan, Portuguese Africa and Rhodesia. The French Army used existing mounted squadrons of Spahis to a limited extent for patrol work during the Algerian War (1954–62). The Swiss Army maintained a mounted dragoon regiment for combat purposes until 1973. The Portuguese Army used horse mounted cavalry with some success in the wars of independence in Angola and Mozambique in the 1960s and 1970s. During the 1964–79 Rhodesian Bush War the Rhodesian Army created an elite mounted infantry unit called Grey's Scouts to fight unconventional actions against the rebel forces of Robert Mugabe and Joshua Nkomo. The horse mounted infantry of the Scouts were effective and reportedly feared by their opponents in the rebel African forces. In the 1978 to present Afghan Civil War period there have been several instances of horse mounted combat. Central and South American armies maintained mounted cavalry for longer than those of Asia, Europe, or North America. The Mexican Army included a number of horse mounted cavalry regiments as late as the mid-1990s and the Chilean Army had five such regiments in 1983 as mounted mountain troops. The Soviet Army retained horse cavalry divisions until 1955. ### Operational horse cavalry Today the Indian Army's 61st Cavalry is reported to be the largest existing horse-mounted cavalry unit still having operational potential. It was raised in 1951 from the amalgamated state cavalry squadrons of Gwalior, Jodhpur, and Mysore. While primarily utilised for ceremonial purposes, the regiment can be deployed for internal security or police roles if required. The 61st Cavalry and the President's Body Guard parade in full dress uniform in New Delhi each year in what is probably the largest assembly of traditional cavalry still to be seen in the world. Both the Indian and the Pakistani armies maintain armoured regiments with the titles of Lancers or Horse, dating back to the 19th century. As of 2007, the Chinese People's Liberation Army employed two battalions of horse-mounted border guards in Xinjiang for border patrol purposes. PLA mounted units last saw action during border clashes with Vietnam in the 1970s and 1980s, after which most cavalry units were disbanded as part of major military downsizing in the 1980s. In the wake of the 2008 Sichuan earthquake, there were calls[*from whom?*] to rebuild the army horse inventory for disaster relief in difficult terrain. Subsequent Chinese media reports confirm that the PLA maintains operational horse cavalry at squadron strength in Xinjiang and Inner Mongolia for scouting, logistical, and border security purposes. The Chilean Army still maintains a mixed armoured cavalry regiment, with elements of it acting as mounted mountain exploration troops, based in the city of Angol, being part of the III Mountain Division, and another independent exploration cavalry detachment in the town of Chaitén. The rugged mountain terrain calls for the use of special horses suited for that use. The Argentine Army has two mounted cavalry units: the Regiment of Horse Grenadiers, which performs mostly ceremonial duties but at the same time is responsible for the president's security (in this case, acting as infantry), and the 4th Mountain Cavalry Regiment (which comprises both horse and light armoured squadrons), stationed in San Martín de los Andes, where it has an exploration role as part the 6th Mountain Brigade. Most armoured cavalry units of the Army are considered successors to the old cavalry regiments from the Independence Wars, and keep their traditional names, such as Hussars, Cuirassiers, Lancers, etc., and uniforms. Equestrian training remains an important part of their tradition, especially among officers. ### Ceremonial horse cavalry and armored cavalry retaining traditional titles Cavalry or mounted gendarmerie units continue to be maintained for purely or primarily ceremonial purposes by the Algerian, Argentine, Bolivian, Brazilian, British, Bulgarian, Canadian, Chilean, Colombian, Danish, Dutch, Finnish, French, Hungarian, Indian, Italian, Jordanian, Malaysian, Moroccan, Nepalese, Nigerian, North Korean, Omani, Pakistani, Panamanian, Paraguayan, Peruvian, Polish, Portuguese, Russian, Senegalese, Spanish, Swedish, Thai, Tunisian, Turkmenistan, United States, Uruguayan and Venezuelan armed forces. A number of armoured regiments in the British Army retain the historic designations of Hussars, Dragoons, Light Dragoons, Dragoon Guards, Lancers and Yeomanry. Only the Household Cavalry (consisting of the Life Guards' mounted squadron, The Blues and Royals' mounted squadron, the State Trumpeters of The Household Cavalry and the Household Cavalry Mounted Band) are maintained for mounted (and dismounted) ceremonial duties in London. The French Army still has regiments with the historic designations of Cuirassiers, Hussars, Chasseurs, Dragoons and Spahis. Only the cavalry of the Republican Guard and a ceremonial *fanfare* detachment of trumpeters for the cavalry/armoured branch as a whole are now mounted. In the Canadian Army, a number of regular and reserve units have cavalry roots, including The Royal Canadian Hussars (Montreal), the Governor General's Horse Guards, Lord Strathcona's Horse, The British Columbia Dragoons, The Royal Canadian Dragoons, and the South Alberta Light Horse. Of these, only Lord Strathcona's Horse and the Governor General's Horse Guards maintain an official ceremonial horse-mounted cavalry troop or squadron. The modern Pakistan army maintains about 40 armoured regiments with the historic titles of Lancers, Cavalry or Horse. Six of these date back to the 19th century, although only the President's Body Guard remains horse-mounted. In 2002, the Army of the Russian Federation reintroduced a ceremonial mounted squadron wearing historic uniforms. Both the Australian and New Zealand armies follow the British practice of maintaining traditional titles (Light Horse or Mounted Rifles) for modern mechanised units. However, neither country retains a horse-mounted unit. Several armored units of the modern United States Army retain the designation of "armored cavalry". The United States also has "air cavalry" units equipped with helicopters. The Horse Cavalry Detachment of the U.S. Army's 1st Cavalry Division, made up of active duty soldiers, still functions as an active unit, trained to approximate the weapons, tools, equipment and techniques used by the United States Cavalry in the 1880s. ### Non-combat support roles The First Troop Philadelphia City Cavalry is a volunteer unit within the Pennsylvania Army National Guard which serves as a combat force when in federal service but acts in a mounted disaster relief role when in state service. In addition, the Parsons' Mounted Cavalry is a Reserve Officer Training Corps unit which forms part of the Corps of Cadets at Texas A&M University. Valley Forge Military Academy and College also has a Mounted Company, known as D-Troop . Some individual U.S. states maintain cavalry units as a part of their respective state defense forces. The Maryland Defense Force includes a cavalry unit, Cavalry Troop A, which serves primarily as a ceremonial unit. The unit training includes a saber qualification course based upon the 1926 U.S. Army course. Cavalry Troop A also assists other Maryland agencies as a rural search and rescue asset. In Massachusetts, The National Lancers trace their lineage to a volunteer cavalry militia unit established in 1836 and are currently organized as an official part of the Massachusetts Organized Militia. The National Lancers maintain three units, Troops A, B, and C, which serve in a ceremonial role and assist in search and rescue missions. In July 2004, the National Lancers were ordered into active state service to guard Camp Curtis Guild during the 2004 Democratic National Convention. The Governor's Horse Guard of Connecticut maintains two companies which are trained in urban crowd control. In 2020, the California State Guard stood up the 26th Mounted Operations Detachment, a search-and-rescue cavalry unit. Social status ------------- From the beginning of civilization to the 20th century, ownership of heavy cavalry horses has been a mark of wealth amongst settled peoples. A cavalry horse involves considerable expense in breeding, training, feeding, and equipment, and has very little productive use except as a mode of transport. For this reason, and because of their often decisive military role, the cavalry has typically been associated with high social status. This was most clearly seen in the feudal system, where a lord was expected to enter combat armored and on horseback and bring with him an entourage of lightly armed peasants on foot. If landlords and peasant levies came into conflict, the poorly trained footmen would be ill-equipped to defeat armored knights. In later national armies, service as an officer in the cavalry was generally a badge of high social status. For instance prior to 1914 most officers of British cavalry regiments came from a socially privileged background and the considerable expenses associated with their role generally required private means, even after it became possible for officers of the line infantry regiments to live on their pay. Options open to poorer cavalry officers in the various European armies included service with less fashionable (though often highly professional) frontier or colonial units. These included the British Indian cavalry, the Russian Cossacks or the French Chasseurs d'Afrique. During the 19th and early 20th centuries most monarchies maintained a mounted cavalry element in their royal or imperial guards. These ranged from small units providing ceremonial escorts and palace guards, through to large formations intended for active service. The mounted escort of the Spanish Royal Household provided an example of the former and the twelve cavalry regiments of the Prussian Imperial Guard an example of the latter. In either case the officers of such units were likely to be drawn from the aristocracies of their respective societies. On film ------- Some sense of the noise and power of a cavalry charge can be gained from the 1970 film *Waterloo*, which featured some 2,000 cavalrymen, some of them Cossacks. It included detailed displays of the horsemanship required to manage animal and weapons in large numbers at the gallop (unlike the real battle of Waterloo, where deep mud significantly slowed the horses). The Gary Cooper movie *They Came to Cordura* contains a scene of a cavalry regiment deploying from march to battle line formation. A smaller-scale cavalry charge can be seen in *The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King* (2003); although the finished scene has substantial computer-generated imagery, raw footage and reactions of the riders are shown in the Extended Version DVD Appendices. Other films that show cavalry actions include: * *The Charge of the Light Brigade*, about the Battle of Balaclava in the Crimean War * *40,000 Horsemen*, about the Australian Light Horse during the Sinai and Palestine campaign of World War I * *The Lighthorsemen*, about the Battle of Beersheba, 1917 * *War Horse*, about the British cavalry in Europe during World War I * *Hubal*, about the last months (September 1939 – April 1940) of Poland's first World War II guerrilla, Major Henryk Dobrzański, "Hubal" * *The Patriot* includes light cavalry usage. * *And Quiet Flows the Don* depicts Don Cossacks during World War I * *Kingdom of Heaven* includes a cavalry charge during the Siege of Kerak * *The Life and Times of Joseph J. Dumas (film)* semi-fictional video biography of a notable, modern cavalry officer Examples -------- ### Types * Heavy cavalry + Cataphracts + Cuirassier + Polish winged hussars * Light cavalry + Hobelars (medieval light horse) + Hussar + Numidian cavalry + Soldado de cuera + Uhlans * Horse archer * Shock troops + Companion cavalry + Lancers * Mounted infantry + Carabinier + Dragoons * Military communities + Cossacks + Equites / Roman cavalry + Kalmyks + Mamluks + Polish cavalry * Chariot + Scythed chariot * Elephantry, a cavalry unit containing elephant-mounted troops * Camel cavalry * Mounted police + Royal Canadian Mounted Police * Dubious + Moose cavalry, cavalry mounted on moose (European elk) ### Units * 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment (United States) * 278th Armored Cavalry Regiment (United States) * Australian Light Horse * Bayreuth Dragoons * The Blues and Royals (British Army)(who with the Life Guards form the Household Cavalry) * British Columbia Dragoons (Canadian Army) * 1st Cavalry Division (United States) * 1st The Queen's Dragoon Guards (British Army) * Cavalry Corps (Irish Army) * Chasseurs d'Afrique (French Army) * Chinacos (Mexican irregular cavalry of the 19th century) * Garde Républicaine (French Gendarmerie) * Governor General's Horse Guards (Canada) * Guarda Nacional Republicana (Portuguese National Guard) * Guides Cavalry (Pakistan Army) * Hakkapeliitta (Finnish cavalry of Thirty Years' War) * Ironside * King's Royal Hussars (British Army) * Light Dragoons (British Army) * Panserbataljonen (Norwegian Army) * Queen's Own Yeomanry (a British Army Reserve Light Cavalry Regiment) * Queen's Royal Hussars (British Army) * Regulares (Spanish Morocco) * Royal Dragoon Guards (British Army) * Royal Lancers (British Army) * Royal Scots Dragoon Guards (Carabiniers & Greys) (British Army) * Royal Wessex Yeomanry (a British Army Reserve Armoured Regiment) * Royal Yeomanry (a British Army Reserve Light Cavalry Regiment) * Savage Division (North Caucasus) * Savari (Italian North African) * Scottish and North Irish Yeomanry (a British Army Reserve Light Cavalry Regiment) * Sipahi (Ottoman) * South Alberta Light Horse (Canadian Army) * Spahi (French North African) * Tagmata (Byzantine) * United States Cavalry Notable horse cavalrymen ------------------------ * Georgios Stanotas, commander of the Hellenic Army's Cavalry Division during World War II * Didier Courrèges, major in the French Army, member of École Nationale d'Équitation's Cadre Noir, Olympian at 2004 Summer Olympics * Edwin Ramsey, lieutenant colonel in the 26th Cavalry Regiment during World War II, recipient of the Distinguished Service Cross, led the last cavalry charge in American military history * General Fahrettin Altay, commander of the V. Cavalry Division of the Turkish 1st Army during the Turkish War of Independence, which was instrumental in victory over the invading Greek Army. His name is given to the new Turkish battle tank Altay. Atatürk'ün Bütün Eserleri, Cilt 27, Kaynak Yayınları, 1998, ISBN 978-975-343-235-1, p. 81. * Lieutenant Colonel Joseph J. Dumas, 46th Professor of Military Science at Michigan State University and a notable member and representative of the distinguished cavalry lineage. Gallery ------- * Washington National Guard cavalry pictured in Tacoma, Washington in 1907.Washington National Guard cavalry pictured in Tacoma, Washington in 1907. * French cuirassiers, wearing breastplates and helmets, parade through Paris on the way to battle, August 1914.French cuirassiers, wearing breastplates and helmets, parade through Paris on the way to battle, August 1914. * Spanish light cavalry (cazadores) during the Rif War 1921.Spanish light cavalry (*cazadores*) during the Rif War 1921. * Cavalry of Poland in Warsaw, August 1939.Cavalry of Poland in Warsaw, August 1939. * Polish PZL W-3 Sokół of the 66 Air Cavalry Squadron, 25th Aeromobile Cavalry Brigade.Polish PZL W-3 Sokół of the 66 Air Cavalry Squadron, 25th Aeromobile Cavalry Brigade. * The mounted President's Bodyguard of the Indian ArmyThe mounted President's Bodyguard of the Indian Army * French Republican Guard – 2008 Bastille Day military paradeFrench Republican Guard – 2008 Bastille Day military parade * The President's Body Guard of the Pakistan Army, 2006.The President's Body Guard of the Pakistan Army, 2006. * Troopers of the Blues and Royals on mounted duty in Whitehall, LondonTroopers of the Blues and Royals on mounted duty in Whitehall, London * Turkmenistan ceremonial cavalry in the Independence Day parade 2011Turkmenistan ceremonial cavalry in the Independence Day parade 2011 * A Mongolian military horseman, 2013A Mongolian military horseman, 2013 * Representative Cavalry Squadron of the Polish Army on military parade in Warsaw, 2006Representative Cavalry Squadron of the Polish Army on military parade in Warsaw, 2006 See also -------- * Cavalry tactics * Shock tactics * Horses in warfare * Armored reconnaissance – a modern role in most militaries for 'cavalry' titled units 1. ↑ John Keegan, pages 188-189, *A History of Warfare,* ISBN 0-09-174527-6 2. ↑ Lynn (1997), p. 490. 3. ↑ "eARMOR The Principles of the Employment of Armor". *www.benning.army.mil*. Retrieved 2021-04-11. 4. ↑ Menon (1995), p. 1. 5. ↑ Terrence Wise, p. 18, "Ancient Armies of the Middle East", Osprey Publishing Ltd 1981 ISBN 0-85045-384-4 6. ↑ Kelder, Jorrit. "Horseback riding and Cavalry in Mycenaean Greece". 7. ↑ Brzezinski, R. (19 August 2002). *The Sarmatians 600 BC - AD 450*. p. 46. ISBN 978-1-84176-485-6. 8. ↑ Brzezinski, R. (19 August 2002). *The Sarmatians 600 BC - AD 450*. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-84176-485-6. 9. ↑ Terrence Wise, plate H, "Ancient Armies of the Middle East", Osprey Publishing Ltd 1981 ISBN 0-85045-384-4 10. 1 2 Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006), pp. 29–30. 11. ↑ Warry (1980), p. 164. 12. ↑ Warry (1980), p. 37. 13. ↑ Sekunda, Nick (1984). *The Army of Alexander the Great*. p. 18. ISBN 0-85045-539-1. 14. ↑ Warry (1980), p. 54. 15. ↑ Sekunda, Nick (1984). *The Army of Alexander the Great*. p. 17. ISBN 0-85045-539-1. 16. ↑ Sekunda, Nicholas (20 November 2012). *Macedonian Armies after Alexander 323-168 BC*. p. 42. ISBN 978-1-84908-714-8. 17. ↑ Sekunda, Nick (1984). *The Army of Alexander the Great*. pp. 14–22. ISBN 0-85045-539-1. 18. ↑ Sekunda, Nick (1996). *Republican Roman Army 200-104 BC*. p. 36. ISBN 1-85532-598-5. 19. ↑ Sekunda, Nick (17 July 1995). *Early Roman Armies*. p. 33. ISBN 1-85532-513-6. 20. ↑ Rankov, Boris (27 January 1994). *The Praetorian Guard*. p. 12. ISBN 1-85532-361-3. 21. ↑ Sekunda, Nick (1996). *Republican Roman Army 200-104 BC*. pp. 36–37. ISBN 1-85532-598-5. 22. ↑ Sekunda, Nick (17 July 1995). *Early Roman Armies*. pp. 37–38. ISBN 1-85532-513-6. 23. ↑ Negin, Nick (20 November 2018). *Roman heavy Cavalry (1) Cataphractarii & Clibanarii, 1st Century BC-5th Century AD*. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-4728-3004-3. 24. ↑ Sekunda, Nick (1996). *Republican Roman Army 200-104 BC*. p. 38. ISBN 1-85532-598-5. 25. ↑ Negin, Andry (24 November 2020). *Roman Heavy Cavalry (2)*. p. 26. ISBN 978-1-4728-3950-3. 26. ↑ "Roman-Persian Wars". *Historynet.com*. 12 June 2006. Archived from the original on 29 May 2006. Retrieved November 25, 2012. 27. ↑ The raised rear part of a saddle 28. ↑ Negin, Andry (20 November 2018). *Roman Heavy Cavalry (1)*. pp. 28–30. ISBN 978-1-4728-3004-3. 29. ↑ Newark, Peter (1987). *Sabre & Lance. An Illustrated History of Cavalry*. pp. 23–24. ISBN 0-7137-1813-7. 30. ↑ Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006), p. 29. 31. ↑ Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006), p. 30. 32. ↑ Ebrey (1999), p. 41. 33. ↑ Peers, 130. we can right anything 34. ↑ "Dien, Albert. "THE STIRRUP AND ITS EFFECT ON CHINESE MILITARY HISTORY"". 35. ↑ ""The stirrup – history of Chinese science". *UNESCO Courier*, October 1988". Archived from the original on 13 October 2007. 36. ↑ ""The invention and influences of stirrup"". Archived from the original on December 3, 2008. 37. ↑ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 322. 38. ↑ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 305. 39. ↑ Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006), p. 120. 40. ↑ Lee, Peter H & Wm. Theodore De Bary. Sources of Korean Tradition, pp. 24–26. Columbia University Press, 1997. 41. ↑ "Invention of the Stirrup". *ThoughtCo*. Retrieved 2017-03-11. 42. ↑ pp. 182–183, Pargiter. 43. ↑ Harivamsa 14.1–19; Vayu Purana 88.127–43; Brahma Purana (8.35–51); Brahamanda Purana (3.63.123–141); Shiva Purana (7.61.23); Vishnu Purana (5.3.15–21), Padama Purana (6.21.16–33) etc. 44. ↑ War in Ancient India, 1944, p. 178, V. R. Ramachandra Dikshtar, Military art and science. 45. ↑ Journal of American Oriental society, 1889, p. 257, American Oriental Society; The Social and Military Position of the Ruling Caste in Ancient India: As ..., 1972, p. 201, Edward Washburn Hopkins – Caste; Mahabharata 10.18.13; cf: Ancient Indian Civilization, 1985, p. 120, Grigoriĭ Maksimovich Bongard-Levin – History; Cf also: A History of Zoroastrianism, 1991, p. 129, Mary Boyce, Frantz Grenet. 46. ↑ MBH 1.185.13; Felicitation Volume Presented to Professor Sripad Krishna Belvalkar, 1957, p. 260, Dr Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Shripad Krishna Belvalkar. 47. ↑ Ashva.yuddha.kushalah: Mahabharata 7.7.14; See also: Vishnudharmottara Purana, Part II, Chapter 118; Post Gupta Polity (500–700 AD): A Study of the Growth of Feudal Elements and Rural Administration 1972, p. 136, Ganesh Prasad Sinha; Wisdom in the Puranas 1969, p. 64, professor Sen Sarma etc. 48. ↑ Some Kṣatriya Tribes of Ancient India, 1924, p. 238, Dr B. C. Law – Kshatriyas; The Battle of Kurukshetra, 1987, p. 389, Maggi Lidchi-Grassi – Kurukshetra (India). 49. ↑ Herodotus, Book VII 65, 70, 86, 187. 50. ↑ History of Persian Empire, p. 232, Dr A. M. Olmstead; Arrian's Anabasis III, 8.3–6; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p. 216, Dr Raychaudhury. 51. ↑ Ashva.yuddha.kushalah: Mahabharata 7.7.14 Kumbhakonam Edition; See also: Vishnudharmottara Purana, Part II, Chapter 118; Post Gupta Polity (500–700 AD): A Study of the Growth of Feudal Elements and Rural Administration 1972, p. 136, Ganesh Prasad Sinha; Wisdom in the Puranas 1969, p. 64, prof Sen Sarma; etc.; Kashmir Polity, C. 600–1200 AD 1986, p. 237, V. N. Drabu - Political Science. 52. ↑ Hindu Polity: A Constitutional History of India in Hindu Times, 1943, p. 145, Dr K. P. Jayaswal. 53. ↑ i.e.: *Kambojo assa.nam ayata.nam*. See: Samangalavilasini, Vol I, p. 124; See also: Historie du Bouddhisme Indien, p. 110, E. Lamotte; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p. 133 fn 6, pp. 216–20, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee; Some Kṣatriya Tribes of Ancient India, 1924, p. 238, Dr B. C. - Kshatriyas; Studies in Indian History and Civilization, 1962, p. 351, Dr Buddha Prakash - India. 54. ↑ Age of the Nandas and Mauryas, 1967, p. 49, Dr K. A. Nilakanta Sastri. 55. ↑ *"Par ailleurs le Kamboja est régulièrement mentionné comme la "patrie des chevaux" (*Asvanam ayatanam*), et cette reputation bien etablie gagné peut-etre aux eleveurs de chevaux du Bajaur et du Swat l'appellation d'Aspasioi (du v.-p. aspa) et d'assakenoi (du skt asva "cheval")"* (See: Historie du Bouddhisme Indien, p. 110, E. Lamotte; See also: Hindu Polity, A Constitutional History of India in Hindu Times, 1978, p. 140, Dr K. P. Jayswal; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p. 133 fn 6, pp. 216–20, (Also Commentary, op. cit., p. 576, fn 22), Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee;; History of Indian Buddhism: From the Origins to the Saka Era, 1988, p. 100 - History; East and West, 1950, pp. 28, 157–58, Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, Editor, Prof Giuseppe Tucci, Co-editors Prof Mario Bussagli, Prof Lionello Lanciotti; Panjab Past and Present, pp. 9–10, Dr Buddha Parkash; Raja Porus, 1990, Publication Bureau, Punjabi University, Patiala; History of Panjab, Vol I, (Editors): Dr Fauja Singh, Dr L. M. Josh, Publication Bureau, Panjabi University, Patiala; History of Porus, 1967, p. 89, Dr Buddha Prakash; Ancient Kamboja, People and country, 1981, pp. 271–72, 278, Dr J. L. Kamboj; These Kamboj People, 1979, pp. 119, 192; Kambojas, Through the Ages, 2005, pp. 129, 218–19, S Kirpal Singh etc. 56. ↑ Ashtadhyayi 4.3.91; India as Known to Pāṇini, 1953, pp. 424, 436–39, 455–457, Dr V. S. Aggarwala. 57. ↑ See: History of Punjab, Vol I, 1997, p. 225, Dr Buddha Prakash; Raja Porus, 1990, p. 9, Publication Bureau, Punjabi University Patiala. 58. ↑ Kālidāsa, 1960, p. 141, Raghunath Damodar Karmarkar. 59. ↑ Indian Historical Quarterly, XV-4, December 1939, p. 511 Dr H. C. Ray. 60. ↑ History of Ancient Bengal, 1971, pp. 182–83, Dr R. C. Majumdar. 61. ↑ Indian Historical Quarterly, 1963, p. 625. 62. ↑ Dynastic History of Magadha, 1977, p. 208. 63. ↑ Epigraphia Indiaca, XVIII, p. 304ff. 64. ↑ Nicolle, Dr. David (1993). *Mughul India 1504–1761*. pp. 10–11. ISBN 1-85532-344-3. 65. ↑ Macdowall, Simon (13 November 1995). *Late Roman Cavalryman 236-565AD*. p. 28. ISBN 1-85532-567-5. 66. ↑ Negin, Andrey (24 November 2020). *Roman Heavy Cavalry (2)*. pp. 46–48. ISBN 978-1-4728-3950-3. 67. ↑ Nicolle, David. *Italian Medieval Armies 1000-1300*. pp. 3–4. ISBN 1-85532-516-0. 68. ↑ Koch, H.W. (1978). *Medieval Warfare*. p. 189. ISBN 0-86124-008-1. 69. ↑ Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 231. (online) 70. ↑ Hawarey, Mosab (2010). *The Journey of Prophecy; Days of Peace and War (Arabic)*. Islamic Book Trust. ISBN 9789957051648. 71. ↑ p. 239, Muir 72. ↑ tradition of al-furusiyya is defined by principles of horsemanship, chivalry, and the mutual dependence of the rider and the horse 73. ↑ Nicole, Dr. David (25 January 2001). *The Moors. The Islamic West 7th–15th centuries AD*. p. 17. ISBN 1-85532-964-6. 74. ↑ Johnson, Samuel (1921), *The History of the Yorubas, from the earliest times to the beginning of the British protectorate*, p. 73-75. 75. ↑ Frances Pritchett. "part2\_19". columbia.edu. Retrieved 17 January 2014. 76. ↑ Muhammad Latif, The History of the Panjab (Calcutta, 1891), p. 200. 77. ↑ Cornell, Vincent J. (2007). *Voices of Islam (Praeger perspectives)*. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 225 vol.1. ISBN 978-0275987329. OCLC 230345942. 78. ↑ Parker, Charles H. (2010). *Global Interactions in the Early Modern Age, 1400–1800*. Cambridge University Press. p. 53. ISBN 978-1139491419. 79. ↑ Nicolle, David. *The Janissaries*. p. 9. ISBN 1-85532-413-X. 80. ↑ Nicolle, David (9 March 1998). *Armies of the Ottoman Empire 1775-1820*. p. 8. ISBN 1-85532-697-3. 81. ↑ Nicolle, David (9 March 1998). *Armies of the Ottoman Empire 1775-1820*. p. 37. ISBN 1-85532-697-3. 82. ↑ Lokman (1588). "Battle of Nicopolis (1396)". *Hünernâme*. Archived from the original on 2013-05-29. 83. ↑ White (2012), pp. 257, 266. 84. ↑ White (2012), p. 266. 85. ↑ "BBC History: The Battle of Waterloo". Archived from the original on 2015-03-26. Retrieved 2019-12-20. 86. ↑ Herr, Ulrich (2006). *The German Cavalry from 1871 to 1914*. p. 594. ISBN 3-902526-07-6. 87. ↑ Herr, Ulrich (2006). *The German Cavalry from 1871 to 1914*. p. 376. ISBN 3-902526-07-6. 88. ↑ Knotel, Richard (1980). *Uniforms of the World. A Compendium of Army, Navy, and Air Force Uniforms 1700-1937*. pp. 24, 182 & 230. ISBN 0-684-16304-7. 89. ↑ Arnold, Guy (2002). *Historical Dictionary of the Crimean War*. Scarecrow Press Inc. pp. 40–41. ISBN 0-8108-4276-9. 90. ↑ Howard, Michael; Howard, Michael Eliot (2001). *The Franco-Prussian War: The German Invasion of France, 1870–1871*. Routledge. p. 157. ISBN 0-415-26671-8. 91. ↑ Chandler, David (1996). *The Oxford History of the British Army*. p. 379. ISBN 0-19-285333-3. 92. ↑ "The Guides Cavalry (10th Queen Victoria's Own Frontier Force)". 93. ↑ L'Armee d'Afrique 1830–1962, General R. Hure, Paris-Limogues 1977 94. ↑ Plates I & IV, "Under Italian Libya's Burning Sun", The National Geographic Magazine August 1925 95. ↑ Woolley, Charles (2009). *Uniforms of the German Colonial Troops*. p. 94. ISBN 978-0-7643-3357-6. 96. ↑ Gervase Phillips, "Writing Horses into American Civil War History". *War in History* 20.2 (2013): 160-181. 97. ↑ Starr Stephen Z. *The Union Cavalry in the Civil War,* (3 vols. LSU Press, 1979–81) 98. ↑ Robert M. Utley, "The Contribution of the Frontier to the American Military Tradition". *The Harmon Memorial Lectures in Military History, 1959–1987*. DIANE Publishing. pp. 525–34. ISBN 9781428915602. 99. ↑ Paul Mathingham Hutton, "T.R. takes charge", *American History* 33.n3 (August 1998), 30(11). 100. ↑ Steele, Alan (2022). *British Cavalryman versus German Cavalryman*. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-4728-4882-6. 101. ↑ Steele, Alan (2022). *British Cavalryman versus German Cavalryman*. pp. 18–19. ISBN 978-1-4728-4882-6. 102. ↑ Mollo, Boris (1979). *Uniforms of the Imperial Russian Army*. p. 48. ISBN 0-7137-0920-0. 103. ↑ Buttar, Prit (17 June 2014). *Collusion of Empires*. p. 39. ISBN 978-1-78200-648-0. 104. ↑ Keegan, John (1998). *The First World War*. p. 20. ISBN 0-09-180178-8. 105. ↑ David Woodward, p. 47 "Armies of the World 1854–1914",SBN=399-12252-4 106. ↑ p. 570, Volume 5, *Encyclopædia Britannica* – 11th edition. 107. ↑ Louis Delperier, pp. 60-70 "Les Cuirassiers 1845–1918", Argout-Editions Paris 1981 108. ↑ Jouineau, Andre (2008). *The French Army 1914*. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-2-35250-104-6. 109. ↑ Terraine, John (October 2002). *Mons Retreat to Victory*. p. 57. ISBN 1-84022-243-3. 110. ↑ Keegan, John (1998). *The First World War*. p. 102. ISBN 0-09-180178-8. 111. ↑ Herr, Ulrich (2006). *The German Cavalry from 1871 to 1914*. pp. 15–16. ISBN 3-902526-07-6. 112. ↑ Terraine, John (October 2002). *Mons: Retreat to Victory*. p. 50. ISBN 1-84022-243-3. 113. ↑ Terraine, John (1984). *The First World War 1914–18*. p. 14. ISBN 0-333-37913-6. 114. ↑ Pawly, R. (2009). *The Belgian Army in World War I*. pp. 10–11. ISBN 978-1-84603-448-0. 115. ↑ Robinson, Joe; Hendriks, Francis; Robinson, Janet (14 March 2015). *The Last Great Cavalry Charge – The Battle of the Silver Helmets Halen 12 August 1914*. ISBN 978-1-78155-183-7. 116. ↑ Mirouze, Laurent (2007). *The French Army in the First World War - to battle 1914*. p. 253. ISBN 978-3-902526-09-0. 117. ↑ Vladimir A. Emmanuel, p. 10, *The Russian Imperial Cavalry in 1914*, ISBN 978-0-9889532-1-5 118. ↑ Buttar, Prit (17 June 2014). *Collusion of Empires*. p. 209. ISBN 978-1-78200-648-0. 119. ↑ Peter Jung, pages 10–11, *The Austro-Hungarian Forces in World War I (1)* , ISBN 1-84176-594-5 120. ↑ Vladimir Littauer, p. 6, *Russian Hussar*, ISBN 1-59048-256-5 121. ↑ p. 212, *The Oxford History of the British Army*, ISBN 0-19-285333-3 122. ↑ Sumner, Ian (2009). *French Poilu 1914–18*. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-84603-332-2. 123. ↑ p. 216, Vol. XXX, *Encyclopædia Britannica*, 12th Edition, 1922 124. ↑ Nicolle, David (25 March 2003). *The Italian Army of World War I*. pp. 34–35. ISBN 1-84176-398-5. 125. ↑ "History Learning Site: Battle of Cambrai". 126. ↑ "The Royal Dragoon Guards 1685–1988", Regiment Issue Thirty Four, p. 45.[*full citation needed*] 127. ↑ *First World War*, Willmott, H. P., Dorling Kindersley, 2003 128. ↑ Stone, Norman (1975). *The Eastern Front 1914–17*. p. 220. ISBN 0-684-14492-1. 129. ↑ Littauer, Vladimir (May 2007). *Russian Hussar*. p. 220. ISBN 978-1-59048-256-8. 130. ↑ Lucas, James (1987). *Fighting Troops of the Austro-Hungarian Army 1868–1914*. p. 99. ISBN 0-946771-04-9. 131. ↑ Falls, Cyril; G. MacMunn; A. F. Beck (Maps) (1930). *Military Operations Egypt & Palestine from the outbreak of war with Germany to June 1917*. Official History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence. London: HM Stationery Office. OCLC 610273484. Contents. V. 1. from the outbreak of war with Germany to June 1917, + maps in separate volume. V. 2. from June 1917 to the end of the war, 2 parts + maps in separate volume.[*full citation needed*] 132. ↑ Rodolfo Puletti, page 55 "I Lancieri di Milano 1859-1985", Serie "De Bello" Milan 1985 133. ↑ "Mounted Troops", pp. 1,006-1,012, Vol. XXXI *Encyclopædia Britannica*, London & New York 1922 134. ↑ Sumner, Ian (2014). *Armies of the Russo-Polish War 1919-21*. pp. 6–17 & 12–13. ISBN 978-2-35250-179-4. 135. ↑ Fowler, Dr Jeffrey T. (25 November 2001). *Axis Cavalry in World War II*. p. 3. ISBN 1-84176-323-3. 136. ↑ Randy Steffen, page 77 "The Horse Soldier. World War I, the Peacetime Army, World War II." Volume IV, University of Oklahoma Press 1979 137. ↑ Randy Steffen, page 131 "The Horse Soldier. World War I, the Peacetime Army, World War II." Volume IV, University of Oklahoma Press 1979 138. ↑ Sumner, Ian (2010). *The French Army 1939-45 (I)*. pp. 13–14. ISBN 978-2-35250-179-4. 139. ↑ Jouineau, Andre (2010). *Officers and Soldiers of the French Army 1940*. pp. 36–42. ISBN 978-1-85532-666-8. 140. ↑ Chandler, David (1996). *The Oxford History of the British Army*. p. 382. ISBN 0-19-285333-3. 141. ↑ Zaloga, S. J. (1983). *The Polish Army 1939–45*. London: Osprey. ISBN 0-85045-417-4. 142. ↑ Time Staff (April 22, 1940). "The New Pictures". *Time*. Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. Retrieved 2008-07-17. 143. ↑ Davies *God's Playground Volume II* pp. 324–325 144. ↑ Davies *God's Playground Volume II* p. 325 145. ↑ *The Armed Forces of World War II 1914–1945*, Andrew Mollo, ISBN 0-85613-296-9 146. 1 2 John S Harrel.[*full citation needed*] 147. ↑ "Vitéz Mikecz Kálmán". 148. ↑ Jeffrey T. Fowler, p. 45 "Axis Cavalry in World War II, ISBN 1-84176-323-3 149. ↑ Jeffrey T. Fowler, pages 35-38 "Axis Cavalry in World War II, ISBN 1-84176-323-3 150. ↑ P.Kilkki; H.Pohjanpää. *Suomen Ratsuväen Historia II. Ratsuväki Suomen Sodissa 1939–1944*. 151. ↑ Personal memoirs of Colonel Ernest Neal Cory, Jr., Esquire 152. ↑ Abbott, Peter (1986). *Modern African Wars (2): Angola and Mozambique*. p. 24. ISBN 0-85045-843-9. 153. ↑ English, Adrian J. (May 1985). *Armed Forces of Latin America:Their Histories, Development, Present Strength and Military Potential*. Jane's Information Group. ISBN 978-0710603210. 154. ↑ Carey Schofield, Inside the Soviet Army, Headline, 1991, pp. 133–134 155. ↑ India Polo Magazine Archived July 3, 2009, at the Wayback Machine 156. ↑ Henry Dallal, *Horse Warriors: India's 61st Cavalry*, ISBN 0-9544083-1-4 157. 1 2 *Global Times* 20 November 2009 and Xinhua News Agency 22 August 2011 158. ↑ "PLA border defense troop carries out horse-riding training on plateau in Xinjiang - China Military". *eng.chinamil.com.cn*. Retrieved 2021-01-05. 159. ↑ "PLA Cavalry: Use the Beidou satellite system to good effect". *People's Daily Online*. Retrieved 2021-01-05. 160. ↑ es:Regimiento de Caballería n.º 3 "Húsares" 161. ↑ Cyr Darnoc De Saint-mandé, pp. 33–36, *Gazette des Uniformes*, December 2002 162. ↑ The Honours, Flags, and Heritage Structure of the Canadian Forces 163. ↑ First Team! Horse Cavalry Detachment Archived July 9, 2012, at the Wayback Machine 164. ↑ Hubbell, Gary. "21st Century Horse Soldiers". *Western Horseman*, December 2006, pp. 45–50 165. ↑ "About First Troop Philadelphia City Cavalry". *First Troop Philadelphia City Cavalry Official Website*. Retrieved 22 October 2014. 166. ↑ "Cavalry Troop A". *Maryland Defense Force Official Website*. Archived from the original on 17 February 2015. Retrieved 5 October 2014. 167. 1 2 3 Roberts, Lt. Colonel (MD) Ron. "An Overview of the Employment of Cavalry in History, With an Emphasis on the State Defense Force of the United States in the 21st Century" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2014-10-06. Retrieved 5 October 2014. 168. 1 2 3 "Our History". *National Lancers Official Website*. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 5 October 2014. 169. ↑ Brofer, Jennifer (14 June 2021). "Mounted unit rides into annual training exercise". Defense Visual Information Distribution Service. Retrieved 27 June 2021. 170. ↑ Corrigan, Major J. G. H., *Waterloo (review)*, Channel 4, archived from the original on 27 March 2009 171. ↑ *Waterloo* Film review by Major J. G. H. Corrigan. Accessed 2008-02-07. 172. ↑ "A Loyal and Zealous Soldier" (ΕΝΑΣ ΠΙΣΤΟΣ ΚΑΙ ΦΙΛΟΤΙΜΟΣ ΣΤΡΑΤΙΩΤΗΣ), Christos Notaridis, ISBN 978-960-522-335-9 173. ↑ "Edwin Price Ramsey - Home Page". *www.edwinpriceramsey.com*. Archived from the original on August 15, 2006.

Cavalry

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavalry

A **computer network** is a set of computers sharing resources located on or provided by network nodes. Computers use common communication protocols over digital interconnections to communicate with each other. These interconnections are made up of telecommunication network technologies based on physically wired, optical, and wireless radio-frequency methods that may be arranged in a variety of network topologies. The nodes of a computer network can include personal computers, servers, networking hardware, or other specialized or general-purpose hosts. They are identified by network addresses and may have hostnames. Hostnames serve as memorable labels for the nodes and are rarely changed after initial assignment. Network addresses serve for locating and identifying the nodes by communication protocols such as the Internet Protocol. Computer networks may be classified by many criteria, including the transmission medium used to carry signals, bandwidth, communications protocols to organize network traffic, the network size, the topology, traffic control mechanisms, and organizational intent. Computer networks support many applications and services, such as access to the World Wide Web, digital video and audio, shared use of application and storage servers, printers and fax machines, and use of email and instant messaging applications. History ------- Computer networking may be considered a branch of computer science, computer engineering, and telecommunications, since it relies on the theoretical and practical application of the related disciplines. Computer networking was influenced by a wide array of technology developments and historical milestones. * In the late 1950s, a network of computers was built for the U.S. military Semi-Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE) radar system using the Bell 101 modem. It was the first commercial modem for computers, released by AT&T Corporation in 1958. The modem allowed digital data to be transmitted over regular unconditioned telephone lines at a speed of 110 bits per second (bit/s). * In 1959, Christopher Strachey filed a patent application for time-sharing and John McCarthy initiated the first project to implement time-sharing of user programs at MIT. Stratchey passed the concept on to J. C. R. Licklider at the inaugural UNESCO Information Processing Conference in Paris that year. McCarthy was instrumental in the creation of three of the earliest time-sharing systems (the Compatible Time-Sharing System in 1961, the BBN Time-Sharing System in 1962, and the Dartmouth Time Sharing System in 1963). * In 1959, Anatoly Kitov proposed to the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union a detailed plan for the re-organisation of the control of the Soviet armed forces and of the Soviet economy on the basis of a network of computing centres. Kitov's proposal was rejected, as later was the 1962 OGAS economy management network project. * In 1960, the commercial airline reservation system semi-automatic business research environment (SABRE) went online with two connected mainframes. * In 1963, J. C. R. Licklider sent a memorandum to office colleagues discussing the concept of the "Intergalactic Computer Network", a computer network intended to allow general communications among computer users. * Throughout the 1960s, Paul Baran and Donald Davies independently developed the concept of packet switching to transfer information between computers over a network. Davies pioneered the implementation of the concept. The NPL network, a local area network at the National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom) used a line speed of 768 kbit/s and later high-speed T1 links (1.544 Mbit/s line rate). * In 1965, Western Electric introduced the first widely used telephone switch that implemented computer control in the switching fabric. * In 1969, the first four nodes of the ARPANET were connected using 50 kbit/s circuits between the University of California at Los Angeles, the Stanford Research Institute, the University of California at Santa Barbara, and the University of Utah. In the early 1970s, Leonard Kleinrock carried out mathematical work to model the performance of packet-switched networks, which underpinned the development of the ARPANET. His theoretical work on hierarchical routing in the late 1970s with student Farouk Kamoun remains critical to the operation of the Internet today. * In 1972, commercial services were first deployed on public data networks in Europe, which began using X.25 in the late 1970s and spread across the globe. The underlying infrastructure was used for expanding TCP/IP networks in the 1980s. * In 1973, the French CYCLADES network was the first to make the hosts responsible for the reliable delivery of data, rather than this being a centralized service of the network itself. * In 1973, Robert Metcalfe wrote a formal memo at Xerox PARC describing Ethernet, a networking system that was based on the Aloha network, developed in the 1960s by Norman Abramson and colleagues at the University of Hawaii. In July 1976, Robert Metcalfe and David Boggs published their paper "Ethernet: Distributed Packet Switching for Local Computer Networks" and collaborated on several patents received in 1977 and 1978. * In 1974, Vint Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine published the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) specification, RFC 675, coining the term *Internet* as a shorthand for internetworking. * In 1976, John Murphy of Datapoint Corporation created ARCNET, a token-passing network first used to share storage devices. * In 1977, the first long-distance fiber network was deployed by GTE in Long Beach, California. * In 1977, Xerox Network Systems (XNS) was developed by Robert Metcalfe and Yogen Dalal at Xerox. * In 1979, Robert Metcalfe pursued making Ethernet an open standard. * In 1980, Ethernet was upgraded from the original 2.94 Mbit/s protocol to the 10 Mbit/s protocol, which was developed by Ron Crane, Bob Garner, Roy Ogus, and Yogen Dalal. * In 1995, the transmission speed capacity for Ethernet increased from 10 Mbit/s to 100 Mbit/s. By 1998, Ethernet supported transmission speeds of 1 Gbit/s. Subsequently, higher speeds of up to 400 Gbit/s were added (as of 2018[update]). The scaling of Ethernet has been a contributing factor to its continued use. Use --- Computer networks extend interpersonal communications by electronic means with various technologies, such as email, instant messaging, online chat, voice and video telephone calls, and video conferencing. A network allows sharing of network and computing resources. Users may access and use resources provided by devices on the network, such as printing a document on a shared network printer or use of a shared storage device. A network allows sharing of files, data, and other types of information giving authorized users the ability to access information stored on other computers on the network. Distributed computing uses computing resources across a network to accomplish tasks. Network packet -------------- Most modern computer networks use protocols based on packet-mode transmission. A network packet is a formatted unit of data carried by a packet-switched network. Packets consist of two types of data: control information and user data (payload). The control information provides data the network needs to deliver the user data, for example, source and destination network addresses, error detection codes, and sequencing information. Typically, control information is found in packet headers and trailers, with payload data in between. With packets, the bandwidth of the transmission medium can be better shared among users than if the network were circuit switched. When one user is not sending packets, the link can be filled with packets from other users, and so the cost can be shared, with relatively little interference, provided the link is not overused. Often the route a packet needs to take through a network is not immediately available. In that case, the packet is queued and waits until a link is free. The physical link technologies of packet networks typically limit the size of packets to a certain maximum transmission unit (MTU). A longer message may be fragmented before it is transferred and once the packets arrive, they are reassembled to construct the original message. Network topology ---------------- The physical or geographic locations of network nodes and links generally have relatively little effect on a network, but the topology of interconnections of a network can significantly affect its throughput and reliability. With many technologies, such as bus or star networks, a single failure can cause the network to fail entirely. In general, the more interconnections there are, the more robust the network is; but the more expensive it is to install. Therefore, most network diagrams are arranged by their network topology which is the map of logical interconnections of network hosts. Common layouts are: * Bus network: all nodes are connected to a common medium along this medium. This was the layout used in the original Ethernet, called 10BASE5 and 10BASE2. This is still a common topology on the data link layer, although modern physical layer variants use point-to-point links instead, forming a star or a tree. * Star network: all nodes are connected to a special central node. This is the typical layout found in a small switched Ethernet LAN, where each client connects to a central network switch, and logically in a wireless LAN, where each wireless client associates with the central wireless access point. * Ring network: each node is connected to its left and right neighbor node, such that all nodes are connected and that each node can reach each other node by traversing nodes left- or rightwards. Token ring networks, and the Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), made use of such a topology. * Mesh network: each node is connected to an arbitrary number of neighbors in such a way that there is at least one traversal from any node to any other. * Fully connected network: each node is connected to every other node in the network. * Tree network: nodes are arranged hierarchically. This is the natural topology for a larger Ethernet network with multiple switches and without redundant meshing. The physical layout of the nodes in a network may not necessarily reflect the network topology. As an example, with FDDI, the network topology is a ring, but the physical topology is often a star, because all neighboring connections can be routed via a central physical location. Physical layout is not completely irrelevant, however, as common ducting and equipment locations can represent single points of failure due to issues like fires, power failures and flooding. ### Overlay network An overlay network is a virtual network that is built on top of another network. Nodes in the overlay network are connected by virtual or logical links. Each link corresponds to a path, perhaps through many physical links, in the underlying network. The topology of the overlay network may (and often does) differ from that of the underlying one. For example, many peer-to-peer networks are overlay networks. They are organized as nodes of a virtual system of links that run on top of the Internet. Overlay networks have been around since the invention of networking when computer systems were connected over telephone lines using modems before any data network existed. The most striking example of an overlay network is the Internet itself. The Internet itself was initially built as an overlay on the telephone network. Even today, each Internet node can communicate with virtually any other through an underlying mesh of sub-networks of wildly different topologies and technologies. Address resolution and routing are the means that allow mapping of a fully connected IP overlay network to its underlying network. Another example of an overlay network is a distributed hash table, which maps keys to nodes in the network. In this case, the underlying network is an IP network, and the overlay network is a table (actually a map) indexed by keys. Overlay networks have also been proposed as a way to improve Internet routing, such as through quality of service guarantees achieve higher-quality streaming media. Previous proposals such as IntServ, DiffServ, and IP multicast have not seen wide acceptance largely because they require modification of all routers in the network. On the other hand, an overlay network can be incrementally deployed on end-hosts running the overlay protocol software, without cooperation from Internet service providers. The overlay network has no control over how packets are routed in the underlying network between two overlay nodes, but it can control, for example, the sequence of overlay nodes that a message traverses before it reaches its destination. For example, Akamai Technologies manages an overlay network that provides reliable, efficient content delivery (a kind of multicast). Academic research includes end system multicast, resilient routing and quality of service studies, among others. Network links ------------- The transmission media (often referred to in the literature as the *physical medium*) used to link devices to form a computer network include electrical cable, optical fiber, and free space. In the OSI model, the software to handle the media is defined at layers 1 and 2 — the physical layer and the data link layer. A widely adopted *family* that uses copper and fiber media in local area network (LAN) technology are collectively known as Ethernet. The media and protocol standards that enable communication between networked devices over Ethernet are defined by IEEE 802.3. Wireless LAN standards use radio waves, others use infrared signals as a transmission medium. Power line communication uses a building's power cabling to transmit data. ### Wired The following classes of wired technologies are used in computer networking. * *Coaxial cable* is widely used for cable television systems, office buildings, and other work-sites for local area networks. Transmission speed ranges from 200 million bits per second to more than 500 million bits per second. * ITU-T G.hn technology uses existing home wiring (coaxial cable, phone lines and power lines) to create a high-speed local area network. * *Twisted pair* cabling is used for wired Ethernet and other standards. It typically consists of 4 pairs of copper cabling that can be utilized for both voice and data transmission. The use of two wires twisted together helps to reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic induction. The transmission speed ranges from 2 Mbit/s to 10 Gbit/s. Twisted pair cabling comes in two forms: unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded twisted-pair (STP). Each form comes in several category ratings, designed for use in various scenarios. * An *optical fiber* is a glass fiber. It carries pulses of light that represent data via lasers and optical amplifiers. Some advantages of optical fibers over metal wires are very low transmission loss and immunity to electrical interference. Using dense wave division multiplexing, optical fibers can simultaneously carry multiple streams of data on different wavelengths of light, which greatly increases the rate that data can be sent to up to trillions of bits per second. Optic fibers can be used for long runs of cable carrying very high data rates, and are used for undersea communications cables to interconnect continents. There are two basic types of fiber optics, single-mode optical fiber (SMF) and multi-mode optical fiber (MMF). Single-mode fiber has the advantage of being able to sustain a coherent signal for dozens or even a hundred kilometers. Multimode fiber is cheaper to terminate but is limited to a few hundred or even only a few dozens of meters, depending on the data rate and cable grade. ### Wireless Network connections can be established wirelessly using radio or other electromagnetic means of communication. * *Terrestrial microwave* – Terrestrial microwave communication uses Earth-based transmitters and receivers resembling satellite dishes. Terrestrial microwaves are in the low gigahertz range, which limits all communications to line-of-sight. Relay stations are spaced approximately 40 miles (64 km) apart. * *Communications satellites* – Satellites also communicate via microwave. The satellites are stationed in space, typically in geosynchronous orbit 35,400 km (22,000 mi) above the equator. These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of receiving and relaying voice, data, and TV signals. * *Cellular networks* use several radio communications technologies. The systems divide the region covered into multiple geographic areas. Each area is served by a low-power transceiver. * *Radio and spread spectrum technologies* – Wireless LANs use a high-frequency radio technology similar to digital cellular. Wireless LANs use spread spectrum technology to enable communication between multiple devices in a limited area. IEEE 802.11 defines a common flavor of open-standards wireless radio-wave technology known as Wi-Fi. * *Free-space optical communication* uses visible or invisible light for communications. In most cases, line-of-sight propagation is used, which limits the physical positioning of communicating devices. * Extending the Internet to interplanetary dimensions via radio waves and optical means, the Interplanetary Internet. * IP over Avian Carriers was a humorous April fool's Request for Comments, issued as RFC 1149. It was implemented in real life in 2001. The last two cases have a large round-trip delay time, which gives slow two-way communication but does not prevent sending large amounts of information (they can have high throughput). Network nodes ------------- Apart from any physical transmission media, networks are built from additional basic system building blocks, such as network interface controllers, repeaters, hubs, bridges, switches, routers, modems, and firewalls. Any particular piece of equipment will frequently contain multiple building blocks and so may perform multiple functions. ### Network interfaces A network interface controller (NIC) is computer hardware that connects the computer to the network media and has the ability to process low-level network information. For example, the NIC may have a connector for accepting a cable, or an aerial for wireless transmission and reception, and the associated circuitry. In Ethernet networks, each NIC has a unique Media Access Control (MAC) address—usually stored in the controller's permanent memory. To avoid address conflicts between network devices, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) maintains and administers MAC address uniqueness. The size of an Ethernet MAC address is six octets. The three most significant octets are reserved to identify NIC manufacturers. These manufacturers, using only their assigned prefixes, uniquely assign the three least-significant octets of every Ethernet interface they produce. ### Repeaters and hubs A repeater is an electronic device that receives a network signal, cleans it of unnecessary noise and regenerates it. The signal is retransmitted at a higher power level, or to the other side of obstruction so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation. In most twisted-pair Ethernet configurations, repeaters are required for cable that runs longer than 100 meters. With fiber optics, repeaters can be tens or even hundreds of kilometers apart. Repeaters work on the physical layer of the OSI model but still require a small amount of time to regenerate the signal. This can cause a propagation delay that affects network performance and may affect proper function. As a result, many network architectures limit the number of repeaters used in a network, e.g., the Ethernet 5-4-3 rule. An Ethernet repeater with multiple ports is known as an Ethernet hub. In addition to reconditioning and distributing network signals, a repeater hub assists with collision detection and fault isolation for the network. Hubs and repeaters in LANs have been largely obsoleted by modern network switches. ### Bridges and switches Network bridges and network switches are distinct from a hub in that they only forward frames to the ports involved in the communication whereas a hub forwards to all ports. Bridges only have two ports but a switch can be thought of as a multi-port bridge. Switches normally have numerous ports, facilitating a star topology for devices, and for cascading additional switches. Bridges and switches operate at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model and bridge traffic between two or more network segments to form a single local network. Both are devices that forward frames of data between ports based on the destination MAC address in each frame. They learn the association of physical ports to MAC addresses by examining the source addresses of received frames and only forward the frame when necessary. If an unknown destination MAC is targeted, the device broadcasts the request to all ports except the source, and discovers the location from the reply. Bridges and switches divide the network's collision domain but maintain a single broadcast domain. Network segmentation through bridging and switching helps break down a large, congested network into an aggregation of smaller, more efficient networks. ### Routers A router is an internetworking device that forwards packets between networks by processing the addressing or routing information included in the packet. The routing information is often processed in conjunction with the routing table. A router uses its routing table to determine where to forward packets and does not require broadcasting packets which is inefficient for very big networks. ### Modems Modems (modulator-demodulator) are used to connect network nodes via wire not originally designed for digital network traffic, or for wireless. To do this one or more carrier signals are modulated by the digital signal to produce an analog signal that can be tailored to give the required properties for transmission. Early modems modulated audio signals sent over a standard voice telephone line. Modems are still commonly used for telephone lines, using a digital subscriber line technology and cable television systems using DOCSIS technology. ### Firewalls A firewall is a network device or software for controlling network security and access rules. Firewalls are inserted in connections between secure internal networks and potentially insecure external networks such as the Internet. Firewalls are typically configured to reject access requests from unrecognized sources while allowing actions from recognized ones. The vital role firewalls play in network security grows in parallel with the constant increase in cyber attacks. Communication protocols ----------------------- A communication protocol is a set of rules for exchanging information over a network. Communication protocols have various characteristics. They may be connection-oriented or connectionless, they may use circuit mode or packet switching, and they may use hierarchical addressing or flat addressing. In a protocol stack, often constructed per the OSI model, communications functions are divided up into protocol layers, where each layer leverages the services of the layer below it until the lowest layer controls the hardware that sends information across the media. The use of protocol layering is ubiquitous across the field of computer networking. An important example of a protocol stack is HTTP (the World Wide Web protocol) running over TCP over IP (the Internet protocols) over IEEE 802.11 (the Wi-Fi protocol). This stack is used between the wireless router and the home user's personal computer when the user is surfing the web. There are many communication protocols, a few of which are described below. ### Common protocols #### Internet protocol suite The Internet protocol suite, also called TCP/IP, is the foundation of all modern networking. It offers connection-less and connection-oriented services over an inherently unreliable network traversed by datagram transmission using Internet protocol (IP). At its core, the protocol suite defines the addressing, identification, and routing specifications for Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) and for IPv6, the next generation of the protocol with a much enlarged addressing capability. The Internet protocol suite is the defining set of protocols for the Internet. #### IEEE 802 IEEE 802 is a family of IEEE standards dealing with local area networks and metropolitan area networks. The complete IEEE 802 protocol suite provides a diverse set of networking capabilities. The protocols have a flat addressing scheme. They operate mostly at layers 1 and 2 of the OSI model. For example, MAC bridging (IEEE 802.1D) deals with the routing of Ethernet packets using a Spanning Tree Protocol. IEEE 802.1Q describes VLANs, and IEEE 802.1X defines a port-based Network Access Control protocol, which forms the basis for the authentication mechanisms used in VLANs (but it is also found in WLANs) – it is what the home user sees when the user has to enter a "wireless access key". ##### Ethernet Ethernet is a family of technologies used in wired LANs. It is described by a set of standards together called IEEE 802.3 published by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. ##### Wireless LAN Wireless LAN based on the IEEE 802.11 standards, also widely known as WLAN or WiFi, is probably the most well-known member of the IEEE 802 protocol family for home users today. IEEE 802.11 shares many properties with wired Ethernet. #### SONET/SDH Synchronous optical networking (SONET) and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) are standardized multiplexing protocols that transfer multiple digital bit streams over optical fiber using lasers. They were originally designed to transport circuit mode communications from a variety of different sources, primarily to support circuit-switched digital telephony. However, due to its protocol neutrality and transport-oriented features, SONET/SDH also was the obvious choice for transporting Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) frames. #### Asynchronous Transfer Mode Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a switching technique for telecommunication networks. It uses asynchronous time-division multiplexing and encodes data into small, fixed-sized cells. This differs from other protocols such as the Internet protocol suite or Ethernet that use variable-sized packets or frames. ATM has similarities with both circuit and packet switched networking. This makes it a good choice for a network that must handle both traditional high-throughput data traffic, and real-time, low-latency content such as voice and video. ATM uses a connection-oriented model in which a virtual circuit must be established between two endpoints before the actual data exchange begins. ATM still plays a role in the last mile, which is the connection between an Internet service provider and the home user.[*needs update*] #### Cellular standards There are a number of different digital cellular standards, including: Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM), General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), cdmaOne, CDMA2000, Evolution-Data Optimized (EV-DO), Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE), Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS), Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT), Digital AMPS (IS-136/TDMA), and Integrated Digital Enhanced Network (iDEN). ### Routing Routing is the process of selecting network paths to carry network traffic. Routing is performed for many kinds of networks, including circuit switching networks and packet switched networks. In packet-switched networks, routing protocols direct packet forwarding through intermediate nodes. Intermediate nodes are typically network hardware devices such as routers, bridges, gateways, firewalls, or switches. General-purpose computers can also forward packets and perform routing, though because they lack specialized hardware, may offer limited performance. The routing process directs forwarding on the basis of routing tables, which maintain a record of the routes to various network destinations. Most routing algorithms use only one network path at a time. Multipath routing techniques enable the use of multiple alternative paths. Routing can be contrasted with bridging in its assumption that network addresses are structured and that similar addresses imply proximity within the network. Structured addresses allow a single routing table entry to represent the route to a group of devices. In large networks, the structured addressing used by routers outperforms unstructured addressing used by bridging. Structured IP addresses are used on the Internet. Unstructured MAC addresses are used for bridging on Ethernet and similar local area networks. Geographic scale ---------------- Networks may be characterized by many properties or features, such as physical capacity, organizational purpose, user authorization, access rights, and others. Another distinct classification method is that of the physical extent or geographic scale. ### Nanoscale network A nanoscale network has key components implemented at the nanoscale, including message carriers, and leverages physical principles that differ from macroscale communication mechanisms. Nanoscale communication extends communication to very small sensors and actuators such as those found in biological systems and also tends to operate in environments that would be too harsh for other communication techniques. ### Personal area network A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among computers and different information technological devices close to one person. Some examples of devices that are used in a PAN are personal computers, printers, fax machines, telephones, PDAs, scanners, and video game consoles. A PAN may include wired and wireless devices. The reach of a PAN typically extends to 10 meters. A wired PAN is usually constructed with USB and FireWire connections while technologies such as Bluetooth and infrared communication typically form a wireless PAN. ### Local area network A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited geographical area such as a home, school, office building, or closely positioned group of buildings. Wired LANs are most commonly based on Ethernet technology. Other networking technologies such as ITU-T G.hn also provide a way to create a wired LAN using existing wiring, such as coaxial cables, telephone lines, and power lines. A LAN can be connected to a wide area network (WAN) using a router. The defining characteristics of a LAN, in contrast to a WAN, include higher data transfer rates, limited geographic range, and lack of reliance on leased lines to provide connectivity. Current Ethernet or other IEEE 802.3 LAN technologies operate at data transfer rates up to and in excess of 100 Gbit/s, standardized by IEEE in 2010. ### Home area network A home area network (HAN) is a residential LAN used for communication between digital devices typically deployed in the home, usually a small number of personal computers and accessories, such as printers and mobile computing devices. An important function is the sharing of Internet access, often a broadband service through a cable Internet access or digital subscriber line (DSL) provider. ### Storage area network A storage area network (SAN) is a dedicated network that provides access to consolidated, block-level data storage. SANs are primarily used to make storage devices, such as disk arrays, tape libraries, and optical jukeboxes, accessible to servers so that the storage appears as locally attached devices to the operating system. A SAN typically has its own network of storage devices that are generally not accessible through the local area network by other devices. The cost and complexity of SANs dropped in the early 2000s to levels allowing wider adoption across both enterprise and small to medium-sized business environments. ### Campus area network A campus area network (CAN) is made up of an interconnection of LANs within a limited geographical area. The networking equipment (switches, routers) and transmission media (optical fiber, Cat5 cabling, etc.) are almost entirely owned by the campus tenant or owner (an enterprise, university, government, etc.). For example, a university campus network is likely to link a variety of campus buildings to connect academic colleges or departments, the library, and student residence halls. ### Backbone network A backbone network is part of a computer network infrastructure that provides a path for the exchange of information between different LANs or subnetworks. A backbone can tie together diverse networks within the same building, across different buildings, or over a wide area. When designing a network backbone, network performance and network congestion are critical factors to take into account. Normally, the backbone network's capacity is greater than that of the individual networks connected to it. For example, a large company might implement a backbone network to connect departments that are located around the world. The equipment that ties together the departmental networks constitutes the network backbone. Another example of a backbone network is the Internet backbone, which is a massive, global system of fiber-optic cable and optical networking that carry the bulk of data between wide area networks (WANs), metro, regional, national and transoceanic networks. ### Metropolitan area network A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large computer network that interconnects users with computer resources in a geographic region of the size of a metropolitan area. ### Wide area network A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a large geographic area such as a city, country, or spans even intercontinental distances. A WAN uses a communications channel that combines many types of media such as telephone lines, cables, and airwaves. A WAN often makes use of transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies. WAN technologies generally function at the lower three layers of the OSI model: the physical layer, the data link layer, and the network layer. ### Enterprise private network An enterprise private network is a network that a single organization builds to interconnect its office locations (e.g., production sites, head offices, remote offices, shops) so they can share computer resources. ### Virtual private network A virtual private network (VPN) is an overlay network in which some of the links between nodes are carried by open connections or virtual circuits in some larger network (e.g., the Internet) instead of by physical wires. The data link layer protocols of the virtual network are said to be tunneled through the larger network. One common application is secure communications through the public Internet, but a VPN need not have explicit security features, such as authentication or content encryption. VPNs, for example, can be used to separate the traffic of different user communities over an underlying network with strong security features. VPN may have best-effort performance or may have a defined service level agreement (SLA) between the VPN customer and the VPN service provider. ### Global area network A global area network (GAN) is a network used for supporting mobile users across an arbitrary number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas, etc. The key challenge in mobile communications is handing off communications from one local coverage area to the next. In IEEE Project 802, this involves a succession of terrestrial wireless LANs. Organizational scope -------------------- Networks are typically managed by the organizations that own them. Private enterprise networks may use a combination of intranets and extranets. They may also provide network access to the Internet, which has no single owner and permits virtually unlimited global connectivity. ### Intranet An intranet is a set of networks that are under the control of a single administrative entity. An intranet typically uses the Internet Protocol and IP-based tools such as web browsers and file transfer applications. The administrative entity limits the use of the intranet to its authorized users. Most commonly, an intranet is the internal LAN of an organization. A large intranet typically has at least one web server to provide users with organizational information. ### Extranet An extranet is a network that is under the administrative control of a single organization but supports a limited connection to a specific external network. For example, an organization may provide access to some aspects of its intranet to share data with its business partners or customers. These other entities are not necessarily trusted from a security standpoint. The network connection to an extranet is often, but not always, implemented via WAN technology. ### Internet An internetwork is the connection of multiple different types of computer networks to form a single computer network using higher-layer network protocols and connecting them together using routers. The Internet is the largest example of internetwork. It is a global system of interconnected governmental, academic, corporate, public, and private computer networks. It is based on the networking technologies of the Internet protocol suite. It is the successor of the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) developed by DARPA of the United States Department of Defense. The Internet utilizes copper communications and an optical networking backbone to enable the World Wide Web (WWW), the Internet of things, video transfer, and a broad range of information services. Participants on the Internet use a diverse array of methods of several hundred documented, and often standardized, protocols compatible with the Internet protocol suite and the IP addressing system administered by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority and address registries. Service providers and large enterprises exchange information about the reachability of their address spaces through the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), forming a redundant worldwide mesh of transmission paths. ### Darknet A darknet is an overlay network, typically running on the Internet, that is only accessible through specialized software. It is an anonymizing network where connections are made only between trusted peers — sometimes called *friends* (F2F) — using non-standard protocols and ports. Darknets are distinct from other distributed peer-to-peer networks as sharing is anonymous (that is, IP addresses are not publicly shared), and therefore users can communicate with little fear of governmental or corporate interference. Network service --------------- Network services are applications hosted by servers on a computer network, to provide some functionality for members or users of the network, or to help the network itself to operate. The World Wide Web, E-mail, printing and network file sharing are examples of well-known network services. Network services such as DNS (Domain Name System) give names for IP and MAC addresses (people remember names like "nm.lan" better than numbers like "210.121.67.18"), and DHCP to ensure that the equipment on the network has a valid IP address. Services are usually based on a service protocol that defines the format and sequencing of messages between clients and servers of that network service. Network performance ------------------- ### Bandwidth Bandwidth in bit/s may refer to consumed bandwidth, corresponding to achieved throughput or goodput, i.e., the average rate of successful data transfer through a communication path. The throughput is affected by technologies such as bandwidth shaping, bandwidth management, bandwidth throttling, bandwidth cap, bandwidth allocation (for example bandwidth allocation protocol and dynamic bandwidth allocation), etc. A bit stream's bandwidth is proportional to the average consumed signal bandwidth in hertz (the average spectral bandwidth of the analog signal representing the bit stream) during a studied time interval. ### Network delay *Network delay* is a design and performance characteristic of a telecommunications network. It specifies the latency for a bit of data to travel across the network from one communication endpoint to another. It is typically measured in multiples or fractions of a second. Delay may differ slightly, depending on the location of the specific pair of communicating endpoints. Engineers usually report both the maximum and average delay, and they divide the delay into several parts: * Processing delay – time it takes a router to process the packet header * Queuing delay – time the packet spends in routing queues * Transmission delay – time it takes to push the packet's bits onto the link * Propagation delay – time for a signal to propagate through the media A certain minimum level of delay is experienced by signals due to the time it takes to transmit a packet serially through a link. This delay is extended by more variable levels of delay due to network congestion. IP network delays can range from a few milliseconds to several hundred milliseconds. ### Quality of service Depending on the installation requirements, network performance is usually measured by the quality of service of a telecommunications product. The parameters that affect this typically can include throughput, jitter, bit error rate and latency. The following list gives examples of network performance measures for a circuit-switched network and one type of packet-switched network, viz. ATM: * Circuit-switched networks: In circuit switched networks, network performance is synonymous with the grade of service. The number of rejected calls is a measure of how well the network is performing under heavy traffic loads. Other types of performance measures can include the level of noise and echo. * ATM: In an Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) network, performance can be measured by line rate, quality of service (QoS), data throughput, connect time, stability, technology, modulation technique, and modem enhancements.[*verification needed*][*full citation needed*] There are many ways to measure the performance of a network, as each network is different in nature and design. Performance can also be modeled instead of measured. For example, state transition diagrams are often used to model queuing performance in a circuit-switched network. The network planner uses these diagrams to analyze how the network performs in each state, ensuring that the network is optimally designed. ### Network congestion Network congestion occurs when a link or node is subjected to a greater data load than it is rated for, resulting in a deterioration of its quality of service. When networks are congested and queues become too full, packets have to be discarded, and so networks rely on re-transmission. Typical effects of congestion include queueing delay, packet loss or the blocking of new connections. A consequence of these latter two is that incremental increases in offered load lead either to only a small increase in the network throughput or to a reduction in network throughput. Network protocols that use aggressive retransmissions to compensate for packet loss tend to keep systems in a state of network congestion—even after the initial load is reduced to a level that would not normally induce network congestion. Thus, networks using these protocols can exhibit two stable states under the same level of load. The stable state with low throughput is known as *congestive collapse*. Modern networks use congestion control, congestion avoidance and traffic control techniques to try to avoid congestion collapse (i.e. endpoints typically slow down or sometimes even stop transmission entirely when the network is congested). These techniques include: exponential backoff in protocols such as 802.11's CSMA/CA and the original Ethernet, window reduction in TCP, and fair queueing in devices such as routers. Another method to avoid the negative effects of network congestion is implementing priority schemes so that some packets are transmitted with higher priority than others. Priority schemes do not solve network congestion by themselves, but they help to alleviate the effects of congestion for some services. An example of this is 802.1p. A third method to avoid network congestion is the explicit allocation of network resources to specific flows. One example of this is the use of Contention-Free Transmission Opportunities (CFTXOPs) in the ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides high-speed (up to 1 Gbit/s) Local area networking over existing home wires (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables). For the Internet, RFC 2914 addresses the subject of congestion control in detail. ### Network resilience Network resilience is "the ability to provide and maintain an acceptable level of service in the face of faults and challenges to normal operation." Security -------- Computer networks are also used by security hackers to deploy computer viruses or computer worms on devices connected to the network, or to prevent these devices from accessing the network via a denial-of-service attack. ### Network security Network Security consists of provisions and policies adopted by the network administrator to prevent and monitor unauthorized access, misuse, modification, or denial of the computer network and its network-accessible resources. Network security is the authorization of access to data in a network, which is controlled by the network administrator. Users are assigned an ID and password that allows them access to information and programs within their authority. Network security is used on a variety of computer networks, both public and private, to secure daily transactions and communications among businesses, government agencies, and individuals. ### Network surveillance Network surveillance is the monitoring of data being transferred over computer networks such as the Internet. The monitoring is often done surreptitiously and may be done by or at the behest of governments, by corporations, criminal organizations, or individuals. It may or may not be legal and may or may not require authorization from a court or other independent agency. Computer and network surveillance programs are widespread today, and almost all Internet traffic is or could potentially be monitored for clues to illegal activity. Surveillance is very useful to governments and law enforcement to maintain social control, recognize and monitor threats, and prevent/investigate criminal activity. With the advent of programs such as the Total Information Awareness program, technologies such as high-speed surveillance computers and biometrics software, and laws such as the Communications Assistance For Law Enforcement Act, governments now possess an unprecedented ability to monitor the activities of citizens. However, many civil rights and privacy groups—such as Reporters Without Borders, the Electronic Frontier Foundation, and the American Civil Liberties Union—have expressed concern that increasing surveillance of citizens may lead to a mass surveillance society, with limited political and personal freedoms. Fears such as this have led to numerous lawsuits such as *Hepting v. AT&T*. The hacktivist group Anonymous has hacked into government websites in protest of what it considers "draconian surveillance". ### End to end encryption End-to-end encryption (E2EE) is a digital communications paradigm of uninterrupted protection of data traveling between two communicating parties. It involves the originating party encrypting data so only the intended recipient can decrypt it, with no dependency on third parties. End-to-end encryption prevents intermediaries, such as Internet service providers or application service providers, from discovering or tampering with communications. End-to-end encryption generally protects both confidentiality and integrity. Examples of end-to-end encryption include HTTPS for web traffic, PGP for email, OTR for instant messaging, ZRTP for telephony, and TETRA for radio. Typical server-based communications systems do not include end-to-end encryption. These systems can only guarantee the protection of communications between clients and servers, not between the communicating parties themselves. Examples of non-E2EE systems are Google Talk, Yahoo Messenger, Facebook, and Dropbox. Some such systems, for example, LavaBit and SecretInk, have even described themselves as offering "end-to-end" encryption when they do not. Some systems that normally offer end-to-end encryption have turned out to contain a back door that subverts negotiation of the encryption key between the communicating parties, for example Skype or Hushmail. The end-to-end encryption paradigm does not directly address risks at the endpoints of the communication themselves, such as the technical exploitation of clients, poor quality random number generators, or key escrow. E2EE also does not address traffic analysis, which relates to things such as the identities of the endpoints and the times and quantities of messages that are sent. ### SSL/TLS The introduction and rapid growth of e-commerce on the World Wide Web in the mid-1990s made it obvious that some form of authentication and encryption was needed. Netscape took the first shot at a new standard. At the time, the dominant web browser was Netscape Navigator. Netscape created a standard called secure socket layer (SSL). SSL requires a server with a certificate. When a client requests access to an SSL-secured server, the server sends a copy of the certificate to the client. The SSL client checks this certificate (all web browsers come with an exhaustive list of CA root certificates preloaded), and if the certificate checks out, the server is authenticated and the client negotiates a symmetric-key cipher for use in the session. The session is now in a very secure encrypted tunnel between the SSL server and the SSL client. Views of networks ----------------- Users and network administrators typically have different views of their networks. Users can share printers and some servers from a workgroup, which usually means they are in the same geographic location and are on the same LAN, whereas a Network Administrator is responsible to keep that network up and running. A community of interest has less of a connection of being in a local area and should be thought of as a set of arbitrarily located users who share a set of servers, and possibly also communicate via peer-to-peer technologies. Network administrators can see networks from both physical and logical perspectives. The physical perspective involves geographic locations, physical cabling, and the network elements (e.g., routers, bridges and application layer gateways) that interconnect via the transmission media. Logical networks, called, in the TCP/IP architecture, subnets, map onto one or more transmission media. For example, a common practice in a campus of buildings is to make a set of LAN cables in each building appear to be a common subnet, using VLAN technology. Both users and administrators are aware, to varying extents, of the trust and scope characteristics of a network. Again using TCP/IP architectural terminology, an intranet is a community of interest under private administration usually by an enterprise, and is only accessible by authorized users (e.g. employees). Intranets do not have to be connected to the Internet, but generally have a limited connection. An extranet is an extension of an intranet that allows secure communications to users outside of the intranet (e.g. business partners, customers). Unofficially, the Internet is the set of users, enterprises, and content providers that are interconnected by Internet Service Providers (ISP). From an engineering viewpoint, the Internet is the set of subnets, and aggregates of subnets, that share the registered IP address space and exchange information about the reachability of those IP addresses using the Border Gateway Protocol. Typically, the human-readable names of servers are translated to IP addresses, transparently to users, via the directory function of the Domain Name System (DNS). Over the Internet, there can be business-to-business (B2B), business-to-consumer (B2C) and consumer-to-consumer (C2C) communications. When money or sensitive information is exchanged, the communications are apt to be protected by some form of communications security mechanism. Intranets and extranets can be securely superimposed onto the Internet, without any access by general Internet users and administrators, using secure Virtual Private Network (VPN) technology. Journals and newsletters ------------------------ * Open Computer Science (open access journal) See also -------- * Comparison of network diagram software * Cyberspace * History of the Internet * Information Age * Information revolution * ISO/IEC 11801 – International standard for electrical and optical cables * Minimum-Pairs Protocol * Network simulation * Network planning and design * Network traffic control * Cloud * Network on a chip Public Domain This article incorporates public domain material from *Federal Standard 1037C*. General Services Administration. Archived from the original on 2022-01-22. Further reading --------------- * Shelly, Gary, et al. "Discovering Computers" 2003 Edition. * Wendell Odom, Rus Healy, Denise Donohue. (2010) CCIE Routing and Switching. Indianapolis, IN: Cisco Press * Kurose James F and Keith W. Ross: Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach Featuring the Internet, Pearson Education 2005. * William Stallings, *Computer Networking with Internet Protocols and Technology*, Pearson Education 2004. * Important publications in computer networks * Network Communication Architecture and Protocols: OSI Network Architecture 7 Layers Model * Dimitri Bertsekas, and Robert Gallager, "Data Networks," Prentice Hall, 1992.

Computer network

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network

The **Indian peafowl** (***Pavo cristatus***), also known as the **common peafowl**, and **blue peafowl**, is a peafowl species native to the Indian subcontinent. It has been introduced to many other countries. Male peafowl are referred to as **peacocks**, and female peafowl are referred to as **peahens**, although both sexes are often referred to colloquially as a "peacock". Indian peafowl display a marked form of sexual dimorphism. The peacock is brightly coloured, with a predominantly blue fan-like crest of spatula-tipped wire-like feathers and is best known for the long train made up of elongated upper-tail covert feathers which bear colourful eyespots. These stiff feathers are raised into a fan and quivered in a display during courtship. Despite the length and size of these covert feathers, peacocks are still capable of flight. Peahens lack the train, have a white face and iridescent green lower neck, and dull brown plumage. The Indian peafowl lives mainly on the ground in open forest or on land under cultivation where they forage for berries, grains but also prey on snakes, lizards, and small rodents. Their loud calls make them easy to detect, and in forest areas often indicate the presence of a predator such as a tiger. They forage on the ground in small groups and usually try to escape on foot through undergrowth and avoid flying, though they fly into tall trees to roost. The function of the peacock's elaborate train has been debated for over a century. In the 19th century, Charles Darwin found it a puzzle, hard to explain through ordinary natural selection. His later explanation, sexual selection, is widely but not universally accepted. In the 20th century, Amotz Zahavi argued that the train was a handicap, and that males were honestly signalling their fitness in proportion to the splendour of their trains. Despite extensive study, opinions remain divided on the mechanisms involved. The bird is celebrated in Hindu and Greek mythology, and is the national bird of India. The Indian peafowl is listed as of Least Concern on the IUCN Red List. Taxonomy and naming ------------------- Carl Linnaeus in his work *Systema Naturae* in 1758 assigned to the Indian peafowl the technical name of *Pavo cristatus* (means "crested peafowl" in classical Latin). The earliest usage of the word in written English is from around 1300 and spelling variants include pecok, pekok, pecokk, peacocke, peacock, pyckock, poucock, pocok, pokok, pokokke, and poocok among others. The current spelling was established in the late 17th century. Chaucer (1343–1400) used the word to refer to a proud and ostentatious person in his simile "*proud a pekok*" in Troilus and Criseyde (Book I, line 210). The Sanskrit, later Pali, and modern Hindi term for the animal is *maur*. It is debated that the nomenclature of the Maurya Empire, whose first emperor Chandragupta Maurya was raised and influenced by peacock farmers, was named after the terminology. The Greek word for peacock was *taos* and was related to the Persian "tavus" (as in *Takht-i-Tâvus* for the famed Peacock Throne). The Ancient Hebrew word *tuki* (plural *tukkiyim*) has been said to have been derived from the Tamil *tokei* but sometimes traced to the Egyptian *tekh*. In modern Hebrew the word for peacock is "tavas". In Sanskrit, the peacock is known as Mayura and is associated with the killing of snakes. Description ----------- Peacocks are a larger sized bird with a length from bill to tail of 100 to 115 cm (39 to 45 in) and to the end of a fully grown train as much as 195 to 225 cm (77 to 89 in) and weigh 4–6 kg (8.8–13.2 lb). The females, or peahens, are smaller at around 95 cm (37 in) in length and weigh 2.75–4 kg (6.1–8.8 lb). Indian peafowl are among the largest and heaviest representatives of the Phasianidae. So far as is known, only the wild turkey grows notably heavier. The green peafowl is slightly lighter in body mass despite the male having a longer train on average than the male of the Indian species. Their size, colour and shape of crest make them unmistakable within their native distribution range. The male is metallic blue on the crown, the feathers of the head being short and curled. The fan-shaped crest on the head is made of feathers with bare black shafts and tipped with bluish-green webbing. A white stripe above the eye and a crescent shaped white patch below the eye are formed by bare white skin. The sides of the head have iridescent greenish blue feathers. The back has scaly bronze-green feathers with black and copper markings. The scapular and the wings are buff and barred in black, the primaries are chestnut and the secondaries are black. The tail is dark brown and the "train" is made up of elongated upper tail coverts (more than 200 feathers, the actual tail has only 20 feathers) and nearly all of these feathers end with an elaborate eye-spot. A few of the outer feathers lack the spot and end in a crescent shaped black tip. The underside is dark glossy green shading into blackish under the tail. The thighs are buff coloured. The male has a spur on the leg above the hind toe. The adult peahen has a rufous-brown head with a crest as in the male but the tips are chestnut edged with green. The upper body is brownish with pale mottling. The primaries, secondaries and tail are dark brown. The lower neck is metallic green and the breast feathers are dark brown glossed with green. The remaining underparts are whitish. Downy young are pale buff with a dark brown mark on the nape that connects with the eyes. Young males look like the females but the wings are chestnut coloured. The most common calls are a loud *pia-ow* or *may-awe*. The frequency of calling increases before the Monsoon season and may be delivered in alarm or when disturbed by loud noises. In forests, their calls often indicate the presence of a predators such as the tiger. They also make many other calls such as a rapid series of *ka-aan..ka-aan* or a rapid *kok-kok*. They often emit an explosive low-pitched *honk!* when agitated. ### Mutations and hybrids There are several colour mutations of Indian peafowl. These very rarely occur in the wild, but selective breeding has made them common in captivity. The black-shouldered or Japanned mutation was initially considered as a subspecies of the Indian peafowl (*P. c. nigripennis*) (or even a separate species (*P. nigripennis*)) and was a topic of some interest during Darwin's time. It is, however, only a case of genetic variation within the population. In this mutation, the adult male is melanistic with black wings. Young birds with the *nigripennis* mutation are creamy white with fulvous-tipped wings. The gene produces melanism in the male and in the peahen it produces a dilution of colour with creamy white and brown markings. Other forms include the pied and white mutations, all of which are the result of allelic variation at specific loci. Crosses between a male green peafowl (*Pavo muticus*) and a female Indian peafowl (*P. cristatus*) produce a stable hybrid called a "Spalding", named after Mrs. Keith Spalding, a bird fancier in California. There can be problems if birds of unknown pedigree are released into the wild, as the viability of such hybrids and their offspring is often reduced (see Haldane's rule and outbreeding depression). Distribution and habitat ------------------------ The Indian peafowl is a resident breeder across the Indian subcontinent and inhabits the drier lowland areas of Sri Lanka. In the Indian subcontinent, it is found mainly below an elevation of 1,800 m (5,900 ft) and in rare cases seen at about 2,000 m (6,600 ft). It is found in moist and dry-deciduous forests, but can adapt to live in cultivated regions and around human habitations and is usually found where water is available. In many parts of northern India, they are protected by religious practices and will forage around villages and towns for scraps. Some have suggested that the peacock was introduced into Europe by Alexander the Great, while others say the bird had reached Athens by 450 BCE and may have been introduced even earlier. It has since been introduced in many other parts of the world and has become feral in some areas. The Indian peafowl has been introduced to the United States, the United Kingdom, Mexico, Honduras, Costa Rica, Colombia, Guyana, Suriname, Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina, South Africa, Spain, Portugal, Greece, Italy, Madagascar, Mauritius, Réunion, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Australia, New Zealand, Croatia and the island of Lokrum. Genome sequencing ----------------- The first whole-genome sequencing of Indian peafowl identified a total of 15,970 protein-coding sequences, along with 213 tRNAs, 236 snoRNAs, and 540 miRNAs. The peacock genome was found to have less repetitive DNA (8.62%) than that of the chicken genome (9.45%). PSMC analysis suggested that the peacock suffered at least two bottlenecks (around four million years ago and again 450,000 years ago), which resulted in a severe reduction in its effective population size. Behaviour and ecology --------------------- Peafowl are best known for the male's extravagant display feathers which, despite actually growing from their back, are thought of as a tail. The "train" is in reality made up of the enormously elongated upper tail coverts. The tail itself is brown and short as in the peahen. The colours result not from any green or blue pigments but from the micro-structure of the feathers and the resulting optical phenomena. The long train feathers (and tarsal spurs) of the male develop only after the second year of life. Fully developed trains are found in birds older than four years. In northern India, these begin to develop each February and are moulted at the end of August. The moult of the flight feathers may be spread out across the year. Peafowl forage on the ground in small groups, known as musters, that usually have a cock and 3 to 5 hens. After the breeding season, the flocks tend to be made up only of females and young. They are found in the open early in the mornings and tend to stay in cover during the heat of the day. They are fond of dust-bathing and at dusk, groups walk in single file to a favourite waterhole to drink. When disturbed, they usually escape by running and rarely take to flight. Peafowl produce loud calls especially in the breeding season. They may call at night when alarmed and neighbouring birds may call in a relay like series. Nearly seven different call variants have been identified in the peacocks apart from six alarm calls that are commonly produced by both sexes. Peafowl roost in groups during the night on tall trees but may sometimes make use of rocks, buildings or pylons. In the Gir forest, they chose tall trees in steep river banks. Birds arrive at dusk and call frequently before taking their position on the roost trees. Due to this habit of congregating at the roost, many population studies are made at these sites. The population structure is not well understood. In a study in northern India (Jodhpur), the number of males was 170–210 for 100 females but a study involving evening counts at the roost site in southern India (Injar) suggested a ratio of 47 males for 100 females. ### Sexual selection The colours of the peacock and the contrast with the much duller peahen were a puzzle to early thinkers. Charles Darwin wrote to Asa Gray that the *"sight of a feather in a peacock's tail, whenever I gaze at it, makes me sick!"* as he failed to see an adaptive advantage for the extravagant tail which seemed only to be an encumbrance. Darwin developed a second principle of sexual selection to resolve the problem, though in the prevailing intellectual trends of Victorian Britain, the theory failed to gain widespread attention. The American artist Abbott Handerson Thayer tried to show, from his own imagination, the value of the eyespots as disruptive camouflage in a 1907 painting. He used the painting in his 1909 book *Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom*, denying the possibility of sexual selection and arguing that essentially all forms of animal colouration had evolved as camouflage. He was roundly criticised in a lengthy paper by Theodore Roosevelt, who wrote that Thayer had only managed to paint the peacock's plumage as camouflage by sleight of hand, "with the blue sky showing through the leaves in just sufficient quantity here and there to warrant the author-artists explaining that the wonderful blue hues of the peacock's neck are obliterative because they make it fade into the sky." In the 1970s a possible resolution to the apparent contradiction between natural selection and sexual selection was proposed. Amotz Zahavi argued that peacocks honestly signalled the handicap of having a large and costly train. However, the mechanism may be less straightforward than it seems – the cost could arise from depression of the immune system by the hormones that enhance feather development. The ornate train is believed to be the result of sexual selection by the females. Males use their ornate trains in a courtship display: they raise the feathers into a fan and quiver them. However, recent studies have failed to find a relation between the number of displayed eyespots and mating success. Marion Petrie tested whether or not these displays signaled a male's genetic quality by studying a feral population of peafowl in Whipsnade Wildlife Park in southern England. She showed that the number of eyespots in the train predicted a male's mating success, and this success could be manipulated by cutting the eyespots off some of the male's ornate feathers. Although the removal of eyespots makes males less successful in mating, eyespot removal substantially changes the appearance of male peafowls. It is likely that females mistake these males for sub-adults, or perceive that the males are physically damaged. Moreover, in a feral peafowl population, there is little variation in the number of eyespots in adult males. It is rare for adult males to lose a significant number of eyespots. Therefore, females' selection might depend on other sexual traits of males' trains. The quality of train is an honest signal of the condition of males; peahens do select males on the basis of their plumage. A recent study on a natural population of Indian peafowls in the Shivalik area of India has proposed a "high maintenance handicap" theory. It states that only the fittest males can afford the time and energy to maintain a long tail. Therefore, the long train is an indicator of good body condition, which results in greater mating success. While train length seems to correlate positively with MHC diversity in males, females do not appear to use train length to choose males. A study in Japan also suggests that peahens do not choose peacocks based on their ornamental plumage, including train length, number of eyespots and train symmetry. Another study in France brings up two possible explanations for the conflicting results that exist. The first explanation is that there might be a genetic variation of the trait of interest under different geographical areas due to a founder effect and/or a genetic drift. The second explanation suggests that "the cost of trait expression may vary with environmental conditions," so that a trait that is indicative of a particular quality may not work in another environment. Fisher's runaway model proposes positive feedback between female preference for elaborate trains and the elaborate train itself. This model assumes that the male train is a relatively recent evolutionary adaptation. However, a molecular phylogeny study on peacock-pheasants shows the opposite; the most recently evolved species is actually the least ornamented one. This finding suggests a chase-away sexual selection, in which "females evolve resistance to male ploys". A study in Japan goes on to conclude that the "peacocks' train is an obsolete signal for which female preference has already been lost or weakened". However, some disagreement has arisen in recent years concerning whether or not female peafowl do indeed select males with more ornamented trains. In contrast to Petrie's findings, a seven-year Japanese study of free-ranging peafowl came to the conclusion that female peafowl do not select mates solely on the basis of their trains. Mariko Takahashi found no evidence that peahens expressed any preference for peacocks with more elaborate trains (such as trains having more ocelli), a more symmetrical arrangement, or a greater length. Takahashi determined that the peacock's train was not the universal target of female mate choice, showed little variance across male populations, and, based on physiological data collected from this group of peafowl, do not correlate to male physical conditions. Adeline Loyau and her colleagues responded to Takahashi's study by voicing concern that alternative explanations for these results had been overlooked, and that these might be essential for the understanding of the complexity of mate choice. They concluded that female choice might indeed vary in different ecological conditions. A 2013 study that tracked the eye movements of peahens responding to male displays found that they looked in the direction of the upper train of feathers only when at long distances and that they looked only at the lower feathers when males displayed close to them. The rattling of the tail and the shaking of the wings helped in keeping the attention of females. ### Breeding Peacocks are polygamous, and the breeding season is spread out but appears to be dependent on the rains. Peafowls usually reach sexual maturity at the age of 2 to 3 years old. Several males may congregate at a lek site and these males are often closely related. Males at leks appear to maintain small territories next to each other and they allow females to visit them and make no attempt to guard harems. Females do not appear to favour specific males. The males display in courtship by raising the upper-tail coverts into an arched fan. The wings are held half open and drooped and it periodically vibrates the long feathers, producing a ruffling sound. The cock faces the hen initially and struts and prances around and sometimes turns around to display the tail. Males may also freeze over food to invite a female in a form of courtship feeding. Males may display even in the absence of females. When a male is displaying, females do not appear to show any interest and usually continue their foraging. The peak season in southern India is April to May, January to March in Sri Lanka and June in northern India. The nest is a shallow scrape in the ground lined with leaves, sticks and other debris. Nests are sometimes placed on buildings and, in earlier times, have been recorded using the disused nest platforms of the white-rumped vultures. The clutch consists of 4–8 fawn to buff white eggs which are incubated only by the female. The eggs take about 28 days to hatch. The chicks are nidifugous and follow the mother around after hatching. Downy young may sometimes climb on their mothers' back and the female may carry them in flight to a safe tree branch. An unusual instance of a male incubating a clutch of eggs has been reported. ### Feeding Peafowl are omnivorous and eat seeds, insects (including termites), worms, fruits, small mammals, frogs, and reptiles (such as lizards). They feed on small snakes but keep their distance from larger ones. In the Gir forest of Gujarat, a large percentage of their food is made up of the fallen berries of *Zizyphus*. They also feed on tree and flower buds, petals, grain, and grass and bamboo shoots. Around cultivated areas, peafowl feed on a wide range of crops such as groundnut, tomato, paddy, chili and even bananas. Around human habitations, they feed on a variety of food scraps and even human excreta. In the countryside, it is particularly partial to crops and garden plants. ### Mortality factors Large animals such as leopards, dholes, golden jackals, and tigers can ambush adult peafowls. However, only leopards regularly prey upon peafowls as adult peafowls are difficult to catch since they can usually escape ground predators by flying into trees. They are also sometimes hunted by large birds of prey such as the changeable hawk-eagle and rock eagle-owl. Chicks are somewhat more prone to predation than adult birds. Adults living near human habitations are sometimes hunted by domestic dogs or by humans in some areas (southern Tamil Nadu) for folk remedies involving the use of "peacock oil". Foraging in groups provides some safety as there are more eyes to look out for predators. They also roost on high tree tops to avoid terrestrial predators, especially leopards. In captivity, birds have been known to live for 23 years but it is estimated that they live for only about 15 years in the wild. Conservation and status ----------------------- Indian peafowl are widely distributed in the wild across South Asia and protected both culturally in many areas and by law in India. Conservative estimates of the population put them at more than 100,000. Illegal poaching for meat, however, continues and declines have been noted in parts of India. Peafowl breed readily in captivity and as free-ranging ornamental fowl. Zoos, parks, bird-fanciers and dealers across the world maintain breeding populations that do not need to be augmented by the capture of wild birds. Poaching of peacocks for their meat and feathers and accidental poisoning by feeding on pesticide treated seeds are known threats to wild birds. Methods to identify if feathers have been plucked or have been shed naturally have been developed, as Indian law allows only the collection of feathers that have been shed. In parts of India, the birds can be a nuisance to agriculture as they damage crops. Its adverse effects on crops, however, seem to be offset by the beneficial role it plays by consuming prodigious quantities of pests such as grasshoppers. They can also be a problem in gardens and homes where they damage plants, attack their reflections (thereby breaking glass and mirrors), perch and scratch cars or leave their droppings. Many cities where they have been introduced and gone feral have peafowl management programmes. These include educating citizens on how to prevent the birds from causing damage while treating the birds humanely. In culture ---------- Prominent in many cultures, the peacock has been used in numerous iconic representations, including being designated the national bird of India in 1963. The peacock, known as *mayura* in Sanskrit, has enjoyed a fabled place in India since and is frequently depicted in temple art, mythology, poetry, folk music and traditions. A Sanskrit derivation of *mayura* is from the root *mi* for kill and said to mean "killer of snakes". It is also likely that the Sanskrit term is a borrowing from Proto-Dravidian \*mayVr (whence the Tamil word for peacock மயில் (mayil)) or a regional Wanderwort. Many Hindu deities are associated with the bird, Krishna is often depicted with a feather in his headband, while worshippers of Shiva associate the bird as the steed of the God of war, Kartikeya (also known as Skanda or Murugan). A story in the *Uttara Ramayana* describes the head of the Devas, Indra, who unable to defeat Ravana, sheltered under the wing of peacock and later blessed it with a "thousand eyes" and fearlessness from serpents. Another story has Indra who after being cursed with a thousand ulcers was transformed into a peacock with a thousand eyes and this curse was removed by Vishnu. In Buddhist philosophy, the peacock represents wisdom. Peacock feathers are used in many rituals and ornamentation. Peacock motifs are widespread in Indian temple architecture, old coinage, textiles and continue to be used in many modern items of art and utility. A folk belief found in many parts of India is that the peacock does not copulate with the peahen but that she is impregnated by other means. The stories vary and include the idea that the peacock looks at its ugly feet and cries whereupon the tears are fed on by the peahen causing it to be orally impregnated while other variants incorporate sperm transfer from beak to beak. Similar ideas have also been ascribed to Indian crow species. In Greek mythology the origin of the peacock's plumage is explained in the tale of Hera and Argus. The main figure of the Yazidi religion Yezidism, Melek Taus, is most commonly depicted as a peacock. Peacock motifs are widely used even today such as in the logos of the US NBC and the PTV television networks and the Sri Lankan Airlines. These birds were often kept in menageries and as ornaments in large gardens and estates. In medieval times, knights in Europe took a "Vow of the Peacock" and decorated their helmets with its plumes. In several Robin Hood stories, the titular archer uses arrows fletched with peacock feathers. Feathers were buried with Viking warriors and the flesh of the bird was said to cure snake venom and many other maladies. Numerous uses in Ayurveda have been documented. Peafowl were said to keep an area free of snakes. In 1526, the legal issue as to whether peacocks were wild or domestic fowl was thought sufficiently important for Cardinal Wolsey to summon all the English judges to give their opinion, which was that they are domestic fowl. In Anglo-Indian usage of the 1850s, to peacock meant making visits to ladies and gentlemen in the morning. In the 1890s, the term "peacocking" in Australia referred to the practice of buying up the best pieces of land ("picking the eyes") so as to render the surrounding lands valueless. The English word "peacock" has come to be used to describe a man who is very proud or gives a lot of attention to his clothing. A golden peacock (in Yiddish, *Di Goldene Pave*) is considered by some as a symbol of Ashkenazi Jewish culture, and is the subject of several folktales and songs in Yiddish. Peacocks are frequently used in European heraldry. Heraldic peacocks are most often depicted as facing the viewer and with their tails displayed. In this pose, the peacock is referred to as being "in his pride". Peacock tails, in isolation from the rest of the bird, are rare in British heraldry, but see frequent use in German systems. The American television network NBC uses a stylized peacock as a legacy of its early introduction of color television, alluding to the brilliant color of a peacock, and continues to promote the bird as a trademark of its broadcasting and streaming services. Further reading --------------- * Galusha, JG; Hill, LM (1996) A study of the behaviour of Indian Peacocks *Pavo cristatus* on Protection Island, Jefferson County, Washington, USA. Pavo 34(1&2):23–31. * Ganguli, U (1965) A Peahen nests on a roof. *Newsletter for Birdwatchers* . 5(4):4–6. * Prakash, M (1968) Mating of Peacocks *Pavo cristatus*. *Newsletter for Birdwatchers* . 8(6), 4–5. * Rao, MS; Zaki, S; Ganesh, T (1981). "Colibacillosis in a Peacock". *Current Science*. **50** (12): 550–551. * Sharma, IK (1969). "Habitat et comportment du Pavon (*Pavo cristatus*)". *Alauda*. **37** (3): 219–223. * Sharma, IK (1970). "Analyse ecologique des parades du paon (*Pavo cristatus*)". *Alauda*. **38** (4): 290–294. * Sharma, IK (1972). "Etude ecologique de la reproduction de la paon (*Pavo cristatus*)". *Alauda*. **40** (4): 378–384. * Sharma, IK (1973). "Ecological studies of biomass of the Peafowl (*Pavo cristatus*)". *Tori*. **22** (93–94): 25–29. doi:10.3838/jjo1915.22.25. * Sharma, IK (1974). "Notes ecologique sur le paon bleu, *Pavo cristatus*". *Les Carnets de Zoologie*. **34**: 41–45. * Sharma, IK (1981). "Adaptations and commensality of the Peafowl (*Pavo cristatus*) in the Indian Thar Desert". *Annals Arid Zone*. **20** (2): 71–75. * Shrivastava AB, Nair NR, Awadhiya RP, Katiyar AK (1992). "Traumatic ventriculitis in Peacock (*Pavo cristatus*)". *Indian Vet. J*. **69** (8): 755.

Indian peafowl

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_peafowl

***Ficus religiosa*** or **sacred fig** is a species of fig native to the Indian subcontinent and Indochina that belongs to Moraceae, the fig or mulberry family. It is also known as the **bodhi tree**, **pimple tree**, **peepul tree**, **peepal tree**, **pipala tree**, **ashvattha tree** (in India and Nepal), or Asathu (ඇසතු) in Sinhala The sacred fig is considered to have a religious significance in three major religions that originated on the Indian subcontinent, Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. Hindu and Jain ascetics consider the species to be sacred and often meditate under it. A tree of these species under which Gautama Buddha is believed to have attained enlightenment. The sacred fig is the state tree of the Indian states of Odisha, Bihar and Haryana. Description ----------- *Ficus religiosa* is a large dry season-deciduous or semi-evergreen tree up to 30 metres (98 ft) tall and with a trunk diameter of up to 3 metres (9.8 ft). The leaves are cordate in shape with a distinctive extended drip tip; they are 10–17 centimetres (3.9–6.7 in) long and 8–12 centimetres (3.1–4.7 in) broad, with a 6–10 centimetres (2.4–3.9 in) petiole. The fruits are small figs 1–1.5 centimetres (0.39–0.59 in) in diameter, green ripening to purple. *F. religiosa* has a lifespan ranging between 900 and 1,500 years. The Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi tree in the city of Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka is estimated to be more than 2,250 years old. Distribution ------------ *Ficus religiosa* is native to most of the Indian subcontinent – Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, Pakistan and India including the Assam region, Eastern Himalaya and the Nicobar Islands, as well as part of Indochina – the Andaman Islands, Thailand, Myanmar and Peninsular Malaysia. It has been widely introduced elsewhere, particularly in the rest of tropical Asia, but also in Iran, Florida and Venezuela. Ecology ------- *Ficus religiosa* suitably grows at altitudes ranging from 10 metres (33 ft) up to 1,520 metres (4,990 ft). Due to the climatic conditions which are prevalent throughout different heat zones, it can grow at latitudes ranging from 30°N to 5°S. It can tolerate air temperatures ranging between 0 to 35 °C (32 to 95 °F), beyond this upper limit its growth diminishes. It grows on a wide variety of soils but preferably needs deep, alluvial sandy loam with good drainage. It is also found on shallow soils including rock crevices. ### Association *Ficus religiosa* is associated with Blastophaga quadriceps, an agaonid wasp which acts as its pollinator as this wasp lays its eggs only on trees of this species. ### Environment *Ficus religiosa* is tolerant to various climate zones (Köppen climate classification categories of Af, Am, Aw/As, Cfa, Cwa and Csa) and various types of soils. In Paraguay the tree species occurs in forests at lower elevations, and in China the species has been reported growing at altitudes ranging from 400 to 700 metres (1,300 to 2,300 ft). In India, being a native species, it occurs both naturally in wild as well as cultivated up to altitudes of 1,520 metres (4,990 ft). ### Climate *Ficus religiosa* is tolerant to widely varying climatic conditions such as Tropical rainforest climate where the region receives more than 60 millimetres (6.0 cm) of precipitation per month, Tropical monsoon climate where average precipitation ranges from 60 millimetres (6.0 cm) in the driest month to 100 millimetres (10 cm), Tropical savanna climate with dry summer where average precipitation ranges from 60 millimetres (6.0 cm) per month in summers to 100 millimetres (10 cm) per month in winters, Tropical savanna climate with dry winter where average precipitation ranges from to 60 millimetres (6.0 cm) per month in winters to 100 millimetres (10 cm) per month in summers, Warm temperate climate with dry winter where average temperature ranges from 0 to 10 °C (32 to 50 °F) and winters are dry, as well as Warm temperate climate with dry summer where average temperature ranges from 0 to 10 °C (32 to 50 °F) and summers are dry. ### Invasiveness Unlike most epiphytic jungle figs, which ring the stems of dicotyledonous support trees from the outside, the epiphytic bushes of *F. religiosa* are not true stranglers. Their roots penetrate inside the stem of the support, eventually splitting it from within. *Ficus religiosa* has been listed as an "environmental weed" or "naturalised weed" by the Global Compendium of Weeds (Randall, 2012). It has been assigned an invasiveness high risk score of 7 in a risk assessment prepared for the species' invasiveness in Hawaii by PIER.[*clarification needed*] Such a high score predicts it will become a major pest in suitable climate zones. The major reasons for its invasive behaviour are its fast-growing nature, tolerance to various climate zones and soil types, reported lifespan of over 3,000 years, and its suffocating growth habit as it often begins life as an epiphyte. In culture and heritage ----------------------- The earliest known record of *Ficus religiosa* in human culture is the use of peepal leaf motifs in the pottery of the Helmand culture, found at Mundigak site, in Kandahar, Afghanistan, dating back to third millennium BCE. The Indus Valley Civilisation venerated this tree and its leaf and drew religious art of it. The peepal tree is considered sacred by the followers of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna says, "I am the Peepal tree among the trees, Narada among the Deva Rishi (Divine sages), Bhrigu among the Saptha-Maharishis, Chitraratha among the Gandharvas, And sage Kapila among the Siddhas." In India, the medal for the highest civilian award, Bharat Ratna, is modelled on the leaf of a Peepal tree. ### Buddhism Gautama Buddha attained enlightenment (*bodhi*) while meditating underneath a *Ficus religiosa*. The site is in present-day Bodh Gaya in Bihar, India. The original tree was destroyed, and has been replaced several times. A branch of the original tree was rooted in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka in 288 BCE and is known as Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi; it is the oldest living human-planted flowering plant (angiosperm) in the world. In Theravada Buddhist Southeast Asia, the tree's massive trunk is often the site of Buddhist or animist shrines. Not all *Ficus religiosa* are ordinarily called a *Bodhi Tree*. A true Bodhi Tree is traditionally considered a tree that has as its parent another Bodhi Tree, and so on, until the first Bodhi Tree, which is the tree under which Gautama is said to have gained enlightenment. ### Hinduism Sadhus (Hindu ascetics) meditate beneath sacred fig trees, and Hindus do pradakshina (circumambulation, or meditative pacing) around the sacred fig tree as a mark of worship. Usually seven pradakshinas are done around the tree in the morning time chanting "*vriksha rajaya namah*", meaning "salutation to the king of trees". It is claimed that the 27 stars (constellations) constituting 12 houses (*rasis*) and 9 planets are specifically represented precisely by 27 trees—one for each star. The Bodhi Tree is said to represent Pushya (Western star name γ, δ and θ Cancri in the Cancer constellation). *Plaksa* is a possible Sanskrit term for *Ficus religiosa*. However, according to Macdonell and Keith (1912), it denotes the wavy-leaved fig tree (*Ficus infectoria*) instead. In Hindu texts, the Plaksa tree is associated with the source of the Sarasvati River. The *Skanda Purana* states that the Sarasvati originates from the water pot of Brahma flows from Plaksa on the Himalayas. According to Vamana Purana 32.1-4, the Sarasvati was rising from the Plaksa tree (Pipal tree). *Plaksa Pra-sravana* denotes the place where the Sarasvati appears. In the Rigveda Sutras, Plaksa Pra-sravana refers to the source of the Sarasvati. Cultivation ----------- *Ficus religiosa* is grown by specialty tree plant nurseries for use as an ornamental tree, in gardens and parks in tropical and subtropical climates. Peepul trees are native to Indian subcontinent and thrive in hot, humid weather. They prefer full sunlight and can grow in all soil types, though loam is the best. When planting, use soil with a pH of 7 or below. While it is possible for the plant to grow indoors in a pot, it grows best outside. Young peepul needs proper nourishment. It requires full sunlight and proper watering. Sacred fig occurs naturally in submontane forest regions. As with many Ficus trees, these are well suited for Bonsai training. In the Middle East, it is preferably planted as an avenue or road verge tree. In the Philippines and in Nicaragua the species is cultivated in parks and along roadsides and pavements, while in Paraguay it occurs in forests at lower elevations. In Thailand โพ or "Pho" trees grow everywhere, but in the Wats (temples) they are revered, and usually are several hundred years old, with trunks up to 20 feet (6.1 meters) wide. As with all sacred trees in Thailand, they have a saffron cloth wrapped around the base. A yearly ritual involving the Bo Trees at wats is the purchasing of "mai kam sii" ไม้คำ้ศริ, which are "supports" that look like crutches and are placed under the spreading branches as if holding them up. The purchase money helps fund the wat, a central part of Thai life. Uses ---- *Ficus religiosa* is used in traditional medicine for about fifty types of disorders including asthma, diabetes, diarrhea, epilepsy, gastric problems, inflammatory disorders, infectious and sexual disorders. Farmers in North India also cultivate it for its fig fruit. The trunk of this tree is used by farmers as a soil leveller. After seed harvesting, the rectangular trunk is connected to tractors and levels the soil. See also -------- * Bodhi Tree * Shitala Devi * Ficus Ruminalis * "Peepul". *Encyclopedia Americana*. 1920. * The Bodhi tree revealed by old picture

Ficus religiosa

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ficus_religiosa

**East Kalimantan** (Indonesian: ) is a province of Indonesia. Its territory comprises the eastern portion of Borneo. It had a population of about 3.03 million at the 2010 census (within the current boundary), 3.42 million at the 2015 census, and 3.766 million at the 2020 census. The official estimate as at mid 2022 was 3,859,783. (but see Note (b) below table under "Administrative divisions") Its capital is the city of Samarinda. East Kalimantan has a total area of 127,346.92 square kilometres (49,168.92 sq mi) and is the second least densely populated province in Kalimantan. The majority of the region shares a maritime border to the east with West Sulawesi and Central Sulawesi; its Cape Mangkalihat separates the Makassar Strait from the Celebes Sea. Its former northernmost region was split off in October 2012 and is now North Kalimantan; meanwhile it still shares land border to the west with West Kalimantan and Central Kalimantan; to its south, East Kalimantan borders South Kalimantan. The province bordered Sabah before the split, but still borders Sarawak. In December 2012, the existing West Kutai Regency was split in two, with the northwesternmost five districts forming a new Mahakam Ulu Regency. East Kalimantan is now divided into seven regencies and three cities. Isran Noor is the current governor of East Kalimantan and Hadi Mulyadi is its vice governor. New national capital -------------------- The province will host the future capital city of Indonesia that will be built on the border of Kutai Kartanegara and Penajam North Paser regencies. The future capital is due to be named Nusantara, with construction originally projected to start in 2020, and intended to conclude in 2024. However, at a hearing before Committee V of Indonesia's House of Representatives on 9 June 2020, a government representative asserted that the government has not allocated the 2022 budget for the project (for 2022, the ministry proposed a budget worth over 100.46 trillion rupiah - over 7 billion US$ - a steep reduction from the figure of 149.81 trillion rupiah in 2021). Earlier, the National Planning Development Authority had said that the total sum needed to move the capital frm its current location in Jakarta to East Kalimantan province amounted to 486 trillion rupiah, of which 265.2 trillion will be mobilised through the public-private partnership (PPP), 127.3 trillion from private special funds, and 93.5 trillion from the state budget. But the Ministry of Finance has now said that the government has switched its priorities to mitigating the effect of COVID-19. The ministry announced that it has not allocated budget for the new capital project this month . History ------- East Kalimantan was once mostly covered by tropical rainforest. In prehistoric times, there was limestone cave called *Lubang Jeriji Saléh* located in the Sangkulirang-Mangkalihat Karst in the district of Bengalon, East Kutai, believed to contain one of the oldest figurative art in the world. The cave paintings were first spotted in 1994 by the French explorer Luc-Henri Fage and the French archaeologist Jean-Michel Chazine, from Kalimanthrope. In 2018, a team of scientists investigating the cave, led by Maxime Aubert from Griffith University and Pindi Setiawan from the Bandung Institute of Technology, published a report in the journal *Nature* identifying the paintings as the world's oldest known figurative art. The team had previously investigated cave paintings in the neighbouring island of Sulawesi. In order to date the paintings, the team used dating techniques on the calcium carbonate (limestone) deposits close to them. The ancient Yūpa inscription of Mulavarman, king of Kutai Martadipura dating back to the 4th century CE discovered in present Muara Kaman area, Kutai Kartanegara Regency East Kalimantan is home to several kingdoms, such as the first and oldest Hindu kingdom of Indonesia, the Kingdom of Kutai Martadipura founded in the 4th century CE, it was then succeeded by the Sultanate of Kutai ing Martadipura in the 14th century CE. Other kingdoms are also located in East Kalimantan such as the Sultanate of Pasir. East Kalimantan region include Pasir, Kutai, Berau and also Karasikan (Buranun / pre-Sultanate of Sulu) claimed as conquered territory Suryanata Maharaja, the governor of Majapahit in the State Dipa (which is located in the Great Temple in Amuntai) until 1620 in the Sultanate of Banjar. However, in the Chinese History Annals, Ming shi 明史, at 1417, Kalimantan was recorded as a kingdom under the rule of the Philippine kingdom of then Hindu Sulu as Kalimantan was ruled by a Sulu monarch named Mahalatu Gelamading (Maharaja Klainbantangan) where his title, Klainbantangan, in Chinese rendering, was named after his territory Kalimantan. At this point in time, Sulu had rebelled against Majapahit rule and had invaded Northeast and East Borneo until the very territory of Kalimantan. Between the years 1620–1624, kingdoms in East Kalimantan turned into an area influence of the Sultanate of Sultan Alauddin Makassar, before the Bungaya agreement. According to the Hikayat Banjar, the Sultan of Makassar never borrowed land for trade covers an area east and southeast of Borneo to the Sultan Mustain Billah of Banjar when Kiai Martasura sent to Makassar and entered into an agreement with the Sultan Tallo I Mangngadaccinna Daeng I Ba'le 'Sultan Mahmud Karaeng Pattingalloang, which became Mangkubumi and principal advisor to the Sultan Muhammad Said, king of Gowa in 1638–1654 and also in-law of Sultan Hasanuddin, which will make the East Kalimantan region as a place to trade for the Sultanate of Makassar (Gowa-Tallo), since that began to arrive people from South Sulawesi. However, based on the agreement between the Sultanate of Banjar and the Dutch East India Company (VOC) in 1635, VOC help Banjar restore lands in East Kalimantan into spheres of influence of the Sultanate of Banjar. It is embodied in the Bungaya agreement, that the Sultanate of Makassar are not allowed to trade up to the east and the north Borneo In accordance with treaties, on January 1, 1817, Sultan Sulaiman of Banjar handed East Kalimantan, Central Kalimantan, part of West and South Kalimantan (including Banjarmasin) over to the Dutch East Indies. On May 4, 1826, Sultan Adam al-wathiq Billah of Banjar reaffirmed the handover of these territories to the Dutch East Indies colonial administration. In 1846, the Dutch began to put a Resident Assistant in East Borneo at Samarinda (now the province of East Kalimantan and the eastern part of South Kalimantan) named H. Von Dewall. East Kalimantan was then part of the Dutch East Indies. East Kalimantan with its then administrative area was established based on the Law No. 25 of 1956 with the first governor being APT Pranoto. Geography --------- East Kalimantan Province comprises a land area of 125,336.81 square kilometers and a comprehensive ocean management area of 25,656 km2, located between 113°44'E and 119°00'E, and between 2°33'N and 2°25'S. The province is divided into seven regencies (*kabupaten*) and three cities (*kota*), together subdivided into 103 districts (*kecamatan*) and then into 1,026 villages (rural *desa* and urban *kelurahan*). The regencies (with their administrative capitals) and cities are enumerated below. East Kalimantan is one of the main gates to the eastern part of Indonesia. The area is also known as a storehouse of timber and mining, has hundreds of rivers (scattered across almost all regencies and cities) which area the main means of transportation in addition to land transport, with the longest river being the Mahakam. East Kalimantan borders North Kalimantan in the north, South Kalimantan in the south, Central Kalimantan in the southwest, and West Kalimantan and Sarawak in the east. It touches the Celebes Sea and the Makassar Strait in the east, with its large Mangkalihat Peninsula separating the two. There are hills in almost all districts, and there are numerous lakes. Most lakes are located in the Kutai Regency, with the most extensive lakes, Semayang and Melintang, having an area of 13,000 ha and 11,000 ha respectively. ### Climate Such as the climate of Indonesia in general, East Kalimantan tropical climate and has two seasons, dry and rainy seasons. The dry season usually occurs in May to October, while the rainy season in November to April. This situation continued every year interspersed with transitional season in certain months. Moreover, because of its location on the equator, the climate in East Kalimantan are also affected by wind monsoon, monsoon wind is November–April west and east monsoon winds from May to October. In recent years, the situation in East Kalimantan season is sometimes erratic. In the months that it is supposed to rain, there is no rain at all, or vice versa in the months that should be dry it rains for a much longer time. #### Temperature and humidity Temperatures somewhere high and low are determined by the area of the ocean surface and the distance from the beach. In general, East Kalimantan hot climates with temperatures in 2013 ranged from 21.6 °C in Berau October to 35.6 °C in Berau in September. Aside from being a tropical area with extensive forests, in 2013 the average humidity between 83 and 87 percent of East Kalimantan. The lowest air humidity observed by the meteorological station Samarinda happens in a few months with 82 percent humidity. While the highest occurred in Berau in February with 91 percent humidity. #### Rainfall and wind conditions Rainfall in East Kalimantan region varies by month and location of monitoring stations. Average highest rainfall recorded at the Meteorological Station Berau amounted to 245.1 mm and the lowest for the year 2013 was recorded at the Meteorological Station Samarinda is 237.8 mm. At some monitoring stations monitor wind conditions in East Kalimantan in 2013. Observations show that wind speeds between 3 and 4 knots. The highest wind speed was 4 knots in Balikpapan and Berau, while the lowest was 3 knots in Samarinda. Administrative divisions ------------------------ Historical population| Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1971 | 733,797 | —     | | 1980 | 1,218,016 | +66.0% | | 1990 | 1,876,663 | +54.1% | | 1995 | 2,314,183 | +23.3% | | 2000 | 2,451,895 | +6.0% | | 2010 | 3,028,487 | +23.5% | | 2015 | 3,422,676 | +13.0% | | 2020 | 3,766,039 | +10.0% | | 2022 | 3,859,783 | +2.5% | | Source: Badan Pusat Statistik 2023 and previous.These figures before 2010 include the population of the city and four northerly regencies split off in that year to form the new North Kalimantan Province; subsequent figures exclude them. | When it was first created, East Kalimantan province was composed of five regencies (*kabupaten*) - **Paser** (spelt *Pasir* until 2007), **Kutai**, **Kutai Kartanegara**, **Berau** and **Bulungan** - and two cities (*kota*) - **Balikpapan** and **Samarinda**. On 8 October 1997, a third city - **Tarakan** - was created from part of Bulungan Regency. On 4 October 1999 a fourth city - **Bontang** - was created from part of Kutai Regency, while four new regencies were created - **Malinau** and **Nunukan** from parts of Bulungan Regency, and **East Kutai** and **West Kutai** from the remaining parts of Kutai Regency (which ceased to exist). Two further regencies were set up - **Penajam North Paser** from part of Pasir Regency on 10 April 2002, and **Tana Tidung** from part of Bulungan Regency on 17 July 2007. By early 2012 therefore, East Kalimantan was divided into ten regencies and four cities. On 22 October 2012, the Indonesian House of Representatives agreed to the creation of a new province out of the four most northerly of the Regencies in East Kalimantan, namely Bulungan, Malinau, Nunukan and Tana Tidung, together with one city, Tarakan. Accordingly, these were split off to form the new province of North Kalimantan on 25 October 2012, while the existing West Kutai Regency was split into two on 14 December 2012, with the northern districts split off to form the new **Mahakam Ulu** Regency, leaving the following seven regencies and three cities to comprise the reduced East Kalimantan: | Name | Area (km2) | Pop'n 2010 census | Pop'n 2015 census | Pop'n 2020 census | Pop'n mid 2022 estimate | Capital | HDI2019 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Paser Regency | 11,096.96 | 230,316 | 261,736 | 275,452 | 280,065 | Tanah Grogot | 0.723 (High) | | Penajam North Paser Regency (Penajam Paser Utara) | 2,923.73 | 142,922 | 154,020 | 178,681 | 183,043 | Penajam | 0.716 (High) | | Balikpapan City | 512.25 | 557,579 | 614,663 | 688,318 | 703,611 | Balikpapan | 0.801 (Very High) | | West Kutai Regency (Kutai Barat) | 13,709.92 | 140,097 | 145,728 | 172,288 | 172,288 | Sendawar | 0.716 (High) | | Mahakam Ulu Regency (Mahakam Ulu) | 19,449.41 | 24,994 | 25,946 | 32,513 | 33,535 | Ujoh Bilang | 0.676 (Medium) | | Kutai Kartanegara Regency | 25,988.08 | 626,680 | 716,319 | 729,382 | 738,189 | Tenggarong | 0.738 (High) | | Samarinda City | 716.53 | 727,500 | 811,314 | 827,994 | 834,824 | Samarinda | 0.802 (Very High) | | Bontang City | 163.14 | 143,683 | 165,606 | 178,917 | 183,161 | Bontang | 0.801 (Very High) | | East Kutai Regency (Kutai Timur) | 31,051.71 | 255,637 | 318,950 | 434,459 | 425,613 | Sangatta | 0.735 (High) | | Berau Regency | 21,735.19 | 179,079 | 208,394 | 248,035 | 258,537 | Tanjung Redeb | 0.749 (High) | | ***Totals***(a) | 127,346.92 | 3,028,487 | 3,422,676 | 3,766,039 | 3,859,783(b) | Samarinda | 0.766 (High) | Note (a) Totals adjusted to take account of the removal of Tarakan City and four regencies, as confirmed by Biro Pusat Statistik. (b) since this provincial estimate for mid-2022 was published, two regencies have had their mid-2022 estimates reduced - East Kutai from 468,820 to 425,613, and West Kutai from 176,000 to 172,288. The effect of this would be to reduce the provincial total for mid 2022 from 3,859,783 to 3,812,866. Education --------- ### Schools * SMPN 3 Balikpapan Ecology ------- Illegal logging has removed much of the original forests of the province. Less than half the original forest remains in places such as the Kayan Mentarang and the Kutai national parks. The projects that supports tropical rainforest conservation includes a WWF project and Samboja Lestari lodge, one of Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation's reforestation and orangutan rehabilitation projects. Economy ------- East Kalimantan's economy heavily depends on earth resources such as oilfield exploration, natural gas, coal and gold. Balikpapan has an oil refinery plant that was built by Dutch governance before World War II, destroyed during World War II, and rebuilt after Indonesian independence. Other developing economic sectors include agriculture and tourism. Obstacles to economic development include a lack of transportation infrastructure. Transportation depends on traditional boats connecting coastal cities and areas along main river, Mahakam River. In 2012, Russia's state railway firm Joint Stock Company (JSC) signed a memorandum of understanding with the East Kalimantan governor over railway lines to transport coal and other freight. The first stage will connect an area near Balikpapan port to West Kutai Regency in a 183-kilometer line and is estimated to cost about $1.8 billion. It will commence in 2013 and by 2017 it is hoped that it carry 20 million tons of coal annually. The second phase will connect a line to Murung Raya in Central Kalimantan with a 60 kilometer line, which will cost an estimated $600 million. Several oil fields have been discovered in the Mahakam River Delta including Attaka, Badak (1971), Semberah, Nilam, Sanga Sanga, Bekapai (1972), Handil (1974), Samboja, Jakin and Sepinggan. The Handil, Badak and Bekapai fields are anticline structural traps with oil reservoir sandstones between 450 and 2900 m. The delta is in the Kutai basin, bounded by the Mankalihat and Paternoster carbonate arch, containing Eocene shales overlain by Oligocene fluvial deposits during marine regression, culminating in the formation of the delta in the late Miocene. North Kalimantan Province ------------------------- North Kalimantan was formally inaugurated as the 34th province of Indonesia on April 15, 2013. The new province was previously part of East Kalimantan Province. Demographics ------------ ### Ethnicity | Ethnicities of East Kalimantan – 2010 Census | | --- | | Ethnic group | | Percentage | | Javanese |   | 29.55% | | Malays |   | 19.44% | | Bugis |   | 18.26% | | Banjar |   | 13.94% | | Dayak |   | 9.91% | | Kutai |   | 9.21% | | Sundanese |   | 1.59% | | Madurese |   | 1.24% | | Chinese |   | 1.16% | | Toraja |   | 1.16% | | Others |   | 13.18% | The most populous ethnic group in East Kalimantan is the Javanese (29.55%) who are spread in almost all regions, especially the transmigration areas to urban areas. The second largest ethnic group is Bugis (18.26%), which occupy many coastal areas and urban areas. The third largest ethnicity is Banjar (13.94%) who are quite dominant in the city of Samarinda and Balikpapan. East Kalimantan is a major destination of migrants from Jawa, Sulawesi and South Kalimantan. The fourth largest group is the Dayak (9.91%), which occupies the interior part of the province. Kutai (9.21%) which inhabit Kutai Kartanegara, East Kutai and West Kutai, was fifth. In the sixth to ten consecutively are Toraja (1.16%), Paser (1.89%), Sunda (1.59%), Madura (1.24%) and Auto Buton (1.25%), and the rest are other groups from various regions in Indonesia. ### Language People in East Kalimantan generally use Indonesian in official purposes and Banjarese for inter-ethnic communication. Due to the large number of Banjarese people in the province, their language became the main lingua franca especially in cities like Samarinda and Balikpapan. Besides Banjarese, there is a significant presence of Javanese and Buginese speakers as well, due to the large migration of Javanese and Buginese people into the region. Other languages spoken in East Kalimantan is Kutai Malay (a distinct Malay variety closely related but distinct from Banjarese), Paser, Tidung, Berau Malay, Tunjung, Bahau, Modang Lundayeh and more others. ### Religion Religion in East Kalimantan (June 2021)   Islam (87.41%)  Protestantism (7.52%)  Roman Catholic (4.42%)  Buddhism (0.41%)  Hinduism (0.22%)  Confucianism (0.01%)  Folk religion (0.01%) According to the 2021 estimates, 3,320,000 people are Muslim, 286,150 are Protestant, 168,140 are Roman Catholic, 15,630 are Buddhist, 8,500 are Hindu and 308 are Confucian or folk religion.

East Kalimantan

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Kalimantan

A **trident** /ˈtraɪdənt/ is a three-pronged spear. It is used for spear fishing and historically as a polearm. The trident is the weapon of Poseidon (Greek) or Neptune (Roman), the god of the sea in classical mythology. Other sea deities such as Amphitrite or Triton were also often depicted with a trident in classical art. Later, tridents were used in medieval heraldry, sometimes held by a merman or triton. In Hinduism, it is the weapon of Shiva and is known as a *trishula* (Sanskrit for "triple-spear"). Etymology --------- The word "trident" comes from the Latin word *tridens* or *tridentis*: *tri* meaning "three" and *dentes* meaning "teeth", referring specifically to the three prongs, or "teeth", of the weapon. The Greek equivalent is τρίαινα (*tríaina*), from Proto-Greek *trianja*, meaning "threefold". The Greek term does not imply three of anything specific, and is vague about the shape, thus the assumption it was originally of "trident" form has been challenged. Latin *fuscina* also means "trident". The Sanskrit name for the trident, *trishula*, is a compound of *tri* त्रि for "three" and *śūla* शूल for "thorn", calling the trident's three prongs "thorns" rather than "teeth" or dant in Sanskrit, making the word "Tridant" for trident. Mythology and art ----------------- ### Poseidon The trident is associated with the sea god Poseidon. This divine instrument is said to have been forged by the cyclopes. Poseidon struck a rock with his trident, causing a sea (or a saltwater spring, called the Erechtheis) to appear nearby on the Acropolis in Athens. And according to Roman sources, Neptune struck the earth with the trident to produce the first warhorse. Poseidon, as well as being the god of the sea, was also known as the "Earth Shaker", believed to cause earthquakes; some commentators[*who?*] have extrapolated that the god would have used the trident to cause them, possibly by striking the earth. In the Renaissance artist Gian Bernini's sculpture *Neptune and Triton* (1622–23), Neptune is posed holding a trident turned downwards, and is thought to reenact a scene from *Aeneid* or Ovid's *Metamorphoses* where he is calming the waves to aid Aeneas's ships. ### Other sea divinities In later Greek and Roman art and literature, other sea deities and their attendants have been depicted holding the trident. Poseidon's consort Amphitrite is often identified by some marine attribute other than a trident, which she never carries according to some scholars, though other commentators have disagreed. Turning to the retinue or a train of beings which follow the sea deities (the marine thiasos) the Tritons (mermen) may be seen bearing tridents. Likewise, the Old Man of the Sea (*halios geron*) and the god Nereus are seen holding tridents. Tritons, other mermen, and the Nereides can also carry rudders, oars, fish, or dolphins. Oceanus normally should not carry a trident, allowing him to be clearly distinguished from Poseidon. However, there is conflation of the deities in Romano-British iconography, and examples exist where the crab-claw headed Oceanus also bears a trident. Oceanus holding a trident has been found on Romano-British coinage as well. Some *amorini* have been depicted carrying tiny tridents. The trident is even seen suspended like a pendant on a dolphin in Roman mosaic art. ### Hindu mythology In Hindu legends and stories Shiva, the Hindu god uses a trishula as his principal weapon. The trident is also said to represent three gunas mentioned in Indian Vedic philosophy namely sāttvika, rājasika, and tāmasika. The goddess Kali is sometimes portrayed with a trident as well. A weapon of South-East Asian (particularly Thai) depiction of Hanuman, a character of Ramayana. ### Miscellaneous In religious Taoism, the trident represents the Taoist Trinity, the Three Pure Ones. In Taoist rituals, a trident bell is used to invite the presence of deities and summon spirits, as the trident signifies the highest authority of Heaven. A fork Jewish priests (Kohanim) used to take their portions of offerings. In heraldry within the UK, the trident is often held by the figure identified as either a Neptune or a triton, or a merman. The trident held up by an arm is depicted on some coats-of-arms. Use --- ### Fishing In Ancient Greece, the trident was employed as a harpoon for spearing large fish, especially tuna fishing. Tridents used in modern spear-fishing usually have barbed tines, which trap the speared fish firmly. In the Southern and Midwestern United States, *gigging* is used for harvesting suckers, bullfrogs, flounder and many species of rough fish. ### Agriculture It has been used by farmers as a decorticator to remove leaves, seeds and buds from the stalks of plants such as flax and hemp. A form of trident is used by the gardians in the Camargue of southern France for herding cattle. ### Combat In Ancient Rome tridents (Latin: *tridens* or *fuscina*) were used by a type of gladiator called a *retiarius* or "net fighter". The *retiarius* was traditionally pitted against a *secutor*, and cast a net to wrap his adversary and then used the trident to fight him. Tridents were also used in medieval heraldry. The trident, known as dangpa, is used as a weapon in the 17th- to 18th-century systems of Korean martial arts. Modern symbolism ---------------- The glyph or sigil of the planet Neptune (♆), which alludes to the trident, is used in astronomy and astrology. ### Political * The Tryzub in the Coat of Arms of Ukraine, adopted in 1918 (in a reinterpretation of a medieval emblem which is traced to the Volodymyr the Great, but may likely depicted a **Algiz** (also **Elhaz**) Viking rune that was introduced by Olga of Kyiv). * The national and presidential flags of Barbados. * The "forks of the people's anger", adopted by the Russian anti-Soviet revolutionary organization, National Alliance of Russian Solidarists (NTS). * Britannia, the personification of Great Britain usually depicted to hold a trident. ### Civilian use * The symbol for Washington and Lee University. * The symbol (since June 2008) for the athletic teams (Tritons) at the University of Missouri–St. Louis. * Sparky the Sun Devil, the mascot of Arizona State University, holds a trident. (ASU recently[*when?*] redesigned its trident as a stand-alone symbol.) * The trident was used as the original cap insignia and original logo for the Seattle Mariners. * An element on the flag of the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society. * The Maserati logo. * Club Méditerranée. * The Hawker Siddeley Trident, a 1960s British three-engine jet airliner. * The Tirreno–Adriatico cycle race trophy. * The exterior of the World Trade Center used three-pronged decorative and structural elements at its base, commonly referred to as "tridents". ### Military insignia * The emblem of the Hellenic Navy * The emblem of the Cyprus Navy * The insignia of Nepal Army * With Poseidon in the 31st Brigade. * The symbol of the Swedish Coastal Rangers, Kustjägarna. * The United States Naval Special Warfare Command, and the Special Warfare insignia, particularly worn by members of the US Navy SEALs, and containing a trident representing the three aspects (Sea, Air, and Land) of SEAL special operations. * Part of the golden-colored crest of the United States Naval Academy, which depicts a trident running vertically in its background. * The ship's crests of 13 of the 18 Ohio-class submarines of the U.S. Navy prominently feature tridents, as both a symbol of maritime power, and in reference to their payloads of Trident D-5 missiles. * The rating badge of the United States Coast Guard Marine Science Technician. * The Tug Banner used by Mongolian Honor guards. * The insignia of the German commando force, Kampfschwimmer. * The rating badge of the United States Navy Ocean Systems Technician (OT) Botanical nomenclature ---------------------- A number of structures in the biological world are described as *trident* in appearance. Since at least the late 19th century the trident shape was applied to certain botanical shapes; for example, certain orchid flora were described as having trident-tipped lips in early botanical works. Furthermore, in current botanical literature, certain bracts are stated to have a trident-shape (e.g. Douglas-fir). Gallery ------- * A statue of Hindu God Shiva, holding a trishula, near Indira Gandhi International Airport, DelhiA statue of Hindu God Shiva, holding a *trishula*, near Indira Gandhi International Airport, Delhi * Two guardian deities of an ancient Chinese tomb, both holding tridentsTwo guardian deities of an ancient Chinese tomb, both holding tridents * 18th-century trident from Thailand18th-century trident from Thailand * Tridents (trishula) brought as offerings to Guna Devi, near Dharamsala, Himachal Pradesh, IndiaTridents (*trishula*) brought as offerings to Guna Devi, near Dharamsala, Himachal Pradesh, India * Camargue trident in FranceCamargue trident in France See also -------- * Bident * Eighteen Arms of Wushu * Leister * Military fork * Pitchfork * Sai * Trishula * Symbols of the Rurikids * Trident (UK nuclear programme) * Tug (banner) Explanatory notes ----------------- 1. ↑ Mackay catalogs instances in classical literature where Poseidon is connected with the earthquake, but does not cite use of the trident in any, only mentioning its use in creating the horse. 2. ↑ The reverse side on the denarius of Carausius, acquired by the British Museum in 1998. 3. ↑ Porta Capena mosaics, Rome. In the center is a square with geometric design (star inscribed in circle), and there are four diagonal spokes from it in the shape of a trident. 4. ↑ Villa della Pisanella, Boscoreale, Italy. 5. ↑ Burke assigns trident to Neptune and Eve to Triton. Eve states the Triton is "sometimes called Neptune", while Burke cross-references "merman" to "Neptune". 6. ↑ Thomas Moule, among others write "triton, or merman" implying interchangeability of these terms. Citations Bibliography * Blake, Marion Elizabeth (1936). *Roman Mosaics of the Second Century in Italy*. *Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome*. Loeb classical library. Vol. 13. New York: University of Michigan Press for the American Academy in Rome. pp. 67–214. JSTOR 4238589 * Pseudo-Apollodorus (1921). *Apollodorus: The Library*. Loeb classical library. Vol. 1. Translated by J. G. Frazer. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. ISBN 9780674991354.; Vol. **2** * Mylonopoulos, Joannis (2009). *Odysseus with a trident? The Use of Attributes in Ancient Greek Imagery*. *Divine Images and Human Imaginations in Ancient Greece and Rome*. BRILL. pp. 171–204. ISBN 978-9-047-44165-6.

Trident

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trident

**Klaksvík** is the second largest town of the Faroe Islands behind Tórshavn. The town is located on Borðoy, which is one of the northernmost islands (the Norðoyar). It is the administrative centre of Klaksvík municipality. History ------- The first settlement at Klaksvík dates back to Viking times, but it was not until the 20th century that the district merged to form a large, modern Faroese town that became a cultural and commercial centre for the Northern Isles and the Faroe Islands as a whole. Klaksvík is located between two inlets lying back to back. It has an important harbour with fishing industry and a modern fishing fleet. Originally, four farms were located where Klaksvík is now. In time, they grew into four villages: Vágur, Myrkjanoyri, Gerðar and Uppsalir; which finally merged to form the town of Klaksvík in 1938. What triggered the development of the town was the establishment of a centralized store for all the northern islands on the location. The brewery Föroya Bjór in Klaksvík is a Faroese family brewery, founded in 1888. The ram has been the symbol of the brewery since the early beginning. Since August 2007, when Restorffs Bryggjarí went out of business, Föroya Bjór has been the only producer of beer and soft drinks in the Faroe Islands. With the opening of the Leirvík sub-sea tunnel, the Norðoyatunnilin in April 2006, Klaksvík gained a physical link with the mainland of the Faroe Islands and can now be considered one of its key ports. Several developments are under way to exploit this symbiosis, including a new industrial park located by the tunnel entrance. Klaksvík is home to Summarfestivalurin. Notable buildings ----------------- Christianskirkjan, built in 1963, is the first one in modern times in Scandinavia to be built in Norse style. The roof construction is the same as that found in the Viking halls, and which has survived in Faroese smoke rooms (kitchens) and village churches. This open roof construction has proved to be especially suitable for church buildings, as the acoustics in this church are better than in others of a similar size. The church is dedicated to the memory of the sailors who lost their lives during World War II. Hanging from the ceiling is an old 8-man rowing-boat, from Viðareiði, it was used to transport the priest between villages. Transport --------- Klaksvík used to be an isolated town until 2006 when the Norðoyatunnilin opened. A frequent bus service now links the town to Tórshavn, while smaller services operate to Fuglafjørður, Kunoy and Viðareiði. Also it has remained the ferry port for Kalsoy. Since 2014, a city bus (Bussleiðin) connects the outlying parts with the city centre, and taxis offer additional services. The bus services and the ferry to Kalsoy are operated by Strandfaraskip Landsins, the public transport company of the Faroe Islands. There is a helipad (ICAO: **EKKV**) which mainly has flights to isolated islands like Fugloy and Svínoy, as well as to Tórshavn. Twin towns - Sister cities -------------------------- Klaksvik is twinned with: * Greenland - **Sisimiut**, Greenland * Iceland - **Kópavogur**, Iceland * Norway - **Trondheim**, Norway * Sweden - **Norrköping**, Sweden * Finland - **Tampere**, Finland * Denmark - **Odense**, Denmark * Japan - **Taiji**, Japan since 2018 * Scotland - **Wick**, Scotland. For twenty years the town was twinned with Wick. In August 2015, Wick councillors threatened to break these ties on account of a Faroese long standing practice which involves hunting and eating migrating pilot whales. As of January 2016 the decision has been postponed. Sports ------ These are some of the sporting associations in Klaksvík: The local football club is KÍ. The local gymnastics club is Klaksvíkar Fimleikafelag. In handball there are two clubs, one for men and another for women. The women's handball club is Stjørnan. The men's handball club is Team Klaksvík. Mjølnir is the Volleyball club in Klaksvik, and both women and men teams participate in Meistaradeildin. Mjølnir is the most winning volleyball club in the Faroe Islands. Women have 21 championships and men have 12 championships. See also -------- * List of towns in the Faroe Islands

Klaksvík

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klaksv%C3%ADk

**Professional wrestling** is a form of athletic theater that revolves around mock combat performed in a squared ring, the central conceit being that the performers are sportsmen competing for championship titles and glory. The wrestlers, being actors as well as stuntmen, present morality plays with likable "faces" challenging despicable "heels". The ring is the main stage, but in televised wrestling shows, additional scenes can be filmed backstage, in a format similar to reality television. Professional wrestling as a form of theater evolved out of the widespread practice of match fixing among American wrestlers in the early 20th century. The public eventually came to accept professional wrestling as a performance art rather than a sport, fundamentally because it was more entertaining when faked. Professional wrestlers responded by adding melodrama, gimmickry, and outlandish stuntwork to their performances. The wrestlers continued to present the matches as legitimate competition, and the fans played along—this is a tradition known as *kayfabe.* Professional vs amateur wrestling --------------------------------- In the United States, authentic wrestling is generally practiced in an amateur context; no professional league for authentic wrestling exists. Authentic wrestling forms have never been popular enough with Americans to sustain a professional league. A case in point is Real Pro Wrestling, a professional league that dissolved in 2007 after just two seasons. In some other countries such as Iran and India, authentic wrestling is popular enough to sustain a professional career, and "professional wrestling" therefore has a more literal meaning in those places (India's Pro Wrestling League is a case in point). Professional wrestling bears little resemblance to authentic wrestling forms, having diverged starting in the 1920s because Americans found more legitinate forms less entertaining. Henry Cejudo, a mixed martial artist and freestyle wrestler, thinks mixed martial arts is the actual authentic counterpart to professional wrestling. MMA, like professional wrestling, displays an eclectic style of combat that includes punching and kicking as well as grappling. In the industry's slang, a fixed match is referred to as a *worked* match in the sense that the wrestlers are "doing their job" by losing or winning at the promoter's command, while a *shoot* match is a genuine contest where both wrestlers fight to win and are therefore "straight shooters". History in the United States ---------------------------- ### From sport to performance art Wrestling in America blossomed in popularity after the 1861–1865 Civil War, with catch wrestling eventually becoming the most popular style. At first, professional wrestlers were genuine competitive athletes, but they increasingly fixed their matches to the point that by the end of the century, nearly all professional wrestling matches were fixed. There were a number of reasons for this practice. Most importantly, a fixed match could be choreographed to make for a more entertaining spectacle (Greco-Roman wrestling in particular was boring to watch, being little more than a shoving match). For another thing, fixing matches was convenient for scheduling. A real ("shoot") match could sometimes last hours, whereas a fixed ("worked") match can be made short, which was convenient for wrestlers on tour who needed to keep appointments, or who needed to share venues (not to mention the audiences preferred short matches), or who were aging and thus lacked the stamina for an hours-long fight. Fixed matches also carried less risk of injury, which meant shorter recovery. A major influence on professional wrestling was carnival culture. Wrestlers around the turn of the 20th century sometimes worked in carnival shows. For a fee, a visitor could challenge the wrestler to a quick match. If the challenger defeated the champion in a short time frame, usually 15 minutes, he won a prize. Such carnival wrestlers used catch wrestling because with it they could quickly defeat their challengers with a painful hold. To encourage visitors, the carnival operators staged rigged matches in which an accomplice posing as a visitor challenged the champion and won, giving the audience the impression that the champion was easy to beat. This practice taught wrestlers the art of staging rigged matches and fostered a mentality that spectators were marks to be duped. The term *kayfabe* is thought to come from carny slang. By the turn of the 20th century, most professional wrestling matches were fixed, and journalists every now and then exposed the practice. > American wrestlers are notorious for the amount of faking they do. It is because of this fact that suspicion attaches to so many bouts that the game is not popular here. Nine out of ten bouts, it has been said, are pre-arranged affairs, and it would be no surprise if the ratio of fixed matches to honest ones was really so high. > > — *The National Police Gazette*. July 22, 1905 Several reasons explain why professional wrestling became fake whereas boxing endured as a legitimate sport. Firstly, wrestling was more entertaining when it was faked, whereas fakery did not make boxing any more entertaining. Secondly, in a rigged boxing match, the designated loser must take a real beating for his "defeat" to be convincing, but wrestling holds can be faked convincingly without inflicting injury. This meant that boxers were less willing to "take dives", they wanted to have a victory for all the pain to which they subjected themselves. Promotional cartels for professional wrestling emerged in the 1910s in the East Coast of the United States (up to that point, professional wrestling's heartland was in the Midwest), and these cartels quashed what little authenticity professional wrestling still had. In addition to the old advantages of fixing matches mentioned above, fixing matches allowed the promoters to artificially turn their more charismatic wrestlers into champions, whom audiences preferred. Fixing matches also allowed promoters to make long-term plans. With shoot matches, a promoter usually had to wait to see who won the match before making further plans with either wrestler. Before the cartels, professional wrestlers occasionally had to fight authentic (shoot) matches to preserve their credibility. As promoters gained control over more of the country's wrestlers, there were fewer independent wrestlers who could publicly challenge the promoters' wrestlers to shoot matches. If an independent wrestler made a public challenge, the cartel wrestler could use his contractual obligations to his promoter as an excuse to refuse the challenge. Some promoters used "policemen" to deter independent wrestlers from challenging their stars. These "policemen" were powerful wrestlers who lacked the charisma to become stars. The independent would be forced to face the policeman first, who would give the independent a vicious thrashing that would put fear in him and force him to spend a long time recovering. Promoters also had to deal with "double-crosses", wherein a wrestler who had agreed to throw a match instead fought to win. It happened at times that a promoter was forced to award a victorious double-crosser the title of champion to preserve the facade of sport. The promoters punished such wrestlers by blacklisting them. Blacklisting could be fatal for the wrestler's career as there were few independent venues where they would still be able to find work. Double-crossers could also be sued for breach of contract, which is what happened to Dick Shikat in early 1936 after he did not throw a match as agreed. In the trial, witnesses testified that most of the "big matches" and all of the championship bouts were fixed. In April 1930, the New York State Athletic Commission decreed that all professional wrestling matches held in that state had to be billed as exhibitions unless certified as contests by the Commission. The Commission did on very rare occasions hand out such authorizations, such as for a June 1934 championship match between Jim Londos and Jim Browning. This decree did not apply to amateur wrestling, which the Commission had no authority over. Wrestling fans widely suspected that professional wrestling was fake, but they didn't care as long as it entertained. > Not the least interesting of all the minor phenomena produced by the current fashion of wrestling is the universal discussion as to the honesty of the matches. And certainly the most interesting phrase of this discussion is the unanimous agreement: "Who cares if they're fixed or not—the show is good." > > — Morris Markey. *The New Yorker*. April 18, 1931 In 1933, a wrestling promoter named Jack Pfefer started talking about the industry's inner workings to the *New York Daily Mirror*, resulting in a huge exposé. Unlike most promoters, Pfefer didn't pretend that professional wrestling was real, and he passed on the planned results of the matches just before they took place, which the *Daily Mirror* published. The exposé neither surprised nor alienated most wrestling fans, though some promoters like Jack Curley were furious and tried to restore the facade of *kayfabe* as best as they could. Newspapers tended to shun professional wrestling. It was a form of theater that pretended to be real sport, which offended journalists whose business was telling the truth. Eventually promoters resorted to publishing their own magazines in order to get some press coverage and communicate with fans. The first professional wrestling magazine was *Wrestling As You Like It*, which began in 1946, printed in Chicago. These magazines, naturally, were faithful to *kayfabe*. Before the advent of television, professional wrestling's fanbase largely consisted of children, the elderly, blue-collar workers, and minorities. When television arose in the 1940s, professional wrestling got national exposure on prime time television and gained widespread popularity. Professional wrestling was previously considered a niche interest, but the TV networks at the time were short on content and thus were willing to try some wrestling shows. In the 1960s, however, the broadcast networks moved on to more mainstream interests such as baseball, and professional wrestling was dropped. The core audience then shrunk back to a profile similar to that of the 1930s. In 1989, Vince McMahon testified before the New Jersey Athletic Commission that professional wrestling is not a real sport because its matches have predetermined outcomes. He did this to have the World Wrestling Federation (his business) exempted from sports licensing fees. Shortly thereafter, New Jersey deregulated professional wrestling. The WWF rebranded itself as a "sports entertainment" company. ### The style In the early years of the 20th century, the style of wrestling used in professional wrestling matches, whether fake or real, was catch wrestling. In the 1920s, a group of wrestlers/promoters known as the Gold Dust Trio introduced moves which have since become staples of the mock combat of professional wrestling, such as body slams, suplexes, punches, and out-of-ring count-outs. By the early 1930s, most wrestlers had adopted personas to generate public interest. These personas could broadly be characterized as either *faces* (likeable) or *heels* (villainous). Native Americans, cowboys, and English aristocrats were staple characters in the 1930s and 1940s. Before the age of television, some wrestlers played different personas depending on the region they were performing in. This eventually came to an end in the age of national television wrestling shows, which forced wrestlers to stick to one persona. Wrestlers also often used some sort of gimmick, such as a signature move, eccentric mannerisms, or out-of-control behavior (in the case of heels). The matches could also be gimmicky, such as the wrestlers fighting in mud or in a pile of tomatoes. The most successful and enduring gimmick to emerge from the 1930s was tag-team matches. Promoters noticed that matches slowed down as the wrestlers in the ring tired, so they gave them partners to relieve them. It also gave heels another way to misbehave by double-teaming. Towards the end of the 1930s, faced with declining revenues, promoters chose to focus on grooming wrestlers who were charismatic with no regard to their skill, because it was charisma that drew the crowds, and wrestlers who were both skilled at grappling and charismatic were hard to come by. Since most of the public by this time knew and accepted that professional wrestling was fake, a background in authentic wrestling no longer mattered. After this time, matches became more outlandish and gimmicky, and any semblance professional wrestling had to catch wrestling faded. The personas of the wrestlers likewise grew more outlandish. Gorgeous George, who performed throughout the 1940s and 1950s, was the first wrestler whose entrance into the arena was accompanied by a theme song played over the arena's loudspeakers, his being *Pomp and Circumstance*. He also wore a costume: a robe and hairnet, which he removed after getting in the ring. He also had a pre-match ritual where his "butler" would spray the ring with perfume. In the 1980s, promoter Vince McMahon made entrance songs, costumes, and rituals standard for his star wrestlers. For instance, Hulk Hogan would delight the audience by ripping his shirt apart before the match. ### The promoter cartels The first major promoter cartel emerged in the eastern half of the United States, although up to that point, wrestling's heartland had been in the Midwest. Notable members of this cartel included Jack Curley, Lou Daro, Paul Bowser, Tom Packs, and Tony Packs. The promoters colluded to solve a number of problems that hurt their profits. Firstly, they could force their wrestlers to perform for less money. As the cartel grew, there were fewer independent promoters where independent wrestlers could find work, and many were forced to sign a contract with the cartel to receive steady work. The contracts forbade them from performing at independent venues. A wrestler who refused to play by the cartel's rules was barred from performing at its venues. One goal of the cartel was to establish an authority to decide who was the "world champion". There were multiple wrestlers in America simultaneously calling themselves the "world champion", and this sapped public enthusiasm for the "sport". Likewise, the cartel could agree on a common set of match rules that the fans could keep track of. By 1925, this cartel had divided the country up into territories which were the exclusive domains of specific promoters. This system of territories endured until Vince McMahon drove the fragmented cartels out of the market in the 1980s. This cartel fractured in 1929 after one of its members, Paul Bowser, bribed the wrestler Ed "Strangler" Lewis to lose his championship title in a match with Gus Sonnenberg in January 1929. Bowser then broke away from the trust to form his own cartel, the American Wrestling Association, in September 1930, and he declared Sonnenberg to be the AWA champion. Curley reacted to this move by convincing the National Boxing Association to form the National Wrestling Association, which in turn crowned a champion that Curley put forth: Dick Shikat. The NWA recognized one "world champion", voted on by the members, but allowed member promoters to crown their own local champions in their territories. If a member poached wrestlers from another member, or held matches in another member's territory, that offender risked being ejected from the NWA, at which point his territory became fair game for anyone. The NWA would blacklist wrestlers who worked for independent promoters or who publicly criticized an NWA promoter or who did not throw a match on command. If an independent promoter tried to establish himself in a certain area, the NWA would send their star performers to perform for the local NWA promoter to draw the customers away from the independent. By 1956, the NWA controlled 38 promotions within the United States, with more in Canada, Mexico, and Australia and New Zealand. The NWA's monopolistic practices became so stifling that the independents appealed to the government for help. In October 1956 the US Attorney General's office filed an antitrust lawsuit against the NWA in an Iowa federal district court. The NWA settled with the government. The NWA pledged to stop allocating exclusive territories to its promoters, to stop blacklisting wrestlers who worked for outsider promoters, and to admit any promoter into the Alliance. The NWA would flout many of these promises, but its power was nonetheless weakened by the lawsuit. In August 1983, the World Wrestling Federation, a promotion in the north-east US, withdrew from the National Wrestling Alliance. Vince K. McMahon then took over as its boss. No longer bound by the territorial pact of the NWA, McMahon began ruthlessly encroaching on the territories of the NWA and AWA. By the end of the 1980s, the WWF would become the sole national wrestling promotion in America. This was in part made possible by the rapid spread of cable television in the 1980s. The old broadcast television networks considered professional wrestling too niche for prime time. But cable television could carry a much larger selection of channels and therefore could accommodate niche interests. The WWF started with a cable show called *All-American Wrestling* on USA Network in September 1983. McMahon's shows made his stars national celebrities, which made it easier for him to expand his promotion into the territories of his former NWA peers, now his rivals. Most of those rivals failed to adapt. The NWA attempted to centralize and create their own national cable television shows to counter McMahon's rogue promotion, but it failed in part because the members of the NWA, ever protective of their territories, couldn't stomach submitting themselves to a central authority. Nor could any of them stomach the idea of leaving the NWA themselves to compete directly with McMahon, for that would mean their territories would become fair game for the other NWA members. So one by one, the NWA's promoters fell before the expansion of the WWF. In the spring of 1984, the WWF purchased Georgia Championship Wrestling, which had been ailing for some time due to financial mismanagement and internal squabbles. In the deal, the WWF acquired the GCW's timeslot on the cable TV channel TBS. McMahon agreed to keep showing Georgia wrestling matches in that timeslot, but he was unable to get his staff to Atlanta every Saturday to fulfill this obligation, so he sold GCW and its TBS timeslot to Jim Crockett Promotions. JCP started informally calling itself World Championship Wrestling. In 1988, Ted Turner bought JCP and formally renamed it World Championship Wrestling. During the 1990s, the WCW became a credible rival to the WWF, but by end it suffered from a series of creative missteps. It went out of business and was purchased by the WWF. Scope and influence ------------------- Show wrestling has become especially prominent in Central/North America, Japan and Europe (especially the United Kingdom). In Brazil, there was a very popular wrestling television program from the 1960s to the early 1980s called *Telecatch*. High-profile figures in the sport have become celebrities or cultural icons in their native or adopted home countries. Although professional wrestling started out as small acts in sideshows, traveling circuses and carnivals, today it is a billion-dollar industry. Revenue is drawn from ticket sales, network television broadcasts, pay-per-view broadcasts, branded merchandise and home video. Pro wrestling was instrumental in making pay-per-view a viable method of content delivery. Annual shows such as WrestleMania, Bound for Glory, Wrestle Kingdom and formerly Starrcade are among the highest-selling pay-per-view programming each year. In modern day, internet programming has been utilized by a number of companies to air web shows, internet pay per views (IPPVs) or on-demand content, helping to generate internet-related revenue earnings from the evolving World Wide Web. Home video sales dominate the Billboard charts Recreational Sports DVD sales, with wrestling holding anywhere from 3 to 9 of the top 10 spots every week. Due to its persistent cultural presence and to its novelty within the performing arts, wrestling constitutes a recurring topic in both academia and the media. Several documentaries have been produced looking at professional wrestling, most notable of them being *Beyond the Mat* directed by Barry W. Blaustein, and *Wrestling with Shadows* featuring wrestler Bret Hart and directed by Paul Jay. There have also been many fictional depictions of wrestling; the 2008 film *The Wrestler* received several Oscar nominations and began a career revival for its star Mickey Rourke. Currently, the largest professional wrestling company worldwide is the United States-based WWE, which bought out many smaller regional companies in the late 20th century, as well as primary competitors World Championship Wrestling (WCW) and Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW) in early 2001. Other major companies worldwide include All Elite Wrestling (AEW) in the United States, Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL), and Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide (AAA) in Mexico; and the Japanese New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW), All Japan Pro Wrestling (AJPW), and Pro Wrestling Noah promotions. Industry conventions -------------------- In professional wrestling, two factors decide the way of proceedings: the "in-show" happenings, presented through the shows; and real life happenings outside the work that have implications, such as performer contracts, legitimate injuries, etc. Because actual life events are often co-opted by writers for incorporation into storylines of performers, the lines between real life and fictional life are often blurred and become confused. Special discern must be taken with people who perform under their own name (such as Kurt Angle and his fictional persona). The actions of the character in shows must be considered fictional, wholly separate from the life of the performer. This is similar to other entertainers who perform with a persona that shares their own name. Some wrestlers also incorporate elements of their real-life personalities into their characters, even if they and their in-ring persona have different names. ### Kayfabe Those who participated felt that maintenance of a constant and complete illusion for all who were not involved was necessary to keep audience interest. For decades, wrestlers lived their public lives as though they were their characters. The practice of keeping the illusion, and the various methods used to do so, came to be known as "kayfabe" within wrestling circles, or "working the marks". An entire lexicon of slang jargon and euphemism developed to allow performers to communicate without outsiders' knowledge of what was being said. Occasionally a performer will deviate from the intended sequence of events. This is known as a shoot. Sometimes shoot-like elements are included in wrestling stories to blur the line between performance and reality. These are known as "worked shoots". The vast majority of events in professional wrestling are preplanned and improvised within accepted boundaries. Gradually, the predetermined nature of professional wrestling became an open secret, as prominent figures in the wrestling business (including World Wrestling Entertainment owner Vince McMahon) began to publicly admit that wrestling was entertainment, not competition. This public reveal has garnered mixed reactions from the wrestling community, as some feel that exposure ruins the experience to the spectators as does exposure in illusionism. Despite the public admission of the theatrical nature of professional wrestling, many U.S. states still regulate professional wrestling as they do other professional competitive sports. For example, New York State still regulates "professional wrestling" through the New York State Athletic Commission (SAC). Some states are considering removing, or have removed, professional wrestling from the purview of the state's athletic commissioners. ### Performance aspects > I watch championship wrestling from Florida with wrestling commentator Gordon Solie. Is this all "fake"? If so, they deserve an Oscar. > > — S. R. Welborn of High Point, North Carolina, question posed to sports Q&A column written by Murray Olderman, 1975 Professional wrestling shows can be considered a form of theater in the round, with the ring, ringside area, and entryway comprising a stage. There is less of a fourth wall than in most theatric performances, similar to pantomime involving audience participation. The audience is recognized and acknowledged by the performers as spectators to the sporting event being portrayed, and are encouraged to interact as such. This leads to a high level of audience participation; in fact, their reactions can dictate how the performance unfolds. Often, individual matches will be part of a longer story line conflict between "babyfaces" (often shortened to just "faces") and "heels". "Faces" (the "good guys") are those whose actions are intended to encourage the audience to cheer, while "heels" (the "bad guys") act to draw the spectators' ire. In pro wrestling matches, performers often execute a series of pre-planned moves and attacks, ranging from grappling and throws found in some traditional forms of wrestling, to more spectacular stunts, sometimes involving props and special effects. The attacks in these matches are designed to appear dramatic whilst reducing the risk of serious injury as much as possible. Overall, the performers aim to minimize the actual injurious impact of their moves while maximizing their entertainment value. Shows produced by the largest professional wrestling promotions like WWE are traditionally performed in indoor venues, flagship events in this profession like WrestleMania are sometimes staged at outdoor venues; these shows are generally video recorded for live or delayed broadcasting for an audience all over the world. Additionally filmed footage known as “segments” or “promos” are usually used to accompany the drama in these shows. Prior experience in legitimate wrestling is not a requirement for aspiring professional wrestlers, but is seen as an advantageous background. Despite its scripted format, there have been quite a number of performers throughout the history of pro wrestling who have had prior experience in legitimate wrestling, before transitioning to its theatrical form. A popular performer, Kurt Angle, is the first Olympic gold medalist in professional wrestling history, having won his gold medal at the 1996 Summer Olympic Games in freestyle wrestling. Another prominent performer is Brock Lesnar, a former NCAA Wrestler who won the NCAA Division I National Championship in 2000. Rules ----- There is no governing authority for professional wrestling rules, although there is a general standard which has developed. Each promotion has its own variation, but all are similar enough to avoid confusion most of the time. Any rule described here is simply a standard, and may or may not correspond exactly with any given promotion's ruleset. Due to the staged nature of wrestling, these are not actual rules in the sense of actual sports like freestyle wrestling. Instead, the "rules" in this article are implemented and supposedly enforced for the sake of suspension of disbelief (known as kayfabe in the jargon of the business). ### General structure Matches are held between two or more sides ("corners"). Each corner may consist of one wrestler, or a team of two or more. Most team matches are governed by tag team rules (see below). Other matches are free-for-alls, with multiple combatants but no teams. In all variants, there can be only one winning team or wrestler. Matches are held within a wrestling ring, an elevated square canvas mat with posts on each corner. A cloth apron hangs over the edges of the ring. Three horizontal ropes or cables surround the ring, suspended with turnbuckles which are connected to the posts. For safety, the ropes are padded at the turnbuckles and cushioned mats surround the floor outside the ring. Guardrails or a similar barrier enclose this area from the audience. Wrestlers are generally expected to stay within the confines of the ring, though matches sometimes end up outside the ring, and even in the audience, to add excitement. The standard method of scoring is the "fall", which is accomplished by: * Pinning the opponent's shoulders to the mat, typically for three seconds (though other times have been used) * Forcing the opponent to submit * Disqualification of the opponent * The opponent remaining outside the ring for too long (countout) * Knocking out or otherwise incapacitating the opponent These are each explained in greater detail below. Pinfalls and submissions must occur within the ring unless stipulated otherwise. Most wrestling matches last for a set number of falls, with the first side to achieve the majority number of pinfalls, submissions, or countouts being the winner. Historically, matches were wrestled to 3 falls ("best 2 out of 3") or 5 falls ("best 3 out of 5"). The standard for modern matches is one fall. These matches have a time limit; if not enough falls are scored by the end of the time limit, the match is declared a draw. Modern matches are generally given a 10- to 30-minute time limit for standard matches; title matches can go for up to one hour. British wrestling matches held under Admiral-Lord Mountevans rules consist of six three minute rounds, with a thirty-second break between each round and can either be 2-Out-of-3 Falls or the wrestler with the most falls wins at the end of the final round. An alternative is a match set for a prescribed length of time, with a running tally of falls. The entrant with the most falls at the end of the time limit is declared the winner. This is usually for 20, 30 or 60 minutes, and is commonly called an Iron Man match. This type of match can be modified so that fewer types of falls are allowed. In matches with multiple competitors, an elimination system may be used. Any wrestler who has a fall scored against them is forced out of the match, and the match continues until only one remains. It is much more common when more than two wrestlers are involved to simply go one fall, with the one scoring the fall, regardless of who they scored it against, being the winner. In championship matches, this means that, unlike one-on-one matches (where the champion can simply disqualify himself or get himself counted out to retain the title via the **Champion's Advantage**), the champion does *not* have to be pinned or involved in the decision to lose the championship. Heel champions often find advantages, not in Champion's Advantage, but in the use of weapons and outside interference, as these poly-sided matches tend to involve no holds barred rules. Many modern specialty matches have been devised, with unique winning conditions. The most common of these is the ladder match. In the basic ladder match, the wrestlers or teams of wrestlers must climb a ladder to obtain a prize that is hoisted above the ring. The key to winning this match is that the wrestler or team of wrestlers must try to incapacitate each other long enough for one wrestler to climb the ladder and secure that prize for their team. As a result, the ladder can be used as a weapon. The prizes include, but are not limited to, any given championship belt (the traditional prize), a document granting the winner the right to a future title shot, or any document that matters to the wrestlers involved in the match (such as one granting the winner a cash prize). Another common specialty match is known as the battle royal. In a battle royal, all the wrestlers enter the ring to the point that there are 20–30 wrestlers in the ring at one time. When the match begins, the simple objective is to throw the opponent over the top rope and out of the ring with both feet on the floor to eliminate that opponent. The last wrestler standing is declared the winner. A variant on this type of match is the WWE's Royal Rumble where two wrestlers enter the ring to start the match and other wrestlers follow in 90 second intervals (previously 2 minutes) until 30–40 wrestlers have entered the ring. All other rules stay the same. For more match types, see Professional wrestling match types. Every match must be assigned a rule keeper known as a referee, who is the final arbitrator. In multi-man lucha libre matches, two referees are used, one inside the ring and one outside. Due to the legitimate role that referees play in wrestling of serving as liaison between the bookers backstage and the wrestlers in the ring (the role of being a final arbitrator is merely kayfabe), the referee is present, even in matches that do not at first glance appear to require a referee (such as a ladder match, as it is no holds barred, and the criteria for victory could theoretically be assessed from afar). Although their actions are also frequently scripted for dramatic effect, referees are subject to certain general rules and requirements to maintain the theatrical appearance of unbiased authority. The most basic rule is that an action must be seen by a referee to be declared for a fall or disqualification. This allows for heel characters to gain a scripted advantage by distracting or disabling the referee to perform some ostensibly illegal maneuver on their opponent. Most referees are unnamed and essentially anonymous, though some wrestling promotions, most notably in the present All Elite Wrestling, have made officials known by their names (and there are some cases where fans have called their name during matches). Special guest referees may be used from time to time; by virtue of their celebrity status, they are often scripted to dispense with the appearance of neutrality and use their influence to unfairly influence the outcome of the match for added dramatic impact. Face special referees will often fight back against hostile heel wrestlers, particularly if the special referee is either a wrestler himself or a famous martial artist (such as Tito Ortiz at the main event at Hard Justice 2005). For heel special referees, common ways of assisting the heel wrestler to obtain victory include, but are not limited to, the following: * Counting fast whenever the face wrestler is being pinned, while counting slow, faking a wrist or eye injury, or even refusing to count at all, when the heel wrestler is being pinned. * Allowing heel wrestlers to use blatantly illegal tactics that most normal referees would instantly disqualify for, while not extending these relaxed rules to face wrestlers. * Disqualifying the face wrestler for unfair reasons, such as an accidental attack on the referee or a maneuver that appears to be an illegal attack. * Feigning unconsciousness far longer than they would normally otherwise be out, or using convenient distractions to look away from the wrestlers for a prolonged period of time. This allows for greater opportunities for run-ins or use of illegal weapons and tactics, or can be used as an excuse to avoid counting a pinfall or calling a submission in the face's favor. The referee often instantly up the moment the heel wrestler seems to have an advantage, usually the moment the heel goes for the pinfall or applies a submission finisher. * Actually assisting in attacking the face wrestler. ### Tag rules In some team matches, only one entrant from each team may be designated as the "legal" or "active" wrestler at any given moment. Two wrestlers must make physical contact in the corner (typically palm-to-palm) to transfer this legal status. This is known as a "tag", with the participants "tagging out" and "tagging in". Typically the wrestler who is tagging out has a five count to leave the ring, whereas the one tagging in can enter the ring at any time, resulting in heels legally double-teaming a face. The non-legal wrestlers must remain outside the ring or other legal area at all times (and avoid purposeful contact with the opposing wrestlers) or face reprimand from the referee. In most promotions, the wrestler to be tagged in must be touching the turnbuckle on his corner, or a cloth strap attached to the turnbuckle. Some multi-wrestler matches allow for a set number of legal wrestlers; this rule is commonplace in four-way tag team matches, where only two wrestlers are legal in the match, meaning two teams will have both members on the outside at any given time. In these matches, tags can be made between any two teams regardless if they are on the same team or not. As a result of this stipulation, tags between different teams are not usually mutual effort; a non-legal wrestler will usually tag themselves in against the legal wrestler's will. A legal wrestler will only voluntarily tag themselves out to another team if their own partner is incapacitated, or are being held in a submission hold and are closer to another tag team than their own. Sometimes, poly-sided matches that pit every man for himself will incorporate tagging rules. Outside of kayfabe, this is done to give wrestlers a break from the action (as these matches tend to go on for long periods of time), and to make the action in the ring easier to choreograph. One of the most mainstream examples of this is the Four-Corner match, the most common type of match in the WWE before it was replaced with its equivalent Fatal Four-Way; four wrestlers, each for himself, fight in a match, but only two wrestlers can be in the match at any given time. The other two are positioned in the corner, and tags can be made between any two wrestlers. In a Texas Tornado Tag Team match, all the competitors are legal in the match, and tagging in and out is not necessary. All matches fought under hardcore rules (such as no disqualification, no holds barred, ladder match, etc.) are all contested under *de facto* Texas Tornado rules, since the lack of ability of a referee to issue a disqualification renders any tagging requirements moot. Regardless of rules of tagging, a wrestler cannot pin his or her own tag team partner, even if it is technically possible from the rules of the match (e.g. Texas Tornado rules, or a three-way tag team match). This is called the "Outlaw Rule" because the first team to attempt to use that (in an attempt to unfairly retain their tag team titles) was the New Age Outlaws. ### Decisions #### Pinfall To score by pinfall, a wrestler must pin both his opponent's shoulders against the mat while the referee slaps the mat three times (referred to as a "three count"). This is the most common form of defeat. The pinned wrestler must also be on his back and, if they're lying on his stomach, it usually does not count. A count may be started at any time that a wrestler's shoulders are down (both shoulders touching the mat), back-first and any part of the opponent's body is lying over the wrestler. This often results in pins that can easily be kicked out of, if the defensive wrestler is even slightly conscious. For example, an attacking wrestler who is half-conscious may simply drape an arm over an opponent, or a cocky wrestler may place his foot gently on the opponent's body, prompting a three-count from the referee. Illegal pinning methods include using the ropes for leverage and hooking the opponent's clothing, which are therefore popular cheating methods for heels, unless certain stipulations make such an advantage legal. Pins such as these are rarely seen by the referee and are subsequently often used by heels and on occasion by cheating faces to win matches. Even if it is noticed, it is rare for such an attempt to result in a disqualification (see below) and instead it simply results in nullification of the pin attempt, so the heel wrestler rarely has anything to lose for trying it anyway. Occasionally, there are instances where a pinfall is made where both wrestlers' shoulders were on the mat for the three-count. This situation will most likely lead to a draw, and in some cases a continuation of the match or a future match to determine the winner. #### Submission To score by submission, the wrestler must make his opponent give up, usually, but not necessarily, by putting him in a submission hold (e.g. figure four leg-lock, arm-lock, sleeper-hold). A wrestler may voluntarily submit by verbally informing the referee (usually used in moves such as the Mexican Surfboard, where all four limbs are incapacitated, making tapping impossible). Also, since Ken Shamrock popularized it in 1997, a wrestler can indicate a voluntary submission by "tapping out", that is, tapping a free hand against the mat or against an opponent. Occasionally, a wrestler will reach for a rope (see rope breaks below), only to put his hand back on the mat so he can crawl towards the rope some more; this is not a submission, and the referee decides what his intent is. Submission was initially a large factor in professional wrestling, but following the decline of the submission-oriented catch-as-catch-can style from mainstream professional wrestling, the submission largely faded. Despite this, some wrestlers, such as Chris Jericho, Ric Flair, Bret Hart, Kurt Angle, Ken Shamrock, Dean Malenko, Chris Benoit, and Tazz, became famous for winning matches via submission. A wrestler with a signature submission technique is portrayed as better at applying the hold, making it more painful or more difficult to get out of than others who use it, or can be falsely credited as inventing the hold (such as when Tazz popularized the kata ha jime judo choke in pro wrestling as the "Tazzmission"). Since all contact between the wrestlers must cease if any part of the body is touching, or underneath, the ropes, many wrestlers will attempt to break submission holds by deliberately grabbing the bottom ropes. This is called a "rope break", and it is one of the most common ways to break a submission hold. Most holds leave an arm or leg free, so that the person can tap out if he wants. Instead, he uses these free limbs to either grab one of the ring ropes (the bottom one is the most common, as it is nearest the wrestlers, though other ropes sometimes are used for standing holds such as Chris Masters's Master Lock) or drape his foot across, or underneath one. Once this has been accomplished, and witnessed by the referee, the referee will demand that the offending wrestler break the hold, and start counting to five if the wrestler does not. If the referee reaches the count of five, and the wrestler still does not break the hold, he is disqualified. If a manager decides that his client wrestler should tap out, but cannot convince the wrestler himself to do so, he may "throw in the towel" (by literally taking a gym towel and hurling it into the ring where the referee can see it). This is the same as a submission, as in kayfabe the manager is considered the wrestlers agent and therefore authorized to make formal decisions (such as forfeiting a match) on the client's behalf. #### Knockout Passing out in a submission hold constitutes a loss by technical knockout or technical submission. To determine if a wrestler has passed out in WWE, the referee usually picks up and drops his hand. If it drops to the mat or floor one or three consecutive times without the wrestler having the strength to hold it up, the wrestler is considered to have passed out. A wrestler can also win by technical knockout even if he does not resort to submission holds, but still beats the opponent to the point of unconsciousness or to the impossibility to defend himself. To check for a technical knockout in this manner a referee would wave his hand in front of the wrestler's face and, if this produces no reaction of any kind, the referee would award the victory to the other wrestler. #### Countout A countout (alternatively "count-out" or "count out") happens when a wrestler is out of the ring long enough for the referee to count to ten (twenty in some promotions) and thus disqualified. The count is broken and restarted when a wrestler in the ring exits the ring. Playing into this, some wrestlers "milk" the count by sliding in the ring and immediately sliding back out. As he was technically inside the ring for a split second before exiting again, it is sufficient to restart the count. This is often referred to by commentators as "breaking the count". Heels often use this tactic in order to buy themselves more time to catch their breath, or to attempt to frustrate their babyface opponents. If all the active wrestlers in a match are down inside the ring at the same time, the referee begins a count (usually ten seconds, twenty in Japan). If nobody rises to their feet by the end of the count, the match is ruled a draw. Any participant who stands up in time ends the count for everyone else, while in a Last Man Standing match this form of a countout is the only way that the match can end, so the referee counts when one or more wrestlers are down and one wrestler standing up before the 10-count does not stop the count for another wrestler who is still down. In some promotions (and most major modern ones), Championships cannot change hands via a countout, unless the on-screen authority declares it for at least one match, although in others, championships may change hands via countout. Heels are known to take advantage of this and will intentionally get counted out when facing difficult opponents, especially when defending championships. #### Disqualification Disqualification (sometimes abbreviated as "DQ") occurs when a wrestler violates the match's rules, thus losing automatically. Although a countout can technically be considered a disqualification (as it is, for all intents and purposes, an automatic loss suffered as a result of violating a match rule), the two concepts are often distinct in wrestling. A no disqualification match can still end by countout (although this is rare). Typically, a match must be declared a "no holds barred" match, a "street fight" or some other term, in order for both disqualifications and countouts to be waived. Disqualification from a match is called for a number of reasons: * Performing any illegal holds or maneuvers, such as refusing to break a hold when an opponent is in the ropes, hair-pulling, choking or biting an opponent, or repeatedly punching with a closed fist. These violations are usually subject to a referee-administered five count and will result in disqualification if the wrestler does not cease the offending behavior in time. Note that the ban on closed fists does not apply if the attacker is in midair when the punch connects, like with Jerry Lawler's diving fist drop or Roman Reigns's Superman Punch. * Deliberate injury of an opponent, such as attacking an opponent's eye, such as raking it, poking it, gouging it, punching it or other severe attacks to the eye. This was imposed when Sexy Star was disqualified for a legitimate injury on Rosemary at AAA Triplemanía XXV by popping her arm out of the socket. This type of disqualification can also be grounds for stripping a wrestler of a championship, as AAA overturned the result of that AAA Women's Championship match, stripping her of the title. * Any outside interference involving a person not involved in the match striking or holding a wrestler. Sometimes (depending on the promotion and uniqueness of the situation), if a heel attempts to interfere but is ejected from the ring by a wrestler or referee before this occurs, there may not be a disqualification (All Elite Wrestling is known to use ejections, as AEW referees Earl Hebner and Aubrey Edwards have ejected numerous wrestlers during events, all for outside interference). In this disqualification method, the wrestler being attacked by the foreign member is awarded the win. Sometimes this can work in heels' favor. In February 2009, Shawn Michaels, who was under the kayfabe employment of John "Bradshaw" Layfield, interfered in a match and super kicked JBL in front of the referee to get his employer the win via "outside interference". * Striking an opponent with a foreign object (an object not permitted by the rules of the match; see hardcore wrestling). Sometimes the win decision can be reversed if the referee spots the weapon before pin attempt or after the match because a wrestler tried to strike when the referee was either distracted or knocked out. * Using any kind of "banned" move (see below for details). * A direct low blow to the groin (unless the rules of the match specifically allow this). * Intentionally laying hands on the referee. * Pulling an opponent's mask off during a match (this is illegal in Mexico, and sometimes in Japan). * Throwing an opponent over the top rope during a match (illegal in the National Wrestling Alliance). * In a mixed tag team match, a male wrestler hitting a female wrestler (intergender), or a normal sized wrestler attacking an opposing midget wrestler (tag team matches involving teams with one normal-sized and one midget wrestler). In practice, not all rule violations will result in a disqualification as the referee may use his own judgement and is not obligated to stop the match. Usually, the only offenses that the referee will see and immediately disqualify a wrestler for (as opposed to having multiple offenses) are low blows, weapon usage, interference, or assaulting the referee. In WWE, a referee must see the violation with his own eyes to rule that the match end in a disqualification (simply watching the video tape is usually not enough) and the referee's ruling is almost always final, although "Dusty finishes" (named after, and made famous by, Dusty Rhodes) will often result in the referee's decision being overturned. It is not uncommon for the referees themselves to get knocked out during a match, which is commonly referred to by the term "ref bump". While the referee remains "unconscious", wrestlers are free to violate rules until he is revived or replaced. In some cases, a referee might disqualify a person under the presumption that it was that wrestler who knocked him out; most referee knockouts are arranged to allow a wrestler, usually a heel, to gain an advantage. For example, a wrestler may get whipped into a referee at a slower speed, knocking the ref down for short amount of time; during that interim period, one wrestler may pin his opponent for a three-count and would have won the match but for the referee being down (sometimes, another referee will sprint to the ring from backstage to attempt to make the count, but by then, the other wrestler has had enough time to kick out on his own accord). In most promotions, a championship title cannot normally change hands via disqualification; this rule is explicitly enforced in a title match under special circumstances. If all participants in a match continue to breach the referee's instructions, the match may end in a double disqualification, where both wrestlers or teams (in a tag team match) have been disqualified. The match is essentially nullified, and called a draw or in some cases a restart or the same match being held at a pay-per-view or next night's show. Sometimes, in a match to determine the challenger for a heel champion's title, the champion is forced to face both opponents simultaneously for the title. Usually, the double disqualification is caused by the heel wrestler's associates in a match between two face wrestlers to determine his opponent. #### Forfeit Although extremely rare, a match can end in a forfeit if the opponent either does not show up for the match, or shows up but refuses to compete. Although a championship usually cannot change hands except by pinfall or submission, a forfeit victory is enough to crown a new champion. A famous example of this happened on the December 8, 1997, episode of *Raw is War*, when Stone Cold Steve Austin handed the WWE Intercontinental Championship to The Rock after refusing to defend the title. When a pay-per-view match is booked and one wrestler is unable to make it for one reason or another, it is usually customary to insert a last-minute replacement rather than award a wrestler a victory by forfeit. Forfeit victories are almost always reserved for when the story the promotion is telling specifically requires such an ending. Despite being, statistically, an extremely rare occurrence, Charles Wright is one wrestler who is famous for turning forfeit victories into his own gimmick. During the late 1990s, Wright called himself "The Godfather" and portrayed the gimmick of a pimp. He often brought multiple women, whom he referred to as "hos", to the ring with him, and offered them to his opponents in exchange for their forfeit. #### Draw A professional wrestling match can end in a draw. A draw occurs if both opponents are simultaneously disqualified (as via countout or if the referee loses complete control of the match and both opponents attack each other with no regard to being in a match, like Brock Lesnar vs. Undertaker at 2002 Unforgiven), neither opponent is able to answer a ten-count, or both opponents simultaneously win the match. The latter can occur if, for example, one opponent's shoulders touch the mat while maintaining a submission hold against another opponent. If the opponent in the hold submits at the same time a referee counts to three for pinning the opponent delivering the hold, both opponents have legally achieved scoring conditions simultaneously. Traditionally, a championship may not change hands in the event of a draw (though it may become vacant), though some promotions such as Impact Wrestling (formally Total Nonstop Action (TNA) Wrestling) have endorsed rules where the champion may lose a title by disqualification. A variant of the draw is the time-limit draw, where the match does not have a winner by a specified time period (a one-hour draw, which was once common, is known in wrestling circles as a "Broadway"). Also if two wrestlers have been given a disqualification by either the referee or the chairman, this is a no contest and if there is a title on the line the champion keeps the championship. #### No contest A wrestling match may be declared a no contest if the winning conditions are unable to occur. This can be due to excessive interference, loss of referee's control over the match, one or more participants sustaining debilitating injury not caused by the opponent, or the inability of a scheduled match to even begin. A no contest is a state separate and distinct from a draw — a draw indicates winning conditions were met. Although the terms are sometimes used interchangeably in practice, this usage is technically incorrect. Dramatic elements ----------------- While each wrestling match is ostensibly a competition of athletics and strategy, the goal from a business standpoint is to excite and entertain the audience. Although the competition is staged, dramatic emphasis draws out the most intense reaction. Heightened interest results in higher attendance, increased ticket sales, higher ratings on television broadcasts (greater ad revenue), higher pay-per-view buyrates, and sales of branded merchandise and recorded video footage. All of these contribute to the profit of the promotion company. ### Character/gimmick In Latin America and English-speaking countries, most wrestlers (and other on-stage performers) portray character roles, sometimes with personalities wildly different from their own. These personalities are a gimmick intended to heighten interest in a wrestler without regard to athletic ability. Some can be unrealistic and cartoon-like (such as Doink the Clown), while others carry more verisimilitude (such as Chris Jericho, The Rock, John Cena, Steve Austin, and CM Punk). In lucha libre, many characters wear masks, adopting a secret identity akin to a superhero or a supervillain, a near-sacred tradition. An individual wrestler may use their real name, or a minor variation of it, for much of their career, such as Bret Hart, John Cena and Randy Orton. Others can keep one ring name for their entire career (Shawn Michaels, CM Punk and Ricky Steamboat), or may change from time to time to better suit the demands of the audience or company. Sometimes a character is owned and trademarked by the company, forcing the wrestler to find a new one when he leaves (although a simple typeset change, such as changing Rhyno to **Rhino**, can get around this), and sometimes a character is owned by the wrestler. Sometimes, a wrestler may change their legal name to obtain ownership of their ring name (Andrew Martin and Warrior). Many wrestlers (such as The Rock and The Undertaker) are strongly identified with their character, even responding to the name in public or between friends. Proper decorum is for wrestlers to refer to each other by their stage names/characters rather than their birth/legal names, unless otherwise introduced. A character can become so popular that it appears in other media (Hulk Hogan and El Santo) or even gives the performer enough visibility to enter politics (Antonio Inoki and Jesse Ventura). Typically, matches are staged between a protagonist (historically an audience favorite, known as a babyface, or "the good guy") and an antagonist (historically a villain with arrogance, a tendency to break rules, or other unlikable qualities, called a heel, or "the bad guy"). In recent years, antiheroes have also become prominent in professional wrestling. There is also a less common role of a "tweener", who is neither fully face nor fully heel yet able to play either role effectively (case in point, Samoa Joe during his first run in Impact Wrestling from June 2005 to November 2006). At times, a character may "turn", altering their face/heel alignment. This may be an abrupt, surprising event, or it may slowly build over time. It is almost always accomplished with a markable change in behavior. Some turns become defining points in a career, as when Hulk Hogan turned heel after being a top face for over a decade. Others may have no noticeable effect on the character's status. If a character repeatedly switches between face and heel, this lessens the effect of such turns, and may result in apathy from the audience. Big Show is a good example of having more heel and face turns than anyone in WWE history. Sometimes a character's heel turn will become so popular that eventually the audience response will alter the character's heel-face cycle to the point where the heel persona will, in practice, become a face persona, and what was previously the face persona, will turn into the heel persona, such as when Dwayne Johnson first began using "The Rock" persona as a heel character, as opposed to his original "Rocky Maivia" babyface persona. Another legendary example is Stone Cold Steve Austin, who was originally booked as a heel, with such mannerisms as drinking on the job, using profanity, breaking company property, and even breaking into people's private homes. The fans' response to Austin was so positive that he effectively became one of the most popular antiheroes in professional wrestling. Austin, along with the stable of D-Generation X, Bret Hart and his Hart Foundation, is generally credited with ushering the Attitude Era of WWF programming. ### Story While real exhibition matches are now not uncommon, most matches tell a story analogous to an episode of a serial drama: the face will from time to time win (triumph) or from time to time lose (tragedy), and longer story arcs can result from a couple of matches. Since most promotions have a championship title, opposition for the championship is a frequent impetus for stories. For added stakes, anything from a character's own hair to their job can be wagered in a match. Some matches are designed to further the story of only one participant. It could be intended to portray an unstoppable force, a lucky underdog, a sore loser, or any other characterization. Sometimes non-wrestling vignettes are shown to enhance a character's image without the need for matches. Other stories result from a natural rivalry. Outside of performance, these are referred to as feuds. A feud can exist between any number of participants and can last from a few days to decades. The feud between Ric Flair and Ricky Steamboat lasted from the late 1970s into the early 1990s and allegedly spanned over two thousand matches (although most of those matches were mere dark matches). The career-spanning history between characters Mike Awesome and Masato Tanaka is another example of a long-running feud, as is the case of Steve Austin vs. Vince McMahon, one of the most lucrative feuds in the World Wrestling Federation during 1998 and 1999. In theory, the longer a feud is built up, the more audience interest (aka heat) lasts. The main event of a wrestling show is generally the most heated. Commonly, a heel will hold the upper hand over a face until a final showdown, heightening dramatic tension as the face's fans desire to see them win. Throughout the history of professional wrestling, many other elements of media have been utilized in professional wrestling storytelling: pre- and post-match interviews, "backstage" skits, positions of authority and worked behind-the-scenes feuds, division rankings (typically the #1-contendership spot), contracts, lotteries, news stories on websites, and in recent years social media. Anything that can be used as an element of drama can exist in professional wrestling stories: romantic relationships (including love triangles and marriage), racism, classism, nepotism, favoritism, corporate corruption, family bonds, personal histories, grudges, theft, cheating, assault, betrayal, bribery, seduction, stalking, confidence tricks, extortion, blackmail, substance abuse, self-doubt, self-sacrifice; even kidnapping, sexual fetishism, necrophilia, misogyny, rape and death have been portrayed in wrestling. Some promotions have included supernatural elements such as magic, curses, the undead and Satanic imagery (most notably the Undertaker and his Ministry of Darkness, a stable that regularly performed evil rituals and human sacrifice in Satanic-like worship of a hidden power figure). Commentators have become important in communicating the relevance of the characters' actions to the story at hand, filling in past details and pointing out subtle actions that may otherwise go unnoticed. #### Promos A main part of the story-telling part of wrestling is a promo, short for promotional interview. Promos are performed, or "cut" in wrestling jargon, for a variety of reasons, including to heighten interest in a wrestler, or to hype an upcoming match. Since the crowd is often too loud or the venue too large for promos to be heard naturally, wrestlers will use amplification when speaking in the ring. Unlike most Hollywood acting, large and highly visible handheld microphones are typically used and wrestlers often speak directly to the audience. ### Championships Professional wrestling mimics the structure of title match combat sports. Participants compete for a championship and must defend it after winning it. These titles are represented physically by a title belt that can be worn by the champion. In the case of team wrestling, there is a title belt for each member of the team. Almost all professional wrestling promotions have one major title, and some have more. Championships are designated by divisions of weight, height, gender, wrestling style and other qualifications. Typically, each promotion only recognizes the "legitimacy" of their own titles, although cross-promotion does happen. When one promotion absorbs or purchases another, the titles from the defunct promotion may continue to be defended in the new promotion or be decommissioned. Behind the scenes, the bookers in a company will place the title on the most accomplished performer, or those the bookers believe will generate fan interest in terms of event attendance and television viewership. Historically, a world champion was typically a legit shooter/hooker who had the skills to prevent double crosses by shooters who would deviate from the planned finish for personal glory. Lower ranked titles may also be used on the performers who show potential, thus allowing them greater exposure to the audience. Other circumstances may also determine the use of a championship. A combination of a championship's lineage, the caliber of performers as champion, and the frequency and manner of title changes, dictates the audience's perception of the title's quality, significance and reputation. A wrestler's championship accomplishments can be central to their career, becoming a measure of their performance ability and drawing power. In general, a wrestler with multiple title reigns or an extended title reign is indicative of a wrestler's ability to maintain audience interest or a wrestler's ability to perform in the ring. As such, the most accomplished or decorated wrestlers tend to be revered as legends due to the amount of title reigns they hold. American wrestler Ric Flair has had multiple world heavyweight championship reigns spanning over three decades. Japanese wrestler Último Dragón once held and defended a record ten titles simultaneously. ### Non-standard matches Often a match will take place under additional rules, usually serving as a special attraction or a climactic point in a feud or storyline. Sometimes this will be the culmination of an entire feud, ending it for the immediate future (known as a blowoff match). Perhaps the most well-known non-standard match is the cage match, in which the ring is surrounded by a fence or similar metal structure, with the express intention of preventing escape or outside interference—and with the added bonus of the cage being a potentially brutal weapon or platform for launching attacks. The WWE has another provision where a standard cage match can end with one wrestler or wrestling team escaping the cage through the door or over the top. Another example is the WWE's Royal Rumble match, which involves thirty participants in a random and unknown order. The Rumble match is itself a spectacle in that it is a once-yearly event with multiple participants, including individuals who might not interact otherwise. It also serves as a catalyst for the company's ongoing feuds, as well as a springboard for new storylines. The WWE has made many other match types such as the Inferno Match and the First Blood match. ### Ring entrance While the wrestling matches themselves are the primary focus of professional wrestling, a key dramatic element of the business can be entrances of the wrestlers to the arena and ring. It is typical for a wrestler to get their biggest crowd reaction (or "pop") for their ring entrance, rather than for anything they do in the wrestling match itself, especially if former main event stars are returning to a promotion after a long absence. All notable wrestlers now enter the ring accompanied by music, and regularly add other elements to their entrance. The music played during the ring entrance will usually mirror the wrestler's personality. Many wrestlers, particularly in America, have music and lyrics specially written for their ring entrance. While invented long before, the practice of including music with the entrance gained rapid popularity during the 1980s, largely as a result of the huge success of Hulk Hogan and the WWF, and their Rock 'n' Wrestling Connection. When a match is won, the victor's theme music is usually also played in celebration. Because wrestling is predetermined, a wrestler's entrance music will play as they enter the arena, even if they are, in kayfabe, not supposed to be there. For example, in 2012 through 2014, The Shield was a trio of wrestlers who were (in kayfabe) not at the time under contract with WWE (hence their gimmick of entering the ring through the crowd), but they still had entrance music which was played whenever they entered the arena, despite the fact that they were kayfabe invaders. With the introduction of the Titantron entrance screen in 1997, WWF wrestlers also had entrance videos play along with their music. Other dramatic elements of a ring entrance can include: * Pyrotechnics such as a ring of fire for The Brood when they ascend to the stage, multi-colour fireworks (most notably for Edge), fire for Kane and Seth Rollins, a stage of smoke for Finn Bálor and (for a short period of time) falling fireworks for Christian Cage. * Additional visual graphics or staging props to complement the entrance video/routine or further emphasize the character. For instance, Kane's entrance graphics employ heavy use of fire-themed visuals, The Undertaker's entrance features dark lighting, fire, fog and dry ice, and lightning-themed effects, and Goldust has been known to use on-screen visual effects in his entrance to simulate the presentation of a feature film (i.e. widescreen, production company credits), as to emphasize his Hollywood-themed film aficionado character. * A distinct sound or opening note in the music (used to elicit a Pavlovian response from the crowd). For example, the glass shattering in Steve Austin's entrance theme, The Undertaker's signature bell toll, sirens, such as used by Scott Steiner or Right to Censor and the sound of bells and a cow's moo in JBL's theme. * Darkening of the arena, often accompanied by mood lighting or strobe lighting, such as in The Undertaker's, Triple H's, or Sting's entrances. Certain colors of lighting have been associated with specific wrestlers; for instance, blue lighting for The Undertaker and Alexa Bliss, green lighting for Triple H, D-Generation X, and Shane McMahon, a mixture of red and yellow lighting for Brock Lesnar, a lot of red for Seth Rollins (mainly for his "Embrace The Vision" character, a.k.a when using his theme named "Visionary"), a mixture of red and orange lighting for Kane, multicolored lighting for John Morrison, gold lighting for Goldust, pink lighting for Val Venis and Trish Stratus, and so forth. * Driving a vehicle into the arena. For example, Eddie Guerrero arrived in a lowrider, The Undertaker (in his "American Bad Ass" biker gimmick), Chuck Palumbo, Tara, and the Disciples of Apocalypse on motorcycles, The Mexicools on riding lawn mowers, JBL in his limousine, Alberto Del Rio arriving into the arena in various luxury cars, Steve Austin driving an all-terrain vehicle, and Camacho and Hunico entering on a lowrider bicycle. * Talking to the crowd using a distinctive patter. For instance, chanting or rapping along with the music (i.e. Road Dogg, R-Truth). Another example is Vickie Guerrero entering to no music, but announcing her arrival with the words "Excuse me!" * Many heels with narcissistic gimmicks (Lex Luger, Shawn Michaels, Cody Rhodes, Paul Orndorff, etc.) admired themselves in mirrors on their way to the ring. * Coming through the audience, such as The Sandman's beer drinking and can smashing entrance, or Diamond Dallas Page's exit through the crowd, or Jon Moxley entering through the crowd. * Accompaniment by a ringside crew or personal security, as Goldberg did. * Entering the arena by a lift in the stage, such as Kurt Angle, The Brood and Rey Mysterio Special ring entrances are also developed for big occasions, most notably the WrestleMania event. For example, WrestleMania III and VI both saw all wrestlers enter the arena on motorized miniature wrestling rings. Live bands are sometimes hired to perform live entrance music at special events. John Cena and Triple H are particularly notable in recent years for their highly theatrical entrances at WrestleMania. Women participation ------------------- The women's division of professional wrestling has maintained a recognized world champion since 1937, when Mildred Burke won the original World Women's title. She then formed the World Women's Wrestling Association in the early 1950s and recognized herself as the first champion, although the championship was vacated upon her retirement in 1956. The NWA ceased to acknowledge Burke as the Women's World champion in 1954, and instead acknowledged June Byers as champion after a controversial finish to a high-profile match between Burke and Byers that year. Upon Byers's retirement in 1964, The Fabulous Moolah, who won a junior heavyweight version of the NWA World Women's Championship (the predecessor to the WWE Women's Championship) in a tournament back in 1958, was recognized by most NWA promoters as champion by default. ### Intergender For most of its history, men and women rarely worked against each other in professional wrestling, as it was deemed to be unfair and unchivalrous. Andy Kaufman used this to gain notoriety when he created an Intergender Championship and declared it open to any female challenger. This led to a long (worked) feud with Jerry Lawler. Cathy Davis sued the New York State Athletic Commission (NYSAC) in 1977 because she was denied a boxing license because she was a woman, and the case was decided in her favor later that year, with the judge invalidating New York State rule number 205.15, which stated, "No woman may be licensed as a boxer or second or licensed to compete in any wrestling exhibition with men." In his opinion the judge cited the precedent set by *Garrett v. New York State Athletic Commission* (1975), which "found the regulation invalid under the equal protection clauses of the State and Federal Constitutions". The NYSAC filed an appeal of the ruling, but later dropped it. In the 1980s, mixed tag team matches began to take place, with a male and female on each team and a rule stating that each wrestler could only attack the opponent of the same gender. If a tag was made, the other team had to automatically switch their legal wrestler as well. Despite these restrictions, many mixed tag matches do feature some physical interaction between participants of different genders. For example, a heel may take a cheap shot at the female wrestler of the opposing team to draw a negative crowd reaction. In lucha libre, cheap shots and male-female attacks are not uncommon. Intergender singles bouts were first fought on a national level in the 1990s. This began with Luna Vachon, who faced men in ECW and WWF. Later, Chyna became the first female to hold a belt that was not exclusive to women when she won the WWF Intercontinental Championship. Intergender wrestling was uncommon in Impact Wrestling. ODB, had participated in intergender matches and once held the Impact Knockouts Tag Team Championship with Eric Young for a record 478 days. Other notable Impact Knockouts that competed in intergender matches include Scarlett Bordeaux; Tessa Blanchard, who became the first woman to win the Impact World Championship; and Jordynne Grace, who became the inaugural Impact Digital Media Championship. Midget wrestling ---------------- Midget wrestling can be traced to professional wrestling's carnival and vaudeville origins. In recent years, the popularity and prevalence of midgets in wrestling has greatly decreased due to wrestling companies depriving midget divisions of storyline or feud. WWE has made a few attempts to enter this market with their "minis" in the 1990s and the "junior's league" as recent as 2006. It is still a popular form of entertainment in Mexican wrestling, mostly as a "sideshow". Some wrestlers may have their own specific "mini me", like Mascarita Sagrada, Alebrije has Quije, etc. There are also cases in which midgets can become valets for a wrestler, and even get physically involved in matches, like Alushe, who often accompanies Tinieblas, or KeMonito, who is portrayed as Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre's mascot and is also a valet for Mistico. Dave Finlay was often aided in his matches by a midget known mainly as Hornswoggle while in WWE, who hid under the ring and gave a shillelagh to Finlay to use on his opponent. Finlay also occasionally threw him at his opponents. Hornswoggle was given a run with the WWE Cruiserweight Championship and feuded with D-X in 2009. Country differences ------------------- The U.S., Japan and Mexico are the three countries where there is a huge market and high popularity for professional wrestling, but the wrestling styles of each region are different, given their independent development for a long period. Professional wrestling in the U.S. tends to have a heavy focus on story building and the establishment of characters (and their personalities). There is a story for each match, and even a longer story for successive matches. The stories usually contain characters like faces, heels, and - less often - "tweeners" (antiheroes). It is a "triumph" if the face wins, while it is a "tragedy" if the heel wins. The characters usually have strong and sharp personalities. The opposition between faces and heels is very intense in the story, and the heels may even attack the faces during TV interviews. The relationship between different characters can also be very complex. Although professional wrestling in Mexico (Lucha libre) also has stories and characters, they are less emphasized. Mexican professional wrestling tradition repeats very usually brutal tactics, specially more aerial holds than professional wrestlers in the U.S. who, more often, rely on power moves and strikes to subdue their opponents. The difference in styles is due to the independent evolution of the sport in Mexico beginning in the 1930s and the fact that wrestlers in the cruiserweight division (Spanish: *peso semicompleto*) are often the most popular wrestlers in Mexican lucha libre. Wrestlers often execute high flying moves characteristic of lucha libre by utilizing the wrestling ring's ropes to catapult themselves towards their opponents, using intricate combinations in rapid-fire succession, and applying complex submission holds. Lucha libre is also known for its tag team wrestling matches, in which the teams are often made up of three members, instead of two as is common in the U.S. The style of Japanese professional wrestling (puroresu) is also different. With its origins in traditional American style of wrestling and still being under the same genre, it has become an entity in itself. Despite the similarity to its American counterpart, in that the outcome of the matches remains predetermined, the phenomena are different in the form of the psychology and presentation of the sport. In most of the largest promotions, such as New Japan Pro-Wrestling, All Japan Pro Wrestling and Pro Wrestling Noah, it is treated as a full contact combat sport as it mixes hard hitting martial arts strikes with shoot style submission holds, while in the U.S. it is rather more regarded as an entertainment show. Wrestlers incorporate kicks and strikes from martial arts disciplines, and a strong emphasis is placed on submission wrestling, and unlike the use of involved storylines in the U.S., they are not as intricate in Japan; more emphasis is placed on the concept of "fighting spirit", meaning the wrestlers' display of physical and mental stamina are valued a lot more than theatrics. Many of Japan's wrestlers including top stars such as Shinya Hashimoto, Riki Chōshū and Keiji Mutoh came from a legitimate martial arts background and many Japanese wrestlers in the 1990s began to pursue careers in mixed martial arts organizations such as Pancrase and Shooto which at the time retained the original look of puroresu but were actual competitions. Other companies, such as Michinoku Pro Wrestling and Dragon Gate, wrestle in a style similar to Mexican companies like AAA and CMLL. This is known as "Lucharesu". Developed culture ----------------- Professional wrestling has developed its own unique culture. Those involved in producing professional wrestling have developed a kind of global fraternity, with familial bonds, shared language and passed-down traditions. New performers are expected to "pay their dues" for a few years by working in lower-profile promotions and working as ring crew before working their way upward. The permanent rosters of most promotions develop a backstage pecking order, with veterans mediating conflicts and mentoring younger wrestlers. For many decades (and still to a lesser extent today) performers were expected to keep the illusions of wrestling's legitimacy alive even while not performing, essentially acting in character any time they were in public. Some veterans speak of a "sickness" among wrestling performers, an inexplicable pull to remain active in the wrestling world despite the devastating effects the job can have on one's life and health. Fans of professional wrestling have their own subculture, comparable to those of science fiction, video games, or comic books. Those who are interested in the backstage occurrences, future storylines and reasonings behind company decisions read newsletters written by journalists with inside ties to the wrestling industry. These "rags" or "dirt sheets" have expanded into the Internet, where their information can be dispensed on an up-to-the-minute basis. Some have expanded into radio shows. Some fans enjoy a pastime of collecting recordings of wrestling shows from specific companies, of certain wrestlers, or of specific genres. The internet has given fans exposure to worldwide variations of wrestling they are unable to otherwise see. Since the 1990s, many companies have been founded which deal primarily in wrestling footage. When the WWE purchased both WCW and ECW in 2001, they also obtained the entire past video libraries of both productions and have released many past matches online and on home video. Like some other sports, fantasy leagues have developed around professional wrestling. Some take this concept further by creating E-feds (electronic federations), where a user can create their own fictional wrestling character, and role-playing storylines with other users, leading to scheduled "shows" where match results are determined by the organizers, usually based on a combination of the characters' statistics and the players' roleplaying aptitude, sometimes with audience voting. ### Mainstream From the first established world championship, the top professional wrestlers have garnered fame within mainstream society. Each successive generation has produced a number of wrestlers who extend their careers into the realms of music, acting, writing, business, politics or public speaking, and are known to those who are unfamiliar with wrestling in general. Conversely, celebrities from other sports or general pop culture also become involved with wrestling for brief periods of time. A prime example of this is The Rock 'n' Wrestling Connection of the 1980s, which combined wrestling with MTV. Professional wrestling is often portrayed within other works using parody, and its general elements have become familiar tropes and memes in American culture. Some terminology originating in professional wrestling has found its way into the common vernacular. Phrases such as "body slam", "sleeper hold" and "tag team" are used by those who do not follow professional wrestling. The term "smackdown", popularized by The Rock and *SmackDown!* in the 1990s, has been included in Merriam-Webster dictionaries since 2007. Many television shows and films have been produced which portray in-character professional wrestlers as protagonists, such as *Ready to Rumble*, *¡Mucha Lucha!*, *Nacho Libre*, and the Santo film series. At least two stage plays set in the world of pro wrestling have been produced: *The Baron* is a comedy that retells the life of an actual performer known as Baron von Raschke. *From Parts Unknown...* is an award-nominated Canadian drama about the rise and fall of a fictional wrestler. The 2009 *South Park* episode "W.T.F." played on the soap operatic elements of professional wrestling. One of the lead characters on the Disney Channel series *Kim Possible* was a huge fan of pro wrestling and actually featured it on an episode (with two former WWE wrestlers voicing the two fictitious wrestlers featured in the episode). The 2008 film *The Wrestler*, about a washed-up professional wrestler, garnered several Oscar nominations. The 2017 TV series GLOW, based on the Gorgeous Ladies of Wrestling promotion, gained critical acclaim, including a nomination for Outstanding Comedy Series at the 70th Primetime Emmy Awards. The 1950 film noir *Night and the City*, directed by Jules Dassin and starring Richard Widmark and Gene Tierney, told the story of a promoter in London trying to make it big, and featured a match involving real professional wrestler Stanislaus Zbyszko. Wrestling has also gained a major following on YouTube, with WWE being the most subscribed wrestling channel and sixth most subscribed channel in the world. Other promotions, such as All Elite Wrestling, Major League Wrestling, Impact Wrestling and the National Wrestling Alliance have distributed their own weekly programming on the platform. ### Study and analysis With its growing popularity, professional wrestling has attracted attention as a subject of serious academic study and journalistic criticism. Many courses, theses, essays and dissertations have analyzed wrestling's conventions, content, and its role in modern society. It is often included as part of studies on theater, sociology, performance, and media. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology developed a course of study on the cultural significance of professional wrestling, and anthropologist Heather Levi has written an ethnography about the culture of lucha libre in Mexico. In the early 20th century, once it became apparent that the "sport" was worked, pro wrestling was looked down on as a cheap entertainment for the uneducated working class, an attitude that still exists to varying degrees today. The French theorist Roland Barthes was among the first to propose that wrestling was worthy of deeper analysis, in his essay "The World of Wrestling" from his book *Mythologies*, first published in 1957. Barthes argued that it should be looked at not as a scamming of the ignorant, but as spectacle; a mode of theatric performance for a willing, if bloodthirsty, audience. Wrestling is described as performed art which demands an immediate reading of the juxtaposed meanings. The logical conclusion is given least importance over the theatrical performers of the wrestlers and the referee. According to Barthes, the function of a wrestler is not to win: it is to go exactly through the motions which are expected of him and to give the audience a theatrical spectacle. This work is considered a foundation of all later study. While pro wrestling is often described simplistically as a "soap opera for males", it has also been cited as filling the role of past forms of literature and theater; a synthesis of classical heroics, commedia dell'arte, revenge tragedies, morality plays, and burlesque. The characters and storylines portrayed by a successful promotion are seen to reflect the current mood, attitudes, and concerns of that promotion's society and can in turn influence those same things. Wrestling's high levels of violence and masculinity make it a vicarious outlet for aggression during peacetime. Documentary filmmakers have studied the lives of wrestlers and the effects the profession has on them and their families. The 1999 theatrical documentary *Beyond the Mat* focused on Terry Funk, a wrestler nearing retirement; Mick Foley, a wrestler within his prime; Jake Roberts, a former star fallen from grace; and a school of wrestling students trying to break into the business. The 2005 release *Lipstick and Dynamite, Piss and Vinegar: The First Ladies of Wrestling* chronicled the development of women's wrestling throughout the 20th century. Pro wrestling has been featured several times on HBO's *Real Sports with Bryant Gumbel*. MTV's documentary series *True Life* featured two episodes titled "I'm a Professional Wrestler" and "I Want to Be a Professional Wrestler". Other documentaries have been produced by The Learning Channel (*The Secret World of Professional Wrestling*) and A&E (*Hitman Hart: Wrestling with Shadows*). *Bloodstained Memoirs* explored the careers of several pro wrestlers, including Chris Jericho, Rob Van Dam and Roddy Piper. Injury and fatality ------------------- Although professional wrestling is choreographed, there is a high chance of injury, and even death. Strikes are often stiff, especially in Japan, and in independent wrestling promotions such as Combat Zone Wrestling. The ring is often made out of 2-by-8-inch (5 by 20 cm) timber planks. There have been many brutal accidents, hits and injuries. Many of the injuries that occur in pro wrestling are shoulders, knee, back, neck, and rib injuries. Professional wrestler Davey Richards said in 2015, "We train to take damage, we know we are going to take damage and we accept that." As of February 2023, 31 years after the 1990 WrestleMania VI, 17 of the 38 competitors had died, including André the Giant and main event winner The Ultimate Warrior, with only two of the deceased having reached the age of 64 (Dusty Rhodes at 69 and "Superfly" Jimmy Snuka at 73). See also -------- * History of professional wrestling * Independent circuit * List of professional wrestling video games * Professional wrestling moves (disambiguation) ### Terminology * Foreign objects (e.g. folding chair) * Glossary of professional wrestling terms * Professional wrestling match types * Professional wrestling tag team match types * Professional wrestling tournament ### Lists of wrestlers * List of family relations in professional wrestling * List of professional wrestling rosters ### Types of professional wrestling * All-in professional wrestling * Backyard wrestling * Erotic wrestling * Fantasy wrestling * Hardcore wrestling * Lucha libre * Modern Freestyle wrestling * Puroresu ### Radio programs * *Live Audio Wrestling* * *Talksport* * *Wrestling Observer Live* ### In fiction * List of wrestling-based comic books * *GLOW* * *The Wrestler* Further reading --------------- * Fargiorgo, Joseph (2014). *WWE: Wrestling, Wellness & Entertainment – An Analysis of Work and Health in Professional Wrestling* (MA). Department of Sociology and Anthropology, University of Guelph. Retrieved September 7, 2021 – via The Atrium at University of Guelpgh. * Olson, Cristopher; Reinhard, Carrie Lynn D. (2021). "Wrestling with Eating Disorders: Transmedia Depictions of Body Issues in WWE's Women's Professional Wrestling". In Johnson, Malynnda; Olson, Cristopher (eds.). *Normalizing Mental Illness and Neurodiversity in Entertainment Media* (1st E-book ed.). London: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003011668-15. ISBN 978-1-00-301166-8. S2CID 233598773. * Verma, D. S. (2020). *Wresting Fans as Players, Performers as Characters: Conceptualizing WWE Storytelling and Production in Terms of Games and Play* (Master). Faculty of Humanities Theses, Utrecht University. hdl:1874/399263. Archived from the original on September 7, 2021. Retrieved September 7, 2021 – via Utrecht University Repository.

Professional wrestling

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_wrestling

The **hammer and sickle** (Unicode: ☭) is a symbol meant to represent proletarian solidarity, a union between agricultural and industrial workers. It was first adopted during the Russian Revolution at the end of World War I, the hammer representing workers and the sickle representing the peasants. After World War I (from which the Russian Empire withdrew in 1917) and the Russian Civil War, the hammer and sickle became more widely used as a symbol for labor within the Soviet Union and for international proletarian unity. It was taken up by many communist movements around the world, some with local variations. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union at the end of the Cold War, the hammer and sickle remains commonplace in Russia and other former Soviet republics. In some other former communist countries, as well as in countries where communism is banned by law, its display is prohibited as part of decommunization policies. The hammer and sickle is also commonplace in later self-declared socialist states such as Cuba, China, North Korea, Vietnam, and Laos. History ------- ### Worker symbolism Farm and worker instruments and tools have long been used as symbols for proletarian struggle. The combination of hammer and sickle symbolised the combination of farmers and construction workers. One example of use prior to its political instrumentalization by the Soviet Union is found in Chilean currency circulating since 1894. An alternative example is the combination of a hammer and a plough, with the same meaning (unity of peasants and workers). In Ireland, the symbol of the plough remains in use. The Starry Plough banner was originally used by the Irish Citizen Army, a socialist republican workers' militia. James Connolly, who co-founded the Irish Citizen Army with Jack White, said the significance of the banner was that a free Ireland would control its own destiny from the plough to the stars. A sword is forged into the plough to symbolise the end of war with the establishment of a Socialist International. That was unveiled in 1914 and flown by the Irish Citizen Army during the 1916 Easter Rising. ### Inception In 1917, Vladimir Lenin and Anatoly Lunacharsky held a competition to create a Soviet emblem. The winning design was a hammer and sickle on top of a globe in rays of the sun, surrounded by a wreath of grain and under a five-pointed star, with the inscription "proletarians of the world, unite!" in six languages (Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Georgian, Armenian and Azerbaijani). It originally featured a sword, but Lenin strongly objected, disliking the violent connotations. The winning designer was Yevgeny Ivanovich Kamzolkin (1885–1957). On 6 July 1923, the 2nd session of the Central Executive Committee (CIK) adopted the emblem. In his work, *Daily Life in a Crumbling Empire: The Absorption of Russia into the World Economy*, sociologist David Lempert hypothesizes that the hammer and sickle was a secular replacement for the patriarchal cross. ### Use in Soviet Union * The State Emblem of the Soviet Union and the Coats of Arms of the Soviet Republics showed the hammer and sickle, which also appeared on the red star badge on the uniform cap of the Red Army uniform and in many other places. * *Serp i Molot* (transliteration of Russian: cерп и молот, "sickle and hammer") is the name of the Moscow Metallurgical Plant. * *Serp i Molot* is also the name of a stop on the electric railway line from Kurski railway station in Moscow to Gorky, featured in Venedikt Yerofeyev's novel, *Moscow-Petushki*. Meaning ------- At the time of creation, the hammer and sickle stood for worker-peasant alliance, with the hammer a traditional symbol of the industrial proletariat (who dominated the proletariat of Russia) and the sickle a traditional symbol for the peasantry, but the meaning has since broadened to a globally recognizable symbol for Marxism, communist parties, or socialist states. Current usage ------------- ### Post-Soviet states Two federal subjects of the post-Soviet Russian Federation use the hammer and sickle in their symbols: the Vladimir Oblast has them on its flag and the Bryansk Oblast has them on its flag and coat of arms, which is also the central element of its flag. In addition, the Russian city of Oryol also uses the hammer and sickle on its flag. The former Soviet (now Russian) national airline, Aeroflot, continues to use the hammer and sickle in its symbol. Many commercially available ushanka hats, especially those marketed as "Russian hats", bear a Soviet-style hammer and sickle emblem. The *de facto* government of Transnistria uses (with minor modifications) the flag and the emblem of the former Moldavian SSR, which includes the hammer and sickle. The flag can also appear without the hammer and sickle in some circumstances, for example on Transnistrian-issued license plates. ### Communist parties Three out of the five currently ruling Communist parties use a hammer and sickle as the party symbol: the Chinese Communist Party, the Communist Party of Vietnam and the Lao People's Revolutionary Party. In Laos and Vietnam, the hammer and sickle party flags can often be seen flying side by side with their respective national flags. Many communist parties around the world also use it, including the Communist Party of Greece, the Communist Party of Chile, both the Communist Party of Brazil and the Brazilian Communist Party, the Purba Banglar Sarbahara Party from Bangladesh, the Communist Party of Sri Lanka, the Communist Party of India (Marxist), the Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation, the Communist Party of India, the Communist Party of India (Maoist), the Indian Communist Marxist Party, the Socialist Unity Centre of India (Communist), the Egyptian Communist Party, the Communist Party of Pakistan, the Communist Refoundation Party in Italy, the Communist Party of Spain, the Communist Party of Denmark, the Communist Party of Norway, the Romanian Communist Party, the Lebanese Communist Party, the Communist Party of the Philippines and the Shining Path. The Communist Party of Sweden, the Portuguese Communist Party and the Mexican Communist Party use the hammer and sickle imposed on the red star. Variations ---------- Many symbols having similar structures and messages to the original have been designed. For example, the Angolan flag shows a segment of a cog, crossed by a machete and crowned with a socialist star while the flag of Mozambique features an AK-47 crossed by a hoe. In the logo of the Communist Party USA, a circle is formed by a half cog and a semicircular sickle-blade. A hammer is laid directly over the sickle's handle with the hammer's head at the logo's center. The logo of the Communist Party of Turkey consists of half a cog wheel crossed by a hammer, with a star on the top. Tools represented in other designs include: the brush, sickle and hammer of the Workers' Party of Korea; the spade, flaming torch and quill used prior to 1984 by the British Labour Party; the pickaxe and rifle used in communist Albania; and the hammer and compasses of the East German emblem and flag. The Far Eastern Republic of Russia used an anchor crossed over a spade or pickaxe, symbolising the union of the fishermen and miners. The Fourth International, founded by Leon Trotsky, uses a hammer and sickle symbol on which the number 4 is superimposed. The hammer and sickle in the Fourth International symbol are the opposite of other hammer and sickle symbols in that the head of the hammer is on the right side and the sickle end tip on the left. The Trotskyist League for the Fifth International merges a hammer with the number 5, using the number's lower arch to form the sickle. A sickle with a rifle is also used by the People's Mojahedin of Iran. The Communist Party of Britain uses the hammer and dove symbol. Designed in 1988 by Michal Boncza, it is intended to highlight the party's connection to the peace movement. It is usually used in conjunction with the hammer and sickle and it appears on all of the CPB's publications. Some members of the CPB prefer one symbol over the other, although the party's 1994 congress reaffirmed the hammer and dove's position as the official emblem of the party. Similarly, the Communist Party of Israel uses a dove over the hammer and sickle as its symbol. The flag of the Guadeloupe Communist Party uses a sickle, turned to look like a majuscule G, to represent Guadeloupe. The flag of the Black Front, a Strasserist group founded by early Nazi Party members and expelled around the time of the Night of the Long Knives purge, along with his supporters and the Sturmabteilung and originator of the ideology and the Black Front himself Otto Strasser, featured a crossed hammer and sword, symbolizing the unity of the workers and military. In 1938, the Dobama Asiayone, an anti-British nationalist group in the then British Burma, adopted a tricolour flag charged with red sickle and hammer. From 1974–2010, the flag of Burma (Myanmar) featured a bushel of rice superimposed on a cogwheel surrounded by fourteen white stars; the rice representing the peasants and the cogwheel representing the workers, the combination symbolizing that the peasants and workers be the two basic social classes for State building, while the fourteen equal-sized white stars indicate the unity and equality of fourteen member states of the Union. The flag of Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM, Party of the Revolution in Swahili), currently the ruling political party of Tanzania, has a slightly different symbol with a hammer and a hoe (*jembe*) instead of a sickle to represent the most common farm tool in Africa. The National Bolshevik Party used the hammer and sickle in their flag, but colored black instead of gold and in a design similar to the Nazi flag, a brighter red flag than the USSR, with a black hammer and sickle on a white disk in the center. The symbols of the liberal socialist parties of Radical Civic Union in Argentina and the Czech National Social Party in the Czech Republic features a hammer and a quill with the former representing workers and the latter representing clerks. The election symbol of Communist Party of India consists of a horizontal sickle, vertically crossed by Ears of Corn in the center. * The hammer and sickle symbol and red star of the Soviet Union.The hammer and sickle symbol and red star of the Soviet Union. * Compass and hammer of East Germany.Compass and hammer of East Germany. * Hammer and sword of the Black Front.Hammer and sword of the Black Front. * Logo of the interwar Polish National Socialist Party.Logo of the interwar Polish National Socialist Party. Art --- The hammer and sickle has long been a common theme in socialist realism, but it has also seen some depiction in non-Marxist popular culture. Andy Warhol who created many drawings and photographs of the hammer and sickle is the most famous example of this. * The metro station, Plošča Lienina, MinskThe metro station, *Plošča Lienina*, Minsk * Sándor Pinczehelyi, Hammer and SickleSándor Pinczehelyi, *Hammer and Sickle* * A tableau in a communist rally in Kerala, IndiaA tableau in a communist rally in Kerala, India * "Worker, peasant and the intellectual" in front of the Juche Tower, Pyongyang "Worker, peasant and the intellectual" in front of the Juche Tower, Pyongyang * The Hoof and Horn flag described in the book Animal Farm is a parody of the hammer and sickle.The Hoof and Horn flag described in the book Animal Farm is a parody of the hammer and sickle. Legal status ------------ In several countries in the former Eastern Bloc, there are laws that define the hammer and sickle as the symbol of a "totalitarian and criminal ideology" and the public display of the hammer and sickle and other Communist symbols such as the red star is considered a criminal offence. Georgia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova (1 October 2012 – 4 June 2013) and Ukraine have banned communist symbols including this one. A similar law was considered in Estonia, but it eventually failed in a parliamentary committee. In Ukraine, the legislature equals communist symbols including hammer with sickle to Nazi swastika symbols. In 2010, the Lithuanian, Latvian, Bulgarian, Hungarian, Romanian, and Czech governments called for the European Union to criminalize "the approval, denial or belittling of communist crimes" similar to how a number of EU member states have banned Holocaust denial. The European Commission turned down this request, finding after a study that the criteria for EU-wide criminal legislation were not met, leaving individual member states to determine the extent to which they wished to handle past totalitarian crimes. In February 2013, the Constitutional Court of Hungary annulled the ban on the use of symbols of fascist and communist dictatorships, including the hammer and sickle, the red star and the swastika, saying the ban was too broad and imprecise. The court also pointed to a judgement of the European Court of Human Rights in which Hungary was found guilty of violation of article 10, the right to freedom of expression. In June 2013, the Constitutional Court of Moldova ruled that the Moldovan Communist Party’s symbols—the hammer and sickle—are legal and can be used. In Indonesia, the display of communist symbols is banned and the country's Communist party was also banned by decree of president Suharto, following the 1965–1966 killings of communists in which over 500,000 people were killed. In January 2018, an activist protesting against Bumi Resources displayed the hammer and sickle, was accused of spreading communism, and later jailed. In Poland, dissemination of items which are "media of fascist, communist or other totalitarian symbolism" was criminalized in 1997. However, the Constitutional Tribunal found this sanction to be unconstitutional in 2011. Usage ----- ### Flags #### Europe * Flag of the Soviet Union from 1922 to 1923Flag of the Soviet Union from 1922 to 1923 * Flag of the Soviet Union from 1924Flag of the Soviet Union from 1924 * Flag of the Soviet Union from 1924 to 1936Flag of the Soviet Union from 1924 to 1936 * Flag of the Soviet Union from 1936 to 1955 * Flag of the Soviet Union from 19 August 1955 to 26 December 1991Flag of the Soviet Union from 19 August 1955 to 26 December 1991 * Naval Jack of the Soviet Union and Russia from 16 November 1950 to 26 July 1992Naval Jack of the Soviet Union and Russia from 16 November 1950 to 26 July 1992 * Naval ensign of the Soviet Union and Russia from 16 November 1950 to 26 July 1992Naval ensign of the Soviet Union and Russia from 16 November 1950 to 26 July 1992 * Flag of Aeroflot from 1961 to 1991Flag of Aeroflot from 1961 to 1991 * Flag of East Germany from 1959 to 1990Flag of East Germany from 1959 to 1990 * Flag of the Communist Party of the Donetsk People's RepublicFlag of the Communist Party of the Donetsk People's Republic * Flag of the Romanian Communist PartyFlag of the Romanian Communist Party * Flag of the Communist Party of the Russian FederationFlag of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation * Flag of Bryansk Oblast (Russia)Flag of Bryansk Oblast (Russia) * Flag of Vladimir Oblast (Russia)Flag of Vladimir Oblast (Russia) * Flag of Oryol (Russia)Flag of Oryol (Russia) * Flag of the Italian Communist PartyFlag of the Italian Communist Party * Flag of the Sammarinese Communist PartyFlag of the Sammarinese Communist Party * The flag of the Revolutionary People's Liberation Party–Front (Turkey)The flag of the Revolutionary People's Liberation Party–Front (Turkey) * Flag of the Portuguese Communist PartyFlag of the Portuguese Communist Party * Flag of Communist Party of CzechoslovakiaFlag of Communist Party of Czechoslovakia * Flag of League of Communists of YugoslaviaFlag of League of Communists of Yugoslavia #### Asia * Flag of the Vietnamese Communist PartyFlag of the Vietnamese Communist Party * Flag of the Chinese Communist PartyFlag of the Chinese Communist Party * Flag of the Chinese Communist Party (before 1996)Flag of the Chinese Communist Party (before 1996) * Flag of Chinese Workers' and Peasants' Red ArmyFlag of Chinese Workers' and Peasants' Red Army * Flag of the Taiwan Democratic Communist PartyFlag of the Taiwan Democratic Communist Party * Flag of the Chinese Soviet Republic (1931–1937)Flag of the Chinese Soviet Republic (1931–1937) * Flag of Workers' Party of KoreaFlag of Workers' Party of Korea * Flag of the Communist Party of IndiaFlag of the Communist Party of India * Flag of the Communist Party of India (Marxist)Flag of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) * Flag of various South Asian communist parties, including the Communist Party of India (Maoist)Flag of various South Asian communist parties, including the Communist Party of India (Maoist) * Flag of the Socialist Unity Centre of IndiaFlag of the Socialist Unity Centre of India * Flag of the Communist Party of BangladeshFlag of the Communist Party of Bangladesh * Flag of the Nepal Communist PartyFlag of the Nepal Communist Party * Flag of the Communist Party of Bhutan (Marxist–Leninist–Maoist)Flag of the Communist Party of Bhutan (Marxist–Leninist–Maoist) * Flag of Communist Party of IndonesiaFlag of Communist Party of Indonesia * Flag of the Socialist Party of TimorFlag of the Socialist Party of Timor * Flag of the Communist Party of the PhilippinesFlag of the Communist Party of the Philippines * Flag of Lao People's Revolutionary PartyFlag of Lao People's Revolutionary Party * Flag of Communist Party of KampucheaFlag of Communist Party of Kampuchea * Flag of the Malayan Communist Party (1930-1989)Flag of the Malayan Communist Party (1930-1989) * Flag of the Lebanese Communist PartyFlag of the Lebanese Communist Party * Flag of the Syrian Communist Party (Bakdash)Flag of the Syrian Communist Party (Bakdash) * Flag of the Kurdistan Workers' Party (1978–1995)Flag of the Kurdistan Workers' Party (1978–1995) * Flag of the Jordanian Communist PartyFlag of the Jordanian Communist Party * Flag of the Palestinian Communist Party #### Africa * Flag of the Algerian Communist PartyFlag of the Algerian Communist Party * Flag of AngolaFlag of Angola * Flag of FRELIMO (1987-2004)Flag of FRELIMO (1987-2004) * Flag of the People's Republic of the Congo and the Congolese Party of LabourFlag of the People's Republic of the Congo and the Congolese Party of Labour * Flag of the Communist Party of KenyaFlag of the Communist Party of Kenya * Flag of the South African Communist PartyFlag of the South African Communist Party * Flag of the Workers' Party of EthiopiaFlag of the Workers' Party of Ethiopia #### Americas * Flag of Shining PathFlag of Shining Path * Flag of PCdoBFlag of PCdoB * Flag of the PCCEFlag of the PCCE * Flag of the Communist Party USAFlag of the Communist Party USA ### State emblems #### Soviet Union (in the constitutional order) * State emblem of the Union of Soviet Socialist RepublicsState emblem of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics * Emblem of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist RepublicEmblem of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic * National emblem of the German Democratic Republic (1955–1990}National emblem of the German Democratic Republic (1955–1990} * Emblem of the Russian Federation (1992‒1993)Emblem of the Russian Federation (1992‒1993) * Emblem of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist RepublicEmblem of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic * Emblem of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist RepublicEmblem of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic * Emblem of the Uzbek Soviet Socialist RepublicEmblem of the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic * Emblem of the Kazakh Soviet Socialist RepublicEmblem of the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic * Emblem of the Georgian Soviet Socialist RepublicEmblem of the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic * Emblem of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist RepublicEmblem of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic * Emblem of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist RepublicEmblem of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic * Emblem of the Moldavian Soviet Socialist RepublicEmblem of the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic * Emblem of the Latvian Soviet Socialist RepublicEmblem of the Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic * Emblem of the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist RepublicEmblem of the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic * Emblem of the Tajik Soviet Socialist RepublicEmblem of the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic * Emblem of the Armenian Soviet Socialist RepublicEmblem of the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic * Emblem of the Turkmen Soviet Socialist RepublicEmblem of the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic * Emblem of the Estonian Soviet Socialist RepublicEmblem of the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic * Emblem of the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (1923‒1936)Emblem of the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (1923‒1936) * Emblem of the Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic (1941‒1956)Emblem of the Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic (1941‒1956) #### Other * State emblem of the Tuvan People's Republic (1943‒1944)State emblem of the Tuvan People's Republic (1943‒1944) * Emblem of the self-proclaimed Pridnestrovian Moldavian RepublicEmblem of the self-proclaimed Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic * State emblem of the Lao People's Democratic Republic (1975‒1991)State emblem of the Lao People's Democratic Republic (1975‒1991) * Emblem of the People's Republic of the Congo (1970–1991)Emblem of the People's Republic of the Congo (1970–1991) * State emblem of the Chinese Soviet Republic (1934–1937)State emblem of the Chinese Soviet Republic (1934–1937) * Emblem of Hungarian People's Republic (1949-1956)Emblem of Hungarian People's Republic (1949-1956) * Emblem of Moscow (1924-1937)Emblem of Moscow (1924-1937) * Emblem of AngolaEmblem of Angola * Coat of arms of Bryansk Oblast, RussiaCoat of arms of Bryansk Oblast, Russia ### Logos #### Europe * Badge of the Communist Party of the Soviet UnionBadge of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union * Emblem of the Communist Party of CzechoslovakiaEmblem of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia * Emblem of the Romanian Communist PartyEmblem of the Romanian Communist Party * Emblem of the League of Communists of YugoslaviaEmblem of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia * Logo of the Communist Party of the Russian FederationLogo of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation * Logo of the Communist Party of GreeceLogo of the Communist Party of Greece * Logo of the Italian Communist PartyLogo of the Italian Communist Party * Logo of the Proletarian Unity Party (Italy)Logo of the Proletarian Unity Party (Italy) * Logo of the Communist Party (Italy)Logo of the Communist Party (Italy) * Logo of the Communist Party of SpainLogo of the Communist Party of Spain * Logo of the Hungarian Socialist Workers' PartyLogo of the Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party * Logo of the Communist Party of the Peoples of SpainLogo of the Communist Party of the Peoples of Spain * Logo of the Portuguese Communist PartyLogo of the Portuguese Communist Party * Logo of the Communist Party of IrelandLogo of the Communist Party of Ireland * Logo of the Communist Party of BritainLogo of the Communist Party of Britain * Logo of the Communist Party of Great Britain (Provisional Central Committee)Logo of the Communist Party of Great Britain (Provisional Central Committee) * Logo of the Communist Party (Sweden)Logo of the Communist Party (Sweden) * The Logo of the Communist Party of NorwayThe Logo of the Communist Party of Norway * Logo of the Communist Party of DenmarkLogo of the Communist Party of Denmark * Logo of the Communist Party (Denmark)Logo of the Communist Party (Denmark) * Logo of the Communist Party of GermanyLogo of the Communist Party of Germany * Logo of the Communist Party (Switzerland)Logo of the Communist Party (Switzerland) * Logo of the New Communist Party of the NetherlandsLogo of the New Communist Party of the Netherlands * Logo of the Communist Party of Belgium (1989)Logo of the Communist Party of Belgium (1989) * Badge of the Marxist–Leninist Communist Party of TurkeyBadge of the Marxist–Leninist Communist Party of Turkey * Logo of the Revolutionary Communist Party of TurkeyLogo of the Revolutionary Communist Party of Turkey * Logo of AeroflotLogo of Aeroflot * Logo of the Communist Party of Ireland (Marxist–Leninist)Logo of the Communist Party of Ireland (Marxist–Leninist) * Symbol of the Group of Social Revolutionary NationalistsSymbol of the Group of Social Revolutionary Nationalists #### Asia * Emblem of the Workers' Party of KoreaEmblem of the Workers' Party of Korea * Emblem of the Communist Party of Indonesia (1914‒1966)Emblem of the Communist Party of Indonesia (1914‒1966) * Logo of the Acoma Party (Indonesia)Logo of the Acoma Party (Indonesia) * Logo of the Communist Party of TajikistanLogo of the Communist Party of Tajikistan * Logo of the Socialist Party of BangladeshLogo of the Socialist Party of Bangladesh * Logo of the Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist–Leninist) (1991-2018)Logo of the Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist–Leninist) (1991-2018) * Alternative emblem of the Communist Party of Vietnam.Alternative emblem of the Communist Party of Vietnam. * Emblem of the Communist Party of VietnamEmblem of the Communist Party of Vietnam * Logo of the Ministry of State SecurityLogo of the Ministry of State Security * Emblem of the Chinese Communist Party (1942–1996)Emblem of the Chinese Communist Party (1942–1996) * Emblem of the Chinese Communist Party (1996–present)Emblem of the Chinese Communist Party (1996–present) * Logo of the Lanka Sama Samaja Party, which features the symbol of the Fourth InternationalLogo of the Lanka Sama Samaja Party, which features the symbol of the Fourth International * Logo of the Communist Party of IndiaLogo of the Communist Party of India * Logo of the Communist Party of India (Marxist)Logo of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) #### Africa * Cogwheel, machete and star logo of AngolaCogwheel, machete and star logo of Angola * Logo of the Communist Party of BeninLogo of the Communist Party of Benin * Emblem of the All-Ethiopia Socialist MovementEmblem of the All-Ethiopia Socialist Movement * Emblem of the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Party (ca. 1975)Emblem of the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Party (ca. 1975) * Logo of the Congolese Party of LabourLogo of the Congolese Party of Labour * Emblem of the Somali Revolutionary Socialist PartyEmblem of the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party * Logo of the South African Communist PartyLogo of the South African Communist Party * Logo of the Revolutionary Communist Party of Ivory CoastLogo of the Revolutionary Communist Party of Ivory Coast * Logo of FRELIMO (1987-2004)Logo of FRELIMO (1987-2004) * Logo of the Workers' Party of TunisiaLogo of the Workers' Party of Tunisia * Logo of the Egyptian Communist PartyLogo of the Egyptian Communist Party #### Americas * Logo of the Mexican Communist PartyLogo of the Mexican Communist Party * Logo of the Communist Party of ChileLogo of the Communist Party of Chile * Logo of the Brazilian Communist PartyLogo of the Brazilian Communist Party * Logo of the Communist Party of BrazilLogo of the Communist Party of Brazil * Logo of the Workers' Cause PartyLogo of the Workers' Cause Party * Emblem of the Communist Party USAEmblem of the Communist Party USA * Logo of the Communist Party of Argentina (Extraordinary Congress)Logo of the Communist Party of Argentina (Extraordinary Congress) * Logo of the Communist Party of EcuadorLogo of the Communist Party of Ecuador * Logo of Shining PathLogo of Shining Path Unicode ------- In Unicode, the "hammer and sickle" symbol is U+262D (☭). It is part of the Miscellaneous Symbols (2600–26FF) code block. On systems where Compose key is available, it could be written as `[Compose]+CCCP`. It was added to Unicode 1.1 in 1993. See also -------- * Arm and hammer * Fist and rose * Communist symbolism * Socialist heraldry * Hammer and pick (⚒) * Red flag (⚑) * Red star (★) * Transport and Map Symbols Unicode block (contains 🛠 "hammer and wrench" as U+1F6E0)

Hammer and sickle

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammer_and_sickle

The **water caltrop** is any of three extant species of the genus *Trapa*: ***Trapa natans***, ***Trapa bicornis*** and the endangered ***Trapa rossica***. It is also known as **buffalo nut**, **bat nut**, **devil pod**, **ling nut**, **mustache nut**, **singhara nut** or **water chestnut**. The species are floating annual aquatic plants, growing in slow-moving freshwater up to 5 metres (16 feet) deep, native to warm temperate parts of Eurasia and Africa. They bear ornately shaped fruits, which in the case of *T. bicornis* resemble the head of a bull or the silhouette of a flying bat. Each fruit contains a single very large, starchy seed. *T. natans* and *T. bicornis* have been cultivated in China and the Indian subcontinent for the edible seeds for at least 3,000 years. Description ----------- The water caltrop's submerged stem reaches 3.7 to 4.6 metres (12 to 15 feet) in length, anchored into the mud by very fine roots. It has two types of leaves: finely divided, feather-like submerged leaves borne along the length of the stem, and undivided floating leaves borne in a rosette at the water's surface. The floating leaves have saw-tooth edges and are ovoid or triangular in shape, 2–3 centimetres (3⁄4–1+1⁄4 inches) long, on inflated petioles 5–9 cm (2–3+1⁄2 in) long, which provide added buoyancy for the leafy portion. Four-petalled white flowers form in early summer and are insect-pollinated. The fruit is a nut with four 1 cm (1⁄2 in) barbed spines. Seeds can remain viable up to 12 years, although most germinate within the first two years. The plant spreads by the rosettes and fruits detaching from the stem and floating to another area on currents or by fruits clinging to objects, and animals. The unrelated *Eleocharis dulcis* is also called a water chestnut. *Eleocharis* is also an aquatic plant raised for food since ancient times in China. *E. dulcis* is a sedge, whose round, crisp-fleshed corms are common in Chinese food. ### Chemistry Bicornin is an ellagitannin found in *T. bicornis*. Taxonomy -------- ### Phylogeny The genus has an extensive fossil record, with numerous, distinctive species. Undisputed fossilized seeds have been found in Cenozoic strata starting from the Eocene throughout Europe, China and North America (though, the genus became extinct in North America prior to the Pleistocene). The oldest known fossils attributed to the genus, however, are of leaves from Cretaceous Alaska, referred to the species, *T. borealis*. ### Etymology The generic name *Trapa* is derived from the Latin word for "thistle", *calcitrappa*, as also is another common name for the water caltrop. The plant's name in Japanese is *hishi*, a word that is also used to mean "a diamond or lozenge shape, a rhombus". The manufacturing group Mitsubishi takes its name and logo from the water caltrop. It is called **Shringataka** in Sanskrit, which is shortened to **Shingara** in Hindi language. In Eastern India, the samosa a fried or baked pastry is also called Shingara because its shape resembles that of the Shingara fruit. History ------- Investigations of archaeological material from southern Germany indicate that the prehistoric population of that region may well have relied significantly upon wild water caltrops to supplement their normal diet and, in times of cultivated cereal crop failure, water caltrops may even have been the main dietary component. Today, water caltrop is so rare in Germany that it is listed as an endangered species. Water caltrop has been an important food for worship as prayer offerings since the Chinese Zhou Dynasty. The Rites of Zhou (second century BC) mentioned that a worshipper "should use a bamboo basket containing dried water caltrops, the seeds of *Euryale ferox* and caltrops" (加籩之實，菱芡栗脯). The *Chinese Herbal Medicine Summary* (本草備要 published in 1694, written by Wang Ang 汪昂) claims that water caltrop can help fever and drunkenness. In India and Pakistan, it is known as *singhara* or *paniphal* (eastern India) and is widely cultivated in freshwater lakes. The fruits are eaten raw or boiled. When the fruit has been dried, it is ground to a flour called *singhare ka atta*, used in many religious rituals, and can be consumed as a *phalahar* (fruit diet) on the Hindu fasting days, the navratas. It was possible to buy water caltrops in markets all over Europe until 1880. In northern Italy, the nuts were offered roasted, much as sweet chestnuts (*Castanea sativa*) are still sold today. In many parts of Europe, water caltrops were known and used for human food until the beginning of the 20th century. Today, however, it is a rare plant in Europe. Several reasons for its near extinction exist, such as climate fluctuations, changes in the nutrient content of water bodies, and the drainage of many wetlands, ponds, and oxbow lakes. *T. natans* was, however, introduced to the US State of Massachusetts around 1874, as a planting in the Harvard University Botanic Garden. Staff gardener Louis Guerineau took it upon himself to throw seeds into Fresh Pond and other Cambridge waterways. This came to the attention of Medford-based botanist George E. Davenport, who decided to bring seeds and live plants to his friend Minor Pratt, in Concord. He and Pratt seeded a pond near the Sudbury River, and he suspected Pratt of conducting additional distributions. As early as 1879, concern was voiced by botanist Charles Sprague Sargent, director of Boston's Arnold Arboretum, that this non-native species threatened to become a nuisance, based on dense growths reported in Cambridge. Davenport confessed in an entry in the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, Vol. 6, page 352: "I have several times had plants of *Trapa natans* that were collected in the vicinity of Boston, during the present year, brought to me for identification, and I have entertained no doubt as to the manner of its introduction into waters outside Cambridge Botanic Garden. But that so fine a plant as this, with its handsome leafy rosettes and edible nuts, which would, if common, be as attractive to boys as hickory nuts now are, can ever become a 'nuisance' I can scarcely believe." Water caltrop has been declared an invasive species from Vermont to Virginia, and is classified as a noxious weed in Florida, North Carolina, and Washington. As of 2020, both *T. natans* and *T. bicornis* have been reported growing wild in the waterways of the United States. In Australia and its state of New South Wales water caltrop has been declared a noxious weed. * Water caltrop field in Tainan CityWater caltrop field in Tainan City * Water Caltrop from the Japanese agricultural encyclopedia Seikei Zusetsu (1804)Water Caltrop from the Japanese agricultural encyclopedia *Seikei Zusetsu* (1804) ### Legality of sale and shipment in the United States In 1956 *T. natans* was banned for sale or shipment in the United States, subject to a fine and/or imprisonment. This law was repealed by HR133 (116th United States Congress (2019–2020)) on December 27, 2020.[*full citation needed*][*failed verification*] Role in fasciolopsiasis transmission ------------------------------------ Fasciolopsiasis is an ailment resulting from infection by the trematode *Fasciolopsis buski*, an intestinal fluke of humans, endemic in China, Taiwan, Southeast Asia, Indonesia, Malaysia, and India; this fluke can be transmitted via the surfaces of these and other water plants. During the metacercarial stage in their lifecycle, the larval flukes leave their water snail hosts, and swim away to form cysts on the surfaces of water plants, including the leaves and fruit of water caltrops. If infected water plants are consumed raw or undercooked, the flukes can infect pigs, humans, and other animals. Uses ---- The fruits are edible raw or cooked, and the seeds can be eaten as well. It is also eaten on the occasion of Mid-Autumn Festival in the Sinosphere. * *Trapa natans* in West African plants – A Photo Guide.

Water caltrop

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_caltrop

A **flowchart** is a type of diagram that represents a workflow or process. A flowchart can also be defined as a diagrammatic representation of an algorithm, a step-by-step approach to solving a task. The flowchart shows the steps as boxes of various kinds, and their order by connecting the boxes with arrows. This diagrammatic representation illustrates a solution model to a given problem. Flowcharts are used in analyzing, designing, documenting or managing a process or program in various fields. Overview -------- Flowcharts are used to design and document simple processes or programs. Like other types of diagrams, they help visualize the process. Two of the many benefits are flaws and bottlenecks may become apparent. Flowcharts typically use the following main symbols: * A process step, usually called an *activity*, is denoted by a rectangular box. * A decision is usually denoted by a diamond. A flowchart is described as "cross-functional" when the chart is divided into different vertical or horizontal parts, to describe the control of different organizational units. A symbol appearing in a particular part is within the control of that organizational unit. A cross-functional flowchart allows the author to correctly locate the responsibility for performing an action or making a decision, and to show the responsibility of each organizational unit for different parts of a single process. Flowcharts represent certain aspects of processes and are usually complemented by other types of diagram. For instance, Kaoru Ishikawa defined the flowchart as one of the seven basic tools of quality control, next to the histogram, Pareto chart, check sheet, control chart, cause-and-effect diagram, and the scatter diagram. Similarly, in UML, a standard concept-modeling notation used in software development, the activity diagram, which is a type of flowchart, is just one of many different diagram types. Nassi-Shneiderman diagrams and Drakon-charts are an alternative notation for process flow. Common alternative names include: flow chart, process flowchart, functional flowchart, process map, process chart, functional process chart, business process model, process model, process flow diagram, work flow diagram, business flow diagram. The terms "flowchart" and "flow chart" are used interchangeably. The underlying graph structure of a flowchart is a flow graph, which abstracts away node types, their contents and other ancillary information. History ------- The first structured method for documenting process flow, the "flow process chart", was introduced by Frank and Lillian Gilbreth in the presentation "Process Charts: First Steps in Finding the One Best Way to do Work", to members of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) in 1921. The Gilbreths' tools quickly found their way into industrial engineering curricula. In the early 1930s, an industrial engineer, Allan H. Mogensen began to train business people in the use of some of the tools of industrial engineering at his Work Simplification Conferences in Lake Placid, New York. Art Spinanger, a 1944 graduate of Mogensen's class, took the tools back to Procter and Gamble where he developed their Deliberate Methods Change Program. Ben S. Graham, another 1944 graduate, Director of Formcraft Engineering at Standard Register Industrial, applied the flow process chart to information processing with his development of the multi-flow process chart, to present multiple documents and their relationships. In 1947, ASME adopted a symbol set derived from Gilbreth's original work as the "ASME Standard: Operation and Flow Process Charts." Douglas Hartree in 1949 explained that Herman Goldstine and John von Neumann had developed a flowchart (originally, diagram) to plan computer programs. His contemporary account was endorsed by IBM engineers and by Goldstine's personal recollections. The original programming flowcharts of Goldstine and von Neumann can be found in their unpublished report, "Planning and coding of problems for an electronic computing instrument, Part II, Volume 1" (1947), which is reproduced in von Neumann's collected works. The flowchart became a popular tool for describing computer algorithms, but its popularity decreased in the 1970s, when interactive computer terminals and third-generation programming languages became common tools for computer programming, since algorithms can be expressed more concisely as source code in such languages. Often pseudo-code is used, which uses the common idioms of such languages without strictly adhering to the details of a particular one. In the early 21st century, flowcharts were still used for describing computer algorithms. Modern techniques such as UML activity diagrams and Drakon-charts can be considered to be extensions of the flowchart. Types ----- Sterneckert (2003) suggested that flowcharts can be modeled from the perspective of different user groups (such as managers, system analysts and clerks), and that there are four general types: * *Document flowcharts*, showing controls over a document-flow through a system * *Data flowcharts*, showing controls over a data-flow in a system * *System flowcharts*, showing controls at a physical or resource level * *Program flowchart*, showing the controls in a program within a system Notice that every type of flowchart focuses on some kind of control, rather than on the particular flow itself. However, there are some different classifications. For example, Andrew Veronis (1978) named three basic types of flowcharts: the *system flowchart*, the *general flowchart*, and the *detailed flowchart*. That same year Marilyn Bohl (1978) stated "in practice, two kinds of flowcharts are used in solution planning: *system flowcharts* and *program flowcharts*...". More recently, Mark A. Fryman (2001) identified more differences: "Decision flowcharts, logic flowcharts, systems flowcharts, product flowcharts, and process flowcharts are just a few of the different types of flowcharts that are used in business and government". In addition, many diagram techniques are similar to flowcharts but carry a different name, such as UML activity diagrams. Building blocks --------------- ### Common symbols The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) set standards for flowcharts and their symbols in the 1960s. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) adopted the ANSI symbols in 1970. The current standard, ISO 5807, was revised in 1985. Generally, flowcharts flow from top to bottom and left to right. | ANSI/ISO Shape | Name | Description | | --- | --- | --- | | | Flowline (Arrowhead) | Shows the process's order of operation. A line coming from one symbol and pointing at another. Arrowheads are added if the flow is not the standard top-to-bottom, left-to right. | | | Terminal | Indicates the beginning and ending of a program or sub-process. Represented as a stadium, oval or rounded (fillet) rectangle. They usually contain the word "Start" or "End", or another phrase signaling the start or end of a process, such as "submit inquiry" or "receive product". | | | Process | Represents a set of operations that changes value, form, or location of data. Represented as a rectangle. | | | Decision | Shows a conditional operation that determines which one of the two paths the program will take. The operation is commonly a yes/no question or true/false test. Represented as a diamond (rhombus). | | | Input/Output | Indicates the process of inputting and outputting data, as in entering data or displaying results. Represented as a rhomboid. | | | Annotation (Comment) | Indicating additional information about a step in the program. Represented as an open rectangle with a dashed or solid line connecting it to the corresponding symbol in the flowchart. | | | Predefined Process | Shows named process which is defined elsewhere. Represented as a rectangle with double-struck vertical edges. | | | On-page Connector | Pairs of labeled connectors replace long or confusing lines on a flowchart page. Represented by a small circle with a letter inside. | | | Off-page Connector | A labeled connector for use when the target is on another page. Represented as a home plate-shaped pentagon. | ### Other symbols The ANSI/ISO standards include symbols beyond the basic shapes. Some are: | Shape | Name | Description | | --- | --- | --- | | Flowchart database | Data File or Database | Data represented by a cylinder symbolizing a disk drive. | | Flowchart Document | Document | Single documents represented as a rectangle with a wavy base. | | Flowchart Document multiple | Multiple documents represented as a stack of rectangles with wavy bases. | | Flowchar Manual input | Manual operation | Represented by a trapezoid with the longest parallel side at the top, to represent an operation or adjustment to process that can only be made manually. | | Flowchart manual input | Manual input | Represented by quadrilateral, with the top irregularly sloping up from left to right, like the side view of a keyboard. | | Flowchart Preparation | Preparation or Initialization | Represented by an elongated hexagon, originally used for steps like setting a switch or initializing a routine. | ### Parallel processing * *Parallel Mode* is represented by two horizontal lines at the beginning or ending of simultaneous operations For parallel and concurrent processing the *Parallel Mode* horizontal lines or a horizontal bar indicate the start or end of a section of processes that can be done independently: * At a *fork*, the process creates one or more additional processes, indicated by a bar with one incoming path and two or more outgoing paths. * At a *join*, two or more processes continue as a single process, indicated by a bar with several incoming paths and one outgoing path. All processes must complete before the single process continues. Software -------- ### Diagramming Any drawing program can be used to create flowchart diagrams, but these will have no underlying data model to share data with databases or other programs such as project management systems or spreadsheet. Many software packages exist that can create flowcharts automatically, either directly from a programming language source code, or from a flowchart description language. There are several applications and visual programming languages that use flowcharts to represent and execute programs. Generally these are used as teaching tools for beginner students. See also -------- | | | | --- | --- | | Related diagrams * Activity diagram * Control-flow diagram * Control-flow graph * Data flow diagram * Deployment flowchart * Drakon-chart * Flow map * Functional flow block diagram * Nassi–Shneiderman diagram * State diagram * Swimlane * Warnier/Orr diagram * Why-because analysis | Related subjects * Augmented transition network * Business process mapping * Data and information visualization * Interactive EasyFlow * Process architecture * Pseudocode * Recursive transition network * Unified Modeling Language (UML) * Workflow | Further reading --------------- * ISO 5807 (1985). *Information processing – Documentation symbols and conventions for data, program and system flowcharts, program network charts and system resources charts*. International Organization for Standardization. * ISO 10628: Diagrams for the chemical and petrochemical industry * ECMA 4: Flowcharts (withdrawn – list of withdrawn standards) * Schultheiss, Louis A., and Edward M. Heiliger. "Techniques of flow-charting." (1963); with introduction by Edward Heiliger.

Flowchart

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flowchart

In the United States, a state is a constituent political entity, of which there are 50. Bound together in a political union, each state holds governmental jurisdiction over a separate and defined geographic territory where it shares its sovereignty with the federal government. Due to this shared sovereignty, Americans are citizens both of the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons restricted by certain types of court orders (such as paroled convicts and children of divorced spouses who share child custody). State governments in the U.S. are allocated power by the people (of each respective state) through their individual state constitutions. All are grounded in republican principles (this being required by the federal constitution), and each provides for a government, consisting of three branches, each with separate and independent powers: executive, legislative, and judicial. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local governmental authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, and states also create other local governments. States, unlike U.S. territories, possess many powers and rights under the United States Constitution. States and their citizens are represented in the United States Congress, a bicameral legislature consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Each state is also entitled to select a number of electors (equal to the total number of representatives and senators from that state) to vote in the Electoral College, the body that directly elects the president of the United States. Additionally, each state has the opportunity to ratify constitutional amendments, and, with the consent of Congress, two or more states may enter into interstate compacts with one another. The police power of each state is also recognized. Historically, the tasks of local law enforcement, public education, public health, intrastate commerce regulation, and local transportation and infrastructure, in addition to local, state, and federal elections, have generally been considered primarily state responsibilities, although all of these now have significant federal funding and regulation as well. Over time, the Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the federal government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a continuing debate over states' rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states' powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government and the rights of individuals. The Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776 by the Thirteen Colonies, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50. Each new state has been admitted on an equal footing with the existing states. While the Constitution does not explicitly discuss the issue of whether states have the power to secede from the Union, shortly after the Civil War, the U.S. Supreme Court, in *Texas v. White*, held that a state cannot unilaterally do so. List ---- The 50 U.S. states, in alphabetical order, along with each state's flag: * Alabama * Alaska * Arizona * Arkansas * California * Colorado * Connecticut * Delaware * Florida * Georgia * Hawaii * Idaho * Illinois * Indiana * Iowa * Kansas * Kentucky * Louisiana * Maine * Maryland * Massachusetts * Michigan * Minnesota * Mississippi * Missouri * Montana * Nebraska * Nevada * New Hampshire * New Jersey * New Mexico * New York * North Carolina * North Dakota * Ohio * Oklahoma * Oregon * Pennsylvania * Rhode Island * South Carolina * South Dakota * Tennessee * Texas * Utah * Vermont * Virginia * Washington * West Virginia * Wisconsin * Wyoming Background ---------- The 13 original states came into existence in July 1776 during the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), as the successors of the Thirteen Colonies, upon agreeing to the Lee Resolution and signing the United States Declaration of Independence. Prior to these events each state had been a British colony; each then joined the first Union of states between 1777 and 1781, upon ratifying the Articles of Confederation, the first U.S. constitution. Also during this period, the newly independent states developed their own individual state constitutions, among the earliest written constitutions in the world. Although different in detail, these state constitutions shared features that would be important in the American constitutional order: they were republican in form, and separated power among three branches, most had bicameral legislatures, and contained statements of, or a bill of rights. Later, from 1787 to 1790, each of the states also ratified a new federal frame of government in the Constitution of the United States. In relation to the states, the U.S. Constitution elaborated concepts of federalism. Governments ----------- Under U.S. constitutional law, the 50 individual states and the United States as a whole are each sovereign jurisdictions. The states are *not* administrative divisions of the country; the Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution reserves to the states or to the people all powers of government not delegated to the federal government. Consequently, each of the 50 states reserves the right to organize its individual government in any way (within the broad parameters set by the U.S. Constitution and the Republican Guarantee enforced by Congress) deemed appropriate by its people, and to exercise all powers of government not delegated to the federal government by the Constitution. A state, unlike the federal government, has un-enumerated police power, that is, the right to generally make all necessary laws for the welfare of its people. As a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance. No two state governments are identical. ### Constitutions The government of each state is structured in accordance with its individual constitution. Many of these documents are more detailed and more elaborate than their federal counterpart. The Constitution of Alabama, for example, contains 310,296 words – more than 40 times as many as the U.S. Constitution. In practice, each state has adopted a three-branch frame of government: executive, legislative, and judicial (even though doing so has never been required). Early on in American history, four state governments differentiated themselves from the others in their first constitutions by choosing to self-identify as Commonwealths rather than as states: Virginia, in 1776; Pennsylvania, in 1777; Massachusetts, in 1780; and Kentucky, in 1792. Consequently, while these four are states like the other states, each is formally a commonwealth because the term is contained in its constitution. The term, *commonwealth*, which refers to *a state in which the supreme power is vested in the people*, was first used in Virginia during the Interregnum, the 1649–60 period between the reigns of Charles I and Charles II during which parliament's Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector established a republican government known as the Commonwealth of England. Virginia became a royal colony again in 1660, and the word was dropped from the full title; it went unused until reintroduced in 1776. #### Executive In each state, the chief executive is called the governor, who serves as both head of state and head of government. All governors are chosen by direct election. The governor may approve or veto bills passed by the state legislature, as well as recommend and work for the passage of bills, usually supported by their political party. In 44 states, governors have line item veto power. Most states have a plural executive, meaning that the governor is not the only government official in the state responsible for its executive branch. In these states, executive power is distributed amongst other officials, elected by the people independently of the governor—such as the lieutenant governor, attorney general, comptroller, secretary of state, and others. Elections of officials in the United States are generally for a fixed term of office. The constitutions of 19 states allow for citizens to remove and replace an elected public official before the end of their term of office through a recall election. Each state follows its own procedures for recall elections, and sets its own restrictions on how often, and how soon after a general election, they may be held. In all states, the legislatures can remove state executive branch officials, including governors, who have committed serious abuses of their power from office. The process of doing so includes impeachment (the bringing of specific charges), and a trial, in which legislators act as a jury. #### Legislative The primary responsibilities of state legislatures are to enact state laws and appropriate money for the administration of public policy. In all states, if the governor vetoes a bill (or a portion of one), it can still become law if the legislature overrides the veto (repasses the bill), which in most states requires a two-thirds vote in each chamber. In 49 of the 50 states the legislature consists of two chambers: a lower house (variously called the House of Representatives, State Assembly, General Assembly or House of Delegates) and a smaller upper house, in all states called the Senate. The exception is the unicameral Nebraska Legislature, which has only a single chamber. Most states have a part-time legislature (traditionally called a citizen legislature). Ten state legislatures are considered full-time; these bodies are more similar to the U.S. Congress than are the others. Members of each state's legislature are chosen by direct election. In *Baker v. Carr* (1962) and *Reynolds v. Sims* (1964), the U.S. Supreme Court held that all states are required to elect their legislatures in such a way as to afford each citizen the same degree of representation (the one person, one vote standard). In practice, most states elect legislators from single-member districts, each of which has approximately the same population. Some states, such as Maryland and Vermont, divide the state into single- and multi-member districts. In this case, multi-member districts must have proportionately larger populations, e.g., a district electing two representatives must have approximately twice the population of a district electing just one. The voting systems used across the nation are: first-past-the-post in single-member districts, and multiple non-transferable vote in multi-member districts. In 2013, there were a total of 7,383 legislators in the 50 state legislative bodies. They earned from $0 annually (New Mexico) to $90,526 (California). There were various per diem and mileage compensation. #### Judicial States can also organize their judicial systems differently from the federal judiciary, as long as they protect the federal constitutional right of their citizens to procedural due process. Most have a trial-level court, generally called a district court, superior court or circuit court, a first-level appellate court, generally called a court of appeal (or appeals), and a supreme court. Oklahoma and Texas have separate highest courts for criminal appeals. Uniquely, in New York State, the trial court is called the Supreme Court; appeals go up first to the Supreme Court's Appellate Division, and from there to the Court of Appeals. State court systems exercise broad, plenary, and general jurisdiction, in contrast to the federal courts, which are courts of limited jurisdiction. The overwhelming majority of criminal and civil cases in the United States are heard in state courts. Each year, roughly 30 million new cases are filed in state courts and the total number of judges across all state courts is about 30,000—for comparison, 1 million new cases are filed each year in federal courts, which have about 1,700 judges. Most states base their legal system on English common law (with substantial indigenous changes and incorporation of certain civil law innovations), with the notable exception of Louisiana, a former French colony, which draws large parts of its legal system from French civil law. Only a few states choose to have the judges on the state's courts serve for life terms. In most states, the judges, including the justices of the highest court in the state, are either elected or appointed for terms of a limited number of years and are usually eligible for re-election or reappointment. ### Unitarism All states are unitary states, not federations or aggregates of local governments. Local governments within them are created by and exist by virtue of state law, and local governments within each state are subject to the central authority of that particular state. State governments commonly delegate some authority to local units and channel policy decisions down to them for implementation. In a few states, local units of government are permitted a degree of home rule over various matters. The prevailing legal theory of state preeminence over local governments, referred to as Dillon's Rule, holds that, > A municipal corporation possesses and can exercise the following powers and no others: First, those granted in express words; second, those necessarily implied or necessarily incident to the powers expressly granted; third, those absolutely essential to the declared objects and purposes of the corporation—not simply convenient but indispensable; fourth, any fair doubt as to the existence of power is resolved by the courts against the corporation—against the existence of the powers. > > Each state defines for itself what powers it will allow local governments. Generally, four categories of power may be given to local jurisdictions: > > * Structural – power to choose the form of government, charter and enact charter revisions, > * Functional – power to exercise local self-government in a broad or limited manner, > * Fiscal – authority to determine revenue sources, set tax rates, borrow funds and other related financial activities, > * Personnel – authority to set employment rules, remuneration rates, employment conditions and collective bargaining. > Relationships ------------- ### Interstate Each state admitted to the Union by Congress since 1789 has entered it on an equal footing with the original states in all respects. With the growth of states' rights advocacy during the antebellum period, the Supreme Court asserted, in *Lessee of Pollard v. Hagan* (1845), that the Constitution mandated admission of new states on the basis of equality. With the consent of Congress, states may enter into interstate compacts, agreements between two or more states. Compacts are frequently used to manage a shared resource, such as transportation infrastructure or water rights. Under Article IV of the Constitution, which outlines the relationship between the states, each state is required to give full faith and credit to the acts of each other's legislatures and courts, which is generally held to include the recognition of most contracts and criminal judgments, and before 1865, slavery status. Under the Extradition Clause, a state must extradite people located there who have fled charges of "treason, felony, or other crimes" in another state if the other state so demands. The principle of hot pursuit of a presumed felon and arrest by the law officers of one state in another state are often permitted by a state. The full faith and credit expectation does have exceptions, some legal arrangements, such as professional licensure and marriages, may be state-specific, and until recently states have not been found by the courts to be required to honor such arrangements from other states. Such legal acts are nevertheless often recognized state-to-state according to the common practice of comity. States are prohibited from discriminating against citizens of other states with respect to their basic rights, under the Privileges and Immunities Clause. ### With the federal government Under Article IV, each state is guaranteed a form of government that is grounded in republican principles, such as the consent of the governed. This guarantee has long been at the forefront of the debate about the rights of citizens vis-à-vis the government. States are also guaranteed protection from invasion, and, upon the application of the state legislature (or executive, if the legislature cannot be convened), from domestic violence. This provision was discussed during the 1967 Detroit riot but was not invoked. The Supremacy Clause (Article VI, Clause 2) establishes that the Constitution, federal laws made pursuant to it, and treaties made under its authority, constitute the supreme law of the land. It provides that state courts are bound by the supreme law; in case of conflict between federal and state law, the federal law must be applied. Even state constitutions are subordinate to federal law. States' rights are understood mainly with reference to the Tenth Amendment. The Constitution delegates some powers to the national government, and it forbids some powers to the states. The Tenth Amendment reserves all other powers to the states, or to the people. Powers of the U.S. Congress are enumerated in Article I, Section 8, for example, the power to declare war. Making treaties is one power forbidden to the states, being listed among other such powers in Article I, Section 10. Among the Article I enumerated powers of Congress is the power to regulate commerce. Since the early 20th century, the Supreme Court's interpretation of this "Commerce Clause" has, over time, greatly expanded the scope of federal power, at the expense of powers formerly considered purely states' matters. The *Cambridge Economic History of the United States* says, "On the whole, especially after the mid-1880s, the Court construed the Commerce Clause in favor of increased federal power." In 1941, the Supreme Court in *U.S. v. Darby* upheld the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, holding that Congress had the power under the Commerce Clause to regulate employment conditions. Then, one year later, in *Wickard v. Filburn*, the Court expanded federal power to regulate the economy by holding that federal authority under the commerce clause extends to activities which may appear to be local in nature but in reality effect the entire national economy and are therefore of national concern. For example, Congress can regulate railway traffic across state lines, but it may also regulate rail traffic solely within a state, based on the reality that intrastate traffic still affects interstate commerce. Through such decisions, argues law professor David F. Forte, "the Court turned the commerce power into the equivalent of a general regulatory power and undid the Framers' original structure of limited and delegated powers." Subsequently, Congress invoked the Commerce Clause to expand federal criminal legislation, as well as for social reforms such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Only within the past couple of decades, through decisions in cases such as those in *U.S. v. Lopez* (1995) and *U.S. v. Morrison* (2000), has the Court tried to limit the Commerce Clause power of Congress. Another enumerated congressional power is its taxing and spending power. An example of this is the system of federal aid for highways, which include the Interstate Highway System. The system is mandated and largely funded by the federal government and serves the interests of the states. By threatening to withhold federal highway funds, Congress has been able to pressure state legislatures to pass various laws. An example is the nationwide legal drinking age of 21, enacted by each state, brought about by the National Minimum Drinking Age Act. Although some objected that this infringes on states' rights, the Supreme Court upheld the practice as a permissible use of the Constitution's Spending Clause in *South Dakota v. Dole* 483 U.S. 203 (1987). As prescribed by Article I of the Constitution, which establishes the U.S. Congress, each state is represented in the Senate (irrespective of population size) by two senators, and each is guaranteed at least one representative in the House. Both senators and representatives are chosen in direct popular elections in the various states. (Prior to 1913, senators were elected by state legislatures.) There are presently 100 senators, who are elected at-large to staggered terms of six years, with one-third of them being chosen every two years. Representatives are elected at large or from single-member districts to terms of two years (not staggered). The size of the House—presently 435 voting members—is set by federal statute. Seats in the House are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census. The borders of these districts are established by the states individually through a process called redistricting, and within each state all districts are required to have approximately equal populations. Citizens in each state plus those in the District of Columbia indirectly elect the president and vice president. When casting ballots in presidential elections they are voting for presidential electors, who then, using procedures provided in the 12th amendment, elect the president and vice president. There were 538 electors for the most recent presidential election in 2020; the allocation of electoral votes was based on the 2010 census. Each state is entitled to a number of electors equal to the total number of representatives and senators from that state; the District of Columbia is entitled to three electors. While the Constitution does set parameters for the election of federal officials, state law, not federal, regulates most aspects of elections in the U.S., including primaries, the eligibility of voters (beyond the basic constitutional definition), the running of each state's electoral college, as well as the running of state and local elections. All elections—federal, state, and local—are administered by the individual states, and some voting rules and procedures may differ among them. Article V of the Constitution accords states a key role in the process of amending the U.S. Constitution. Amendments may be proposed either by Congress with a two-thirds vote in both the House and the Senate, or by a constitutional convention called for by two-thirds of the state legislatures. To become part of the Constitution, an amendment must be ratified by either—as determined by Congress—the legislatures of three-quarters of the states or state ratifying conventions in three-quarters of the states. The vote in each state (to either ratify or reject a proposed amendment) carries equal weight, regardless of a state's population or length of time in the Union. ### With other countries U.S. states are not sovereign in the Westphalian sense in international law which says that each State has sovereignty over its territory and domestic affairs, to the exclusion of all external powers, on the principle of non-interference in another State's domestic affairs, and that each State (no matter how large or small) is equal in international law. Additionally, the 50 U.S. states do not possess international legal sovereignty, meaning that they are not recognized by other sovereign States such as, for example, France, Germany or the United Kingdom. The federal government is responsible for international relations, but state and local government leaders do occasionally travel to other countries and form economic and cultural relationships. Admission into the Union ------------------------ Article IV also grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50. Each new state has been admitted on an equal footing with the existing states. Article IV also forbids the creation of new states from parts of existing states without the consent of both the affected states and Congress. This caveat was designed to give Eastern states that still had Western land claims (including Georgia, North Carolina, and Virginia), to have a veto over whether their western counties could become states, and has served this same function since, whenever a proposal to partition an existing state or states in order that a region within might either join another state or to create a new state has come before Congress. Most of the states admitted to the Union after the original 13 were formed from an organized territory established and governed by Congress in accord with its plenary power under Article IV, Section 3, Clause 2. The outline for this process was established by the Northwest Ordinance (1787), which predates the ratification of the Constitution. In some cases, an entire territory has become a state; in others some part of a territory has. When the people of a territory make their desire for statehood known to the federal government, Congress may pass an enabling act authorizing the people of that territory to organize a constitutional convention to write a state constitution as a step toward admission to the Union. Each act details the mechanism by which the territory will be admitted as a state following ratification of their constitution and election of state officers. Although the use of an enabling act is a traditional historic practice, a number of territories have drafted constitutions for submission to Congress absent an enabling act and were subsequently admitted. Upon acceptance of that constitution and meeting any additional Congressional stipulations, Congress has always admitted that territory as a state. In addition to the original 13, six subsequent states were never an organized territory of the federal government, or part of one, before being admitted to the Union. Three were set off from an already existing state, two entered the Union after having been sovereign states, and one was established from unorganized territory: * California, 1850, from land ceded to the United States by Mexico in 1848 under the terms of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. * Kentucky, 1792, from Virginia (District of Kentucky: Fayette, Jefferson, and Lincoln counties) * Maine, 1820, from Massachusetts (District of Maine) * Texas, 1845, previously the Republic of Texas * Vermont, 1791, previously the Vermont Republic (also known as the New Hampshire Grants and claimed by New York) * West Virginia, 1863, from Virginia (Trans-Allegheny region counties) during the Civil War Congress is under no obligation to admit states, even in those areas whose population expresses a desire for statehood. Such has been the case numerous times during the nation's history. In one instance, Mormon pioneers in Salt Lake City sought to establish the state of Deseret in 1849. It existed for slightly over two years and was never approved by the United States Congress. In another, leaders of the Five Civilized Tribes (Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole) in Indian Territory proposed to establish the state of Sequoyah in 1905, as a means to retain control of their lands. The proposed constitution ultimately failed in the U.S. Congress. Instead, the Indian Territory and Oklahoma Territory were both incorporated into the new state of Oklahoma in 1907. The first instance occurred while the nation still operated under the Articles of Confederation. The State of Franklin existed for several years, not long after the end of the American Revolution, but was never recognized by the Confederation Congress, which ultimately recognized North Carolina's claim of sovereignty over the area. The territory comprising Franklin later became part of the Southwest Territory, and ultimately of the state of Tennessee. Additionally, the entry of several states into the Union was delayed due to distinctive complicating factors. Among them, Michigan Territory, which petitioned Congress for statehood in 1835, was not admitted to the Union until 1837, due to a boundary dispute with the adjoining state of Ohio. The Republic of Texas requested annexation to the United States in 1837, but fears about potential conflict with Mexico delayed the admission of Texas for nine years. Statehood for Kansas Territory was held up for several years (1854–61) due to a series of internal violent conflicts involving anti-slavery and pro-slavery factions. West Virginia's bid for statehood was also delayed over slavery and was settled when it agreed to adopt a gradual abolition plan. Proposed additions ------------------ ### Puerto Rico Puerto Rico, an unincorporated U.S. territory, refers to itself as the "Commonwealth of Puerto Rico" in the English version of its constitution, and as "Estado Libre Asociado" (literally, Associated Free State) in the Spanish version. As with all U.S. territories, its residents do not have full representation in the United States Congress. Puerto Rico has limited representation in the U.S. House of Representatives in the form of a Resident Commissioner, a delegate with limited voting rights in the Committee of the Whole House on the State of the Union, but no voting rights otherwise. A non-binding referendum on statehood, independence, or a new option for an associated territory (different from the current status) was held on November 6, 2012. Sixty one percent (61%) of voters chose the statehood option, while one third of the ballots were submitted blank. On December 11, 2012, the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico enacted a concurrent resolution requesting the President and the Congress of the United States to respond to the referendum of the people of Puerto Rico, held on November 6, 2012, to end its current form of territorial status and to begin the process to admit Puerto Rico as a state. Another status referendum was held on June 11, 2017, in which 97% percent of voters chose statehood. Turnout was low, as only 23% of voters went to the polls, with advocates of both continued territorial status and independence urging voters to boycott it. On June 27, 2018, the H.R. 6246 Act was introduced on the U.S. House with the purpose of responding to, and comply with, the democratic will of the United States citizens residing in Puerto Rico as expressed in the plebiscites held on November 6, 2012, and June 11, 2017, by setting forth the terms for the admission of the territory of Puerto Rico as a state of the Union. The act has 37 original cosponsors between Republicans and Democrats in the U.S. House of Representatives. On November 3, 2020, Puerto Rico held another referendum. In the non-binding referendum, Puerto Ricans voted in favor of becoming a state. They also voted for a pro-statehood governor, Pedro Pierluisi. ### Washington, D.C. The intention of the Founding Fathers was that the United States capital should be at a neutral site, not giving favor to any existing state; as a result, the District of Columbia was created in 1800 to serve as the seat of government. As it is not a state, the district does not have representation in the Senate and has a non-voting delegate in the House; neither does it have a sovereign elected government. Additionally, before ratification of the 23rd Amendment in 1961, district citizens did not get the right to vote in presidential elections. The strong majority of residents of the District support statehood of some form for that jurisdiction – either statehood for the whole district or for the inhabited part, with the remainder remaining under federal jurisdiction. In November 2016, Washington, D.C. residents voted in a statehood referendum in which 86% of voters supported statehood for Washington, D.C. For statehood to be achieved, it must be approved by Congress. Secession from the Union ------------------------ The Constitution is silent on the issue of whether a state can secede from the Union. Its predecessor, the Articles of Confederation, stated that the United States "shall be perpetual." The question of whether or not individual states held the unilateral right to secession was a passionately debated feature of the nations' political discourse from early in its history and remained a difficult and divisive topic until the American Civil War. In 1860 and 1861, 11 southern states each declared secession from the United States and joined to form the Confederate States of America (CSA). Following the defeat of Confederate forces by Union armies in 1865, those states were brought back into the Union during the ensuing Reconstruction era. The federal government never recognized the sovereignty of the CSA, nor the validity of the ordinances of secession adopted by the seceding states. Following the war, the United States Supreme Court, in *Texas v. White* (1869), held that states did not have the right to secede and that any act of secession was legally void. Drawing on the Preamble to the Constitution, which states that the Constitution was intended to "form a more perfect union" and speaks of the people of the United States in effect as a single body politic, as well as the language of the Articles of Confederation, the Supreme Court maintained that states did not have a right to secede. The court's reference in the same decision to the possibility of such changes occurring "through revolution, or through consent of the States," essentially means that this decision holds that no state has a right to unilaterally decide to leave the Union. Name origins ------------ The 50 states have taken their names from a wide variety of languages. Twenty-four state names originate from Native American languages. Of these, eight are from Algonquian languages, seven are from Siouan languages, three are from Iroquoian languages, one is from Uto-Aztecan languages and five others are from other indigenous languages. Hawaii's name is derived from the Polynesian Hawaiian language. Of the remaining names, 22 are from European languages. Seven are from Latin (mainly Latinized forms of English names) and the rest are from English, Spanish and French. Eleven states are named after individual people, including seven named for royalty and one named after a President of the United States. The origins of six state names are unknown or disputed. Several of the states that derive their names from names used for Native peoples have retained the plural ending of "s". Geography --------- ### Borders The borders of the 13 original states were largely determined by colonial charters. Their western boundaries were subsequently modified as the states ceded their western land claims to the Federal government during the 1780s and 1790s. Many state borders beyond those of the original 13 were set by Congress as it created territories, divided them, and over time, created states within them. Territorial and new state lines often followed various geographic features (such as rivers or mountain range peaks), and were influenced by settlement or transportation patterns. At various times, national borders with territories formerly controlled by other countries (British North America, New France, New Spain including Spanish Florida, and Russian America) became institutionalized as the borders of U.S. states. In the West, relatively arbitrary straight lines following latitude and longitude often prevail due to the sparseness of settlement west of the Mississippi River. Once established, most state borders have, with few exceptions, been generally stable. Only two states, Missouri (Platte Purchase) and Nevada grew appreciably after statehood. Several of the original states ceded land, over a several-year period, to the Federal government, which in turn became the Northwest Territory, Southwest Territory, and Mississippi Territory. In 1791, Maryland and Virginia ceded land to create the District of Columbia (Virginia's portion was returned in 1847). In 1850, Texas ceded a large swath of land to the federal government. Additionally, Massachusetts and Virginia (on two occasions), have lost land, in each instance to form a new state. There have been numerous other minor adjustments to state boundaries over the years due to improved surveys, resolution of ambiguous or disputed boundary definitions, or minor mutually agreed boundary adjustments for administrative convenience or other purposes. Occasionally, either Congress or the U.S. Supreme Court has had to settle state border disputes. One notable example is the case *New Jersey v. New York*, in which New Jersey won roughly 90% of Ellis Island from New York in 1998. Once a territory is admitted by Congress as a state of the Union, the state must consent to any changes pertaining to the jurisdiction of that state and Congress. The only potential violation of this occurred when the legislature of Virginia declared the secession of Virginia from the United States at the start of the American Civil War and a newly formed alternative Virginia legislature, recognized by the federal government, consented to have West Virginia secede from Virginia. ### Regional grouping States may be grouped in regions; there are many variations and possible groupings. Many are defined in law or regulations by the federal government. For example, the United States Census Bureau defines four statistical regions, with nine divisions. The Census Bureau region definition (Northeast, Midwest, South, and West) is "widely used ... for data collection and analysis," and is the most commonly used classification system. Other multi-state regions are unofficial, and defined by geography or cultural affinity rather than by state lines. See also -------- * Insular area * ISO 3166-2:US * Lists of U.S. state topics * Local government in the United States Further reading --------------- * Stein, Mark, *How the States Got Their Shapes*, New York : Smithsonian Books/Collins, 2008. ISBN 978-0-06-143138-8

U.S. state

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._state

**This article contains Coptic text.** Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Coptic letters. The **Coptic Orthodox Church** (Coptic: Ϯⲉⲕ̀ⲕⲗⲏⲥⲓⲁ ⲛ̀ⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ ⲛ̀ⲟⲣⲑⲟⲇⲟⲝⲟⲥ, romanized: *Ti.eklyseya en.remenkimi en.orthodoxos*, lit. 'the Egyptian Orthodox Church'; Arabic: الكنيسة القبطية الأرثوذكسية, romanized: *al-Kanīsa al-Qibṭiyya al-ʾUrṯūḏuksiyya*), also known as the **Coptic Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria**, is an Oriental Orthodox Christian church based in Egypt, serving Africa and the Middle East. The head of the church and the See of Alexandria is the Pope of Alexandria on the Holy Apostolic See of Saint Mark, who also carries the title of Father of fathers, Shepherd of shepherds, Ecumenical Judge and the 13th among the Apostles. The See of Alexandria is titular. The Coptic Pope presides from Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral in the Abbassia District in Cairo. The church follows the Coptic Rite for its liturgy, prayer and devotional patrimony. Christians in Egypt total about four million people, and Coptic Christians make up Egypt’s largest and most significant minority population, and the largest population of Christians in the Middle East. Coptic Orthodox tradition claims that the Coptic Church was established by Mark, an apostle and evangelist, during the middle of the 1st century (c. AD 42). Due to disputes concerning the nature of Christ, the Oriental Orthodox Churches and the Eastern Orthodox Church were in schism after the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451, resulting in a rivalry with the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria. After AD 639, Egypt was ruled by its Islamic conquerors from Arabia. In the 12th century, the church relocated its seat from Alexandria to Cairo. The same century also saw the Copts become a religious minority. During the 14th and 15th centuries, Nubian Christianity was supplanted by Islam. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the larger body of ethnic Egyptian Christians began to call themselves Coptic Orthodox, to distinguish themselves from the Catholic Copts and from the Eastern Orthodox, who are mostly Greek. In 1959, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church was granted autocephaly. This was extended to the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church in 1998 following the successful Eritrean War of Independence from Ethiopia. Since the 2011 Egyptian revolution, Coptic Christians have suffered increased religious discrimination and violence. History ------- ### Apostolic foundation The Egyptian Church is believed[*by whom?*] to be founded by Mark the Evangelist around AD 42, and regards itself as the subject of many prophecies in the Old Testament. The first Christians in Egypt were common people who spoke Egyptian Coptic. There were also Alexandrian Jewish people such as Theophilus, the same name addressed in the introductory chapter of the Gospel of Luke, though it is unclear who the author refers to. When the church was founded during the reign of the Roman emperor Nero, a great multitude of native Egyptians (as opposed to Greeks or Jews) embraced the Christian faith. #### Coptic language in the Church The Coptic language is a universal language used in Coptic churches in every country. It descends from Ancient Egyptian and uses the Coptic alphabet, a script descended from the Greek alphabet with added characters derived from the Demotic script. Today, Coptic is used primarily for liturgical purposes. Many of the hymns in the liturgy are in Coptic and have been passed down for many centuries. The language is used to preserve Egypt's original language, which was banned by the Arab invaders, who ordered Arabic to be used instead. However, most Copts speak Arabic, the official language of Egypt. Hence, Arabic is also used in church services nowadays. The service books, though written in Coptic, have the Arabic text in parallel columns. ### Contributions to Christianity #### Catechetical School of Alexandria The Catechetical School of Alexandria is the oldest catechetical school in the world. Jerome records that the Christian School of Alexandria was founded by Mark himself. The theological college of the catechetical school was re-established in 1893. #### Role and participation in the Ecumenical Councils #### Council of Nicaea In the 4th century, an Alexandrian presbyter named Arius began a theological dispute about the nature of Christ that spread throughout the Christian world and is now known as Arianism. The Ecumenical Council of Nicea AD 325 was convened by Constantine after the Pope Alexander I of Alexandria requested to hold a Council to respond to heresies, under the presidency of Hosius of Cordova to resolve the dispute. This eventually led to the formulation of the Symbol of Faith, also known as the Nicene Creed. #### Council of Constantinople In the year AD 381, Pope Timothy I of Alexandria presided over the second ecumenical council known as the Ecumenical Council of Constantinople, to judge Macedonius, who denied the Divinity of the Holy Spirit. This council completed the Nicene Creed with this confirmation of the divinity of the Holy Spirit: > We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the Giver of Life, who proceeds from the Father, who with the Father and the Son is worshiped and glorified who spoke by the Prophets and in One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic church. We confess one Baptism for the remission of sins and we look for the resurrection of the dead and the life of the coming age, Amen > > #### Council of Ephesus Another theological dispute in the 5th century occurred over the teachings of Nestorius, the Patriarch of Constantinople who taught that God the Word was not hypostatically joined with human nature, but rather dwelt in the man Jesus. As a consequence of this, he denied the title "Mother of God" (Theotokos) to the Virgin Mary, declaring her instead to be "Mother of Christ" *Christotokos*. The Council confirmed the teachings of Athanasius and confirmed the title of Mary as "Mother of God". It also clearly stated that anyone who separated Christ into two hypostases was anathema, as Cyril had said that there is "One Nature for God the Word Incarnate" (*Mia Physis tou Theou Logou Sesarkōmenē*). The introduction to the creed is formulated as follows: > We magnify you O Mother of the True Light and we glorify you O saint and Mother of God *(Theotokos)* for you have borne unto us the Saviour of the world. Glory to you O our Master and King: Christ, the pride of the Apostles, the crown of the martyrs, the rejoicing of the righteous, firmness of the churches and the forgiveness of sins. We proclaim the Holy Trinity in One Godhead: we worship Him, we glorify Him, Lord have mercy, Lord have mercy, Lord bless us, Amen. > > #### Council of Chalcedon Coptic Christians were part of the larger Byzantine Church until the Council of Chalcedon. When, in AD 451, Emperor Marcian attempted to heal divisions in the Church, the response of Pope Dioscorus–the Pope of Alexandria who was later exiled–was that the emperor should not intervene in the affairs of the Church. It was at Chalcedon that the emperor, through the imperial delegates, enforced harsh disciplinary measures against Pope Dioscorus in response to his boldness. In AD 449, Pope Dioscorus headed the 2nd Council of Ephesus, called the "Robber Council" by Chalcedonian historians. It held to the Miaphysite formula which upheld the Christology of "One Incarnate Nature of God the Word" (Greek: μία φύσις Θεοῦ Λόγου σεσαρκωμένη (*mia physis Theou Logou sesarkōmenē*)). In terms of Christology, the Oriental Orthodox (Non-Chalcedonians) understanding is that Christ is "One Nature—the Logos Incarnate," *of* the full humanity and full divinity. The Chalcedonians' understanding is that Christ is *recognized in* two natures, full humanity and full divinity. Oriental Orthodoxy contends that such a formulation is no different from what the Nestorians teach. From that point onward, Alexandria would have two patriarchs: the non-Chalcedonian native Egyptian one, now known as the Coptic Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of All Africa on the Holy Apostolic See of St. Mark, and the Melkite or Imperial Patriarch, now known as the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria. Almost the entire Egyptian population rejected the terms of the Council of Chalcedon and remained faithful to the native Egyptian Church (now known as the Coptic Orthodox Church). Some believed in monophysitism. By anathematizing Pope Leo because of the tone and content of his tome, as per Alexandrine Theology perception, Pope Dioscorus was found guilty of doing so without due process; in other words, the Tome of Leo was not a subject of heresy in the first place, but it was a question of questioning the reasons behind not having it either acknowledged or read at the Second Council of Ephesus in AD 449. Pope Dioscorus of Alexandria was never labeled as a heretic by the council's canons. Copts also believe that the Pope of Alexandria was forcibly prevented from attending the third congregation of the council from which he was ousted, apparently the result of a conspiracy tailored by the Roman delegates. Before the current positive era of Eastern and Oriental Orthodox dialogues, Chalcedonians sometimes used to call the non-Chalcedonians "Monophysites", though the Coptic Orthodox Church in reality regards Monophysitism as a heresy. The Chalcedonian doctrine in turn came to be known as "Dyophysite". A term that comes closer to Coptic Orthodoxy is Miaphysite, which refers to a conjoined nature for Christ, both human and divine, united indivisibly in the Incarnate Logos. ### From Chalcedon to the Arab conquest of Egypt ### Muslim conquest of Egypt The Muslim invasion of Egypt took place in AD 639. Relying on eyewitness testimony, Bishop John of Nikiu in his Chronicle provides a graphic account of the invasion from a Coptic perspective. Although the Chronicle has only been preserved in an Ethiopic (Ge'ez) text, some scholars believe that it was originally written in Coptic. John's account is critical of the invaders who he says "despoiled the Egyptians of their possessions and dealt cruelly with them", and he details the atrocities committed by the Muslims against the native population during the conquest: > And when with great toil and exertion they had cast down the walls of the city, they forthwith made themselves masters of it, and put to the sword thousands of its inhabitants and of the soldiers, and they gained an enormous booty, and took the women and children captive and divided them amongst themselves, and they made that city a desolation. > > Though critical of the Muslim commander (Amr ibn al-As), who, during the campaign, he says "had no mercy on the Egyptians, and did not observe the covenant they had made with him, for he was of a barbaric race", he does note that following the completion of the conquest, Amr "took none of the property of the Churches, and he committed no act of spoilation or plunder, and he preserved them throughout all his days." Despite the political upheaval, the Egyptian population remained mainly Christian. However, gradual conversions to Islam over the centuries had changed Egypt from a Christian to a largely Muslim country by the end of the 12th century. Another scholar writes that a combination of "repression of Coptic revolts", Arab-Muslim immigration, and Coptic conversion to Islam resulted in the demographic decline of the Copts. Egypt's Umayyad rulers taxed Christians at a higher rate than Muslims, driving merchants towards Islam and undermining the economic base of the Coptic Church. Although the Coptic Church did not disappear, the Umayyad tax policies made it difficult for the church to retain the Egyptian elites. ### Under Islamic rule (640–1800) In 969, Egypt entered the Fatimid dynasty (in Egypt from 969 to 1171), who adopted a largely favorable attitude toward the Christians. The major exception to this was the persecution led by Caliph al-Hakim between 1004 and 1013, which included clothing regulations, prohibition of publicly celebrating Christian festivals, and dismissal of Christian and Jewish functionaries. However, at the end of his reign al-Hakim rescinded these measures, allowing the Copts to regain privileged positions within the administration. The Coptic patriarchal residence moved from Alexandria to Cairo during the patriarchate of Cyril II (1078–92). This move was at the demand of the grand vizier Badr al-Jamali, who insisted that the pope establish himself in the capital. When Saladin entered Egypt in 1163, this ushered in a government focused on defending Sunni Islam. Christians were again discriminated against, and meant to show modesty in their religious ceremonies and buildings. In 1798, the French invaded Egypt unsuccessfully and the British helped the Turks to regain power over Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty. ### From the 19th century to the 1952 revolution The position of Copts began to improve early in the 19th century under the stability and tolerance of the Muhammad Ali Dynasty. The Coptic community ceased to be regarded by the state as an administrative unit. In 1855 the jizya tax was abolished by Sa'id Pasha. Shortly thereafter, the Copts started to serve in the Egyptian army. Towards the end of the 19th century, the Coptic Church underwent phases of new development. In 1853, Pope Cyril IV established the first modern Coptic schools, including the first Egyptian school for girls. He also founded a printing press, which was only the second national press in the country. The Pope established very friendly relations with other denominations, to the extent that when the Greek Patriarch in Egypt had to absent himself from the country for a long period of time, he left his Church under the guidance of the Coptic Patriarch. The Theological College of the School of Alexandria was reestablished in 1893. It began its new history with five students, one of whom was later to become its dean. Today it has campuses in Alexandria and Cairo, and in various dioceses throughout Egypt, as well as outside Egypt. It has campuses in New Jersey, Los Angeles, Sydney, Melbourne, and London, where potential clergymen and other qualified men and women study many subjects, including theology, church history, missionary studies, and the Coptic language. ### Present day In 1959, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church was granted its first own Patriarch Abuna Basilios by Pope Cyril VI. Furthermore, the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church similarly became independent of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church in 1994, when four bishops were consecrated by Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria to form the basis of a local Holy Synod of the Eritrean Church. In 1998, the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church gained its autocephaly from the Coptic Orthodox Church when its first Patriarch was enthroned by Pope Shenouda III. Since the 1980s theologians from the Oriental (non-Chalcedonian) Orthodox and Eastern (Chalcedonian) Orthodox churches have been meeting in a bid to resolve theological differences, and have concluded that many of the differences are caused by the two groups using different terminology to describe the same thing. In the summer of 2001, the Coptic Orthodox and Greek Orthodox Patriarchates of Alexandria agreed to mutually recognize baptisms performed in each other's churches, making re-baptisms unnecessary, and to recognize the sacrament of marriage as celebrated by the other. In Tahrir Square, Cairo, on Wednesday 2 February 2011, Coptic Christians joined hands to provide a protective cordon around their Muslim neighbors during salat (prayers) in the midst of the 2011 Egyptian Revolution. On 17 March 2012, the Coptic Orthodox Pope, Pope Shenouda III died, leaving many Copts mourning and worrying as tensions rose with Muslims. Pope Shenouda III constantly met with Muslim leaders in order to create peace. Many were worried about Muslims controlling Egypt as the Muslim Brotherhood won 70% of the parliamentary elections. On 4 November 2012, Bishop Tawadros was chosen as the 118th Pope as Pope Tawadros II of Alexandria. Fasts, feasts, liturgy and canonical hours ------------------------------------------ Communicants of the Coptic Orthodox Church use a breviary known as the Agpeya to pray the canonical hours at seven fixed prayer times while facing in the eastward direction, in anticipation of the Second Coming of Jesus; this Christian practice has its roots in Psalm 119:164, in which the prophet David prays to God seven times a day. Church bells enjoin Christians to pray at these hours. Before praying, they wash their hands and face to be clean before and present their best to God; shoes are removed to acknowledge that one is offering prayer before a holy God. During each of the seven fixed prayer times, Coptic Orthodox Christians pray "prostrating three times in the name of the Trinity; at the end of each Psalm … while saying the 'Alleluia';" and 41 times for each of the Kyrie eleisons present in a canonical hour. In the Coptic Orthodox Church, it is customary for women to wear a Christian headcovering when praying. The Coptic Orthodox Church observes days of ritual purification. However, while meat that still contains blood after cooking is discouraged from being eaten, the Coptic Church does not forbid its members from consuming any particular type of food, unlike in Islam or Judaism. All churches of the Coptic Orthodox Church are designed to face the eastward direction of prayer and efforts are made to remodel churches obtained from other Christian denominations that are not built in this fashion. With respect to Eucharistic discipline, Coptic Orthodox Christians fast from midnight onwards (or at least nine hours) prior to receiving the sacrament of Holy Communion. They fast every Wednesday and Friday of the year (Wednesdays in remembrance of the betrayal of Christ, and on Fridays in remembrance of His crucifixion and death). In total, fast days in a year for Coptic Orthodox Christians numbers between 210 and 240. This means that Copts abstain from all animal products for up to two-thirds of each year. The fasts for Advent and Lent are 43 days and 55 days, respectively. In August, before the celebration of the Dormition of the Mother of God, Coptic Christians fast 15 days; fasting is also done before the feast of Feast of Saints Peter and Paul, starting from the day of Pentecost. Christmas has been a national holiday in Egypt, since 2003. It is the only Christian holiday in Egypt. Coptic Christmas, which usually falls on January 6 or 7 is a major feast. Other major feasts are Epiphany, Palm Sunday, Easter, Pentecost, Ascension, and Annunciation. These are known in the Coptic world as the Seven Major Feasts. Major feasts are always preceded by fasts. Additionally, the Coptic Orthodox Church also has Seven Minor Feasts: the Circumcision of the Lord, Entrance into the Temple, Entrance into Egypt, Transfiguration, Maundy Thursday, Thomas Sunday, and Great Lent. Furthermore, there are several indigenous feasts of the Theotokos. There are also other feasts commemorating the martyrdom of important saints from Coptic history. Demographics ------------ Available Egyptian census figures and other third-party survey reports have not reported more than 4 million Coptic Orthodox Christians in Egypt. However media and other agencies, sometimes taking into account the claims of the Church itself, generally approximate the Coptic Orthodox population at 10% of the Egyptian population or 10 million people. The majority of them live in Egypt under the jurisdiction of the Coptic Orthodox Church. Since 2006, Egyptian censuses have not reported on religion and church leaders have alleged that Christians were under-counted in government surveys. In 2017, a government owned newspaper Al Ahram estimated the percentage of Copts at 10 to 15% and the membership claimed by the Coptic Orthodox Church is in the range of 20 to 25 million. There are also significant numbers in the diaspora outside Africa in countries such as the United States, Canada, Australia, France, and Germany. The exact number of Egyptian born Coptic Orthodox Christians in the diaspora is hard to determine and is roughly estimated to be close to 1 million. There are between 150,000 and 200,000 adherents in Sudan. ### Persecution While Copts have cited instances of persecution throughout their history, Human Rights Watch has noted growing religious intolerance and sectarian violence against Coptic Christians in recent years, and a failure by the Egyptian government to effectively investigate properly and prosecute those responsible. More than a hundred Egyptian copts were killed in sectarian clashes from 2011 to 2017, and many homes and businesses destroyed. In Minya, 77 cases of sectarian attacks on Copts between 2011 and 2016 were documented by the Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights. Coptic Christian women and girls are often abducted and disappear. Jurisdiction outside Egypt -------------------------- Jesus Christ in a Coptic icon Besides Egypt, the Church of Alexandria has jurisdiction over all of Africa. The following autocephalous churches have strong historical ties to the Coptic Orthodox Church. ### Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church The Ethiopian Orthodox Church was dependent on the Coptic Orthodox Church, since its early days. Until the mid-twentieth century, the metropolitans of the Ethiopian church were ethnic Copts. Joseph II consecrated Archbishop Abuna Basilios as the first native head of the Ethiopian Church on 14 January 1951. In 1959, Pope Cyril VI of Alexandria crowned Abuna Basilios as the first Patriarch of Ethiopia. ### Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church Following the independence of Eritrea from Ethiopia in 1993, the newly independent Eritrean government appealed to Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria for Eritrean Orthodox autocephaly. In 1994, Pope Shenouda ordained Abune Phillipos as first Archbishop of Eritrea. ### Episcopal titles Consolidation of Papal control ------------------------------ Under the guidance of Pope Shenouda, the church underwent a large transformation that allowed him to hold greater authority than any previous pope. Writing in 2013, the theologian Samuel Tadros stated "Today's Coptic Church as an institution is built solely on his vision". Modern issues ------------- ### Internal church disputes Pope Shenouda III was criticized by the prominent monk Father Matta El Meskeen for the church's strong links with the Egyptian government under the dictator Hosni Mubarak. As the dispute began to grow, Shenouda explicitly denounced Matta's thoughts, labelling some of his writings "heresies". In turn, Matta promoted a radical focus upon personal faith in contrast to institutional religion and ecclesiastical authority. Shenouda, however, was heavily involved in politics and keen to extend the church's influence over the social lives of Copts. In 2020, a woman accused the now defrocked Hegomen Reweis Aziz Khalil of sexual assault against her when she was between the ages of 11 and 12, alleging church leaders knew for at least 22 years and refused to act on it. The incident sparked other reports of sexual assault and generated debate among church laity, with some in the American Coptic community describing the fallout of the incident as creating a "Coptic #MeToo movement", the #copticsurvivormovement. Administration -------------- The Coptic Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria is governed by its Holy Synod, which is headed by the Patriarch of Alexandria. Under his authority are the metropolitan archbishops, metropolitan bishops, diocesan bishops, patriarchal exarchs, missionary bishops, auxiliary bishops, suffragan bishops, assistant bishops, chorbishops and the patriarchal vicars for the Church of Alexandria. See also -------- * Pope of Alexandria * General Congregation Council * List of Coptic Orthodox churches in Egypt * Copts * Coptic saints * Coptic Orthodox churches * Institute of Coptic Studies * Coptic Orphans * Oriental Orthodox Churches + Orthodox Tewahedo - Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church - Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church * Christian influences on the Islamic world * Christianity and Islam * Christianity in Africa * Christianity in the Middle East * Arab Christians * Holy Family in Egypt * Zabbaleen * 2011 Alexandria bombing * Nag Hammadi massacre * Persecution of Copts Bibliography ------------ * Betts, Robert B. (1978). *Christians in the Arab East: A Political Study* (2nd rev. ed.). Athens: Lycabettus Press. 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Coptic Orthodox Church

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox_Church

**Septimia Zenobia** (Palmyrene Aramaic: 𐡡𐡶𐡦𐡡𐡩‎, *BTZBY*, vocalized as *Bat-Zabbai*; c. 240 – c. 274) was a third-century queen of the Palmyrene Empire in Syria. Many legends surround her ancestry; she was probably not a commoner and she married the ruler of the city, Odaenathus. Her husband became king in 260, elevating Palmyra to supreme power in the Near East by defeating the Sasanian Empire of Persia and stabilizing the Roman East. After Odaenathus' assassination, Zenobia became the regent of her son Vaballathus and held de facto power throughout his reign. In 270, Zenobia launched an invasion that brought most of the Roman East under her sway and culminated with the annexation of Egypt. By mid-271 her realm extended from Ancyra, central Anatolia, to Upper Egypt, although she remained nominally subordinate to Rome. However, in reaction to the campaign of the Roman emperor Aurelian in 272, Zenobia declared her son emperor and assumed the title of empress, thus declaring Palmyra's secession from Rome. The Romans were victorious after heavy fighting; the queen was besieged in her capital and captured by Aurelian, who exiled her to Rome, where she spent the remainder of her life. Zenobia was a cultured monarch and fostered an intellectual environment in her court, which was open to scholars and philosophers. She was tolerant toward her subjects and protected religious minorities. The queen maintained a stable administration, which governed a multicultural, multiethnic empire. Zenobia died after 274, and many tales have been recorded about her fate. Her rise and fall have inspired historians, artists and novelists, and she is a patriotic symbol in Syria. Name, appearance and sources ---------------------------- Zenobia was born c. 240–241, and bore the gentilicium (surname) Septimia. Her native Palmyrene name was Bat-Zabbai (written "Btzby" in the Palmyrene alphabet), an Aramaic name meaning "daughter of Zabbai". Such compound names for women were common in Palmyra, where the element "bt" means daughter, but the personal name that follows does not necessarily denote the immediate father, rather referring to the ancestor of the family. In Greek—Palmyra's diplomatic and second language, used in many Palmyrene inscriptions—she used the name Zenobia. In Palmyra, when written in Greek, names such as Zabeida, Zabdila, Zabbai or Zabda were often transformed into "Zenobios" (masculine) and "Zenobia" (feminine). The element "Zabbai" from Zenobia's native name means "gift of N.N. [god]", and the name Zenobia translates to "one whose life derives from Zeus". The historian Victor Duruy believed that the queen used the Greek name as a translation of her native name, in deference to her Greek subjects. The philologist Wilhelm Dittenberger argued that the name Bat-Zabbai underwent a detortum (twist), thus resulting in the name Zenobia. The ninth-century historian al-Tabari, in his highly fictionalized account, wrote that the queen's name was Na'ila al-Zabba'. Manichaean sources, reporting the visit of the apostle Addai to the region during the time of Odaenathus, called Zenobia "Queen Tadi", wife of kysr (caesar). The name given to Zenobia in those Manichaean writings seems to derive from Tadmor, Palmyra's native name, and this is supported by the Coptic *Acts Codex*, where Zenobia is named Queen Thadmor. No contemporary statues of Zenobia have been found in Palmyra or elsewhere, only inscriptions on statues bases survive, indicating that a statue of the queen once stood in the place; most known representations of Zenobia are the idealized portraits of her found on her coins. Sculptures of Palmyrene style were normally impersonal, unlike Greek and Roman ones: a statue of Zenobia in this style would have given an idea of her general style in dress and jewelry but would not have revealed her true appearance. British scholar William Wright visited Palmyra toward the end of the nineteenth century in a vain search for a sculpture of the queen. In addition to archaeological evidence, Zenobia's life was recorded in different ancient sources but many are flawed or fabricated; the *Historia Augusta*, a late-Roman collection of biographies, is the most notable (albeit unreliable) source for the era. The author (or authors) of the *Historia Augusta* invented many events and letters attributed to Zenobia in the absence of contemporary sources. Some *Historia Augusta* accounts are corroborated from other sources, and are more credible. The Byzantine chronicler Joannes Zonaras is considered an important source for the life of Zenobia. Origin, family and early life ----------------------------- Palmyrene society was an amalgam of Semitic-speaking peoples, mostly Arabs and Arameans, and Zenobia cannot be identified with any one group; as a Palmyrene, she may have had both Arab and Aramean ancestry. Information about Zenobia's ancestry and immediate family connections is scarce and contradictory. Nothing is known about her mother, and her father's identity is debated. Manichaean sources mention a "Nafsha", sister of the "queen of Palmyra", but those sources are confused and "Nafsha" may refer to Zenobia herself: it is doubtful that Zenobia had a sister. Apparently not a commoner, Zenobia would have received an education appropriate for a noble Palmyrene girl. The *Historia Augusta* contains details of her early life, although their veracity is dubious; according to the *Historia Augusta*, the queen's hobby as a child was hunting and, in addition to her Palmyrene Aramaic mother tongue, she was fluent in Egyptian and Greek and spoke Latin. When she was about fourteen years old (ca. 255), Zenobia became the second wife of Odaenathus, the *ras* ("lord") of Palmyra. Noble families in Palmyra often intermarried, and it is probable that Zenobia and Odaenathus shared some ancestors. ### Contemporary epigraphical evidence Basing their suppositions upon archaeological evidence, various historians have suggested several men as Zenobia's father: Inscription at Palmyra honoring Julius Aurelius Zenobius, believed by some to be Zenobia's father Julius Aurelius Zenobius appears on a Palmyrene inscription as a strategos of Palmyra in 231–232; based on the similarity of the names, Zenobius was suggested as Zenobia's father by the numismatist Alfred von Sallet and others. The archaeologist William Waddington argued in favor of Zenobius' identification as the father, assuming that his statue stood opposite to where the statue of the queen stood in Great Colonnade. However, the linguist Jean-Baptiste Chabot pointed out that Zenobius' statue stood opposite to that of Odaenathus not Zenobia and rejected Waddington's hypothesis. The only *gentilicium*; a hereditary name borne by people that was originally the name of one's gens (family or clan) by patrilineal descent; appearing on Zenobia's inscriptions was "Septimia" (not "Julia Aurelia", which she would have borne if her father's *gentilicium* was Aurelius), and it cannot be proven that the queen changed her *gentilicium* to Septimia after her marriage. One of Zenobia's inscriptions recorded her as "Septimia Bat-Zabbai, daughter of Antiochus". Antiochus' identity is not definitively known: his ancestry is not recorded in Palmyrene inscriptions, and the name was not common in Palmyra. This, combined with the meaning of Zenobia's Palmyrene name (daughter of Zabbai), led scholars such as Harald Ingholt to speculate that Antiochus might have been a distant ancestor: the Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes or Antiochus VII Sidetes, whose wife was the Ptolemaic Cleopatra Thea. In the historian Richard Stoneman's view, Zenobia would not have created an obscure ancestry to connect herself with the ancient Macedonian rulers: if a fabricated ancestry were needed, a more direct connection would have been invented. According to Stoneman, Zenobia "had reason to believe [her Seleucid ancestry] to be true". The historian Patricia Southern, noting that Antiochus was mentioned without a royal title or a hint of great lineage, believes that he was a direct ancestor or a relative rather than a Seleucid king who lived three centuries before Zenobia. On the basis of Zenobia's Palmyrene name, Bat Zabbai, her father may have been called Zabbai; alternatively, Zabbai may have been the name of a more distant ancestor. The historian Trevor Bryce suggests that she was related to Septimius Zabbai, Palmyra's garrison leader, and he may even have been her father. The archaeologist Charles Simon Clermont-Ganneau, attempting to reconcile the meaning of the name "Bat Zabbai" with the inscription mentioning the queen as daughter of Antiochus, suggested that two brothers, Zabbai and Antiochus, existed, with a childless Zabbai dying and leaving his widow to marry his brother Antiochus. Thus, since Zenobia was born out of a levirate marriage, she was theoretically the daughter of Zabbai, hence the name. ### Ancient sources In the *Historia Augusta*, Zenobia is said to have been a descendant of Cleopatra and claimed descent from the Ptolemies. According to the *Souda*, a 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia, after the Palmyrene conquest of Egypt, the sophist Callinicus of Petra wrote a ten-volume history of Alexandria dedicated to Cleopatra. According to modern scholars, by Cleopatra Callinicus meant Zenobia. Apart from legends, there is no direct evidence in Egyptian coinage or papyri of a contemporary conflation of Zenobia with Cleopatra. The connection may have been invented by Zenobia's enemies to discredit her, but circumstantial evidence indicates that Zenobia herself made the claim; an imperial declaration once ascribed to Emperor Severus Alexander (died 235) was probably made by Zenobia in the name of her son Vaballathus, where the king named Alexandria "my ancestral city", which indicates a claim to Ptolemaic ancestry. Zenobia's alleged claim of a connection to Cleopatra seems to have been politically motivated, since it would have given her a connection with Egypt and made her a legitimate successor to the Ptolemies' throne. A relationship between Zenobia and the Ptolemies is unlikely, and attempts by classical sources to trace the queen's ancestry to the Ptolemies through the Seleucids are apocryphal. #### Arab traditions and al-Zabba' Although some Arab historians linked Zenobia to the Queen of Sheba, their accounts are apocryphal. Medieval Arabic traditions identify a queen of Palmyra named al-Zabba', and her most romantic account comes from al-Tabari. According to al-Tabari, she was an Amalekite; her father was 'Amr ibn Zarib, an 'Amālīq sheikh who was killed by the Tanukhids. Al-Tabari identifies a sister of al-Zabba' as "Zabibah". Jadhimah ibn Malik, the Tanukhid king who killed the queen's father, was killed by al-Zabba'. According to al-Tabari, al-Zabba' had a fortress along the Euphrates and ruled Palmyra. Al-Tabari's account does not mention the Romans, Odaenathus, Vaballathus or the Sassanians; focusing on the tribes and their relations, it is immersed in legends. Although the account is certainly based on the story of Zenobia, it is probably conflated with the story of a semi-legendary nomadic Arab queen (or queens). Al-Zabba''s fortress was probably Halabiye, which was restored by the historic Palmyrene queen and named Zenobia. Queen of Palmyra ---------------- ### Consort During the early centuries AD, Palmyra was a city subordinate to Rome and part of the province of Syria Phoenice. In 260 the Roman emperor Valerian marched against the Sassanid Persian monarch Shapur I, who had invaded the empire's eastern regions; Valerian was defeated and captured near Edessa. Odaenathus, formally loyal to Rome and its emperor Gallienus (Valerian's son), was declared king of Palmyra. Launching successful campaigns against Persia, he was crowned King of Kings of the East in 263. Odaenathus crowned his eldest son, Herodianus, as co-ruler. In addition to the royal titles, Odaenathus received many Roman titles, most importantly *corrector totius orientis* (governor of the entire East), and ruled the Roman territories from the Black Sea to Palestine. In 267, when Zenobia was in her late twenties or early thirties, Odaenathus and his eldest son were assassinated while returning from a campaign. The first inscription mentioning Zenobia as queen is dated two or three years after Odaenathus' death, so exactly when Zenobia assumed the title "queen of Palmyra" is uncertain. However, she was probably designated as queen when her husband became king. As queen consort, Zenobia remained in the background and was not mentioned in the historical record. According to later accounts, including one by Giovanni Boccaccio, she accompanied her husband on his campaigns. If the accounts of her accompanying her husband are true, according to Southern, Zenobia would have boosted the morale of the soldiers and gained political influence, which she needed in her later career. #### Possible role in Odaenathus' assassination According to the *Historia Augusta*, Odaenathus was assassinated by a cousin named Maeonius. In the *Historia Augusta*, Odaenathus' son from his first wife was named Herodes and was crowned co-ruler by his father. The *Historia Augusta* claims that Zenobia conspired with Maeonius for a time because she did not accept her stepson as his father's heir (ahead of her own children). The *Historia Augusta* does not suggest that Zenobia was involved in the events leading to her husband's murder, and the crime is attributed to Maeonius' moral degeneration and jealousy. This account, according to the historian Alaric Watson, can be dismissed as fictional. Although some modern scholarship suggests that Zenobia was involved in the assassination due to political ambition and opposition to her husband's pro-Roman policy, she continued Odaenathus' policies during her first years on the throne. ### Regent In the *Historia Augusta* , Maeonius was emperor briefly before he was killed by his soldiers, however, no inscriptions or evidence exist for his reign. At the time of Odaenathus' assassination, Zenobia might have been with her husband; according to chronicler George Syncellus, he was killed near Heraclea Pontica in Bithynia. The transfer of power seems to have been smooth, since Syncellus reports that the time from the assassination to the army handing the crown to Zenobia was one day. Zenobia may have been in Palmyra, but this would have reduced the likelihood of a smooth transition; the soldiers might have chosen one of their officers, so the first scenario of her being with her husband is more likely. The historical records are unanimous that Zenobia did not fight for supremacy and there is no evidence of delay in the transfer of the throne to Odaenathus and Zenobia's son, the ten-year-old Vaballathus. Although she never claimed to rule in her own right and acted as a regent for her son, Zenobia held the reins of power in the kingdom, and Vaballathus was kept in his mother's shadow, never exercising real power. #### Consolidation of power The Palmyrene monarchy was new; allegiance was based on loyalty to Odaenathus, making the transfer of power to a successor more difficult than it would have been in an established monarchy. Odaenathus tried to ensure the dynasty's future by crowning his eldest son co-king, but both were assassinated. Zenobia, left to secure the Palmyrene succession and retain the loyalty of its subjects, emphasized the continuity between her late husband and his successor (her son). Vaballathus (with Zenobia orchestrating the process) assumed his father's royal titles immediately, and his earliest known inscription records him as King of Kings. Odaenathus controlled a large area of the Roman East, and held the highest political and military authority in the region, superseding that of the Roman provincial governors. His self-created status was formalized by Emperor Gallienus, who had little choice but to acquiesce. Odaenathus's power relative to that of the emperor and the central authority was unprecedented and elastic, but relations remained smooth until his death. His assassination meant that the Palmyrene rulers' authority and position had to be clarified, which led to a conflict over their interpretation. The Roman court viewed Odaenathus as an appointed Roman official who derived his power from the emperor, but the Palmyrene court saw his position as hereditary. This conflict was the first step on the road to war between Rome and Palmyra. Odaenathus' Roman titles, such as *dux Romanorum*, *corrector totius orientis* and *imperator totius orientis* differed from his royal eastern ones because the Roman ranks were not hereditary. Vaballathus had a legitimate claim to his royal titles, but had no right to the Roman ones—especially *corrector* (denoting a senior military and provincial commander in the Roman system), which Zenobia used for her son in his earliest known inscriptions with "King of Kings". Although the Roman emperors accepted the royal succession, the assumption of Roman military rank antagonized the empire. Emperor Gallienus may have decided to intervene in an attempt to regain central authority; according to the *Historia Augusta*, praetorian prefect Aurelius Heraclianus was dispatched to assert imperial authority over the east and was repelled by the Palmyrene army. The account is doubtful, however, since Heraclianus participated in Gallienus' assassination in 268. Odaenathus was assassinated shortly before the emperor, and Heraclianus would have been unable to be sent to the East, fight the Palmyrenes and return to the West in time to become involved in the conspiracy against the emperor. ##### Early reign The extent of Zenobia's territorial control during her early reign is debated; according to the historian Fergus Millar, her authority was confined to Palmyra and Emesa until 270. If this was the case, the events of 270 (which saw Zenobia's conquest of the Levant and Egypt) are extraordinary. It is more likely that the queen ruled the territories controlled by her late husband, a view supported by Southern and the historian Udo Hartmann, and backed by ancient sources (such as the Roman historian Eutropius, who wrote that the queen inherited her husband's power). The *Historia Augusta* also mentioned that Zenobia took control of the East during Gallienus' reign. Further evidence of extended territorial control was a statement by the Byzantine historian Zosimus, who wrote that the queen had a residence in Antioch. There is no recorded unrest against the queen accompanying her ascendance in ancient sources hostile to her, indicating no serious opposition to the new regime. The most obvious candidates for opposition were the Roman provincial governors, but the sources do not say that Zenobia marched on any of them or that they tried to remove her from the throne. According to Hartmann, the governors and military leaders of the eastern provinces apparently acknowledged and supported Vaballathus as the successor of Odaenathus. During Zenobia's early regency, she focused on safeguarding the borders with Persia and pacifying the Tanukhids in Hauran. To protect the Persian borders, the queen fortified many settlements on the Euphrates (including the citadels of Halabiye—later called Zenobia—and Zalabiye). Circumstantial evidence exists for confrontations with the Sassanid Persians; probably in 269, Vaballathus assumed the victory title of *Persicus Maximus* (the great victor in Persia); this may be connected to an unrecorded battle against a Persian army trying to control northern Mesopotamia. #### Expansion In 269, while Claudius Gothicus (Gallienus' successor) was defending the borders of Italy and the Balkans against Germanic invasions, Zenobia was cementing her authority; Roman officials in the East were caught between loyalty to the emperor and Zenobia's increasing demands for allegiance. The timing and rationale of the queen's decision to use military force to strengthen her authority in the East is unclear; scholar Gary K. Young suggested that Roman officials refused to recognize Palmyrene authority, and Zenobia's expeditions were intended to maintain Palmyrene dominance. Another factor may have been the weakness of Roman central authority and its corresponding inability to protect the provinces, which probably convinced Zenobia that the only way to maintain stability in the East was to control the region directly. The historian Jacques Schwartz tied Zenobia's actions to her desire to protect Palmyra's economic interests, which were threatened by Rome's failure to protect the provinces. Also, according to Schwartz, the economic interests conflicted; Bostra and Egypt received trade which would have otherwise passed through Palmyra. The Tanukhids near Bostra and the merchants of Alexandria probably attempted to rid themselves of Palmyrene domination, triggering a military response from Zenobia. ##### Syria and the invasion of Arabia Petraea In the spring of 270, while Claudius was fighting the Goths in the mountains of Thrace, Zenobia sent her general Septimius Zabdas to Bosra (capital of the province of Arabia Petraea); the queen's timing seems intentional. In Arabia the Roman governor (*dux*), Trassus (commanding the Legio III Cyrenaica), confronted the Palmyrenes and was routed and killed. Zabdas sacked the city, and destroyed the temple of Zeus Hammon, the legion's revered shrine. A Latin inscription after the fall of Zenobia attests to its destruction: "The temple of Iuppiter Hammon, destroyed by the Palmyrene enemies, which ... rebuilt, with a silver statue and iron doors (?)". The city of Umm el-Jimal may have also been destroyed by the Palmyrenes in connection with their efforts to subjugate the Tanukhids. After his victory, Zabdas marched south along the Jordan Valley and apparently met little opposition. There is evidence that Petra was attacked by a small contingent which penetrated the region. Arabia and Judaea were eventually subdued. Palmyrene dominance of Arabia is confirmed by many milestones bearing Vaballathus' name. Syrian subjugation required less effort because Zenobia had substantial support there, particularly in Antioch, Syria's traditional capital. The invasion of Arabia coincided with the cessation of coin production in Claudius' name by the Antiochean mint, indicating that Zenobia had begun tightening her grip on Syria. By November 270, the mint began issuing coinage in Vaballathus' name. The Arabian milestones presented the Palmyrene king as a Roman governor and commander, referring to him as *vir clarissimus rex consul imperator dux Romanorum*. The assumption of such titles was probably meant to legitimize Zenobia's control of the province, not yet a usurpation of the imperial title. Until now, Zenobia could say that she was acting as a representative of the emperor (who was securing the eastern lands of the empire) while the Roman monarch was preoccupied with struggles in Europe. Although Vaballathus' use of the titles amounted to a claim to the imperial throne, Zenobia could still justify them and maintain a mask of subordination to Rome; an *"imperator"* was a commander of troops, not the equal of an emperor (*"imperator caesar"*). ##### Annexation of Egypt and the campaigns in Asia Minor The invasion of Egypt is sometimes explained by Zenobia's desire to secure an alternative trade route to the Euphrates, which was cut because of the war with Persia. This theory ignores the fact that the Euphrates route was only partially disrupted, and overlooks Zenobia's ambition. The date of the campaign is uncertain; Zosimus placed it after the Battle of Naissus and before Claudius' death, which sets it in the summer of 270. Watson, emphasizing the works of Zonaras and Syncellus and dismissing Zosimus' account, places the invasion in October 270 (after Claudius' death). According to Watson, the occupation of Egypt was an opportunistic move by Zenobia (who was encouraged by the news of Claudius' death in August). Zenobia was declared Queen of Egypt after Palmyrene invasion of Egypt. The appearance of the Palmyrenes on Egypt's eastern frontier would have contributed to unrest in the province, whose society was fractured; Zenobia had supporters and opponents among local Egyptians. The Roman position was worsened by the absence of Egypt's prefect, Tenagino Probus, who was battling pirates. According to Zosimus, the Palmyrenes were helped by an Egyptian general named Timagenes; Zabdas moved into Egypt with 70,000 soldiers, defeating an army of 50,000 Romans. After their victory, the Palmyrenes withdrew their main force and left a 5,000-soldier garrison. By early November, Tenagino Probus returned and assembled an army; he expelled the Palmyrenes and regained Alexandria, prompting Zabdas to return. The Palmyrene general aimed a thrust at Alexandria, where he seems to have had local support; the city fell into Zabdas' hands, and the Roman prefect fled south. The last battle was at the Babylon Fortress, where Tenagino Probus took refuge; the Romans had the upper hand, since they chose their camp carefully. Timagenes, with his knowledge of the land, ambushed the Roman rear; Tenagino Probus committed suicide, and Egypt became part of Palmyra. In the *Historia Augusta* the Blemmyes were among Zenobia's allies, and Gary K. Young cites the Blemmyes attack and occupation of Coptos in 268 as evidence of a Palmyrene-Blemmyes alliance. Only Zosimus mentioned two invasions, contrasting with many scholars who argue in favor of an initial invasion and no retreat (followed by a reinforcement, which took Alexandria by the end of 270). During the Egyptian campaign, Rome was entangled in a succession crisis between Claudius' brother Quintillus and the general Aurelian. Egyptian papyri and coinage confirm Palmyrene rule in Egypt; the papyri stopped using the regnal years of the emperors from September to November 270, due to the succession crisis. By December regnal dating was resumed, with the papyri using the regnal years of the prevailing emperor Aurelian and Zenobia's son Vaballathus. Egyptian coinage was issued in the names of Aurelian and the Palmyrene king by November 270. There is no evidence that Zenobia ever visited Egypt. Although the operation may have commenced under Septimius Zabbai, Zabdas' second-in-command, the invasion of Asia Minor did not fully begin until Zabdas' arrival in the spring of 271. The Palmyrenes annexed Galatia and, according to Zosimus, reached Ancyra. Bithynia and the Cyzicus mint remained beyond Zenobia's control, and her attempts to subdue Chalcedon failed. The Asia Minor campaign is poorly documented, but the western part of the region did not become part of the queen's authority; no coins with Zenobia or Vaballathus' portraits were minted in Asia Minor, and no royal Palmyrene inscriptions have been found. By August 271 Zabdas was back in Palmyra, with the Palmyrene empire at its zenith. #### Governance Zenobia ruled an empire of different peoples; as a Palmyrene, she was accustomed to dealing with multilingual and multicultural diversity since she hailed from a city which embraced many cults. The queen's realm was culturally divided into eastern-Semitic and Hellenistic zones; Zenobia tried to appease both, and seems to have successfully appealed to the region's ethnic, cultural and political groups. The queen projected an image of a Syrian monarch, a Hellenistic queen and a Roman empress, which gained broad support for her cause. ##### Culture Zenobia turned her court into a center of learning, with many intellectuals and sophists reported in Palmyra during her reign. As academics migrated to the city, it replaced classical learning centers such as Athens for Syrians. The best-known court philosopher was Longinus, who arrived during Odaenathus' reign and became Zenobia's tutor in *paideia* (aristocratic education). Many historians, including Zosimus, accused Longinus of influencing the queen to oppose Rome. This view presents the queen as malleable, but, according to Southern, Zenobia's actions "cannot be laid entirely at Longinus' door". Other intellectuals associated with the court included Nicostratus of Trapezus and Callinicus of Petra. From the second to the fourth centuries, Syrian intellectuals argued that Greek culture did not evolve in Greece but was adapted from the Near East. According to Iamblichus, the great Greek philosophers reused Near Eastern and Egyptian ideas. The Palmyrene court was probably dominated by this school of thought, with an intellectual narrative presenting Palmyra's dynasty as a Roman imperial one succeeding the Persian, Seleucid and Ptolemaic rulers who controlled the region in which Hellenistic culture allegedly originated. Nicostratus wrote a history of the Roman Empire from Philip the Arab to Odaenathus, presenting the latter as a legitimate imperial successor and contrasting his successes with the disastrous reigns of the emperors. Zenobia embarked on several restoration projects in Egypt. One of the Colossi of Memnon was reputed in antiquity to sing; the sound was probably due to cracks in the statue, with solar rays interacting with dew in the cracks. The historian Glen Bowersock proposed that the queen restored the colossus ("silencing" it), which would explain third-century accounts of the singing and their disappearance in the fourth. ##### Religion Zenobia followed the Palmyrene paganism, where a number of Semitic gods, with Bel at the head of the pantheon, were worshipped. Zenobia accommodated Christians and Jews, and ancient sources made many claims about the queen's beliefs; Manichaean sources alleged that Zenobia was one of their own; a manuscript dated to 272 mentions that the Queen of Palmyra supported the Manichaeans in establishing a community in Abidar, which was under the rule of a king named Amarō, who could be the Lakhmid king Amr ibn Adi. It is more likely, however, that Zenobia tolerated all cults in an effort to attract support from groups marginalized by Rome. Bishop Athanasius of Alexandria wrote that Zenobia did not "hand over churches to the Jews to make them into synagogues"; although the queen was not a Christian, she understood the power of bishops in Christian communities. In Antioch—considered representative of political control of the East and containing a large Christian community—Zenobia apparently maintained authority over the church by bringing influential clerics, probably including Paul of Samosata, under her auspices. She may have bestowed on Paul the rank of *ducenarius* (minor judge); he apparently enjoyed the queen's protection, which helped him keep the diocesan church after he was removed from his office as bishop of Antioch by a synod of bishops in 268. ###### Judaism Less than a hundred years after Zenobia's reign, Athanasius of Alexandria called her a "Jewess" in his *History of the Arians*. In 391, archbishop John Chrysostom wrote that Zenobia was Jewish; so did a Syriac chronicler around 664 and bishop Bar Hebraeus in the thirteenth century. According to French scholar Javier Teixidor, Zenobia was probably a proselyte; this explained her strained relationship with the rabbis. Teixidor believed that Zenobia became interested in Judaism when Longinus spoke about the philosopher Porphyry and his interest in the Old Testament. Although Talmudic sources were hostile to Palmyra because of Odaenathus' suppression of the Jews of Nehardea, Zenobia apparently had the support of some Jewish communities (particularly in Alexandria). In Cairo, a plaque originally bearing an inscription confirming a grant of immunity to a Jewish synagogue in the last quarter of the first millennium BC by King Ptolemy Euergetes (I or II) was found. At a much later date, the plaque was re-inscribed to commemorate the restoration of immunity "on the orders of the queen and king". Although it is undated, the letters of the inscription date to long after Cleopatra and Anthony's era; Zenobia and her son are the only candidates for a king and a queen ruling Egypt after the Ptolemies. The historian E. Mary Smallwood wrote that good relations with the diaspora community did not mean that the Jews of Palestine were content with Zenobia's reign, and her rule was apparently opposed in that region. The Terumot tells the story of the amoraim Rabbi "Ammi" and Rabbi "Samuel bar Nahmani", who visited Zenobia's court and asked for the release of a Jew ("Zeir bar Hinena") detained on her orders. The queen refused, saying: "Why have you come to save him? He teaches that your creator performs miracles for you. Why not let God save him?" During Aurelian's destruction of Palmyra, Palestinian conscripts with "clubs and cudgels" (who may have been Jews) played a vital role in Zenobia's defeat and the destruction of her city. There is no evidence of Zenobia's birth as a Jew; the names of her and her husband's families belonged to the Aramaic onomasticon (collection of names). The queen's alleged patronage of Paul of Samosata (who was accused of "Judaizing"), may have given rise to the idea that she was a proselyte. Only Christian accounts note Zenobia's Jewishness; no Jewish source mentions it. ##### Administration The queen probably spent most of her reign in Antioch, Syria's administrative capital. Before the monarchy, Palmyra had the institutions of a Greek city (polis) and was ruled by a senate which was responsible for most civil affairs. Odaenathus maintained Palmyra's institutions, as did Zenobia; a Palmyrene inscription after her fall records the name of Septimius Haddudan, a Palmyrene senator. However, the queen apparently ruled autocratically; Septimius Worod, Odaenathus' viceroy and one of Palmyra's most important officials, disappeared from the record after Zenobia's ascent. The queen opened the doors of her government to Eastern nobility. Zenobia's most important courtiers and advisers were her generals, Septemius Zabdas and Septimius Zabbai; both of whom were generals under Odaenathus and received the *gentilicium* (surname) "Septimius" from him. Odaenathus respected the Roman emperor's privilege of appointing provincial governors, and Zenobia continued this policy during her early reign. Although the queen did not interfere in day-to-day administration, she probably had the power to command the governors in the organization of border security. During the rebellion, Zenobia maintained Roman forms of administration, but appointed the governors herself (most notably in Egypt, where Julius Marcellinus took office in 270 and was followed by Statilius Ammianus in 271). ###### Agreement with Rome Zenobia initially avoided provoking Rome by claiming for herself and her son the titles, inherited from Odaenathus, of subject of Rome and protector of its eastern frontier. After expanding her territory, she seems to have tried to be recognized as an imperial partner in the eastern half of the empire and presented her son as subordinate to the emperor. In late 270, Zenobia minted coinage bearing the portraits of Aurelian and Vaballathus; Aurelian was titled "emperor", and Vaballathus "king". The regnal year in early samples of the coinage was only Aurelian's. By March 271, despite indicating Aurelian as the paramount monarch by naming him first in the dating formulae, the coinage also began bearing Vaballathus' regnal year. By indicating in the coinage that Vaballathus' reign began in 267 (three years before the emperor's), Vaballathus appeared to be Aurelian's senior colleague. The emperor's blessing of Palmyrene authority has been debated; Aurelian's acceptance of Palmyrene rule in Egypt may be inferred from the Oxyrhynchus papyri, which are dated by the regnal years of the emperor and Vaballathus. No proof of a formal agreement exists, and the evidence is based solely on the joint coinage- and papyri-dating. It is unlikely that Aurelian would have accepted such power-sharing, but he was unable to act in 271 due to crises in the West. His apparent condoning of Zenobia's actions may have been a ruse to give her a false sense of security while he prepared for war. Another reason for Aurelian's tolerance may have been his desire to ensure a constant supply of Egyptian grain to Rome; it is not recorded that the supply was cut, and the ships sailed to Rome in 270 as usual. Some modern scholars, such as Harold Mattingly, suggest that Claudius Gothicus had concluded a formal agreement with Zenobia which Aurelian ignored. #### Empress and open rebellion An inscription, found in Palmyra and dated to August 271, called Zenobia *eusebes* (the pious); this title, used by Roman empresses, could be seen as a step by the queen toward an imperial title. Another contemporary inscription called her *sebaste*, the Greek equivalent of "empress" (Latin: *Augusta*), but also acknowledged the Roman emperor. A late-271 Egyptian grain receipt equated Aurelian and Vaballathus, jointly calling them *Augusti*. Finally, Palmyra officially broke with Rome; the Alexandrian and Antiochian mints removed Aurelian's portrait from the coins in April 272, issuing new tetradrachms in the names of Vaballathus and Zenobia (who were called *Augustus* and *Augusta*, respectively). The assumption of imperial titles by Zenobia signaled a usurpation: independence from, and open rebellion against, Aurelian. The timeline of events and why Zenobia declared herself empress is vague. In the second half of 271, Aurelian marched to the East, but was delayed by the Goths in the Balkans; this may have alarmed the queen, driving her to claim the imperial title. Zenobia also probably understood the inevitability of open conflict with Aurelian, and decided that feigning subordination would be useless; her assumption of the imperial title was used to rally soldiers to her cause. Aurelian's campaign seems to have been the main reason for the Palmyrene imperial declaration and the removal of his portrait from its coins. #### Downfall The usurpation, which began in late March or early April 272, ended by August. Aurelian spent the winter of 271–272 in Byzantium, and probably crossed the Bosporus to Asia Minor in April 272. Galatia fell easily; the Palmyrene garrisons were apparently withdrawn, and the provincial capital of Ancyra was regained without a struggle. All the cities in Asia Minor opened their doors to the Roman emperor, with only Tyana putting up some resistance before surrendering; this cleared the path for Aurelian to invade Syria, the Palmyrene heartland. A simultaneous expedition reached Egypt in May 272; by early June Alexandria was captured by the Romans, followed by the rest of Egypt by the third week of June. Zenobia seems to have withdrawn most of her armies from Egypt to focus on Syria—which, if lost, would have meant the end of Palmyra. In May 272, Aurelian headed toward Antioch. About 40 kilometres (25 mi) north of the city, he defeated the Palmyrene army (led by Zabdas) at the Battle of Immae. As a result, Zenobia, who waited in Antioch during the battle, retreated with her army to Emesa. To conceal the disaster and make her flight safer, she spread reports that Aurelian was captured; Zabdas found a man who resembled the Roman emperor and paraded him through Antioch. The following day, Aurelian entered the city before marching south. After defeating a Palmyrene garrison south of Antioch, Aurelian continued his march to meet Zenobia in the Battle of Emesa. The 70,000-strong Palmyrene army, assembled on the plain of Emesa, nearly routed the Romans. In an initial thrill of victory they hastened their advance, breaking their lines and enabling the Roman infantry to attack their flank. The defeated Zenobia headed to her capital on the advice of her war council, leaving her treasury behind. In Palmyra, the queen prepared for a siege; Aurelian blockaded food-supply routes, and there were probably unsuccessful negotiations. According to the *Augustan History*, Zenobia said that she would fight Aurelian with the help of her Persian allies; however, the story was probably fabricated and used by the emperor to link Zenobia to Rome's greatest enemy. If such an alliance existed, a much-larger frontier war would have erupted; however, no Persian army was sent. As the situation worsened, the queen left the city for Persia intending on seeking help from Palmyra's former enemy; according to Zosimus, she rode a "female camel, the fastest of its breed and faster than any horse". Captivity and fate ------------------ Aurelian, learning about Zenobia's departure, sent a contingent which captured the queen before she could cross the Euphrates to Persia; Palmyra capitulated soon after news of Zenobia's captivity reached the city in August 272. Aurelian sent the queen and her son to Emesa for trial, followed by most of Palmyra's court elite (including Longinus). According to the *Augustan History* and Zosimus, Zenobia blamed her actions on her advisers; however, there are no contemporary sources describing the trial, only later hostile Roman ones. The queen's reported cowardice in defeat was probably Aurelian's propaganda; it benefited the emperor to paint Zenobia as selfish and traitorous, discouraging the Palmyrenes from hailing her as a hero. Although Aurelian had most of his prisoners executed, he spared the queen and her son to parade her in his planned triumph. Zenobia's fate after Emesa is uncertain since ancient historians left conflicting accounts. Zosimus wrote that she died before crossing the Bosporus on her way to Rome; according to this account, the queen became ill or starved herself to death. The generally unreliable chronicler, John Malalas, wrote that Aurelian humiliated Zenobia by parading her through the eastern cities on a dromedary; in Antioch, the emperor had her chained and seated on a dais in the hippodrome for three days before the city's populace. Malalas concluded his account by writing that Zenobia appeared in Aurelian's triumph and was then beheaded. Most ancient historians and modern scholars agree that Zenobia was displayed in Aurelian's 274 triumph; Zosimus was the only source to say that the queen died before reaching Rome, making his account questionable. A public humiliation (as recounted by Malalas) is a plausible scenario, since Aurelian would probably have wanted to publicize his suppression of the Palmyrene rebellion. Only Malalas, however, describes Zenobia's beheading; according to the other historians, her life was spared after Aurelian's triumph. The *Augustan History* recorded that Aurelian gave Zenobia a villa in Tibur near Hadrian's Villa, where she lived with her children. Zonaras wrote that Zenobia married a nobleman, and Syncellus wrote that she married a Roman senator. The house she reportedly occupied became a tourist attraction in Rome. Titles ------ The queen owed her elevated position to her son's minority. To celebrate Herodianus' coronation, a statue was erected in Palmyra in 263. According to the inscription on the base of the statue, it was commissioned by Septimius Worod, then the *duumviri* (magistrate) of Palmyra, and Julius Aurelius, the Queen's *procurator* (treasurer). According to the historian David Potter, Zenobia is the queen mentioned, and the inscription is an evidence for the usage of the title by her during Odaenathus' lifetime. An inscription on a milestone on the road between Palmyra and Emesa, dated to Zenobia's early reign, identifies her as "illustrious queen, mother of the king of kings"; this was the first inscription giving her an official position. A lead token from Antioch also identifies Zenobia as queen. The earliest confirmed attestation of Zenobia as queen in Palmyra is an inscription on the base of a statue erected for her by Zabdas and Zabbai, dated to August 271 and calling her "most illustrious and pious queen". On an undated milestone found near Byblos, Zenobia is titled *Sebaste*. The queen was never acknowledged as sole monarch in Palmyra, although she was the *de facto* sovereign of the empire; she was always associated with her husband or son in inscriptions, except in Egypt (where some coins were minted in Zenobia's name alone). According to her coins, the queen assumed the title of *Augusta* (empress) in 272, and reigned under the regnal name Septimia Zenobia Augusta. Descendants ----------- Aside from Vaballathus, it is unclear if Zenobia had other children, and their alleged identities are subject to scholarly disagreements. The image of a child named Hairan (II) appears on a seal impression with that of his brother Vaballathus; no name of a mother was engraved and the seal is undated. Odaenathus' son Herodianus is identified by Udo Hartmann with Hairan I, a son of Odaenathus who appears in Palmyrene inscriptions as early as 251. David S. Potter, on the other hand, suggested that Hairan II is the son of Zenobia and that he is Herodianus instead of Hairan I. Nathanael Andrade maintained that Hairan I, Herodianus, and Hairan II are the same person, rejecting the existence of a second Hairan. A controversial Palmyrene inscription mentions the mother of the King Septimius Antiochus; the name of the queen is missing, and Dittenberger refused to fill the gap with Zenobia's name, but many scholars, such as Grace Macurdy considered that the missing name is Zenobia. Septimius Antiochus may have been Vaballathus' younger brother, or was presented in this manner for political reasons; Antiochus was proclaimed emperor in 273, when Palmyra revolted against Rome for a second time. If Antiochus was a son of Zenobia, he was probably a young child not fathered by Odaenathus; Zosimus described him as insignificant, appropriate for a five-year-old boy. On the other hand, Macurdy, citing the language Zosimus used when he described him, considered it more plausible that Antiochus was not a son of Zenobia, but a family relation who used her name to legitimize his claim to the throne. The names of Herennianus and Timolaus were mentioned as children of Zenobia only in the *Historia Augusta*. Herennianus may be a conflation of Hairan and Herodianus; Timolaus is probably a fabrication, although the historian Dietmar Kienast suggested that he might have been Vaballathus. According to the *Historia Augusta*, Zenobia's descendants were Roman nobility during the reign of Emperor Valens (reigned 364–375). Eutropius and Jerome chronicled the queen's descendants in Rome during the fourth and fifth centuries. They may have been the result of a reported marriage to a Roman spouse or offspring who accompanied her from Palmyra; both theories, however, are tentative. Zonaras is the only historian to note that Zenobia had daughters; he wrote that one married Aurelian, who married the queen's other daughters to distinguished Romans. According to Southern, the emperor's marriage to Zenobia's daughter is a fabrication. Another descent claim is the relation of saint Zenobius of Florence (337–417) with the queen; the Girolami banking family claimed descent from the fifth century saint, and the alleged relation was first noted in 1286. The family also extended their roots to Zenobia by claiming that the saint was a descendant of her. Evaluation and legacy --------------------- An evaluation of Zenobia is difficult; the queen was courageous when her husband's supremacy was threatened and by seizing the throne, she protected the region from a power vacuum after Odaenathus' death. According to Watson, she made what Odaenathus left her a "glittering show of strength". In the view of Watson, Zenobia should not be seen as a total powermonger, nor as a selfless hero fighting for a cause; according to the historian David Graf, "She took seriously the titles and responsibilities she assumed for her son and that her program was far more ecumenical and imaginative than that of her husband Odenathus, not just more ambitious". Zenobia has inspired scholars, academics, musicians and actors; her fame has lingered in the West, and is supreme in the Middle East. As a heroic queen with a tragic end, she stands alongside Cleopatra and Boudica. The queen's legend turned her into an idol, that can be reinterpreted to accommodate the needs of writers and historians; thus, Zenobia has been by turns a freedom fighter, a hero of the oppressed and a national symbol. The queen is a female role model; according to the historian Michael Rostovtzeff, Catherine the Great liked to compare herself to Zenobia as a woman who created military might and an intellectual court. During the 1930s, thanks to an Egyptian-based feminist press, Zenobia became an icon for women's-magazine readers in the Arabic-speaking world as a strong, nationalistic female leader. Her most lasting legacy is in Syria, where the queen is a national symbol. Zenobia became an icon for Syrian nationalists; she had a cult following among Western-educated Syrians, and an 1871 novel by journalist Salim Al Bustani was entitled *Zenobia malikat Tadmor* (*Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra*). Syrian nationalist Ilyas Matar, who wrote Syria's first history in Arabic in 1874, (*al-'Uqud al-durriyya fi tarikh al-mamlaka al-Suriyya*; *The Pearl Necklace in the History of the Syrian Kingdom*), was fascinated by Zenobia and included her in his book. To Matar, the queen kindled hope for a new Zenobia who would restore Syria's former grandeur. Another history of Syria was written by Jurji Yanni in 1881, in which Yanni called Zenobia a "daughter of the fatherland", and yearned for her "glorious past". Yanni described Aurelian as a tyrant who deprived Syria of its happiness and independence by capturing its queen. In modern Syria, Zenobia is regarded as a patriotic symbol; her image appeared on banknotes, and in 1997 she was the subject of the television series Al-Ababeed (*The Anarchy*). The series was watched by millions in the Arabic-speaking world. It examined the Israeli–Palestinian conflict from a Syrian perspective, where the queen's struggle symbolized the Palestinians' struggle to gain the right of self-determination. Zenobia was also the subject of a biography by Mustafa Tlass, Syria's former minister of defense and one of the country's most prominent figures. Myth, romanticism and popular culture ------------------------------------- Harold Mattingly called Zenobia "one of the most romantic figures in history". According to Southern, "The real Zenobia is elusive, perhaps ultimately unattainable, and novelists, playwrights and historians alike can absorb the available evidence, but still need to indulge in varied degrees of speculation." She has been the subject of romantic and ideologically-driven biographies by ancient and modern writers. The *Augustan History* is the clearest example of an ideological account of Zenobia's life, and its author acknowledged that it was written to criticize the emperor Gallienus. According to the *Augustan History*, Gallienus was weak because he allowed a woman to rule part of the empire and Zenobia was a more able sovereign than the emperor. The narrative changed as the *Augustan History* moved on to the life of Claudius Gothicus, a lauded and victorious emperor, with the author characterizing Zenobia's protection of the eastern frontier as a wise delegation of power by Claudius. When the *Augustan History* reached the biography of Aurelian, the author's view of Zenobia changed dramatically; the queen is depicted as a guilty, insolent, proud coward; her wisdom was discredited and her actions deemed the result of manipulation by advisers. Zenobia's "staunch" beauty was emphasized by the author of the *Augustan History*, who ascribed to her feminine timidity and inconsistency (the reasons for her alleged betrayal of her advisers to save herself). The queen's sex posed a dilemma for the *Augustan History* since it cast a shadow on Aurelian's victory. Its author ascribed many masculine traits to Zenobia to make Aurelian a conquering hero who suppressed a dangerous Amazon queen. According to the *Augustan History*, Zenobia had a clear, manly voice, dressed as an emperor (rather than an empress), rode horseback, was attended by eunuchs instead of ladies-in-waiting, marched with her army, drank with her generals, was careful with money (contrary to the stereotypical spending habits of her sex) and pursued masculine hobbies such as hunting. Giovanni Boccaccio wrote a fanciful 14th-century account of the queen in which she is a tomboy in childhood who preferred wrestling with boys, wandering in the forests and killing goats to playing like a young girl. Zenobia's chastity was a theme of these romanticized accounts; according to the *Augustan History*, she disdained sexual intercourse and allowed Odaenathus into her bed only for conception. Her reputed chastity impressed some male historians; Edward Gibbon wrote that Zenobia surpassed Cleopatra in chastity and valor. According to Boccaccio, Zenobia safeguarded her virginity when she wrestled with boys as a child. Seventeenth-century visitors to Palmyra rekindled the Western world's romantic interest in Zenobia. This interest peaked during the mid-nineteenth century, when Lady Hester Stanhope visited Palmyra and wrote that its people treated her like the queen; she was reportedly greeted with singing and dancing, and Bedouin warriors stood on the city's columns. A procession ended with a mock coronation of Stanhope under the arch of Palmyra as "queen of the desert". William Ware, fascinated by Zenobia, wrote a fanciful account of her life. Twentieth-century novelists and playwrights, such as Haley Elizabeth Garwood and Nick Dear, also wrote about the queen. ### Selected cultural depictions Bust of ZenobiaHarriet Hosmer's *Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra* (1857)Painting of Zenobia gazing over Plamyra*Queen Zenobia's Last Look upon Palmyra* by Herbert Gustave Schmalz (1888) * Sculptures: * *Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra* (1857) by Harriet Hosmer, exhibited at the Art Institute of Chicago. * *Zenobia in Chains* (1859) by Harriet Hosmer. Two copies were made, one exhibited at the Huntington Library and the other at the St Louis Art Museum. * Literature: * Chaucer narrates a condensed story of Zenobia's life in one of a series of "tragedies" in "The Monk's Tale". * *La gran Cenobia* (1625) by Pedro Calderón de la Barca. * *Zénobie, tragédie. Où la vérité de l'Histoire est conservée dans l'observation des plus rigoureuses règles du Poème Dramatique* (1647) by François Hédelin. * *Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra; a Narrative, Founded on History*. (1814) by Adelaide O'Keeffe. * *The Queen of the East* (1956) by Alexander Baron. * *Moi, Zénobie reine de Palmyre* (1978) by Bernard Simiot. * *The Chronicle of Zenobia* (2006) by Judith Weingarten. * "A Predicament" (1838) by Edgar Allan Poe. * Paintings: * *Queen Zenobia Addressing her Soldiers* by Giambattista Tiepolo; it dates to the early eighteenth century but the exact year is not known. This painting (part of a series of tableaux of Zenobia) was painted by Tiepolo on the walls of the Zenobio family palace in Venice, although they were unrelated to the queen. * *Queen Zenobia's Last Look upon Palmyra* (1888) by Herbert Gustave Schmalz. * Operas: * *Zenobia* (1694): Tomaso Albinoni's first opera. * *Zenobia in Palmira* (1725) by Leonardo Leo. * *Zenobia* (1761) by Johann Adolph Hasse. * *Zenobia in Palmira* (1789) by Pasquale Anfossi. * *Zenobia in Palmira* (1790) by Giovanni Paisiello. * *Aureliano in Palmira* (1813) by Gioachino Rossini. * *Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra* (1882) by Silas G. Pratt. * *Zenobia* (2007) by Mansour Rahbani. * Play: *Zenobia* (1995), by Nick Dear, was first performed at the Young Vic as a co-production with the Royal Shakespeare Company. * Song: "Zenobia" (1971), written by the Rahbani Brothers and sang by Fairuz as part of the Rahbani Brothers' 1971 musical play *Nas Min Waraq* (people of paper). * Film: *Nel Segno di Roma*, a 1959 Italian film starring Anita Ekberg. * Television: *Al-Ababeed* (1997), Syrian television series starring Raghda as Zenobia. See also -------- * Crisis of the Third Century * Gallic Empire * Mavia (queen) * Zenobia of Armenia Explanatory notes ----------------- 1. ↑ "Septimius" was also Odaenathus' family's gentilicium (surname) adopted as an expression of loyalty to the Roman Severan dynasty, whose emperor Septimius Severus granted the family Roman citizenship in the late second century. 2. ↑ N.N. is a grammatical abbreviation denoting "no name", indicating hypocoristica, where a compound name is abbreviated by dropping its theophoric (deity name) element. 3. ↑ Mainly texts written in Sogdian from the Turfan Oasis; they were included in the series named *Berliner Turfantexte* launched in 1971. 4. ↑ Both Dittenberger and von Sallet believed that Zenobia bore the *gentilicium* Julia Aurelia during her marriage and took the *gentilicium* Septimia after Odaenathus' death; von Sallet argued that the coins minted by Vaballathus in Alexandria bore the initials of the names "Julius", "Aurelius" and "Septimius", before his own name. Therefore, it is apparent that Vaballathus took his maternal family's name beside his paternal one. 5. ↑ The writer of the *Historia Augusta* might have based his account on the work of Ammianus Marcellinus, who wrote about the habits of men in "vaulted baths" and how they extol women "with such disgraceful flattery as the Parthians do Semiramis, the Egyptians their Cleopatras, the Carians [do] Artemisia, or the people of Palmyra [do] Zenobia". If the *Historia Augusta* writer did indeed use the words of Ammianus, then the remark about Zenobia's supposed descent loses its merit. 6. ↑ The conclusion that Callinicus meant Zenobia is based on the fact that the work was written following Palmyra's invasion of Egypt, combined with what is known about Zenobia's alleged claims of descent from Cleopatra. The first scholar to suggest that, by Cleopatra, Callinicus meant Zenobia was Aurel Stein, in 1923, and his view was accepted by many other historians. 7. ↑ The Roman view of Cleopatra was negative; she was portrayed as a traitorous manipulative woman who used her beauty and sex to achieve her goals. 8. ↑ The Roman East traditionally included all the Roman lands in Asia east of the Bosphorus. 9. ↑ A plausible scenario, according to the historian David Potter, would be that a campaign was sent in 270 by Claudius Gothicus, Gallienus' successor. 10. ↑ An often-cited argument for limited territorial control is that the Antiochean Mint did not issue coins in the name of the queen or her son before 270. However, in the opinion of Southern, this can be explained by the existence of Claudius Gothicus on the imperial throne, which made it unnecessary for the queen to issue coins in the name of her son. After Claudius' death in 270, the imperial throne was contested by his brother Quintillus and the army candidate Aurelian, but the Antiochean mint, probably under orders from Zenobia (who apparently did not recognize Quintillus) did not issue coins for both pretenders. When Aurelian prevailed, Zenobia might have found it an opportunity to declare for him; the new coins bore the picture of Aurelian but also, for the first time, Vaballathus. 11. ↑ The palace was probably established by Odaenathus who crowned his son in Antioch, Syria's historical capital. 12. ↑ According to the *Historia Augusta* the emperor Aurelian sent a letter to the Senate saying that the Egyptians, Armenians and Arabs were so afraid of Zenobia that they did not dare revolt; however, the author does not say that the Syrians were afraid of the queen. 13. ↑ Ancient sources accused Zenobia of sympathizing with the Persians, claiming that she was worshiped like the Persian leaders and drank wine with their generals; however, the accusations are unfounded since Zenobia fortified the frontier with Persia. 14. ↑ Although his name is only mentioned by John Malalas, archaeological evidence supports the Arabian campaign. 15. ↑ Paul of Samosata is considered a heretic by mainstream Christianity, accused of denying the preexistence of Christ. The earliest reference to the relationship between Zenobia and Paul of Samosata comes from Athanasius of Alexandria's fourth-century *History of the Arians*. According to Eusebius, Paul preferred to be called *"ducenarius"* instead of bishop; There is evidence that he held this rank in the service of Zenobia. There is no evidence that Paul was invited to the Palmyrene court, and his relationship with Zenobia was exaggerated by later sources. The queen may have supported him as bishop to promote religious tolerance. 16. ↑ One of Statilius' inscriptions is firmly dated to spring 272, so he could have been appointed by the Romans who regained Egypt at that time. 17. ↑ Many ancient writers, including John Malalas, Rufius Festus, Jordanes, George Syncellus and Jerome, mistakenly wrote that Zenobia was captured at Immae. 18. ↑ Dated to 268, its code in Delbert R. Hillers and Eleonora Cussini's work, titled "Palmyrene Aramaic Texts" (PAT), is PAT 2827, and the inscription read: queen Zenobia. References ---------- ### General and cited sources * Abu-Manneh, Butrus (1992). "The Establishment and dismantling of the province of Syria, 1865–1888". In Spagnolo, John P. (ed.). *Problems of the modern Middle East in historical perspective: essays in honour of Albert Hourani*. Ithaca Press (for the Middle East Centre, St. Antony's College Oxford). ISBN 978-0-86372-164-9. * Aliksān, Jān (1989). *التشخيص والمنصة: دراسات في المسرح العربي المعاصر* [*Platform Diagnosis: Studies in Contemporary Arab Theater*] (in Arabic). اتحاد الكتاب العرب (Arab Writers Union). OCLC 4771160319. * Ando, Clifford (2012). *Imperial Rome AD 193 to 284: The Critical Century*. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-5534-2. * Andrade, Nathanael J. (2013). *Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-01205-9. * Andrade, Nathanael J. (2018). *Zenobia: Shooting Star of Palmyra*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-190-63881-8. * Bagnall, Roger S. (2004). *Egypt from Alexander to the Early Christians: An Archaeological and Historical Guide*. Getty Publications. ISBN 978-0-89236-796-2. * Ball, Warwick (2002). *Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire*. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-82387-1. * Ball, Warwick (2016). *Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire* (2 ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-29635-5. * Banchich, Thomas; Lane, Eugene (2009). *The History of Zonaras: From Alexander Severus to the Death of Theodosius the Great*. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-42473-3. * Bennett, Chris (2003). "Drusilla Regina". *The Classical Quarterly*. (New Series). Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Classical Association. **53** (1): 315–319. doi:10.1093/cq/53.1.315. ISSN 0009-8388. * Bland, Roger (2011). "The Coinage of Vabalathus and Zenobia from Antioch and Alexandria". *The Numismatic Chronicle*. The Royal Numismatic Society. **171**. ISSN 2054-9202. * Booth, Marilyn (2011). "Constructions of Syrian identity in the Women's press in Egypt". In Beshara, Adel (ed.). *The Origins of Syrian Nationhood: Histories, Pioneers and Identity*. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-61504-4. * Bowersock, Glen Warren (1984). "The Miracle of Memnon". *Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrologists*. The American Society of Papyrologists. **21**. ISSN 0003-1186. * Brauer, George C. (1975). *The Age of the Soldier Emperors: Imperial Rome, A.D. 244–284*. Noyes Press. ISBN 978-0-8155-5036-5. * Bray, John Jefferson (1997). *Gallienus: A Study in Reformist and Sexual Politics*. Wakefield Press. ISBN 978-1-86254-337-9. * Bryce, Trevor (2014). *Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-100292-2. * Bryce, Trevor; Birkett-Rees, Jessie (2016). *Atlas of the Ancient Near East: From Prehistoric Times to the Roman Imperial Period*. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-56210-8. * Burstein, Stanley Mayer (2007) [2004]. *The Reign of Cleopatra*. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-3871-8. * Butcher, Kevin (2003). *Roman Syria and the Near East*. Getty Publications. ISBN 978-0-89236-715-3. * Choueiri, Youssef (2013) [1989]. *Modern Arab Historiography: Historical Discourse and the Nation-State* (revised ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-86862-7. * Coogan, Michael David (1976). *West Semitic Personal Names in the Murašû Documents*. Scholars Press. ISBN 978-9-00438-778-2. * Cornelison, Sally J. (2002). "A French King and a Magic Ring: The Girolami and a Relic of St. Zenobius in Renaissance Florence" (PDF). *Renaissance Quarterly*. University of Chicago Press on behalf of the Renaissance Society of America. **55** (2): 434–469. doi:10.2307/1262315. hdl:1808/16965. ISSN 0034-4338. JSTOR 1262315. S2CID 191660895. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-08-13. * Cussini, Eleonora (2005). "Beyond the spindle: Investigating the role of Palmyrene women". In Cussini, Eleonora (ed.). *A Journey to Palmyra: Collected Essays to Remember Delbert R. Hillers*. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-12418-9. * Cussini, Eleonora (2012). "What Women Say and Do (in Aramaic Documents)". In Lanfranchi, Giovanni B.; Morandi Bonacossi, Daniele; Pappi, Cinzia; Ponchia, Simonetta (eds.). *Leggo! Studies Presented to Frederick Mario Fales on the Occasion of His 65th Birthday*. Leipziger Altorientalistische Studien. Vol. 2. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-06659-4. ISSN 2193-4436. * Dear, Nick (2014). *Nick Dear Plays 1: Art of Success; In the Ruins; Zenobia; Turn of the Screw*. Faber & Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-31843-8. * Dignas, Beate; Winter, Engelbert (2007). *Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity: Neighbours and Rivals*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84925-8. * Dodgeon, Michael H; Lieu, Samuel N. 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Jewett Publishing Company. Jewett. OL 24136924M. * Edwell, Peter (2007). *Between Rome and Persia: The Middle Euphrates, Mesopotamia and Palmyra Under Roman Control*. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-09573-5. * Franklin, Margaret Ann (2006). *Boccaccio's Heroines: Power and Virtue in Renaissance Society*. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 978-0-7546-5364-6. * Fraser, Antonia (2011) [1988]. *Warrior Queens: Boadicea's Chariot*. Hachette UK. ISBN 978-1-78022-070-3. * Gallo, Denise (2012). *Gioachino Rossini: A Research and Information Guide*. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-84701-2. * Gardner, Iain (2020). *The Founder of Manichaeism: Rethinking the Life of Mani*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-49907-1. * Godman, Peter (1985) [1983]. "Chaucer and Boccaccio's Latin Works". In Boitani, Piero (ed.). *Chaucer and the Italian Trecento*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-31350-6. * Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). *The Fall Of The West: The Death Of The Roman Superpower*. Hachette UK. ISBN 978-0-297-85760-0. * Graetz, Heinrich (2009) [1893]. Lowy, Bella (ed.). *History of the Jews: From the Reign of Hyrcanus (135 B.C.E) to the Completion of the Babylonian Talmud (500 C.E. )*. Vol. II. Cosimo, Inc. ISBN 978-1-60520-942-5. * Hansell, Sven Hostrup (1968). *Works for solo voice of Johann Adolph Hasse, 1699–1783*. Detroit studies in music bibliography. Vol. 12. Information Coordinators. OCLC 245456. * Hartmann, Udo (2001). *Das palmyrenische Teilreich* (in German). Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 978-3-515-07800-9. * Iggers, Georg G; Wang, Q. Edward; Mukherjee, Supriya (2013). *A Global History of Modern Historiography*. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-89501-5. * Intagliata, Emanuele E. (2018). *Palmyra after Zenobia AD 273-750: An Archaeological and Historical Reappraisal*. Oxbow Books. ISBN 978-1-785-70942-5. * Jackson, Kent P. (1983). "Ammonite Personal Names in the Context of the West Semitic Onomasticon". In Meyers, Carol L.; O'Connor, Michael Patrick (eds.). *The Word of the Lord Shall Go Forth: Essays in Honor of David Noel Freedman in Celebration of His Sixtieth Birthday*. American Schools of Oriental Research: Special Volume Series. Vol. 1. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-0-931-46419-5. * Kelly, Sarah E. (2004). "Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra". In Pearson, Gail A. (ed.). *Notable Acquisitions at the Art Institute of Chicago*. Vol. 2. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-86559-209-4. * Kulikowski, Michael (2016). *Imperial Triumph: The Roman World from Hadrian to Constantine*. Profile Books. ISBN 978-1-84765-437-3. * Lieu, Samuel N. C (1998). Emmel, Stephen; Klimkeit, Hans-Joachim (eds.). *Manichaeism in Central Asia and China*. Nag Hammadi and Manichaean Studies. Vol. 45. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-10405-1. ISSN 0929-2470. * Macquarrie, John (2003). *Stubborn Theological Questions*. Hymns Ancient and Modern Ltd. 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"Palmyra and Rome: Odaenathus' Titulature and the Use of the Imperium Maius". *Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik*. Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH. **113**. ISSN 0084-5388. * Potter, David S (2014). *The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180–395*. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-69477-8. * Powers, David S. (2010). "Demonizing Zenobia: The legend of al-Zabbā in Islamic Sources". In Roxani, Eleni Margariti; Sabra, Adam; Sijpesteijn, Petra (eds.). *Histories of the Middle East: Studies in Middle Eastern Society, Economy and Law in Honor of A.L. Udovitch*. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-18427-5. * Quintero, María Cristina (2016). *Gendering the Crown in the Spanish Baroque Comedia*. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-12961-5. * Rihan, Mohammad (2014). *The Politics and Culture of an Umayyad Tribe: Conflict and Factionalism in the Early Islamic Period*. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1-78076-564-8. * Ruwe, Donelle (2012). "Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra: Adelaide O'Keeffe, the Jewish Conversion Novel, and the Limits of Rational Education". *Eighteenth-Century Life*. Duke University Press. **36** (1): 30–53. doi:10.1215/00982601-1457093. ISSN 0098-2601. S2CID 145296181. * Sahner, Christian (2014). *Among the Ruins: Syria Past and Present*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-939670-2. * Sartre, Maurice (2005). *The Middle East Under Rome*. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01683-5. * Schneider, Eugenia Equini (1993). *Septimia Zenobia Sebaste* (in Italian). Roma : "L'Erma" di Bretschneider. ISBN 978-88-7062-812-8. * Shahîd, Irfan (1995). *Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century (Part1: Political and Military History)*. Vol. 1. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. ISBN 978-0-88402-214-5. * Sivertsev, Alexei (2002). *Private Households and Public Politics in 3rd–5th Century Jewish Palestine*. Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism. Vol. 90. Mohr Siebeck. 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In Cussini, Eleonora (ed.). *A Journey to Palmyra: Collected Essays to Remember Delbert R. Hillers*. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-12418-9. * Vervaet, Frederik J. (2007). "The Reappearance of the Supra-Provincial Commands in the Late Second and Early Third Centuries C.E.: Constitutional and Historical Considerations". In Hekster, Olivier; De Kleijn, Gerda; Slootjes, Daniëlle (eds.). *Crises and the Roman Empire: Proceedings of the Seventh Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire, Nijmegen, June 20–24, 2006*. Impact of Empire. Vol. 7. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-16050-7. * Watson, Alaric (2004) [1999]. *Aurelian and the Third Century*. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-90815-8. * Weldon, Roberta (2008). *Hawthorne, Gender, and Death: Christianity and Its Discontents*. Springer. ISBN 978-0-230-61208-2. * Wood, Mary P. (2006). "From Bust to Boom: Women and Representations of Prosperity in Italian Cinema of the Late 1940s and 1950s". 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Zenobia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobia

**Sélestat** (French: [selɛsta]; Alsatian: *Schlettstàdt*; German: *Schlettstadt*) is a commune in the Grand Est region of France. An administrative division (sous-préfecture) of the Bas-Rhin department, the town lies on the Ill river, 17 kilometres (11 mi) from the Rhine and the German border. Sélestat is located between the largest communes of Alsace, Strasbourg and Mulhouse. In 2019, Sélestat had a total population of 19,242, which makes it the eighth most populous town in Alsace. During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance it was the third largest city in the region, after Strasbourg and Colmar, and it is ranked the third commune in Alsace for cultural heritage. Sélestat was founded in the 8th century as a port on the Ill and it experienced a long period of prosperity thanks to the trade in wine and a thriving religious and cultural life. It gradually declined after the Reformation and the French conquest in the 17th century. The town eventually experienced a new demographic growth in the second half of the 20th century when it became a small industrial and cultural centre. Thanks to its rich heritage, which includes the renowned Humanist Library and an imposing pair of medieval churches, Sélestat is an important tourist destination in Alsace. It also benefits from its location on the Alsace wine road and its proximity to Haut-Kœnigsbourg castle. Aside from the medieval old town, the commune of Sélestat encompasses a nature reserve including one of the largest riparian forests of France. Name ---- The present name of the town is a Frenchification of the original Germanic name. It appeared soon after the French conquest in the 17th century. The town is called *Schlettstàdt* ([ˈʃlɛd̥ʃd̥ɐd̥]) in Alsatian and (German pronunciation: [ˈʃlet͡ʃtat]) in German. Sélestat was first mentioned in 727 as *Sclastat*. It was mentioned as *Scalistati* in 775, as *Slectistat* in 881, as *Sclezistat* in 884 and as *Slezestat* in 1095. The current German name, *Schlettstadt*, appeared in 1310, although various spellings can be noticed on posterior documents, such as *Schlestat*, *Schletstat* and *Schlettstat*. The French administration used various forms from the 17th to the 19th century, such as Frenchified (*Sélestat*, *Sélestadt*) and Germanic (*Schlestadt*, *Schelestadt*). The town was officially known as *Schlettstadt* between 1871 and 1919, when Alsace was part of the German Empire. Since 1920, the town's French name is fixed as Sélestat. The origin of the name "Schlettstadt" is unclear. It probably derives from Germanic words *slade* or *sclade* meaning "marshes", and *stat* for "city". Sélestat would then be a "city in the marshes", a reference to its position in the Grand Ried, a vast area subject to flooding that stretches over the centre of Alsace. *Stat* could also mean "area" rather than "city". A popular myth explains that the town takes its name from a dragon called *Schletto* that founded the settlement after opening up the nearby Lièpvre valley in the Vosges mountains. History ------- ### Birth of the town Sélestat was first mentioned in 727 AD but the town probably has an earlier Celtic or Roman origin. Archaeological findings provide evidence of human settlement during the Mesolithic, the Neolithic and the Bronze Age. A large number of wood piles dating from the 1st and 2nd centuries AD were discovered around St. Quirin chapel, suggesting a Roman settlement. At that time Sélestat might have already been a port on the river Ill. When Sélestat started to appear in written documents in the 8th century, it may have been a market town or simply a village populated by fishermen and farmers. The area was part of the estate of Eberhard, a member of the Alsatian ducal family, who donated it to Murbach Abbey at the end of his life. In 775, Charlemagne spent Christmas in Sélestat, which indicates that the town must have had enough appropriate buildings and population to accommodate his court and troops. In the 1080s, Sélestat was the property of Hildegard von Eguisheim, mother of Frederick I, Duke of Swabia, the first member of the House of Hohenstaufen. Hildegard transformed the place into a religious centre when she founded St. Faith's Church, which she gave to the Benedictines of Conques Abbey. Monks from Conques opened a priory next to the church in 1092. The House of Hohenstaufen quickly became the leading dynasty of the Holy Roman Empire, which came to the imperial throne in 1152. Being under their protection, the priory of Sélestat strongly influenced local life. Even though Sélestat constituted a distinct parish, its priest had only limited power and the Benedictine prior was the true head of the municipality. At the end of the 12th century, the Hohenstaufen dynasty gradually lost power and as a result the priory started to decline. The citizens used this opportunity to reduce the prior's dominance and secure the power of their parish. They started to build a new parish church in the 1220s. St. George's Church was designed in Gothic style and was significantly larger than St. Faith's Church, another way to signify the end of Benedictine hegemony. ### Free imperial city Frederick II, ruler of the Holy Roman Empire in the 13th century, realised that his dynasty was losing its power and granted freedoms to many cities in order to keep their allegiance. These cities became Free imperial cities and Sélestat became one of them in 1217. Under the new status Sélestat was able to build city walls and collect taxes on its own. Its serfs and settlers were freed. The German monarch Adolf of Nassau granted Sélestat a constitution in 1292. It was amended many times but it regulated local politics until 1789. Although the new status favoured trade and prosperity, free cities in Alsace were afraid that they would not be defended by imperial forces if a conflict was to occur. So they decided to form an alliance called the Decapolis in 1354, which comprised ten cities: (Haguenau, Colmar, Wissembourg, Turckheim, Obernai, Kaysersberg, Rosheim, Munster, Sélestat and Mulhouse). The seat of the alliance was in Haguenau but its archives were kept in Sélestat. Because the town was the most centrally located, it often hosted meetings of the association. The Benedictine priory was closed in 1424 after many years of decline. It had long lost its power to the local nobility that were gradually replaced by the bourgeoisie in the mid-14th century. Nevertheless, Sélestat remained a religious centre even after the closing of the priory. Convents were established in the 13th century by Dominicans, Knights Hospitaller and Franciscans. Several abbeys located outside of the town also had a residence in town. At the beginning of the 16th century, Sélestat was a noted centre of Renaissance humanism thanks to its celebrated Latin school. Reformers Beatus Rhenanus and Martin Bucer were among the school's alumni. This school helped spread Protestant ideas among the population, although the local authorities remained faithful to Rome. Erasmus of Rotterdam visited Sélestat four times between 1515 and 1522. Being a free city, Sélestat attracted settlers from the region who sought protection, freedom and a thriving economic environment. The first city wall, which had become too constricting, was replaced in 1280, and a third wall had to be erected in the 16th century as the city grew. At the end of the Middle Ages, the population was estimated at between 5,000 and 6,000. It was then the fourth largest Alsatian town after Strasbourg (18,000), Colmar and Haguenau (6,000 each). The local economy reached its zenith around 1500. It was centered on shipping and trade (mainly hay, cereals, wine, fish, glass, iron and salt). As the road network was poor and dangerous, goods transited via the Ill river. ### Decline The decline of the town started in the 1520s, when the humanist school lost its former influence. The troubles surrounding the Protestant Reformation brought instability and unrest to the region. The town experienced the German Peasants' War in 1525 and its convents were sacked by a mob in 1534. During the same period Sélestat lost its pre-eminence in the Decapolis because the city of Mulhouse left the alliance in 1515 and was replaced by Landau in 1521, moving the geographical centre of the alliance to the north. During the 17th century, Alsace was one of the main battlefields of the Thirty Years War. Sélestat was seized by the Swedes in 1632 after a month-long siege. They surrendered the town to their French allies two years later. The local population long remained predominantly faithful to the House of Habsburg. The Peace of Westphalia (1648) formalised the annexation of the Decapolis by France. Sélestat was briefly occupied by the Germans during the Franco-Dutch War in 1674. The Treaties of Nijmegen (1679) that ended the war also abolished the Decapolis. At first, Sélestat was a major strategic stronghold for the French. Located near the Rhine, it controlled the access to the Vosges mountains and the rest of France. Vauban, the foremost military architect at that time, rebuilt the town walls between 1675 and 1691. However, after the conquest of Strasbourg in 1681 Sélestat lost much of its strategic importance, as Strasbourg was better located. But it remained a garrison town, and the troops stationed there helped to improve the faltering local economy. Although Protestantism was not forbidden in Alsace, French authorities largely encouraged Catholicism and opened three new convents in Sélestat. Jews were expelled from the town in 1642. During the French Revolution the population was extremely conservative and opposed to change. The new territorial organisation confirmed the decline of the town, which did not become a prefecture and was not distinguished as a subprefecture until 1806, when it replaced Barr in that capacity. Sélestat suffered from the Napoleonic wars as it was besieged and bombed by the Bavarians in 1814 and blockaded by a German coalition in 1815. ### Since 1815 Industry appeared very early in Sélestat. The town had already several factories at the beginning of the 19th century: a tilery, a sawmill, 12 tanneries and 11 mills. Sélestat quickly became specialised in wire gauze making but it never became a large industrial centre, remaining a small town with limited influence. The completion of the Strasbourg-Basel railway (1840), one of the first to be built in France, did not lead to significant urban development. The town walls that still encircled the town were a significant factor in its economic and demographic stagnation. After the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, Alsace and a part of Lorraine were annexed by the new German Empire. The German authorities demolished the city walls in 1874 and built new spacious neighbourhoods around the old town, as they did in Strasbourg and Metz. Sélestat became French again after the First World War, during which almost a thousand inhabitants died. It was part of the Third Reich during the Second World War. Its liberation took three months and ended in February 1945. The town is a recipient of the *War Cross 1914–1918* and *War Cross 1939–1945*. Sélestat has experienced steady demographic and economic growth since 1945. Its population almost doubled between 1946 and 1999 and two industrial parks were built to accommodate new large factories. The service industry has enriched the town's economy since the 1970s with a large number of small businesses. South of the town, at 48°15′4″N 7°25′28″E / 48.25111°N 7.42444°E / 48.25111; 7.42444, a large broadcasting facility was used for transmitting on 1161 kHz and 1278 kHz in the medium-wave range. It was opened in 1948 and ceased to emit on 1 January 2016. Governance ---------- Sélestat is one of the six subprefectures of the Bas-Rhin departement. As such it is at the head of the Sélestat-Erstein arrondissement. Sélestat is also the administrative centre of a canton including 28 other communes which primarily serve as a constituency for local elections. Sélestat is part of the 5th Bas-Rhin constituency for national elections. Since 2002, the Member of the National Assembly for the constituency has been the Republican Antoine Herth. Sélestat is a member of a federation of communes with shared competencies: the Communauté de communes de Sélestat. Sélestat is its main town, and it includes 11 neighbouring villages. It was created in 1995 to replace an older but similar structure founded in 1969. Sélestat is also the seat of the Central Alsace *pays*, a structure aiming at developing the area. The town has had a council since 1292, when it was granted a constitution under the Holy Roman Empire. The constitution shaped the local political system until the French Revolution of 1789. Since then, the town has been administered as all the other communes of France. Its council currently comprises 33 councillors, whose number is defined by law according to the size of the population. The town also has a mayor elected by the councillors. Alsace in general is a stronghold of the French right. The main French right-wing party, The Republicans, currently holds a large majority in the council (26 councillors). Marcel Bauer, who has been mayor since 2001, is also a member of that party. Voters in Sélestat generally favour right-wing candidates at other elections as well, although Sélestat was governed by the Socialist Party between 1989 and 2001. Geography --------- Sélestat is located at the very centre of Alsace, near the limit separating the Bas-Rhin and Haut-Rhin departments, which traditionally correspond to Lower and Upper Alsace, respectively. The town is located between Strasbourg and Mulhouse, the first being 42 kilometres (26 mi) north and the latter 57 kilometres (35 mi) south of the city. Sélestat is also located between Obernai (22 kilometres (14 mi)) and Colmar (21 kilometres (13 mi)). On the other side of the Rhine, Freiburg im Breisgau is around 40 kilometres (25 mi) distant. Sélestat lies on the Alsace plains, a narrow, very fertile area that stretches between the Rhine and the Vosges mountains. The Ill flows parallel to the Rhine and crosses Sélestat. This river frequently branches and swells, making the area very wet and subject to flooding. Sélestat is only 4 kilometres (2 mi) from the Vosges, at the opening of one of the rare valleys crossing the mountain range and providing a connection to the rest of France. This valley corresponds to the course of the Giessen, a 35 kilometres (22 mi) long tributary of the Ill. In contrast to the Ill, which has a constant annual flow, the Giessen is a mountain river subject to sudden increases in the water level, especially during the spring thaw period. The Giessen passes north of the town and meets the Ill several kilometers to the east, in Ebersmunster. The town itself is built on the Giessen alluvial fan so it is slightly higher than the rest of the Alsace plains. Much of its territory is however located on areas liable to flooding. Such areas are mostly located inside the Illwald natural reserve and comprise both forests and meadows. There the Ill forms more than 150 kilometres (93 mi) of waterways. * The Ill in Sélestat.The Ill in Sélestat. * The Oberriedgraben in the Illwald.The Oberriedgraben in the Illwald. * The Schiffwasser in the Illwald.The Schiffwasser in the Illwald. * The Giessen.The Giessen. Transport --------- Despite its small size, Sélestat is well connected to transport networks. Alsace as a whole, being part of the economic heart of Europe, has a high road and railway density. The town is served by the A35 autoroute, a motorway that crosses Alsace north to south, connecting Strasbourg, Colmar and Mulhouse. Further south it connects to the Swiss A3 motorway, and further north to the German B9 highway. Taken together, these three roads connect the Netherlands to Austria. Sélestat is also located at one of the seven crossings of the Vosges mountains, connecting Lorraine to Alsace and Germany. Sélestat train station was opened in 1840, which makes it one of the oldest in France. It lies on the Strasbourg–Basel railway, which also serves Colmar, Mulhouse and Saint-Louis. Sélestat is at the terminus of two local railways that are partly closed: Sélestat-Lesseux, now ending in Lièpvre, and Sélestat-Saverne, now ending in Molsheim. The former railway runs towards the west through the Vosges, while the latter runs towards the northwest. A third local line, Sélestat-Sundhouse, closed in 1953. Although one of the oldest in France, the Strasbourg-Basel railway allows high speed travel of (200 kilometres per hour (120 mph)) because it is very rectilinear and crosses a very flat landscape. Sélestat is served by all regional trains between Strasbourg and Basel (one train in each direction every hour on weekdays). Local trains also run between Sélestat and Molsheim, Sélestat and Strasbourg and Sélestat and Barr. Sélestat is served by a Paris-Colmar TGV every day in each direction, by Strasbourg-Nice and Strasbourg-Cerbère Intercités in the summer, and by EuroCity trains connecting Zurich to Brussels and Basel to Luxembourg City. SNCF and the Bas-Rhin council operate coach lines between Sélestat and Sainte-Marie-aux-Mines, Saint-Dié-des-Vosges, Ribeauvillé, Marckolsheim, Sundhouse and Villé. The council also arranges for seasonal connections with Haut-Kœnigsbourg castle and Europa Park. Sélestat and its communauté de communes have their own local bus network, the "Transport intercommunal de Sélestat" (TIS). It comprises two lines, one connecting Châtenois to Ebersheim, and the other Scherwiller to Muttersholtz. These two lines make several stops in Sélestat proper, which is at the centre of the network. Demography ---------- Historical population| | Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1793 | 6,907 | —     | | 1800 | 7,464 | +8.1% | | 1806 | 8,068 | +8.1% | | 1821 | 9,070 | +12.4% | | 1831 | 9,646 | +6.4% | | 1836 | 9,700 | +0.6% | | 1841 | 8,634 | −11.0% | | 1846 | 9,844 | +14.0% | | 1851 | 10,365 | +5.3% | | 1856 | 9,950 | −4.0% | | 1861 | 10,184 | +2.4% | | 1866 | 10,040 | −1.4% | | | Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1871 | 9,307 | −7.3% | | 1875 | 9,088 | −2.4% | | 1880 | 8,979 | −1.2% | | 1885 | 9,172 | +2.1% | | 1890 | 9,418 | +2.7% | | 1895 | 9,304 | −1.2% | | 1900 | 9,336 | +0.3% | | 1905 | 9,699 | +3.9% | | 1910 | 10,604 | +9.3% | | 1921 | 9,943 | −6.2% | | 1926 | 10,165 | +2.2% | | 1931 | 10,959 | +7.8% | | | Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1936 | 11,363 | +3.7% | | 1946 | 10,722 | −5.6% | | 1954 | 11,705 | +9.2% | | 1962 | 13,818 | +18.1% | | 1968 | 14,635 | +5.9% | | 1975 | 15,248 | +4.2% | | 1982 | 15,112 | −0.9% | | 1990 | 15,538 | +2.8% | | 1999 | 17,179 | +10.6% | | 2007 | 19,303 | +12.4% | | 2012 | 19,397 | +0.5% | | 2017 | 19,252 | −0.7% | | | | | Sources: *Base Cassini* from EHESS for figures until 1962, and INSEE for figures since 1968 | As of 2019[update], Sélestat had 19,242 inhabitants. It is the 8th most populated commune in Alsace, having reached its maximum population in 2006, with 19,459 inhabitants. The oldest preserved birth registries of the town's Catholic parish go back to the year 1608; the oldest vital records (*état civil*) go back to the year 1793. Sélestat was one of the largest towns in the region from the Middle Ages until the beginning of the 19th century. In 1801, it was still the third most populous in Alsace behind Strasbourg and Colmar. It then had 7,375 inhabitants, a slightly higher figure than for Mulhouse (7,197) and Haguenau (7,009). Through the 19th century, Sélestat did not take advantage of industrialisation and rural exodus because its city wall and military function prevented urban growth. It reached its overpopulation threshold around 1830, with around 10,000 inhabitants living on only 32 hectares (79 acres). Only after the Second World War did Sélestat experience significant demographic growth, almost doubling its population in 50 years. However, this growth was not strong enough for Sélestat to recover its previous rank. The demographic growth that occurred in Sélestat after 1945 was primarily due to a relatively high birth rate (20.1‰ in Sélestat over the period 1968–1975, compared to 16.9‰ in France). After 1975, this rate progressively declined to match the national figure. Net migration figures remained slightly negative until 1990 because Sélestat and Central Alsace were on the margins of the metropolitan areas of Strasbourg and Colmar and lacked attractivity. Since 1990, the Strasbourg area greatly expanded to gradually reach Sélestat. The town has thus become more attractive to newcomers. The population of Sélestat is relatively young, 36.2% of the population were under 30 in 2017 (France: 35.7%) and the percentage of people over 60 years old (23.6%) was lower than the national (25.5%) figure. Sélestat has a significant proportion of people between 15 and 44 (39.7%, compared to 36.4% for all of France) because it attracts a large number of young actives and couples starting a family. As other towns in the region, such as Saverne, Haguenau and Molsheim, it welcomes young adults and encourages them to settle in the surrounding villages. Economy ------- At the end of 2015, Sélestat had 2,142 businesses, most of them (1,441) in the tertiary sector. A large share were small businesses; only 9% had more than 10 employees. Sélestat is a retail and services centre for the whole Central Alsace, with a large shopping park and administrative and educational institutions. Industry is nonetheless represented by some large firms, such as the *Société alsacienne de meubles*, which builds kitchens and bathrooms under a Schmidt and Cuisinella franchise, Amcor (aluminium packaging), Daramic (battery separators), Albany (gauzes for the printing industry), Wanzl (warehouse material), and DHJ (textiles). Most of the large factories are in an industrial estate located south of the town centre. Created in the 1930s, it covers a site of 67 hectares (166 acres). The newer commercial estate north of the town was developed in the 1970s and is dedicated to retail and cottage industry. It covers 134 hectares (331 acres). The town centre is also an important shopping area with more than 200 businesses. Sights and culture ------------------ In terms of architecture the city is one of the richest and most varied among the smaller cities of Alsace. Although it is only the 8th most populous town in the region, it has the third largest cultural heritage after Strasbourg and Colmar. Sélestat has 35 listed buildings and 119 additional sites that are indexed in the French list of cultural heritage monuments. ### Museums The Humanist Library displays one of the oldest and most homogeneous collections of medieval manuscripts and Renaissance books in Europe. Its core is the still almost intact library of Beatus Rhenanus, which was bequeathed to the city and has been maintained by it ever since. The institution also holds the books that belonged to the Latin school of Sélestat, at which Rhenanus and many other reformers were educated around 1500. In 2011, the library has been inscribed in the Unesco's Memory of the World Register. The library is open to both researchers and tourists, with an exhibition displaying some of its most noteworthy items: an 8th-century lectionary, the first books printed in Alsace, a copy of the *Cosmographiae Introductio* where the oldest mention of America can be found, and a 1521 document which contains the oldest record of a Christmas tree. Sélestat also has a museum dedicated to bread and baking and it is the seat of the FRAC d'Alsace, a regional institution whose aim is to collect contemporary works of art (see below, Cultural institutions and events). These works are regularly part of temporary exhibits in Sélestat and other places in Alsace. FRAC possesses works by Aurélie Nemours, Olivier Debré, Mario Merz and Panamarenko, among other artists. ### Religious architecture Sélestat has two large and remarkable churches from the Middle Ages. St. Faith's Church is the oldest and a prime example of Romanesque architecture. Its design is related to similar buildings both in the Rhine region and in Lorraine. It was built during the second half of the 12th century to replace an earlier building. The church was renovated in the 19th century and a medieval death mask was found during this work. It is often attributed to Hildegard of Eguisheim, founder of the church, and is now displayed in a crypt. St. George's Church has always served as the main parish church. It is often referred to as "the cathedral" because of its size, but it has never been the seat of a diocese. Its construction started soon after 1200 and was completed at the beginning of the 15th century. Its design is pure Gothic, save for a Romanesque side portal. The choir, the last part to be completed, is the most remarkable element. It is illuminated by 288 stained glass panels, of which 55 date from the 15th century. Most of the convents of the town have disappeared; the Dominican convent is the only one to have retained much of its original appearance. It was built in the 13th century and still has its church and cloister. The Franciscan convent was completely destroyed, apart from the choir of its church, which now serves as a Protestant church. Sélestat also has an old granary that belonged to the Benedictine priory, and a 16th-century commandery built by the Knights Hospitaller. The synagogue was built in 1890. Its architecture is typical of the region, with a square shape and discreet neo-romanesque ornaments. Its cupola was destroyed in 1940 by the Nazis and never rebuilt. The Jewish cemetery, located outside the old town, was opened in 1622. It has several 18th century gravestones showing a Christian artistic influence. * The death mask in St. Faith's.The death mask in St. Faith's. * St. George's Church.St. George's Church. * Stained-glass windows in St. George's.Stained-glass windows in St. George's. * The Protestant church.The Protestant church. * The synagogue.The synagogue. ### Civil and military architecture The old town comprises a large number of medieval and Renaissance buildings. The *quai des Tanneurs* ("tanners' quay") is one of the most picturesque streets in Alsace. A stream used to flow in the middle of the street until the beginning of the 20th century, the relic of a former noxious-smelling trade, since tanning required large amounts of flowing water for treating and washing animal skins. Most of the old tanner houses date back to the Middle Ages and have a tall attic to provide a ventilated space for drying leather. In the neighbouring streets, *rue des Oies* ("geese street") and *rue des Veaux* ("calf street"), many houses were covered with a coat of plaster in the 19th century in order to hide the timbering, which was considered too rustic. Several hôtels particuliers (large townhouses) date from the Renaissance. Most of them have oriel windows that are characteristic of German Renaissance architecture. The grandest of these hôtels belonged to the Ebersmunster abbey and it has a large three-story granary. The Ziegler house has a beautiful oriel that shows the interest of the elite of that time in Antiquity. The oriel partly reflects Vitruvius's architectural legacy and displays the portraits of four key figures of Antiquity. Baroque architecture is visible on some later hôtels dating from the 17th and 18th century. French classical architecture and its main feature, the mansard roof, were largely employed in the 18th century. To reduce costs, buildings were still built with timber framing, but as this technique was considered too Germanic and rustic, they were often covered with a rendering imitating stone. The German period (1871–1918) left some examples of Wilhelminism in the city's architecture. This prestige-oriented style is a mixture of various earlier styles, including Romanesque, Gothic and neoclassical. Noteworthy are the post office (1884), the courthouse (1900), the lycée Koeberlé (1913) and the water tower (1906). The latter (height: 50 m (160 ft)) was largely inspired by the water tower in Deventer, Netherlands. The medieval city walls, built in several stages between the 13th and the 16th century, were torn down after the French annexation in the 17th century. However, four towers escaped destruction. The *Tour des Sorcières* ("witches' tower"), which served as a gate and a jail, is the tallest. The *Tour de l'Horloge* ("clock tower") was also originally part of a gate. The clock and the elaborate roof were added in 1614. Two much smaller towers can also be seen, one near the Ill river and another integrated into a later house. All these remains date from the 13th century. New walls were built by Tarade and Vauban in the 17th century. They were in their turn destroyed in 1874. Only small portions survive: two bastions and the *Porte de Strasbourg* ("Strasbourg gate"), a good example of French architecture under Louis XIV. Sélestat still has two old arsenals, Sainte-Barbe on the main square (1470) and Saint-Hilaire (1518). The first, with a large crenelated gable, is a fine example of Gothic architecture. * Rue Koeberlé.Rue Koeberlé. * Hôtel d'Ebersmunster.Hôtel d'Ebersmunster. * One of the many squares.One of the many squares. * The water tower.The water tower. * Tour des Sorcières.Tour des Sorcières. * Arsenal Ste Barbe.Arsenal Ste Barbe. ### Municipal archive The municipal archive (*archives municipales*) of Sélestat owns and exhibits numerous ancient documents, among which royal charters dating back to the 13th century and, most famously, the register dated from 1521 containing the first written mention of the Christmas tree. ### Illwald forest The Illwald forest was designated a regional nature reserve in 2013. It covers 1,855 hectares (4,584 acres), almost half of the territory of Sélestat, and is one of the largest riparian forests in France. It lies on the Ill, which forms a complex hydrographic network there. The site is subject to flooding and it is characteristic of the Grand Ried, a flat region located between the Ill and the Rhine that serves as a natural spillway for the two rivers. Common trees are oaks, willows and alders, which tolerate wet soils. Because the phreatic table is very close to the surface, soils hardly freeze in winter and drought rarely occurs in summer. The nature reserve also has meadows and reed beds. Common animals include a large variety of birds (storks, curlews, harriers), amphibians and mammals (beavers). The reserve is home to the largest fallow deer population in France. This animal was introduced to the area in 1854. The Illwald contains three chapels that were originally pilgrimage destinations. The Schnellenbuhl chapel was built by Jesuits in 1683; Our Lady of the Oaks dates back to the 15th century but it was rebuilt after a fire in 1920; Our Lady of Peace was built in 1960, and St. Anthony was founded in 1280 but rebuilt in 1930. ### Other cultural institutions and events Sélestat is the seat of the *Agence culturelle d'Alsace* ("cultural agency of Alsace", ACA) since 1976. Since 1982, Sélestat is the seat of the FRAC Alsace, the Alsace branch of the *Fonds régional d'art contemporain* ("Regional Contemporary art fund"), administered by the ACA. A biennale dedicated to contemporary art takes place every two year in autumn since 1984. It has welcomed artists like Daniel Buren, Ben Vautier, Sarkis Zabunyan and Agnès Varda. Since 2006, Sélestat is the seat of *Archéologie Alsace* (formerly known as the *Pôle interdépartemental d'archéologie rhénan*, the "Rhenish inter-départemental center for archaeology"), which conducts and documents archaeological field surveys and excavations in Alsace. Every year since 1927, Sélestat has organised a large flower procession through its old town. The "corso fleuri" is one of the biggest floral shows in eastern France. New floats are made each year around a theme and decorated with dahlias only. A carnaval procession is also held in March. It is the remnant of a very old tradition started by the town's butchers. Sélestat also has festivals dedicated to electronic music (Epidemic Experience), satirical cartoons (Sélest'ival), a spring fun fair, and a summer medieval reenactment with a market and a procession. The cultural complex *Les Tanzmatten*, built by Rudy Ricciotti, was inaugurated in 2000. It serves as the town's concert and performances hall, as well as for exhibitions, commercial fairs and weddings. Sports ------ Sélestat Alsace Handball is a noted French handball club. It was founded in 1967. FC Sélestat, the football club, was founded in 1906. Notable people -------------- ### Born in Sélestat * Martin Bucer, German Protestant reformer * Fabienne Keller, French politician * Jacques Paul Klein, French-American Diplomat and General * Eugène Koeberlé, French surgeon * Heinrich Kramer, German inquisitor * Johannes Mentelin, German printer * Beatus Rhenanus, German humanist * Charles Sitzenstuhl, French politician * Joseph Wackenthaler, French organist and composer * Nicolas-Joseph Wackenthaler, French organist and composer * Jakob Wimpfeling, German humanist ### Connected to Sélestat * Ludwig Dringenberg (died in Sélestat) * Frédéric Fiebig, painter (lived and died in Sélestat) * Thierry Omeyer (played professionally for Sélestat) * François Ignace Schaal (died in Sélestat) Twin towns - sister cities -------------------------- Sélestat is twinned with: * Belgium Charleroi, Belgium, since 1959 * Germany Waldkirch, Germany, since 1966 * Switzerland Grenchen, Switzerland, since 1988 * Austria Dornbirn, Austria, since 2006 See also -------- * Communes of the Bas-Rhin department * Humanist Library of Sélestat * Décapole ### Citations #### A 1. ↑ Dorlan 2002, p. XIV. 2. ↑ Dorlan 2002, p. 514. 3. ↑ Almira & Billoin 2000, p. 13 #### B 1. ↑ Almira & Billoin 2000, p. 23. 2. ↑ Almira & Billoin 2000, p. 63. 3. 1 2 Almira & Billoin 2000, p. 67. 4. 1 2 Almira & Billoin 2000, p. 69. 5. ↑ Almira & Billoin 2000, p. 91. 6. ↑ Almira & Billoin 2000, p. 81. 7. 1 2 Almira & Billoin 2000, p. 92. 8. 1 2 3 Almira & Billoin 2000, p. 100. 9. ↑ Almira & Billoin 2000, p. 84. 10. ↑ Almira & Billoin 2000, p. 112. 11. ↑ Almira & Billoin 2000, p. 93. 12. 1 2 Almira & Billoin 2000, p. 95. 13. ↑ Almira & Billoin 2000, p. 103. 14. ↑ Almira & Billoin 2000, p. 107. 15. ↑ Almira & Billoin 2000, p. 111. 16. ↑ Almira & Billoin 2000, p. 86. 17. ↑ Almira & Billoin 2000, p. 96. 18. 1 2 Almira & Billoin 2000, p. 99. 19. 1 2 Almira & Billoin 2000, p. 98. 20. ↑ Almira & Billoin 2000, p. 87. 21. ↑ Almira & Billoin 2000, p. 108. 22. ↑ Almira & Billoin 2000, p. 130. #### C 1. 1 2 3 4 5 Encyclopédie de l'Alsace 1985, p. 6846. 2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Encyclopédie de l'Alsace 1985, p. 6847. 3. 1 2 3 Encyclopédie de l'Alsace 1985, p. 6848. 4. 1 2 Encyclopédie de l'Alsace 1985, p. 6849. 5. 1 2 3 Encyclopédie de l'Alsace 1985, p. 6850. 6. 1 2 3 4 Encyclopédie de l'Alsace 1985, p. 6851. 7. 1 2 Encyclopédie de l'Alsace 1985, p. 6852. 8. ↑ Encyclopédie de l'Alsace 1985, p. 6828. 9. 1 2 3 Encyclopédie de l'Alsace 1985, p. 6829. 10. ↑ Encyclopédie de l'Alsace 1985, p. 6830. 11. ↑ Encyclopédie de l'Alsace 1985, p. 6839. 12. ↑ Encyclopédie de l'Alsace 1985, p. 6845. 13. ↑ Encyclopédie de l'Alsace 1985, p. 6843. #### D 1. ↑ Vogler 2009, p. 194. 2. ↑ Vogler 2009, p. 181. 3. ↑ Vogler 2009, p. 183. 4. ↑ Vogler 2009, p. 195. 5. ↑ Vogler 2009, p. 205. 6. ↑ Vogler 2009, p. 198. 7. ↑ Vogler 2009, p. 207. 8. ↑ Vogler 2009, p. 209. #### E 1. ↑ "La gestion du réseau hydrographique". Retrieved 28 April 2014.. 2. ↑ "L'activité économique". Retrieved 8 May 2014.. 3. 1 2 "Zones d'activités". Retrieved 13 May 2014.. 4. ↑ "Centre ville". Retrieved 8 May 2014.. 5. ↑ "Au rythme de l'eau". Retrieved 28 April 2014. 6. ↑ "La biennale de Sélestat : plus de 20 ans d'existence". Retrieved 9 May 2014.. 7. ↑ "Le Corso fleuri". Retrieved 9 May 2014.. 8. ↑ "Le Sélestadien" (PDF). Retrieved 10 May 2014..

Sélestat

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A9lestat

The **Struve Geodetic Arc** is a chain of survey triangulations stretching from Hammerfest in Norway to the Black Sea, through ten countries and over 2,820 kilometres (1,750 mi), which yielded the first accurate measurement of a meridian arc. The chain was established and used by the German-born Russian scientist Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve in the years 1816 to 1855 to establish the exact size and shape of the earth. At that time, the chain passed merely through three countries: Norway, Sweden and the Russian Empire. The Arc's first point is located in Tartu Observatory in Estonia, where Struve conducted much of his research. Measurement of the triangulation chain comprises 258 main triangles and 265 geodetic vertices. The northernmost point is located near Hammerfest in Norway and the southernmost point near the Black Sea in Ukraine. In 2005, the chain was inscribed on the World Heritage List, because of its importance in geodesy and its testimony to international scientific cooperation. The World Heritage site includes 34 commemorative plaques or built obelisks out of the original 265 main station points which are marked by drilled holes in rock, iron crosses, cairns, others. This inscription is located in ten countries, the second most of any UNESCO World Heritage after the Ancient and Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians and Other Regions of Europe. The measurements of the 30° Meridian Arc in 1816–1852 as well the description of the geodesic, topographical, and map making works in the Balkans from the nineteenth century until the beginning of the twentieth century by Russian Czarist Army was described in *Astronomy, geodesy and map- drawing in Moldova since the middle ages till the World War I*. Chain ----- ### Norway * Fuglenes in Hammerfest (70°40′12″N 23°39′48″E / 70.67000°N 23.66333°E / 70.67000; 23.66333) * Raipas in Alta (69°56′19″N 23°21′37″E / 69.93861°N 23.36028°E / 69.93861; 23.36028) * Luvdiidcohkka in Kautokeino (69°39′52″N 23°36′08″E / 69.66444°N 23.60222°E / 69.66444; 23.60222) * Baelljasvarri in Kautokeino (69°01′43″N 23°18′19″E / 69.02861°N 23.30528°E / 69.02861; 23.30528) ### Sweden * "Pajtas-vaara" (Tynnyrilaki) in Kiruna (68°15′18″N 22°58′59″E / 68.25500°N 22.98306°E / 68.25500; 22.98306) * "Kerrojupukka" (Jupukka) in Pajala (67°16′36″N 23°14′35″E / 67.27667°N 23.24306°E / 67.27667; 23.24306) * Pullinki in Övertorneå (66°38′47″N 23°46′55″E / 66.64639°N 23.78194°E / 66.64639; 23.78194) * "Perra-vaara" (Perävaara) in Haparanda (66°1′5″N 23°55′21″E / 66.01806°N 23.92250°E / 66.01806; 23.92250) ### Finland * Stuor-Oivi (currently Stuorrahanoaivi) in Enontekiö (68°40′57″N 22°44′45″E / 68.68250°N 22.74583°E / 68.68250; 22.74583) * Avasaksa (currently Aavasaksa) in Ylitornio (66°23′52″N 23°43′31″E / 66.39778°N 23.72528°E / 66.39778; 23.72528) * Torneå (currently Alatornio Church [fi]) in Tornio (65°49′48″N 24°09′26″E / 65.83000°N 24.15722°E / 65.83000; 24.15722) * Puolakka (currently Oravivuori) in Korpilahti (61°55′36″N 25°32′01″E / 61.92667°N 25.53361°E / 61.92667; 25.53361) * Porlom II (currently Tornikallio) in Lapinjärvi (60°42′17″N 26°00′12″E / 60.70472°N 26.00333°E / 60.70472; 26.00333) * Svartvira (currently Mustaviiri) in Pyhtää (60°16′35″N 26°36′12″E / 60.27639°N 26.60333°E / 60.27639; 26.60333) ### Russia * "Mäki-päälys" (Mäkipäällys) (Finland 1917/1920-1940) in Gogland (Suursaari)(60°4′27″N 26°58′11″E / 60.07417°N 26.96972°E / 60.07417; 26.96972) * "Hogland, Z" (Gogland, Tochka Z) in Gogland (60°5′9.8″N 26°57′37.5″E / 60.086056°N 26.960417°E / 60.086056; 26.960417) ### Estonia * "Woibifer" (Võivere) in Väike-Maarja Parish (59°03′28″N 26°20′16″E / 59.05778°N 26.33778°E / 59.05778; 26.33778) * "Katko" (Simuna) in Väike-Maarja Parish (59°02′54″N 26°24′51″E / 59.04833°N 26.41417°E / 59.04833; 26.41417) * "Dorpat" (Tartu Old Observatory) in Tartu. (58°22′43.64″N 26°43′12.61″E / 58.3787889°N 26.7201694°E / 58.3787889; 26.7201694) ### Latvia * "Sestu-Kalns" (Ziestu) in Ērgļu novads (56°50′24″N 25°38′12″E / 56.84000°N 25.63667°E / 56.84000; 25.63667) * "Jacobstadt" in Jēkabpils (56°30′05″N 25°51′24″E / 56.50139°N 25.85667°E / 56.50139; 25.85667) ### Lithuania * "Karischki" (Gireišiai) in Panemunėlis (55°54′09″N 25°26′12″E / 55.90250°N 25.43667°E / 55.90250; 25.43667) * "Meschkanzi" (Meškonys) in Nemenčinė (54°55′51″N 25°19′00″E / 54.93083°N 25.31667°E / 54.93083; 25.31667) * "Beresnäki" (Paliepiukai) in Nemėžis (54°38′04″N 25°25′45″E / 54.63444°N 25.42917°E / 54.63444; 25.42917) ### Belarus * "Tupischki" (Tupishki) in Ashmyany district (54°17′30″N 26°2′43″E / 54.29167°N 26.04528°E / 54.29167; 26.04528) * "Lopati" (Lopaty) in Zelva district (53°33′38″N 24°52′11″E / 53.56056°N 24.86972°E / 53.56056; 24.86972) * "Ossownitza" (Ossovnitsa) in Ivanovo district (52°17′22″N 25°38′58″E / 52.28944°N 25.64944°E / 52.28944; 25.64944) * "Tchekutsk" (Chekutsk) in Ivanovo district (52°12′28″N 25°33′23″E / 52.20778°N 25.55639°E / 52.20778; 25.55639) * "Leskowitschi" (Leskovichi) in Ivanovo district (52°9′39″N 25°34′17″E / 52.16083°N 25.57139°E / 52.16083; 25.57139) ### Moldova * "Rudi" near Rudi village, Soroca district (48°19′08″N 27°52′36″E / 48.31889°N 27.87667°E / 48.31889; 27.87667) ### Ukraine * Katerynivka in Antonivka, Khmelnytsky Oblast (49°33′57″N 26°45′22″E / 49.56583°N 26.75611°E / 49.56583; 26.75611) * Felshtyn in Hvardiiske, Khmelnytsky Oblast (49°19′48″N 26°40′55″E / 49.33000°N 26.68194°E / 49.33000; 26.68194) * Baranivka in Baranivka, Khmelnytsky Oblast (49°08′55″N 26°59′30″E / 49.14861°N 26.99167°E / 49.14861; 26.99167) * Staro-Nekrasivka (Stara Nekrasivka) in Nekrasivka, Odesa Oblast (45°19′57.5″N 28°55′40″E / 45.332639°N 28.92778°E / 45.332639; 28.92778) Results ------- ### Historical At publication in 1858, the flattening of the earth was estimated at one part in 294.26. The earth's equatorial radius was estimated at 6,378,360.7 meters (20,926,380 ft). In 2005, the work was repeated using satellite navigation. The new flattening estimate was one part in 298.257 222 101 and the equatorial radius was 6,378,136.8 metres (20,925,646 ft). An earlier survey, in 1740, had given flattening at one part in 178 and an equatorial radius of 6,396,800 metres (20,986,900 ft). ### Modern Northernmost point: Hammerfest (Fuglenes): 70° 40' 11.23″ N Southernmost point: Ismail (Staro-Nekrassowka): 45° 20' 02.94″ N Difference in Geodetic Latitude: 25° 20' 08.29″ Distance in kilometres: 2,821.853 ± 0.012 See also -------- * Paris meridian

Struve Geodetic Arc

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Struve_Geodetic_Arc

The **United States men's national soccer team** (**USMNT**) represents the United States in men's international soccer competitions. The team is controlled by the United States Soccer Federation and is a member of FIFA and CONCACAF. The U.S. team has appeared in eleven FIFA World Cups, including the first in 1930, where they reached the semi-finals to finish third, the best result ever by a team from outside UEFA and CONMEBOL. They returned in 1934 and 1950, defeating England 1–0 in the latter, but did not qualify again until 1990. As host in 1994, the U.S. received an automatic berth and lost to Brazil in the round of sixteen. They qualified for the next five World Cups (seven consecutive appearances (1990–2014), a feat shared with only seven other nations), becoming one of the tournament's regular competitors and often advancing to the knockout stage. The U.S. reached the quarter-finals in 2002, and controversially lost to Germany. In the 2009 Confederations Cup, the Americans eliminated top-ranked Spain in the semi-finals before losing to Brazil in the final, the team's only appearance in the final of a major intercontinental tournament. The U.S. also competes in continental tournaments, including the CONCACAF Gold Cup, CONCACAF Nations League, and Copa América. The U.S. won seven Gold Cups, two Nations League titles, and finished fourth in two Copa Américas in 1995 and 2016. The team's head coach is Gregg Berhalter, who was re-appointed in June 2023. B. J. Callaghan has led the team on an interim basis since May 2023 and will continue to do so until the conclusion of the 2023 CONCACAF Gold Cup. History ------- ### Early years The first U.S. national soccer team was constituted in 1885, when it played Canada in the first international match held outside the United Kingdom. Canada defeated the U.S. 1–0 in Newark, New Jersey. The U.S. had its revenge the following year when it beat Canada 1–0, also in Newark, although neither match was officially recognized. The U.S. earned both silver and bronze medals in men's soccer at the 1904 St. Louis Summer Olympics through Christian Brothers College and St. Rose Parish, though the tournament is declared official only by the IOC (FIFA doesn't endorse tournaments held before 1908). The U.S. played its first official international match under the auspices of U.S. Soccer on August 20, 1916, against Sweden in Stockholm, where the U.S. won 3–2. The U.S. fielded a team in the 1930 World Cup in Uruguay, the first ever World Cup to be played. The U.S. began group play by beating Belgium 3–0. The U.S. then earned a 3–0 victory over Paraguay, with FIFA crediting Bert Patenaude with two of the goals. In November 2006, FIFA announced that it had accepted evidence that Patenaude scored all three goals against Paraguay, and was thus the first person to score a hat trick in a World Cup. In the semifinals, the U.S. lost to Argentina 6–1. There was no third place game. However, using the overall tournament records in 1986, FIFA credited the U.S. with a third-place finish ahead of fellow semifinalist Yugoslavia. This remains the U.S. team's best World Cup result, and is the highest finish of any team from outside of South America and Europe. The U.S. qualified for the 1934 World Cup by defeating Mexico 4–2 in Italy a few days before the finals started. In a straight knock-out format, the team first played host Italy and lost 7–1, eliminating the U.S. from the tournament. At the 1936 Olympic Games in Berlin, the U.S. again lost to Italy in the first round and were eliminated, although this time with a score of 1–0. Italy went on to win both tournaments, being a dominant team of that era. The 1950 World Cup in Brazil was the next World Cup appearance for the U.S., as it withdrew in 1938 and the tournament wasn't held again until 1950. The U.S. lost its first match 3–1 against Spain, but then won 1–0 against England at Independência Stadium in Belo Horizonte. Striker Joe Gaetjens was the goal scorer. Called "The Miracle on Grass", the result is considered one of the greatest upsets in the history of the World Cup. In their third game of the tournament, a 5–2 defeat by Chile saw the U.S. eliminated from the tournament. The U.S. would not make another appearance in the World Cup finals for four decades. ### 1960s–1980s The national team spent the mid-to-late 20th century in near complete irrelevance in both the international game and the domestic sporting scene. There was only one World Cup berth for CONCACAF during this period until 1982. The emergence of the North American Soccer League in the 1960s and 1970s raised hopes that the U.S. national team would soon improve and become a global force. However such hopes were not realized and by the 1980s the U.S. Soccer Federation found itself in serious financial struggles, with the national team playing only two matches from 1981 to 1983. U.S. Soccer targeted the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles and the 1986 World Cup as means of rebuilding the national team and its fan base. The International Olympic Committee declared that teams from outside Europe and South America could field full senior teams, including professionals (until then, the amateur-only rule had heavily favored socialist countries from Eastern Europe whose players were professionals in all but name). The U.S. had a very strong showing at the tournament, beating Costa Rica, tying Egypt, losing only to favorite Italy and finishing 1–1–1 but didn't make the second round, losing to Egypt on a tiebreaker (both had three points). To provide a more stable national team program and renew interest in the NASL, U.S. Soccer entered the national team into the NASL league schedule for the 1983 season as Team America. This team lacked the continuity and regularity of training that conventional clubs enjoy, and many players were unwilling to play for the national team instead of their own clubs when conflicts arose. Team America finished the season at the bottom of the league, with U.S. Soccer canceling the experiment and withdrawing the national team from the NASL after one season. By the end of 1984, the NASL had folded, leaving the U.S. without a single professional-level outdoor soccer league. The U.S. bid to host the 1986 FIFA World Cup after Colombia withdrew from contention due to economic concerns, but FIFA selected Mexico to host the tournament. In the last game of CONCACAF qualifying for the 1986 World Cup, the U.S. needed only a tie against Costa Rica to reach the final qualification group against Honduras and Canada. U.S. Soccer scheduled the game to be played in Torrance, California, an area with many Costa Rican expatriates, and marketed the game almost exclusively to the Costa Rican community. Costa Rica won the match 1–0, and kept the U.S. from reaching its fourth World Cup finals. In 1988, U.S. Soccer attempted to re-implement its national-team-as-club concept, offering contracts to players to train with the national program full-time while occasionally loaning them to club teams as a revenue source for the federation. This brought many key veterans back into the program and allowed the team to begin playing more matches which, combined with an influx of talent from new youth clubs and leagues established across the nation in the wake of the NASL's popularity, allowed the national team to end the 1980s with optimism and higher hopes of qualifying for the 1990 World Cup than had existed for previous tournaments. ### 1990s On July 4, 1988, FIFA named the U.S. as the host of the 1994 World Cup under significant international criticism given the perceived weakness of the national team and the lack of a professional outdoor league. The success of the 1984 Summer Olympics played the major role in FIFA's decision. Criticism diminished somewhat when a 1–0 win against Trinidad and Tobago, the first road win for the U.S. in nearly two years, in the last match of the 1989 CONCACAF Championship, earned the U.S. its first World Cup appearance in 40 years, although their journey was significantly eased by the disqualification of CONCACAF powerhouse Mexico. The team was coached by Bob Gansler, Wisconsin-Milwaukee and U20 national team coach, in preparation for the 1990 World Cup in Italy, with two of the team's more experienced players, Rick Davis and Hugo Perez, recovering from serious injuries and unavailable for selection. Rather than fill out his team with veteran professionals from U.S. indoor soccer leagues, Gansler and his assistant Stejem Mark chose to select many younger players with better conditioning for the outdoor game, including several collegiate players such as Virginia goalkeeper Tony Meola. The U.S. entered the tournament as massive underdogs and suffered defeats in all three of its group games to Czechoslovakia, Italy, and Austria. Defenders Jimmy Banks and Desmond Armstrong became the first African Americans to appear in a World Cup match for the United States. In a noteworthy match, in 1993 U.S. Cup, the U.S. beat England by 2–0. Two victories of the U.S. team at the 1995 Copa América, vs. Chile (left), and the historic 3–0 over Argentina (right) After qualifying automatically as the host of the 1994 World Cup under Bora Milutinović, the U.S. opened its tournament schedule with a 1–1 tie against Switzerland in the Pontiac Silverdome in the suburbs of Detroit, the first World Cup game played indoors. In its second game, the U.S. faced Colombia, then ranked fourth in the world, at the Rose Bowl. Aided by an own goal from Andrés Escobar, the U.S. won 2–1. Escobar was later murdered in his home country, possibly in retaliation for this mistake. Despite a 1–0 loss to Romania in its final group game, the U.S. made it past the initial round for the first time since 1930. In the round of 16, the U.S. lost 1–0 to the eventual champion Brazil. Despite this success, the team fired Bora in 1995, reportedly because he was not interested in administrative duties. In a 1995 friendly, the U.S. came back from 3–0 to win 4–3 against Saudi Arabia, the biggest comeback in the team's history. That same year, the team participated as guest team in the 1995 Copa América, where they finished 1st on its group after beating Chile and Argentina, advancing to quarter finals. On that stage, the U.S. defeated Mexico on penalties but lost to Brazil 1–0 in semifinals. United States finished 4th. after losing to Colombia 4–1. In the 1998 World Cup in France, the team lost all three group matches, 2–0 to Germany, 2–1 to Iran, and 1–0 to Yugoslavia, finishing dead last in the field of 32. Head coach Steve Sampson received much of the blame for the performance as a result of abruptly cutting team captain John Harkes, whom Sampson had named "Captain for Life" shortly before, as well as several other players who were instrumental to the qualifying effort, from the squad. Thomas Dooley became the Captain at that point. It emerged in February 2010 that Sampson removed Harkes from the team due to Harkes allegedly having an affair with teammate Eric Wynalda's wife. ### Early 21st century (2000–2019) The U.S. qualified for the 2002 World Cup; under Bruce Arena, the U.S. reached the quarterfinals, its best finish in a World Cup since 1930. The team advanced in the group stage with a 1W–1L–1D record, beginning with a 3–2 upset win over Portugal, followed by a 1–1 tie with co-host and eventual semifinalist, South Korea. The third and final match was a 3–1 loss to Poland; the team still got to the round of 16 when South Korea defeated Portugal. This set the stage for a face-off with continental rivals Mexico, the first time they met in a World Cup. The U.S. won the game 2–0. Brian McBride opened the scoring early, and Landon Donovan doubled the lead in the 65th minute. In the quarterfinals, where it met Germany, the U.S. lost 1–0 after being denied a penalty when Torsten Frings handled the ball to prevent a Gregg Berhalter goal. All of the U.S. games in the 2002 World Cup were played in South Korea and all their victories came wearing the white uniform, while their only defeats came while wearing the blue uniform. Donovan won the Best Young Player for the tournament. In the 2006 World Cup, after finishing top of the CONCACAF qualification tournament, the U.S. was drawn into Group E along with the Czech Republic, Italy, and Ghana. The United States opened its tournament with a 3–0 loss to the Czech Republic. The team then tied 1–1 against Italy, who went on to win the World Cup. The U.S. was then knocked out of the tournament when beaten 2–1 by Ghana in its final group match, with Clint Dempsey scoring the U.S.'s only goal in the tournament – the goal against Italy had been an own goal by Italian defender Cristian Zaccardo. Following the tournament, Arena's contract was not renewed. After the national team remained dormant for the rest of 2006 while negotiating with various coaches, the federation hired former Chicago Fire, MetroStars and Chivas USA head coach Bob Bradley in early 2007. Bradley began his competitive career with the national team with the 2007 Gold Cup. In the final, the United States beat Mexico 2–1, which qualified it for the 2009 Confederations Cup. The U.S. had a notable performance at the 2009 Confederations Cup. In the semifinals, the U.S. defeated Spain 2–0. At the time, Spain was atop the FIFA World Rankings and was on a run of 35 games undefeated. With the win, the United States advanced to its first-ever final in a men's FIFA tournament. The team lost 3–2 to Brazil after leading 2–0 at half time. The United States then hosted the 2009 Gold Cup. In the final, the United States was beaten by Mexico 5–0. This defeat broke the U.S. team's 58-match home unbeaten streak against CONCACAF opponents, and was the first home loss to Mexico since 1999. In the fourth round of the 2010 World Cup qualification, the U.S. began by beating Mexico 2–0. The February 2009 loss extended Mexico's losing streak against America on U.S. soil to 11 matches. Jozy Altidore became the youngest U.S. player to score a hat-trick, in a 3–0 victory over Trinidad and Tobago. Near the end of the summer of 2009, the United States lost 2–1 to Mexico at Estadio Azteca. On October 10, the U.S. secured qualification to the 2010 World Cup with a 3–2 win over Honduras. Four days later, the U.S. finished in first place in the group with a 2–2 tie against Costa Rica. In the 2010 FIFA World Cup, the U.S. team was drawn in Group C against England, Slovenia and Algeria. After drawing against England (1–1) and Slovenia (2–2), the U.S. defeated Algeria 1–0 with a stoppage-time goal from Landon Donovan, taking first place in a World Cup Finals group for the first time since 1930. In the round of 16, the U.S. was eliminated by Ghana, 2–1. On FIFA's ranking of World Cup teams the U.S. finished in 12th place out of the 32-team field. The U.S. again hosted the Gold Cup in 2011. The U.S. advanced past the group stage, then defeated Jamaica 2–0 in the quarterfinals and Panama 1–0 in the semifinals before losing to Mexico 4–2 in the final. Later in the summer, Bob Bradley was relieved of his duties and former German national team manager Jürgen Klinsmann was hired as head coach. The U.S. had some success in friendlies in 2012 and 2013. The U.S. team won 1–0 in Italy on February 29, 2012, the team's first-ever win over Italy. On June 2, 2013, the U.S. played a friendly against Germany at a sold-out RFK Stadium in Washington D.C., with the U.S. winning 4–3. In July 2013, the U.S. hosted the 2013 CONCACAF Gold Cup where it went undefeated in the group stage and won with a 1–0 victory over Panama in the final, with Landon Donovan winning the tournament's golden ball award. A 4–3 victory over Bosnia and Herzegovina in an international friendly match in Sarajevo represented the 12th straight win for the USMNT, the longest winning streak for any team in the world at that time. The 12 game winning streak ended September 6, 2013, when the U.S. lost to Costa Rica 3–1 in San José. In 2013 the national team played the final round of qualification, and by defeating Mexico in September, the U.S. clinched a spot in the 2014 World Cup. The U.S. absorbed many German elements leading up to the 2014 World Cup. U.S.'s German head coach Jürgen Klinsmann surprised the U.S. soccer world by calling up five "Jürgen Americans"—half-blooded Germans born and professionally trained in Germany—to the 23-men squad in the 2014 FIFA World Cup. The U.S. was drawn into Group G, along with Ghana, Germany, and Portugal. The U.S. took revenge on the Ghanaians, winning 2–1. They tied their second group game against Portugal 2–2. In the final game of the group stage, the U.S. fell to Germany 1–0, but moved on to the knockout stage on goal difference. This was the first time that the team made two consecutive trips to the knockout stage of the FIFA World Cup. In the round of 16, the U.S. lost 2–1 to Belgium in extra time, despite goalkeeper Tim Howard making a World Cup record 15 saves during the match. The national team's next tournament under Klinsmann was the 2015 CONCACAF Gold Cup. The U.S. were eliminated by Jamaica 2–1 in the semifinals, before losing to Panama on penalties in the third place match. The fourth-place finish was the worst Gold Cup performance by the national team since 2000, and the first time the team failed to make the tournament final since 2003. In the 2015 CONCACAF Cup playoff to determine the region's entry to the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup, the U.S. were defeated 3–2 by Mexico at the Rose Bowl. In June 2016, the U.S. played as hosts of Copa América Centenario. The U.S. topped Group A on goal difference against Colombia. The U.S. beat Ecuador 2–1 in the quarterfinals, but then fell to Argentina 4–0 and lost to Colombia again 1–0 in the third place match. They finished fourth at the Copa América, tying their best finish ever in 1995. Following consecutive losses to Mexico and Costa Rica in the opening games of the final round of qualification for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, Klinsmann was removed as national team coach and technical director and replaced by previous U.S. head coach Bruce Arena. World Cup qualification resumed on March 24, 2017, where Arena and his team had a record 6–0 win over Honduras. Four days later, the team traveled to Panama City, drawing Panama 1–1. After beating Trinidad and Tobago 2–0, the U.S. got their third ever result in World Cup Qualification at the Estadio Azteca when they drew 1–1 against Mexico. In July 2017, the U.S. won their sixth CONCACAF Gold Cup with a 2–1 win over Jamaica in the final. Following a 2–1 defeat to Trinidad and Tobago on October 10, 2017, the U.S. failed to qualify for the 2018 World Cup, missing the tournament for the first time since 1986. Many pundits and analysts called this the worst result and worst performance in the history of the national team. Following Arena's resignation on October 13, 2017, assistant coach Dave Sarachan was named interim head coach during the search for a permanent replacement. The search for a permanent head coach was delayed by the USSF presidential election in February 2018 and the hiring of Earnie Stewart as general manager in June 2018. Gregg Berhalter, coach of the Columbus Crew and a former USMNT defender, was announced as the team's new head coach on December 2, 2018. ### Current USMNT (2019–present) Under Berhalter the team lost in the 2019 Gold Cup Final 1–0 against Mexico, denying them a chance at becoming back to back champions. Throughout the coronavirus pandemic, an influx of new young talent began to grow into a host of players playing for top European clubs, with Christian Pulisic, Weston McKennie, Folarin Balogun, Tyler Adams, Yunus Musah, Brendan Aaronson, Sergiño Dest, and Gio Reyna being some of the more notable names. This new group won the inaugural CONCACAF Nations League in 2021 with a classic 3–2 victory against Mexico in the final. An entirely different team also won the Gold Cup against Mexico later that summer. With a 1–0 friendly victory over Bosnia and Herzegovina on December 18, 2021, the team set a program record for wins in a calendar year, with 17 wins, 2 losses, and 3 draws. The young group has been widely described as America's golden generation. The United States qualified for the 2022 World Cup by finishing third in the final qualifying round. The qualifying campaign included an unbeaten record at home and a draw away to Mexico at Estadio Azteca. Grouped with England, Iran, and Wales in Group B, the team advanced to the knockout stage as runners-up with five points and without losing a game. There, they faced the Netherlands, suffering a 3–1 defeat. Midfielder Kellyn Acosta became the first Asian American to appear for the U.S. at a World Cup. In 2023 the United States successfully defended their Nations League trophy by winning the 2022–23 CONCACAF Nations League. The team conceded no goals in the finals, winning 3–0 against Mexico and 2–0 against Canada in the final. Team image ---------- ### Uniform and crest Since their first unofficial game against Canada, the most common U.S. uniform has been white tops with blue shorts. In 1950, the U.S. adopted a Peru-styled diagonal stripe or "sash" across the shirt. The stripe has been on third uniforms for 2003, 2004, and 2006, as well as the 2010 home, road and third uniforms. An additional color scheme based on the U.S. flag has been occasionally used (most prominently in the 1994 World Cup and 2012–13 qualifiers as well the 1983 Team America franchise of the North American Soccer League) comprising a shirt with red and white stripes with blue shorts. German brand Adidas provided the uniform for the United States from 1984 until 1994. Since 1995, American company Nike has been the uniform supplier. #### Uniform suppliers | Kit supplier | Period | Contractannouncement | Contractduration | Value | Notes | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Adidas | 1984–1994 | Unknown | 1984–1994 | Unknown | | | Nike | 1995–present | Unknown | 1995–2021 | Disclosed | | | 10 November 2021 | 2022–2031 | Disclosed | Value of the deal have not been disclosed,but the USSF described itas the largest commercial agreementin U.S. Soccer history and one of Nike'slargest soccer federation investments globally | ### Rivalries #### Mexico The teams of Mexico and the United States are widely considered as the two major powers of CONCACAF. Matches between the two nations often attract much media attention, public interest and comment in both countries. Although the first match was played in 1934, their rivalry was not considered major until the 1980s, when the teams began to frequently compete in CONCACAF cups. On August 15, 2012, the United States defeated Mexico at Estadio Azteca in the first victory for the U.S. against Mexico on Mexican soil in 75 years. Ever since their first meeting in 1934, the two teams have met 74 times, with Mexico leading the overall series 36–22–16 (W–L–T), outscoring the U.S. 144–86. However, since the 1990s, the tide began to change due to a rapid growth of soccer in the United States. During the 21st century, the series has favored the U.S. 17–9–7 (W–L–T). Either the United States or Mexico has won every edition of the CONCACAF Gold Cup except one (the 2000 CONCACAF Gold Cup was won by Canada). #### Canada The U.S. has a second, less bitter rival in Canada. This stems from a generally friendly rivalry between the two nations. The two teams frequently face each other in the Gold Cup, however the United States has historically been the stronger side. The US currently leads the series 18-11-11 (W-T-L). The United States has qualified for 11 World Cups while Canada has qualified for two. Until recently, Canada was not seen as a competitive rival by a number of American fans as they had not beaten the United States in a 34-year stretch. That streak was snapped on October 15, 2019, when Canada defeated the United States 2–0 at BMO Field in Toronto. The following month, on November 15, the United States beat Canada 4–1 in Orlando. Since then, matches between the two have been very competitive. The U.S. defeated Canada 1–0 in a 2021 Gold Cup matchup in Kansas City. In 2022 World Cup qualifying, Canada earned a 1–1 draw in Nashville and defeated the U.S. 2–0 in Hamilton. On June 18, 2023, the United States defeated Canada 2–0 in the 2022–23 CONCACAF Nations League final, the first time the two nations faced each other in the finals of a major CONCACAF tournament. #### Costa Rica In recent years the United States has also begun to develop a rivalry with Costa Rica. The most notable match, and the impetus of the rivalry itself, occurred on Friday, March 22, 2013, in a 2014 World Cup qualifying match played at Dick's Sporting Goods Park in Commerce City under blizzard conditions. Costa Rica filed a protest with FIFA due to field conditions when the United States won the game 1–0, but the protest was denied. The game has already been dubbed in soccer lore as "Snow Clasico" for the conditions. The United States have never defeated Costa Rica in Costa Rica, losing 10 meetings and drawing twice. ### Supporters There have been two main supporter groups backing the United States men's national soccer team, Sam's Army and The American Outlaws. Sam's Army started shortly after the 1994 World Cup in the United States and were active through 2014. Sam's Army members wore red to matches and sung or chanted throughout the match. They often brought huge U.S. flags and other banners to the game. The American Outlaws was started in Lincoln, Nebraska in 2007 as a local supporters' group. The group's membership attempted to address a lack of consistency from game to game in supporter organization and social events on match days. To achieve this goal, the American Outlaws became a nationwide, non-profit supporters' group. Some American Outlaws members wear U.S. flag bandanas over their faces and commonly wear soccer supporter scarves. Some branches of the American Outlaws have their own scarves specific to their branch. The U.S. men's national team has had a tremendous following on social media, especially Twitter and Instagram in recent years. Interest in young American players and the attention they bring has led to an increase in foreign investment in U.S. players. ### Home stadium The United States does not have a dedicated national stadium like most other national teams; instead, the team has played their home matches at 116 venues in 29 states and the District of Columbia. Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium, located in the national capital of Washington, D.C., has hosted 24 matches, the most of any stadium. The state of California has hosted 114 matches, the most of any state, and the Los Angeles metropolitan area has hosted 77 matches at several venues in and around the city of Los Angeles. The Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum hosted 20 matches from 1965 to 2000, but fell out of use due to its age. The Rose Bowl, a 92,000-seat venue in Pasadena, has hosted 17 national team matches, as well as the 1994 FIFA World Cup Final, the 1999 FIFA Women's World Cup Final, and the 1984 Olympics Gold Medal Match. ### Media coverage Warner Bros. Discovery Sports has the English language rights for U.S. Soccer broadcasts from 2022 to 2030. All matches are streaming live on HBO Max with matches also on TNT and TBS. In June 2021, CBS Sports acquired partial rights to select U.S. Soccer matches, including FIFA World Cup qualifiers and the Nations League Finals, to be broadcast mainly on CBS Sports Network and the Paramount+ streaming service, with some matches being broadcast nationwide on CBS. Univision Deportes has the Spanish language rights to all U.S. Soccer broadcasts from 2015 to 2022. These agreements do not apply to FIFA World Cup away qualifiers, whose rights are distributed by the host country. Therefore, these matches can often be found on other networks such as beIN Sports and Telemundo. Starting in 2023, Telemundo acquired the Spanish-language rights to U.S. Soccer broadcasts. Results and fixtures -------------------- The following is a list of match results in the last 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.   Win   Draw   Loss   Fixture ### 2022 Japan  v  United States | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | September 23 Friendly | **Japan** | **2–0** | **United States** | Düsseldorf, Germany | | 08:25 ET | * Kamada 24' * Mitoma 88' | Report | | Stadium: Merkur Spiel-ArenaAttendance: 5,149Referee: Felix Zwayer (Germany) | Saudi Arabia  v  United States | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | September 27 Friendly | **Saudi Arabia** | **0–0** | **United States** | Murcia, Spain | | 14:00 ET | | Report | | Stadium: Estadio Nueva CondominaAttendance: 364Referee: Ivan Bebek (Croatia) | United States  v  Wales | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | November 21 World Cup GS | **United States** | **1–1** | **Wales** | Al Rayyan, Qatar | | 14:00 ET | * Weah 36' | Report | * Bale 82' (pen.) | Stadium: Ahmad bin Ali StadiumAttendance: 43,418Referee: Abdulrahman Al-Jassim (Qatar) | England  v  United States | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | November 25 World Cup GS | **England** | **0–0** | **United States** | Al Khor, Qatar | | 14:00 ET | | Report | | Stadium: Al Bayt StadiumAttendance: 68,463Referee: Jesús Valenzuela (Venezuela) | Iran  v  United States | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | November 29 World Cup GS | **Iran** | **0–1** | **United States** | Doha, Qatar | | 14:00 ET | | Report | * Pulisic 38' | Stadium: Al Thumama StadiumAttendance: 42,127Referee: Antonio Mateu Lahoz (Spain) | Netherlands  v  United States | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | December 3 World Cup R16 | **Netherlands** | **3–1** | **United States** | Al Rayyan, Qatar | | 10:00 ET | * Depay 10' * Blind 45+1' * Dumfries 81' | Report | * Wright 76' | Stadium: Khalifa International StadiumAttendance: 44,846Referee: Wilton Sampaio (Brazil) | ### 2023 United States  v  Serbia | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | January 25 Friendly | **United States** | **1–2** | **Serbia** | Los Angeles, California | | 22:00 ET | * Vazquez 29' | Report | * Ilić 43' * Simić 46' | Stadium: BMO StadiumAttendance: 11,475Referee: Daneon Parchment (Jamaica) | United States  v  Colombia | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | January 28 Friendly | **United States** | **0–0** | **Colombia** | Carson, California | | 19:30 ET | | Report | | Stadium: Dignity Health Sports ParkAttendance: 27,000Referee: Saíd Martínez (Honduras) | Grenada  v  United States | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | March 24 Nations League GS | **Grenada** | **1–7** | **United States** | St. George's, Grenada | | 20:00 ET | * Hippolyte 32' | Report | * Pepi 4', 53' * Aaronson 20' * McKennie 31', 34' * Pulisic 49' * Zendejas 72' | Stadium: Kirani James Athletic StadiumAttendance: 7,032Referee: Daneon Parchment (Jamaica) | United States  v  El Salvador | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | March 27 Nations League GS | **United States** | **1–0** | **El Salvador** | Orlando, Florida | | 19:30 ET | * Pepi 62' | Report | | Stadium: Exploria StadiumAttendance: 18,947Referee: Mario Escobar (Guatemala) | United States  v  Mexico | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | April 19 Continental Clásico | **United States** | **1–1** | **Mexico** | Glendale, Arizona | | 22:22 ET | * Ferreira 81' | Report | * Antuna 55' | Stadium: State Farm StadiumAttendance: 55,730Referee: Bryan Lopez (Guatemala) | United States  v  Mexico | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | June 15 Nations League SF | **United States** | **3–0** | **Mexico** | Paradise, Nevada | | 19:00 PT | * Pulisic 37', 46' * Pepi 78' | Report | | Stadium: Allegiant StadiumAttendance: 65,000Referee: Iván Barton (El Salvador) | Canada  v  United States | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | June 18 Nations League F | **Canada** | **0–2** | **United States** | Paradise, Nevada | | 20:30 ET | | Report | * Richards 12' * Balogun 34' | Stadium: Allegiant StadiumAttendance: 35,000Referee: Saíd Martínez (Honduras) | United States  v  Jamaica | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | June 24 Gold Cup GS | **United States** | **1–1** | **Jamaica** | Chicago, Illinois | | 21:30 ET | * Vázquez 88' | Report | * Lowe 13' | Stadium: Soldier FieldAttendance: 36,666Referee: César Ramos (Mexico) | Saint Kitts and Nevis  v  United States | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | June 28 Gold Cup GS | **Saint Kitts and Nevis** | **0–6** | **United States** | St. Louis, Missouri | | 21:30 ET | | Report | * Mihailovic 12', 79' * Reynolds 14' * Ferreira 16', 25', 50' | Stadium: CityParkAttendance: 21,216Referee: Juan Gabriel Calderón (Costa Rica) | United States  v  Trinidad and Tobago | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | July 2 Gold Cup GS | **United States** | **v** | **Trinidad and Tobago** | Charlotte, North Carolina | | 19:00 ET | | | | Stadium: Bank of America Stadium | United States  v  Uzbekistan | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | September 9 Friendly | **United States** | **v** | **Uzbekistan** | St. Louis, Missouri | | TBD | | | | Stadium: CityPark | United States  v  Oman | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | September 11 Friendly | **United States** | **v** | **Oman** | Saint Paul, Minnesota | | TBD | | | | Stadium: Allianz Field | United States  v  Germany | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | October 14 Friendly | **United States** | **v** | **Germany** | East Hartford, Connecticut | | 15:00 ET | | | | Stadium: Pratt & Whitney Stadium | United States  v  Ghana | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | October 17 Friendly | **United States** | **v** | **Ghana** | Nashville, Tennessee | | 20:30 ET | | | | Stadium: Geodis Park | TBD v  United States | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | November Nations League QF | **TBD** | **v** | **United States** | | United States  v TBD | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | November Nations League QF | **United States** | **v** | **TBD** | | Staff ----- **Coaching staff** | Position | Name | | --- | --- | | Head coach | United States Gregg Berhalter | | Interim head coach | United States B. J. Callaghan | | Goalkeeper coach | England Aron Hyde | | Scout and opponent analyst | United States Eric Laurie | | Head performance expert | United States Steve Tashjian | | Movement and conditioning coach | United States Darcy Norman | | Set piece coach | Denmark Lars Knudsen | **Technical staff** | Position | Name | Start date | Ref. | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Sporting director | Wales Matt Crocker | April 2023 | | | Vice president of sporting | United States Oguchi Onyewu | May 2023 | | | General manager | vacant | | | Players ------- ### Current squad The following 23 players were named to the squad for the 2023 CONCACAF Gold Cup. *Caps and goals are updated as of June 28, 2023, after the match against Saint Kitts and Nevis.* | No. | Pos. | Player | Date of birth (age) | Caps | Goals | Club | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | 1GK | Matt Turner | (1994-06-24) June 24, 1994 (age 29) | 29 | 0 | England Arsenal | | 18 | 1GK | Sean Johnson | (1989-05-31) May 31, 1989 (age 34) | 13 | 0 | Canada Toronto FC | | 23 | 1GK | Gabriel Slonina | (2004-05-15) May 15, 2004 (age 19) | 1 | 0 | England Chelsea | | --- | | 2 | 2DF | DeAndre Yedlin | (1993-07-09) July 9, 1993 (age 29) | 79 | 0 | United States Inter Miami | | 3 | 2DF | Aaron Long | (1992-10-12) October 12, 1992 (age 30) | 33 | 3 | United States Los Angeles FC | | 4 | 2DF | Matt Miazga | (1995-07-19) July 19, 1995 (age 27) | 25 | 1 | United States FC Cincinnati | | 5 | 2DF | Bryan Reynolds | (2001-06-28) June 28, 2001 (age 22) | 4 | 1 | Italy Roma | | 12 | 2DF | Miles Robinson | (1997-03-14) March 14, 1997 (age 26) | 23 | 3 | United States Atlanta United | | 15 | 2DF | DeJuan Jones | (1997-06-24) June 24, 1997 (age 26) | 3 | 0 | United States New England Revolution | | 20 | 2DF | Jalen Neal | (2003-08-24) August 24, 2003 (age 19) | 4 | 0 | United States LA Galaxy | | 21 | 2DF | John Tolkin | (2002-07-31) July 31, 2002 (age 20) | 2 | 0 | United States New York Red Bulls | | --- | | 6 | 3MF | Gianluca Busio | (2002-05-28) May 28, 2002 (age 21) | 10 | 0 | Italy Venezia | | 7 | 3MF | Alan Soñora | (1998-08-03) August 3, 1998 (age 24) | 5 | 0 | Mexico Juárez | | 8 | 3MF | James Sands | (2000-07-06) July 6, 2000 (age 22) | 10 | 0 | United States New York City FC | | 10 | 3MF | Cristian Roldan | (1995-06-03) June 3, 1995 (age 28) | 34 | 0 | United States Seattle Sounders | | 14 | 3MF | Djordje Mihailovic | (1998-11-10) November 10, 1998 (age 24) | 8 | 3 | Netherlands AZ Alkmaar | | 16 | 3MF | Aidan Morris | (2001-11-16) November 16, 2001 (age 21) | 4 | 0 | United States Columbus Crew | | --- | | 9 | 4FW | Jesús Ferreira | (2000-12-24) December 24, 2000 (age 22) | 20 | 11 | United States FC Dallas | | 11 | 4FW | Cade Cowell | (2003-10-14) October 14, 2003 (age 19) | 5 | 0 | United States San Jose Earthquakes | | 13 | 4FW | Jordan Morris | (1994-10-26) October 26, 1994 (age 28) | 53 | 11 | United States Seattle Sounders | | 17 | 4FW | Alejandro Zendejas | (1998-02-07) February 7, 1998 (age 25) | 5 | 1 | Mexico América | | 19 | 4FW | Brandon Vazquez | (1998-10-14) October 14, 1998 (age 24) | 5 | 2 | United States FC Cincinnati | | 22 | 4FW | Julian Gressel | (1993-12-16) December 16, 1993 (age 29) | 3 | 0 | Canada Vancouver Whitecaps | ### Recent call-ups The following players have been called up for the team within the last twelve months. | Pos. | Player | Date of birth (age) | Caps | Goals | Club | Latest call-up | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | GK | Drake Callender | (1997-10-07) October 7, 1997 (age 25) | 0 | 0 | United States Inter Miami | 2023 CONCACAF Nations League Finals | | GK | Josh Cohen | (1992-08-08) August 8, 1992 (age 30) | 0 | 0 | Israel Maccabi Haifa | 2023 CONCACAF Nations League Finals PRE | | GK | Roman Celentano | (2000-09-14) September 14, 2000 (age 22) | 0 | 0 | United States FC Cincinnati | v.  Mexico; April 19, 2023 | | GK | Zack Steffen | (1995-04-02) April 2, 1995 (age 28) | 29 | 0 | England Middlesbrough | v.  El Salvador; March 27, 2023 | | GK | Ethan Horvath | (1995-06-09) June 9, 1995 (age 28) | 8 | 0 | England Luton Town | v.  El Salvador; March 27, 2023 | | --- | | DF | Walker Zimmerman | (1993-05-19) May 19, 1993 (age 30) | 42 | 3 | United States Nashville SC | 2023 CONCACAF Nations League Finals | | DF | Antonee Robinson | (1997-08-08) August 8, 1997 (age 25) | 36 | 2 | England Fulham | 2023 CONCACAF Nations League Finals | | DF | Sergiño Dest | (2000-11-03) November 3, 2000 (age 22) | 26 | 2 | Italy AC Milan | 2023 CONCACAF Nations League Finals | | DF | Chris Richards | (2000-03-28) March 28, 2000 (age 23) | 10 | 1 | England Crystal Palace | 2023 CONCACAF Nations League Finals | | DF | Joe Scally | (2002-12-31) December 31, 2002 (age 20) | 6 | 0 | Germany Borussia Mönchengladbach | 2023 CONCACAF Nations League Finals | | DF | Auston Trusty | (1998-08-12) August 12, 1998 (age 24) | 2 | 0 | England Birmingham City | 2023 CONCACAF Nations League Finals | | DF | Shaq Moore | (1996-11-02) November 2, 1996 (age 26) | 17 | 1 | United States Nashville SC | v.  Mexico; April 19, 2023 | | DF | Caleb Wiley | (2004-12-22) December 22, 2004 (age 18) | 1 | 0 | United States Atlanta United | v.  Mexico; April 19, 2023 | | DF | Joshua Wynder | (2005-05-02) May 2, 2005 (age 18) | 0 | 0 | Portugal Benfica B | v.  Mexico; April 19, 2023 | | DF | Tim Ream | (1987-10-05) October 5, 1987 (age 35) | 51 | 1 | England Fulham | v.  El Salvador; March 27, 2023 | | DF | Mark McKenzie | (1999-02-25) February 25, 1999 (age 24) | 11 | 0 | Belgium Genk | v.  El Salvador; March 27, 2023 | | DF | Jonathan Gómez | (2003-09-01) September 1, 2003 (age 19) | 2 | 0 | Spain Real Sociedad B | v.  Colombia; January 28, 2023 | | DF | Sam Rogers | (1999-05-17) May 17, 1999 (age 24) | 1 | 0 | Norway Rosenborg | v.  Colombia; January 28, 2023 | | DF | Cameron Carter-Vickers | (1997-12-31) December 31, 1997 (age 25) | 12 | 0 | Scotland Celtic | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | DF | Sam Vines | (1999-05-31) May 31, 1999 (age 24) | 9 | 1 | Belgium Antwerp | v.  Saudi Arabia; September 27, 2022 | | DF | Erik Palmer-Brown | (1997-04-24) April 24, 1997 (age 26) | 4 | 0 | France Troyes | v.  Saudi Arabia; September 27, 2022 | | DF | Reggie Cannon | (1998-06-11) June 11, 1998 (age 25) | 28 | 1 | Portugal Boavista | v.  Japan; September 23, 2022 PRE | | --- | | MF | Weston McKennie | (1998-08-28) August 28, 1998 (age 24) | 44 | 11 | Italy Juventus | 2023 CONCACAF Nations League Finals | | MF | Yunus Musah | (2002-11-29) November 29, 2002 (age 20) | 27 | 0 | Spain Valencia | 2023 CONCACAF Nations League Finals | | MF | Giovanni Reyna | (2002-11-13) November 13, 2002 (age 20) | 20 | 4 | Germany Borussia Dortmund | 2023 CONCACAF Nations League Finals | | MF | Luca de la Torre | (1998-05-23) May 23, 1998 (age 25) | 16 | 0 | Spain Celta Vigo | 2023 CONCACAF Nations League Finals | | MF | Johnny Cardoso | (2001-09-20) September 20, 2001 (age 21) | 7 | 0 | Brazil Internacional | 2023 CONCACAF Nations League Finals | | MF | Kellyn Acosta | (1995-07-24) July 24, 1995 (age 27) | 58 | 2 | United States Los Angeles FC | v.  Mexico; April 19, 2023 | | MF | Jackson Yueill | (1997-03-19) March 19, 1997 (age 26) | 16 | 0 | United States San Jose Earthquakes | v.  Mexico; April 19, 2023 | | MF | Paxton Pomykal | (1999-12-17) December 17, 1999 (age 23) | 3 | 0 | United States FC Dallas | v.  Mexico; April 19, 2023 | | MF | Eryk Williamson | (1997-06-11) June 11, 1997 (age 26) | 6 | 0 | United States Portland Timbers | v.  Colombia; January 28, 2023 | | MF | Paxten Aaronson | (2003-08-26) August 26, 2003 (age 19) | 1 | 0 | Germany Eintracht Frankfurt | v.  Colombia; January 28, 2023 | | MF | Tyler Adams | (1999-02-14) February 14, 1999 (age 24) | 36 | 1 | England Leeds United | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | MF | Malik Tillman | (2002-05-28) May 28, 2002 (age 21) | 4 | 0 | Scotland Rangers | v.  Saudi Arabia; September 27, 2022 | | --- | | FW | Christian Pulisic | (1998-09-18) September 18, 1998 (age 24) | 60 | 25 | England Chelsea | 2023 CONCACAF Nations League Finals | | FW | Brenden Aaronson | (2000-10-22) October 22, 2000 (age 22) | 32 | 7 | England Leeds United | 2023 CONCACAF Nations League Finals | | FW | Timothy Weah | (2000-02-22) February 22, 2000 (age 23) | 31 | 4 | France Lille | 2023 CONCACAF Nations League Finals | | FW | Ricardo Pepi | (2003-01-09) January 9, 2003 (age 20) | 16 | 7 | Germany Augsburg | 2023 CONCACAF Nations League Finals | | FW | Folarin Balogun | (2001-07-03) July 3, 2001 (age 21) | 2 | 1 | England Arsenal | 2023 CONCACAF Nations League Finals | | FW | Taylor Booth | (2001-05-31) May 31, 2001 (age 22) | 2 | 0 | Netherlands Utrecht | 2023 CONCACAF Nations League Finals | | FW | Paul Arriola | (1995-02-05) February 5, 1995 (age 28) | 50 | 10 | United States FC Dallas | v.  Mexico; April 19, 2023 PRE | | FW | Daryl Dike | (2000-06-03) June 3, 2000 (age 23) | 10 | 3 | England West Bromwich Albion | v.  El Salvador; March 27, 2023 | | FW | Matthew Hoppe | (2001-03-13) March 13, 2001 (age 22) | 8 | 1 | Scotland Hibernian | v.  Colombia; January 28, 2023 | | FW | Emmanuel Sabbi | (1997-12-24) December 24, 1997 (age 25) | 1 | 0 | Denmark OB | v.  Colombia; January 28, 2023 | | FW | Josh Sargent | (2000-02-20) February 20, 2000 (age 23) | 23 | 5 | England Norwich City | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | FW | Haji Wright | (1998-03-27) March 27, 1998 (age 25) | 7 | 2 | Turkey Antalyaspor | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | --- * PRE = Preliminary squad | Individual records ------------------ *As of June 18, 2023*. Players in **bold** are still active with the national team. ### Most appearances | Rank | Player | Caps | Goals | Career | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Cobi Jones | 164 | 15 | 1992–2004 | | 2 | Landon Donovan | 157 | 57 | 2000–2014 | | 3 | Michael Bradley | 151 | 17 | 2006–2019 | | 4 | Clint Dempsey | 141 | 57 | 2004–2017 | | 5 | Jeff Agoos | 134 | 4 | 1988–2003 | | 6 | Marcelo Balboa | 127 | 13 | 1988–2000 | | 7 | DaMarcus Beasley | 126 | 17 | 2001–2017 | | 8 | Tim Howard | 121 | 0 | 2002–2017 | | 9 | Jozy Altidore | 115 | 42 | 2007–2019 | | 10 | Claudio Reyna | 112 | 8 | 1994–2006 | ### Top goalscorers Landon Donovan and Clint Dempsey are the United States' joint all-time top scorer with 57 goals | Rank | Player | Goals | Caps | Ratio | Career | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Clint Dempsey | 57 | 141 | 0.404 | 2004–2017 | | Landon Donovan | 57 | 157 | 0.363 | 2000–2014 | | 3 | Jozy Altidore | 42 | 115 | 0.365 | 2007–2019 | | 4 | Eric Wynalda | 34 | 106 | 0.321 | 1990–2000 | | 5 | Brian McBride | 30 | 95 | 0.316 | 1993–2006 | | 6 | **Christian Pulisic** | 25 | 60 | 0.417 | 2016–present | | 7 | Joe-Max Moore | 24 | 100 | 0.240 | 1992–2002 | | 8 | Bruce Murray | 21 | 85 | 0.247 | 1985–1993 | | 9 | Eddie Johnson | 19 | 63 | 0.302 | 2004–2014 | | 10 | Earnie Stewart | 17 | 101 | 0.168 | 1990–2004 | | DaMarcus Beasley | 17 | 126 | 0.135 | 2001–2017 | | Michael Bradley | 17 | 151 | 0.113 | 2006–2019 | Competitive record ------------------ The U.S. regularly competes at the FIFA World Cup, the CONCACAF Gold Cup, the CONCACAF Nations League, and the Summer Olympics. The U.S. has also played in the FIFA Confederations Cup, the Copa América by invitation, as well as several minor tournaments. The best result for the United States in a World Cup tournament came in 1930 when the team reached the semi-finals. The team included six naturalized internationals, five of them from Scotland and one from England. The best result in the modern era is the 2002 World Cup, when the U.S. reached the quarter-finals. The worst world Cup tournament results in the modern era were group stage eliminations in 1990, 1998, and 2006, although the country failed to even qualify for the final tournament in 2018. In the Confederations Cup, the United States finished in third place in both 1992 and 1999, and were runner-up in 2009. The United States appeared in their first intercontinental tournament final at the 2009 Confederations Cup. In the semifinals, the United States upset top ranked Spain 2–0, to advance to the final. In the final, the United States lost 3–2 to Brazil after leading 2–0 at halftime. The U.S. men's soccer team have played in the Summer Olympics since 1924. From that tournament to 1980, only amateur and state-sponsored Eastern European players were allowed on Olympic teams. The Olympics became a full international tournament in 1984 after the IOC allowed full national teams from outside FIFA CONMEBOL & UEFA confederations. Ever since 1992 the men's Olympic event has been age-restricted, under 23 plus three overage players, and participation has been by the United States men's national under-23 soccer team. In regional competitions, the United States has won the CONCACAF Gold Cup seven times, with their most recent title in 2021. They won the inaugural CONCACAF Nations League in 2021. Their best ever finish at the Copa América was fourth-place at the 1995 and 2016 editions. ### FIFA World Cup | FIFA World Cup record | | Qualification record | | --- | --- | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | Squad | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | | Uruguay 1930 | **Semi-finals** | **3rd** | **3** | **2** | **0** | **1** | **7** | **6** | Squad | *Qualified as invitees* | | Italy 1934 | Round of 16 | 16th | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 7 | Squad | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 2 | | France 1938 | *Withdrew* | *Withdrew* | | Brazil 1950 | Group stage | 10th | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 8 | Squad | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 8 | 15 | | Switzerland 1954 | *Did not qualify* | 4 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 7 | 9 | | Sweden 1958 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 5 | 21 | | Chile 1962 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 6 | | England 1966 | 4 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 5 | | Mexico 1970 | 6 | 3 | 0 | 3 | 11 | 9 | | West Germany 1974 | 4 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 6 | 10 | | Argentina 1978 | 5 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 7 | | Spain 1982 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 8 | | Mexico 1986 | 6 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 8 | 3 | | Italy 1990 | Group stage | 23rd | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 2 | 8 | Squad | 10 | 5 | 4 | 1 | 11 | 4 | | United States 1994 | Round of 16 | 14th | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | Squad | *Qualified as hosts* | | France 1998 | Group stage | 32nd | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 1 | 5 | Squad | 16 | 8 | 6 | 2 | 27 | 14 | | South Korea Japan 2002 | Quarter-finals | 8th | 5 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 7 | 7 | Squad | 16 | 8 | 4 | 4 | 25 | 11 | | Germany 2006 | Group stage | 25th | 3 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 6 | Squad | 18 | 12 | 4 | 2 | 35 | 11 | | South Africa 2010 | Round of 16 | 12th | 4 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 5 | 5 | Squad | 18 | 13 | 2 | 3 | 42 | 16 | | Brazil 2014 | 15th | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 5 | 6 | Squad | 16 | 11 | 2 | 3 | 26 | 14 | | Russia 2018 | *Did not qualify* | 16 | 7 | 4 | 5 | 37 | 16 | | Qatar 2022 | Round of 16 | 14th | 4 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 4 | Squad | 14 | 7 | 4 | 3 | 21 | 10 | | Canada Mexico United States 2026 | *Qualified as co-hosts* | *Qualified as co-hosts* | | **Total** | **Semi-finals** | **11/22** | **37** | **9** | **8** | **20** | **40** | **66** | **—** | **168** | **84** | **40** | **44** | **287** | **191** | | | | | FIFA World Cup history | | **First match** |  United States 3–0 Belgium (July 13, 1930; Montevideo, Uruguay) | | **Biggest win** |  United States 3–0 Belgium (July 13, 1930; Montevideo, Uruguay) United States 3–0 Paraguay (July 17, 1930; Montevideo, Uruguay) | | **Biggest defeat** |  Italy 7–1 United States (May 27, 1934; Rome, Italy) | | **Best result** | **Third place** at the 1930 FIFA World Cup | | **Second-best result** | **8th place** at the 2002 FIFA World Cup | | **Worst result** | **32nd place** at the 1998 FIFA World Cup | | **Second-worst result** | **25th place** at the 2006 FIFA World Cup | | ### CONCACAF Gold Cup *CONCACAF Championship 1963–1989, CONCACAF Gold Cup 1991–present* CONCACAF Gold Cup record| Year | Result | Position | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | Squad | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | El Salvador 1963 | *Did not enter* | | Guatemala 1965 | | Honduras 1967 | | Costa Rica 1969 | *Did not qualify* | | Trinidad and Tobago 1971 | *Did not enter* | | Haiti 1973 | *Did not qualify* | | Mexico 1977 | | Honduras 1981 | | 1985 | Group stage | 6th | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 3 | — | | 1989 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **8** | **4** | **3** | **1** | **6** | **3** | — | | United States 1991 | **Champions** | **1st** | **5** | **4** | **1** | **0** | **10** | **3** | Squad | | Mexico United States 1993 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **5** | **4** | **0** | **1** | **5** | **5** | Squad | | United States 1996 | **Third place** | **3rd** | **4** | **3** | **0** | **1** | **8** | **3** | Squad | | United States 1998 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **4** | **3** | **0** | **1** | **6** | **2** | Squad | | United States 2000 | Quarter-finals | 5th | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 6 | 2 | Squad | | United States 2002 | **Champions** | **1st** | **5** | **4** | **1** | **0** | **9** | **1** | Squad | | Mexico United States 2003 | **Third place** | **3rd** | **5** | **4** | **0** | **1** | **13** | **4** | Squad | | United States 2005 | **Champions** | **1st** | **6** | **4** | **2** | **0** | **11** | **3** | Squad | | United States 2007 | **Champions** | **1st** | **6** | **6** | **0** | **0** | **13** | **3** | Squad | | United States 2009 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **6** | **4** | **1** | **1** | **12** | **8** | Squad | | United States 2011 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **6** | **4** | **0** | **2** | **9** | **6** | Squad | | United States 2013 | **Champions** | **1st** | **6** | **6** | **0** | **0** | **20** | **4** | Squad | | Canada United States 2015 | **Fourth place** | **4th** | **6** | **3** | **2** | **1** | **12** | **5** | Squad | | United States 2017 | **Champions** | **1st** | **6** | **5** | **1** | **0** | **13** | **4** | Squad | | Costa Rica Jamaica United States 2019 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **6** | **5** | **0** | **1** | **15** | **2** | Squad | | United States 2021 | **Champions** | **1st** | **6** | **6** | **0** | **0** | **11** | **1** | Squad | | Canada United States 2023 | *ongoing* | **2** | **1** | **1** | **0** | **7** | **1** | Squad | | **Total** | **19/27** | **7 titles** | **99** | **74** | **14** | **11** | **190** | **63** | | | CONCACAF Championship & Gold Cup history | | --- | | First Match |  Trinidad and Tobago 1–2 United States  (May 15, 1985; St. Louis, United States) | | Biggest Win |  United States 6–0  Cuba (July 18, 2015; Baltimore, United States)  United States 6–0  Trinidad and Tobago (June 22, 2019; Cleveland, United States) | | Biggest Defeat |  United States 0–5 Mexico  (July 26, 2009; East Rutherford, United States) | | Best Result | **Champions** in 1991, 2002, 2005, 2007, 2013, 2017, 2021 | | Worst Result | Group stage in 1985 | ### CONCACAF Nations League | CONCACAF Nations League record | | --- | | League peace | | Finals | | Season | Division | Group | Pos | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | P/R | Rank | Year | Pos | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | Squad | | 2019–20 | A | A | **1st** | **4** | **3** | **0** | **1** | **15** | **3** | Same position | **3rd** | United States 2021 | **1st** | **2** | **2** | **0** | **0** | **4** | **2** | **Squad** | | 2022–23 | A | D | **1st** | **4** | **3** | **1** | **0** | **14** | **2** | Same position | **1st** | United States 2023 | **1st** | **2** | **2** | **0** | **0** | **5** | **0** | **Squad** | | *2023–24* | *Bye* | N/A | *2024* | *Quarter-finals* | *TBD* | | **Total** | **8** | **6** | **1** | **1** | **29** | **5** | **2 titles** | **Total** | **4** | **4** | **0** | **0** | **9** | **2** | | | | CONCACAF Nations League history | | --- | | First Match |  United States 7–0 Cuba  (October 11, 2019; Washington, D.C., United States) | | Biggest Win |  United States 7–0 Cuba  (October 11, 2019; Washington, D.C., United States) | | Biggest Defeat |  Canada 2–0 United States  (October 15, 2019; Toronto, Canada) | | Best Result | **Champions** in 2019–20 | | Worst Result | — | ### Copa América *South American Championship 1916–1967, Copa América 1975–present* Copa América record| Year | Result | Position | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1916–1991 | *Not invited* | | Ecuador 1993 | Group stage | 12th | 3 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 6 | | Uruguay 1995 | **Fourth place** | **4th** | **6** | **2** | **1** | **3** | **6** | **7** | | 1997–2004 | *Not invited* | | Venezuela 2007 | Group stage | 12th | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 2 | 8 | | 2011–2015 | *Not invited* | | United States 2016 | **Fourth place** | **4th** | **6** | **3** | **0** | **3** | **7** | **8** | | 2019–2021 | *Not invited* | | **Total** | **Invitation** | **0 titles** | **18** | **5** | **2** | **11** | **18** | **29** | ### Summer Olympics Summer Olympics record| Year | Result | Position | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Greece 1896 | *No soccer tournament* | | France 1900 | *Did not enter* | | United States 1904 | **Silver** | **2nd** | **3** | **1** | **1** | **1** | **2** | **7** | | **Bronze** | **3rd** | **3** | **0** | **1** | **2** | **0** | **6** | | United Kingdom 1908 | *Did not enter* | | Sweden 1912 | | Belgium 1920 | | France 1924 | Round of 16 | 12th | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 3 | | Netherlands 1928 | Round of 16 | 9th | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 11 | | United States 1932 | *No soccer tournament* | | Germany 1936 | Round of 16 | 9th | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | | United Kingdom 1948 | Round of 16 | 11th | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 9 | | Finland 1952 | Round of 32 | 17th | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 8 | | Australia 1956 | Quarter-finals | 5th | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 9 | | Italy 1960 | *Did not qualify* | | Japan 1964 | | Mexico 1968 | | West Germany 1972 | Group stage | 14th | 3 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 10 | | Canada 1976 | *Did not qualify* | | Soviet Union 1980 | *Qualified, later withdrew* | | United States 1984 | Group stage | 9th | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 2 | | South Korea 1988 | Group stage | 12th | 3 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 5 | | Since 1992 | *See United States men's national under-23 soccer team* | | **Total** | 11/19 | **2nd** | **22** | **3** | **6** | **13** | **13** | **71** | ### FIFA Confederations Cup | | | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | | Saudi Arabia 1992 | **Third place** | **3rd** | **2** | **1** | **0** | **1** | **5** | **5** | | Saudi Arabia 1995 | *Did not qualify* | | Saudi Arabia 1997 | | Mexico 1999 | **Third place** | **3rd** | **5** | **3** | **0** | **2** | **5** | **3** | | South Korea Japan 2001 | *Did not qualify* | | France 2003 | Group stage | 7th | 3 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 3 | | Germany 2005 | *Did not qualify* | | South Africa 2009 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **5** | **2** | **0** | **3** | **8** | **9** | | Brazil 2013 | *Did not qualify* | | Russia 2017 | | **Total** | **4/10** | **Runners-up** | **15** | **6** | **1** | **8** | **19** | **20** | | FIFA Confederations Cup history | | --- | | First Match |  Saudi Arabia 3–0 United States  (October 15, 1992; Riyadh, Saudi Arabia) | | Biggest Win |  United States 5–2  Ivory Coast (October 19, 1992; Riyadh, Saudi Arabia) | | Biggest Defeat |  Saudi Arabia 3–0 United States  (October 15, 1992; Riyadh, Saudi Arabia)  United States 0–3 Brazil  (June 18, 2009; Pretoria, South Africa) | | Best Result | **Runners-up** in 2009 | | Worst Result | Group stage in 2003 | ### Head-to-head record Honors ------ **Major competitions** * **FIFA World Cup** Third place (1): 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) 1930 * **FIFA Confederations Cup** Runners-up (1): 2nd place, silver medalist(s) 2009 Third place (2): 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) 1992, 1999 * **CONCACAF Championship / Gold Cup** **Champions (7):** 1st place, gold medalist(s) 1991, 2002, 2005, 2007, 2013, 2017, 2021 Runners-up (6): 2nd place, silver medalist(s) 1989, 1993, 1998, 2009, 2011, 2019 Third place (2): 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) 1996, 2003 Fair Play Award (5): 2003, 2009, 2017, 2019, 2021 * **CONCACAF Nations League** **Champions (2):** 1st place, gold medalist(s) 2019–20, 2022–23 * **Summer Olympics** Silver medal (1): 2nd place, silver medalist(s) 1904 Bronze medal (1): 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) 1904 **Other competitions** * **CONCACAF Cup** Runners-up (1): 2nd place, silver medalist(s) 2015 * **CONCACAF Olympic Qualifying Tournament** Runners-up (2): 2nd place, silver medalist(s) 1972, 1980 Third Place (1): 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) 1964 * **U.S. Cup** Champions (3): 1st place, gold medalist(s) 1992, 1995, 2000 Runners-up (1): 2nd place, silver medalist(s) 1999 Third place (2): 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) 1993, 1996 * **Marlboro Cup** Champions (2): 1st place, gold medalist(s) 1989, 1989 Runners-up (3): 2nd place, silver medalist(s) 1987, 1988, 1989 Third place (1): 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) 1990 * **North American Nations Cup** Runners-up (2): 2nd place, silver medalist(s) 1949, 1991 Third place (2): 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) 1947, 1990 FIFA World Ranking ------------------ A line chart depicting the history of the U.S.'s year-end placements in the FIFA World Rankings. *Last update was on June 26, 2023* Source:   **Best Ranking**    **Worst Ranking**    **Best Mover**    **Worst Mover**   | United States' FIFA World Ranking History | | --- | | Rank | Year | Best | Worst | | Rank | Move | Rank | Move | | 13 | 2022 | 13 | Increase 3 | 16 | Decrease 2 | | 11 | 2021 | 10 | Increase 10 | 22 | Decrease 3 | | 22 | 2020 | 22 | Increase 1 | 23 | Decrease 1 | | 22 | 2019 | 21 | Increase 8 | 30 | Decrease 6 | | 25 | 2018 | 22 | Increase 3 | 25 | Decrease 2 | | 24 | 2017 | 23 | Increase 9 | 35 | Decrease 12 | | 28 | 2016 | 22 | Increase 6 | 32 | Decrease 4 | | 32 | 2015 | 27 | Increase 5 | 34 | Decrease 7 | | 27 | 2014 | 13 | Increase 1 | 28 | Decrease 6 | | 14 | 2013 | 13 | Increase 6 | 33 | Decrease 4 | | 28 | 2012 | 27 | Increase 5 | 36 | Decrease 8 | | 34 | 2011 | 18 | Increase 2 | 34 | Decrease 6 | | 18 | 2010 | 13 | Increase 6 | 25 | Decrease 7 | | 14 | 2009 | 11 | Increase 3 | 22 | Decrease 3 | | 22 | 2008 | 20 | Increase 7 | 31 | Decrease 9 | | 19 | 2007 | 14 | Increase 13 | 31 | Decrease 3 | | 31 | 2006 | 4 | Increase 1 | 31 | Decrease 11 | | 8 | 2005 | 6 | Increase 4 | 11 | Decrease 1 | | 11 | 2004 | 7 | Increase 3 | 12 | Decrease 3 | | 11 | 2003 | 9 | Increase 1 | 12 | Decrease 2 | | 10 | 2002 | 8 | Increase 11 | 24 | Decrease 2 | | 24 | 2001 | 15 | Increase 3 | 24 | Decrease 3 | | 16 | 2000 | 16 | Increase 2 | 22 | Decrease 1 | | 22 | 1999 | 20 | Increase 9 | 31 | Decrease 7 | | 23 | 1998 | 11 | Increase 14 | 23 | Decrease 8 | | 26 | 1997 | 21 | Increase 6 | 35 | Decrease 5 | | 18 | 1996 | 14 | Increase 9 | 25 | Decrease 7 | | 19 | 1995 | 19 | Increase 14 | 34 | Decrease 7 | | 23 | 1994 | 21 | Increase 1 | 24 | Decrease 2 | | 22 | 1993 | 22 | Increase 5 | 28 | Decrease 4 | See also -------- * Fútbol de Primera Player of the Year * United States men's national under-17 soccer team * United States men's national under-20 soccer team * United States men's national under-23 soccer team * U.S. National Soccer Team Players Association * U.S. Soccer Player of the Year * United States women's national soccer team * List of United States men's international soccer players born outside the United States

United States men's national soccer team

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_men%27s_national_soccer_team

***Oryza sativa***, commonly known as **rice**, is the plant species most commonly referred to in English as *rice*. It is the type of farmed rice whose cultivars are most common globally, and was first domesticated in the Yangtze River basin in China 13,500 to 8,200 years ago. *Oryza sativa* belongs to the genus *Oryza* of the grass family Poaceae. With a genome consisting of 430 Mbp across 12 chromosomes, it is renowned for being easy to genetically modify and is a model organism for the botany of cereals. Classification -------------- *Oryza sativa* contains two major subspecies: the sticky, short-grained *japonica* or *sinica* variety, and the nonsticky, long-grained *indica* [zh] [ja] rice variety. *Japonica* was domesticated in the Yangtze Valley 9–6,000 years ago, and its varieties can be cultivated in dry fields (it is cultivated mainly submerged in Japan), in temperate East Asia, upland areas of Southeast Asia, and high elevations in South Asia, while *indica* was domesticated around the Ganges 8,500-4,500 years ago, and its varieties are mainly lowland rices, grown mostly submerged, throughout tropical Asia. Rice occurs in a variety of colors, including white, brown, black, purple, and red rices. Black rice (also known as purple rice) is a range of rice types, some of which are glutinous rice. Varieties include Indonesian black rice and Thai jasmine black rice. A third subspecies, which is broad-grained and thrives under tropical conditions, was identified based on morphology and initially called *javanica*, but is now known as *tropical japonica*. Examples of this variety include the medium-grain 'Tinawon' and 'Unoy' cultivars, which are grown in the high-elevation rice terraces of the Cordillera Mountains of northern Luzon, Philippines. Glaszmann (1987) used isozymes to sort *O. sativa* into six groups: *japonica*, *aromatic*, *indica*, *aus*, *rayada*, and *ashina*. Garris *et al.* (2004) used simple sequence repeats to sort *O. sativa* into five groups: *temperate japonica*, *tropical japonica* and *aromatic* comprise the *japonica* varieties, while *indica* and *aus* comprise the *indica* varieties. Nomenclature and taxonomy ------------------------- Rice has been cultivated since ancient times and *oryza* is a classical Latin word for rice while *sativa* means "cultivated". Genetics -------- SPL14/LOC4345998 is a gene that regulates the overall architecture/growth habit of the plant. Some of its epialleles increase rice yield. An accurate and usable Simple Sequence Repeat marker set was developed and used to generate a high-density map in McCouch *et al.*, 2002. A multiplex high-throughput marker assisted selection system has been developed by Masouleh *et al.*, 2009 but as with other crop HTMAS systems has proven difficult to customize, costly (both directly and for the equipment), and inflexible. Other molecular breeding tools *have* produced results, producing blast resistant cultivars. Xu *et al.*, 2014 uses a DNA microarray to substantially advance understanding of hybrid vigor in rice, Takagi *et al.*, 2013 uses QTL sequencing to elucidate seedling vigor, and Yano *et al.*, 2016 performs a GWAS by WGS to investigate various agronomic traits. (Because the correspondence between genotype and phenotype is more easily understood in rice, translation of results from rice to other non-models may require more work. For example, grain size and grain weight in wheat were elucidated in this way by Valluru *et al.*, 2014.) Affymetrix offers a 44 thousand pot microarray, a 50 thousand, and a one million, and Illumina has a six thousand and a 50 thousand, all of which have performed well and are commonly used. Rice is one of the earliest uses and validation models for the semi-thermal asymmetric reverse PCR (STARP) method developed in Long *et al.*, 2016. The putative homolog for *spindle and kinetochore-associated protein 1* – *OsSka1* – is localized to XP\_478114 by Hanisch *et al.*, 2006. Resistance to *Magnaporthe grisea* is provided by various resistance genes including *Pi1*, *Pi54*, and *Pita*. *O. sativa* has a large number of insect resistance genes specifically for the Brown planthopper. As of 2022[update] 15 R genes among these have been cloned and characterized including Tamura *et al.*, 2014's discovery of *Bph2* Guo *et al.*, 2018's discovery of *Bph6*, Zhao *et al.*, 2016's discovery of *Bph9*, Du *et al.*, 2009's discovery of *Bph14*, and Ji *et al.*, 2016's discovery of *Bph18*. In total 641 copy number variations are known, the combination of results of Ma and Bennetzen 2004 and Yu *et al.*, 2011. Exome capture often reveals new single nucleotide polymorphisms in rice, due to its large genome and high degree of DNA repetition. There have been two major results of this type, Saintenac *et al.*, 2011 and Henry *et al.*, 2014. Both abscisic acid and salicylic acid are employed by *O. sativa* in its regulation of its own immune responses. Jiang *et al.*, 2010 finds SA broadly upregulates and ABA broadly downregulates immunity to *Magnaporthe grisea*, and success depends on the balance between their levels. Breeding -------- While most rice is bred for crop quality and productivity, there are varieties selected for characteristics such as texture, smell, and firmness. There are four major categories of rice worldwide: indica, japonica, aromatic and glutinous. The different varieties of rice are not considered interchangeable, either in food preparation or agriculture, so as a result, each major variety is a completely separate market from other varieties. It is common for one variety of rice to rise in price while another one drops in price. Rice cultivars also fall into groups according to environmental conditions, season of planting, and season of harvest, called ecotypes. Some major groups are the Japan-type (grown in Japan), "buly" and "tjereh" types (Indonesia); *sali* (or *aman*—main winter crop), *ahu* (also *aush* or *ghariya*, summer), and *boro* (spring) (Bengal and Assam). Cultivars exist that are adapted to deep flooding, and these are generally called "floating rice". A triple introgression of resistance genes against *Magnaporthe grisea*—and actual field resistance—have been demonstrated by Khan *et al.*, 2018. This is a marker-assisted backcross of *Pi1*, *Pi54*, and *Pita* into an aromatic cultivar using SSR- and STS-markers. *Pi21* is protein gene. An allele *pi21* confers broad-spectrum non-race-specific blast resistance against many strain. Gallery ------- * Water buffalo ploughing, JavaWater buffalo ploughing, Java * Jumli Marshi, brown rice from NepalJumli Marshi, brown rice from Nepal * Traditional rice of Niyamgiri Hills, IndiaTraditional rice of Niyamgiri Hills, India * Rice from ChhattisgarhRice from Chhattisgarh * O. sativa*O. sativa* * Rice stem cross section magnified 400 timesRice stem cross section magnified 400 times See also -------- * Black rice * Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia * International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants * Japonica rice * Maratelli rice * *Oryza glaberrima* (African rice) * Traceability of genetically modified organisms External links --------------

Oryza sativa

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oryza_sativa

**Varese** (UK: /vəˈreɪzeɪ, -zi/ *və-RAY-zay, -⁠zee*, US: /vɑːˈreɪseɪ/ *var-AY-say*, Italian: [vaˈreːze] () or [vaˈreːse]; Varesino: *Varés* [ʋaˈreːs]; Latin: *Baretium*; archaic German: *Väris*) is a city and *comune* in north-western Lombardy, northern Italy, 55 km (34 mi) north-west of Milan. The population of Varese in 2018 was 80,559. It is the capital of the Province of Varese. The hinterland or exurban part of the city is called *Varesotto*. Geography --------- The city of Varese lies at the foot of Sacro Monte di Varese, part of the Campo dei Fiori mountain range, that hosts an astronomical observatory, as well as the Prealpino Geophysical Centre. The village which is in the middle of the mountain is called Santa Maria del Monte because of the medieval sanctuary, which is reached through the avenue of the chapels of the Sacred Mountain. Varese is situated on seven hills: the San Pedrino Hill, the Giubiano Hill, the Campigli Hill, the Sant'Albino Hill, the Biumo Superiore Hill, Colle di Montalbano (Villa Mirabello) and the Hill of Miogni. The city also looks over Lake Varese. Climate ------- Varese's winters are not significantly affected by the proximity of *Lago Maggiore* and the minor lakes surrounding it. In late autumn and winter, temperatures frequently fall below zero Celsius, even if just by a few degrees. This differentiates it from areas south of the city. As in other cities in the foothills of Lombardy, fog is an infrequent phenomenon. Varese is on average cooler than other cities of the Lombard Prealps, especially in winter. Varese is one of the rainiest cities in Italy, with an annual precipitation average of more than 1,500 millimetres (59 in). Since the 1980s, snow has fallen less frequently, with the annual average going from 69 cm in 1967–1987 to 33 cm in 1988–2017. Demographics ------------ Varese city, like the province, has a very high immigrant population owing to both its economy (many multinational companies and the EU's Joint Research Centre in nearby Ispra) and its location (proximity to Milan makes it an ideal place for the latter city's workers). Government ---------- History ------- This town has been known since the Early Middle Ages when it became officially a municipality. The population by 1848 was about 4000. In 1859, Giuseppe Garibaldi confronted Austrian forces led by Field Marshal-Lieutenant Carl Baron Urban near Varese. Also, it was here where Alessandro Marchetti's Savoia-Marchetti SM.93 made his first test flights. In the 20th century, thanks to the increase in population and to the improvement of its economy, the dimensions of this urban centre rose. During the 20th century, its economy flourished quickly, mainly in manufacturing, in the mechanical and electromechanical industry and textile industry. Varese was well known for the footwear industry. **Symbols** The coat of arms of the City of Varese dates back to around 1347. On the wooden cover of the double copy of the Burgi et Castellatiae de Varisio Statutes, preserved in the municipal archive, the oldest example of a civic coat of arms is depicted: "silver Samnite shield. with two corners of red, right and left on the head; all around closed by a black band". The effigy of San Vittore has no crown. It is probably in the sixteenth century - as the Varese historian Luigi Borri believes in his work Documenti Varesini of 1891 - that the shield was surmounted by the marquis crown and the effigy of St. Victor, patron saint of the city. The coat of arms was recognized by decree of the head of the government of 17 June 1941 and the banner was granted with the royal decree of 28 April 1941. Transport --------- The road and rail infrastructure network that makes up the connection system of the city of Varese is powered by a lot of little streets and a double rail network and by 74,000 of high mobility. In particular, the major movements are incoming into Varese. In the average weekday over 113,000 vehicles enter Varese. The most used form of transportation in Varese is the private vehicle, followed by the local public transport. The A8 motorway connects Varese with Milan. The city has also a Ring Road System: Varese's Ring Road consists of three roads currently in operation and one more under construction (North Ring Road). The currently operating roads of Varese's Ring Road System are the East Ring Road, a double lane road managed by ANAS; South Ring Road, a double lane highway managed by Autostrada Pedemontana Lombarda; North East Ring Road, a single lane road managed by ANAS. Many important national and provincial roads pass through Varese. The entire rail network serving the capital is electrified. The city is served by three railway stations: - Varese FS, managed by Centostazioni and RFI SpA, Ferrovie Dello Stato Group: it is the first/last station of Suburban Line S5 of Milan Varese-Treviglio via Milan (operated by ATM-Trenord) and runs a high-frequency train to Milan and Porto Ceresio, toward Switzerland (operated by Trenord). In addition, Varese FS provides direct trains to Malpensa Airport, Como, Mendrisio and Lugano (Switzerland). - Varese Nord (in the city centre) and Varese Casbeno (in the neighbourhood of Casbeno), managed by FerrovieNord on Milan Cadorna-Saronno-Varese-Laveno line: train service is operated by Trenord. The city has both an extensive city bus network (12 lines + 3 lines in the urban area) operated by Autolinee Varesine, and suburban bus services. International bus services are operated by Swiss Post Bus of line 523 that link Varese to Lugano and Mendrisio. In Varese there is also a funicular service on the Vellone-Sacro Monte funicular. The nearest airfield is Varese-Venegono Airport (ICAO:LILN) located 10 km southeast of Varese. Main sights ----------- The city is home to the Sacro Monte di Varese ('the Sacred Mount of Varese'), a place of pilgrimage and worship. It is one of the Sacri Monti of Piedmont and Lombardy, included on the UNESCO World Heritage list. ### Civic buildings Varese is rich in castles, many once pertaining to the Borromeo family. The historic centre of the city includes the Praetorian Palace and Villa Cagna, a residential complex that also hosts the Civic Music School of Varese. After the 19th century, it was enriched by villas and their surrounding gardens, many now open to visitors, including: * Villa Recalcati in Casbeno was built in the early 18th century, enlarged during 1756–77, and was once a luxury hotel. It now houses the offices of the Province of Varese and the Prefecture. * Villa Mylius, near the town centre, was once owned by the Jesuit order, and in 1773 the house and park were sold to the notable Francesco Torelli, who transformed a modest building into a large villa, then sold in 1902 to the industrialist George Mylius. After his death, the property was divided among several heirs, who in 1946 jointly sold it to the *Varesino* Achille Cattaneo, and he donated to the town of Varese in 2007. * Villa Toeplitz, in the Sant'Ambrogio district stands, with a large public park. The complex is named after Giuseppe Toeplitz (1866–1938), a Polish-born banker who bought it in 1914. Already modest country residence of the German family Hannesen, was enlarged by Toeplitz after World War II when his wife Hedwig Mrozowska and his son Louis sold it to brothers Mocchetti of Legnano. The complex with the elegant Italian park passed to the Municipality of Varese in 1972. * Ville Ponti was built between 1850 and 1870 by Milanese architect Giuseppe Balzaretto (1801–1874) for Andrea Ponti. In 1976, it was converted into a convention centre. The main building, surrounded by a public park, is decorated internally by Giuseppe Bertini (1825–1898). Part of the complex, *Villa Fabio Ponti* is a neoclassical-style villa housed in 1959 headquarters for Garibaldi. * *Villa Menafoglio Litta Panza* in locations Biumo Superiore, opposite the entrance of Ville Ponti, was commissioned in the mid-18th century by the Marquis Paolo Antonio Menafoglio, and is an example of a vacation home in Varese. The villa with the garden was partly transformed during the Napoleonic period (neoclassical hall) when the garden was converted into an English-style garden. Recognized since 1996 as well protected by the FAI, the building currently hosts the contemporary art collection of the family Panza. * Villa Augusta, in the Giubiano neighbourhood, was built in the second half of the 19th century. Already owned by Testoni, passed to the Hospital of Circolo di Varese and then, 30 September 1952, was ceded to the Roman Catholic order of the Sisters of Helpers of Holy Souls who pray for souls in Purgatory. Since 1968, the villa was purchased by the city and houses municipal offices. The park is open to the public from 5 April 1970. * Villa Baragiola, in Masnago, has a well-visited park. On the north side, in the shadow of Mount Campo dei Fiori, in 1895 the lawyer Andrea Baragiola opened one of the first Italian racecourses, which extended to the area now occupied by the stadium "Franco Ossola" and its ample parking. The villa was renovated in the early thirties, and in the next decade refurbished as a religious seminary. Passed to the Municipality of Varese in 2001, today is a part of its offices, while the park is open to the public. * Masnago Castle. In the city centre, there is the Palazzo Estense with its gardens (built in the 17th century) and Villa Mirabello. Villa Mirabello, the seat of *Museo Civico Archeologico* (Civic Archaeological Museum), was built in the late 600s on the top of the hill which carries its name. This site is surrounded by a park which is set close to the park of Palazzo Estense. * Some examples of Varese villas * * * ### Natural areas In addition to numerous public parks of the city, often appurtenances of historic villas, there is the Park Luigi Zanzi in Schiranna, established in the sixties through a partial filling of the coast of Lake Varese. It is a large botanical garden located on the banks of Lake Varese, rich in numerous species of trees and birdlife that is partially sheltered in the reeds along the banks. Bathing beach in the summer, the park also offers the possibility of peaceful walks and cycling on the bike path. Close to the city of Varese is the Regional Park Campo dei Fiori, a natural reserve of over five thousand acres consisting of the massive mountain Campo dei Fiori and Mount Martica, separate from that valley Rasa which is the junction of Valcuvia and Olona valley. Once the peak of the Campo dei Fiori was characterized by extensive grassland, it became the historical destination of tourism of Varese and of Milan. Today is the spectacular blooms - which gave the name to the area - to be one of its main attractions. It is a very diverse place showing aspects of extreme interest, related both to the natural environment, both in history and culture, referring to a past full of events and traditions. There are small farming villages, monuments of rare beauty, cave systems and articulated a well-maintained network of trails: some passable, as well as on foot, on horseback and on bicycle. Inside the park are established six nature reserves enclosing environments most important and characteristic. Economy ------- The economy of Varese is mainly based on industry and, to a lesser extent, specialized agriculture; some famous Varese-based firms are: * Aermacchi (military trainer aircraft) * AgustaWestland (helicopters) * Bticino (electrics) * Cagiva, MV Agusta (motorbikes) * Cobra Automotive Technologies (automotive) * Ficep (Machine Tools for steel construction) * Ignis (now part of Whirlpool) (electronics) * Vibram * Prealpi (cheese) * Mazzuchelli (plastics) * Missoni (fashion) * Di Varese (shoes) and many more as it is one of the most industrialised areas in Northern Italy. Varese is close to Malpensa International Airport, which serves the international traffic of Milan, Italy. Education --------- Varese is home to a European School, the European School, Varese, which was established in 1960 for the children of European Union staff, who work mainly at one of the three institutes of the Joint Research Centre in nearby Ispra. It is one of the two sites of the University of Insubria, located in the heart of the Garden City is hosting in the newly built Campus Bizzozero faculties of Medicine, Economics, Natural Sciences etc. People ------ * Ferruccio Azzarini (1924–2005), footballer * Flaminio Bertoni (1903–1964), a sculptor and industrial designer known especially for his work at Citroën where he designed the 2CV, the H van, the DS and the Ami 6 * Giulio Bizzozero (1846–1901), one of the pioneers of histography, and, more generally, the use of the microscope in medical research * Luigi Boffi (1846-1904), architect * Laura Bono (born 1979), singer and songwriter * Umberto Bossi (born 1941), politician; leader of the Lega Lombarda, and of the Lega Nord; Minister for Institutional Reforms and Devolution and Minister of Federal Reforms * Lilli Carati (1956–2014), model and pornographic actress * Emilio Dandolo (1830–1859), brother of Enrico, who also participated in several of the most important battles of the Risorgimento, including the Five Days of Milan uprising * Enrico Dandolo (1827–1849), a figure of the Italian Risorgimento who participated in several of its most important battles and participated in the formation of the Roman Republic * Attilio Fontana (born 1952), politician, president of Lombardy since 2018 * Angelo Frattini (1910–75), sculptor * Gennaro Gattuso (born 1978), professional football player * Roberto Gervasini (born 1947), athletic champion runner * Federico Leo (born 1988), racing driver * Laura Macchi (born 1979), basketball player whose career began at Pallacanestro Varese * Pietro Antonio Magatti (1691–1767), a painter active in Lombardy in a late-Baroque (*barocchetto*) style * Roberto Maroni (1955–2022), Italian politician of Lega Nord * Calogero Marrone (1889–1945), Righteous Among the Nations * Stefano Marzano (born 1950), industrial designer, Chief Design Officer of Electrolux * Andrea Meneghin (born 1974), basketball player and coach with Pallacanestro Varese * Dino Meneghin (born 1950), professional basketball player for Ignis Varese * Ottavio Missoni, designer and founder of the Italian fashion house Missoni which is also based in Varese * Mario Monti (born 1943), economist and politician * Emilio Morosini (1830–1849), participant in the Risorgimento * Bob Morse, in 2009, in recognition of his contributions on and off the basketball court, the City Council of Varese, Italy, made Robert Duncan "Bob" Morse an honorary citizen of the city * Attilio Nicora (1937–2017), cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church and Emeritus Bishop of Verona * Aldo Ossola (born 1945), a basketball player * Franco Ossola (1921–1949), a member of the Torino F.C. squad who died in the Superga air disaster; Stadio Franco Ossola, the stadium of A.S. Varese 1910, is named in his honour * Roberto Plano (born 1978), pianist * Renato Pozzetto (born 1940), actor, director and cabaret artist and one of the best-loved figures of Italian comedy in recent years * Flavio Premoli (born 1949), musician and composer * Lia Quartapelle (born 1982), politician * Alessio Rovera (born 1995), racing driver * Corsi Sandro, 2013 Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers * Francesco Tamagno (1850–1905), an operatic tenor and the creator of the role of Verdi's Otello, who lived at Varese and died at his villa there, aged 54 * Carlo Maria Viganò (born 1941), Archbishop and Apostolic Nuncio to the United States, 2011 to 2016 * Giuseppe Zamberletti (1933–2019), Italian politician recognised as the founding father of the modern Italian Department of Civil Protection ### Cycling Varese has had a long and strong tradition of competitive cycling. It hosted the 1951 and 2008 World Road Cycling Championships. One of the biggest events is the yearly Tre Valli Varesine, which usually takes place at the end of September beginning of October. Is a race that goes through the three varesinian valleys: the Valganna, Valcuvia [it] and Valceresio [it]. Varese has been home to numerous cyclists, including: * Ivan Basso (born 1977), professional cyclist and winner of the 2006 and 2010 Giro d'Italia * Alfredo Binda (1902–1986), a cyclist of the 1920s and 1930s, later trainer of Fausto Coppi and Gino Bartali * Gianni Bugno (born 1964), cyclist * Noemi Cantele (born 1981), cyclist * Valentina Carretta (born 1989), cyclist * Claudio Chiappucci (born 1963), cyclist * Gabriele Colombo (born 1972), cyclist * Davide Frattini (born 1978), cyclist * Francesco Frattini (born 1967), cyclist * Óscar Freire (born 1976), Spanish cyclist * Stefano Garzelli (born 1973), cyclist; overall winner of the 2000 Giro d'Italia * Paride Grillo (born 1982), cyclist with CSF Group–Navigare * Daniele Nardello (born 1972), a professional road racing cyclist who rides for Serramenti PVC Diquigiovanni–Androni Giocattoli * Andrea Peron (born 1971), cyclist * Michael Rogers (born 1979), Australian cyclist * Charly Wegelius (born 1978), British cyclist * Cameron Wurf (born 1983), ex Australian Olympic rower and now professional cyclist for Cannondale Liquigas * Stefano Zanini (born 1969), cyclist Music festivals --------------- * Open Jazz Varese * Ghost Day Festival Sport ----- Varese is known for the Pallacanestro Varese which played, in the 1970s, 10 European Champions Cup finals in a row and won 5 of them. * A.S. Varese 1910 (football) * A.S. Mastini Varese Hockey * Pro Tennis Team Varese * 2008 UCI Road World Championships * 1951 UCI Road World Championships International relations ----------------------- Varese is twinned with: * Romania Alba Iulia, Romania * France Romans-sur-Isère, France

Varese

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varese

50°50′33.00″N 4°22′50.99″E / 50.8425000°N 4.3808306°E / 50.8425000; 4.3808306 The **Council of the European Union**, often referred to in the treaties and other official documents simply as the **Council**, and informally known as the **Council of Ministers**, is the third of the seven Institutions of the European Union (EU) as listed in the Treaty on European Union. It is one of two legislative bodies and together with the European Parliament serves to amend and approve or veto the proposals of the European Commission, which holds the right of initiative. The Council of the European Union and the European Council are the only EU institutions that are explicitly intergovernmental, that is, forums whose attendees express and represent the position of their Member State's executive, be they ambassadors, ministers or heads of state/government. The Council meets in 10 different configurations of 27 national ministers (one per state). The precise membership of these configurations varies according to the topic under consideration; for example, when discussing agricultural policy the Council is formed by the 27 national ministers whose portfolio includes this policy area (with the related European Commissioners contributing but not voting). Composition ----------- The Presidency of the Council rotates every six months among the governments of EU member states, with the relevant ministers of the respective country holding the Presidency at any given time ensuring the smooth running of the meetings and setting the daily agenda. The continuity between presidencies is provided by an arrangement under which three successive presidencies, known as *Presidency trios*, share common political programmes. The Foreign Affairs Council (national foreign ministers) is however chaired by the Union's High Representative. Its decisions are made by qualified majority voting in most areas, unanimity in others, or just simple majority for procedural issues. Usually where it operates unanimously, it only needs to consult the Parliament. However, in most areas the ordinary legislative procedure applies meaning both Council and Parliament share legislative and budgetary powers equally, meaning both have to agree for a proposal to pass. In a few limited areas the Council may initiate new EU law itself. The General Secretariat of the Council of the European Union, also known as *Council Secretariat*, assists the Council of the European Union, the Presidency of the Council of the European Union, the European Council and the President of the European Council. The Secretariat is headed by the Secretary-General of the Council of the European Union. The Secretariat is divided into seven directorates-general, each administered by a director-general. History ------- The Council first appeared in the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) as the "Special Council of Ministers", set up to counterbalance the High Authority (the supranational executive, now the Commission). The original Council had limited powers: issues relating only to coal and steel were in the Authority's domain, and the Council's consent was only required on decisions outside coal and steel. As a whole, the Council only scrutinised the High Authority (the executive). In 1957, the Treaties of Rome established two new communities, and with them two new Councils: the Council of the European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC) and the Council of the European Economic Community (EEC). However, due to objections over the supranational power of the Authority, their Councils had more powers; the new executive bodies were known as "Commissions". In 1965, the Council was hit by the "empty chair crisis". Due to disagreements between French President Charles de Gaulle and the Commission's agriculture proposals, among other things, France boycotted all meetings of the Council. This halted the Council's work until the impasse was resolved the following year by the Luxembourg compromise. Although initiated by a gamble of the President of the Commission, Walter Hallstein, who later on lost the Presidency, the crisis exposed flaws in the Council's workings. Under the Merger Treaty of 1967, the ECSC's Special Council of Ministers and the Council of the EAEC (together with their other independent institutions) were merged into the **Council of the European Communities**, which would act as a single Council for all three institutions. In 1993, the Council adopted the name 'Council of the European Union', following the establishment of the European Union by the Maastricht Treaty. That treaty strengthened the Council, with the addition of more intergovernmental elements in the three pillars system. However, at the same time the Parliament and Commission had been strengthened inside the Community pillar, curtailing the ability of the Council to act independently. The Treaty of Lisbon abolished the pillar system and gave further powers to Parliament. It also merged the Council's High Representative with the Commission's foreign policy head, with this new figure chairing the foreign affairs Council rather than the rotating presidency. The European Council was declared a separate institution from the Council, also chaired by a permanent president, and the different Council configurations were mentioned in the treaties for the first time. The development of the Council has been characterised by the rise in power of the Parliament, with which the Council has had to share its legislative powers. The Parliament has often provided opposition to the Council's wishes. This has in some cases led to clashes between both bodies with the Council's system of intergovernmentalism contradicting the developing parliamentary system and supranational principles. Powers and functions -------------------- The primary purpose of the Council is to act as one of two vetoing bodies of the EU's legislative branch, the other being the European Parliament. Together they serve to amend, approve or disapprove the proposals of the European Commission, which has the sole power to propose laws. Jointly with the Parliament, the Council holds the budgetary power of the Union and has greater control than the Parliament over the more intergovernmental areas of the EU, such as foreign policy and macroeconomic co-ordination. Finally, before the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon, it formally held the executive power of the EU which it conferred upon the European Commission. It is considered by some to be equivalent to an upper house of the EU legislature, although it's not described as such in the treaties. The Council represents the executive governments of the EU's member states and is based in the Europa building in Brussels. ### Legislative procedure The EU's legislative authority is divided between the Council, the Parliament and the Commission. As the relationships and powers of these institutions have developed, various legislative procedures have been created for adopting laws. In early times, the *avis facultatif* maxim was: "The Commission proposes, and the Council disposes"; but now the vast majority of laws are now subject to the ordinary legislative procedure, which works on the principle that consent from both the Council and Parliament are required before a law may be adopted. Under this procedure, the Commission presents a proposal to Parliament and the Council. Following its first reading the Parliament may propose amendments. If the Council accepts these amendments then the legislation is approved. If it does not then it adopts a "common position" and submits that new version to the Parliament. At its second reading, if the Parliament approves the text or does not act, the text is adopted, otherwise the Parliament may propose further amendments to the Council's proposal. It may be rejected out right by an absolute majority of MEPs. If the Council still does not approve the Parliament's position, then the text is taken to a "Conciliation Committee" composed of the Council members plus an equal number of MEPs. If a Committee manages to adopt a joint text, it then has to be approved in a third reading by both the Council and Parliament or the proposal is abandoned. The few other areas that operate the *special legislative procedures* are justice & home affairs, budget and taxation and certain aspects of other policy areas: such as the fiscal aspects of environmental policy. In these areas, the Council or Parliament decide law alone. The procedure used also depends upon which type of institutional act is being used. The strongest act is a regulation, an act or law which is directly applicable in its entirety. Then there are directives which bind members to certain goals which they must achieve, but they do this through their own laws and hence have room to manoeuvre in deciding upon them. A decision is an instrument which is focused at a particular person or group and is directly applicable. Institutions may also issue recommendations and opinions which are merely non-binding declarations. The Council votes in one of three ways; unanimity, simple majority, or qualified majority. In most cases, the Council votes on issues by qualified majority voting, meaning that there must be a minimum of 55% of member states agreeing (at least 15) who together represent at least 65% of the EU population. A 'blocking minority' can only be formed by at least 4 member states representing at least 35% of the EU population. ### Resolutions Council resolutions have no legal effect. Usually the Council's intention is to set out future work foreseen in a specific policy area or to invite action by the Commission. If a resolution covers a policy area which is not entirely within an area of EU competency, the resolution will be issued as a "resolution of the Council and the representatives of the governments of the member states". Examples are the Council Resolution of 26 September 1989 on the development of subcontracting in the Community and the Council Resolution of 26 November 2001 on consumer credit and indebtedness. ### Foreign affairs The legal instruments used by the Council for the Common Foreign and Security Policy are different from the legislative acts. Under the CFSP they consist of "common positions", "joint actions", and "common strategies". Common positions relate to defining a European foreign policy towards a particular third-country such as the promotion of human rights and democracy in Myanmar, a region such as the stabilisation efforts in the African Great Lakes, or a certain issue such as support for the International Criminal Court. A common position, once agreed, is binding on all EU states who must follow and defend the policy, which is regularly revised. A joint action refers to a co-ordinated action of the states to deploy resources to achieve an objective, for example for mine clearing or to combat the spread of small arms. Common strategies defined an objective and commits the EUs resources to that task for four years. ### Budgetary authority The legislative branch officially holds the Union's budgetary authority. The EU's budget (which is around 155 billion euro) is subject to a form of the ordinary legislative procedure with a single reading giving Parliament power over the entire budget (prior to 2009, its influence was limited to certain areas) on an equal footing with the Council. If there is a disagreement between them, it is taken to a conciliation committee as it is for legislative proposals. But if the joint conciliation text is not approved, the Parliament may adopt the budget definitively. In addition to the budget, the Council coordinates the economic policy of members. Organisation ------------ The Council's rules of procedure contain the provisions necessary for its organisation and functioning. ### Presidency The Presidency of the Council is not a single post, but is held by a member state's government. Every six months the presidency rotates among the states, in an order predefined by the Council's members, allowing each state to preside over the body. From 2007, every three member states co-operate for their combined eighteen months on a common agenda, although only one formally holds the presidency for the normal six-month period. For example, the President for the second half of 2007, Portugal, was the second in a trio of states alongside Germany and Slovenia with whom Portugal had been co-operating. The Council meets in various configurations (as outlined below) so its membership changes depending upon the issue. The person chairing the Council will always be the member from the state holding the Presidency. A delegate from the following Presidency also assists the presiding member and may take over work if requested. The exception however is the foreign affairs council, which has been chaired by the High Representative since the entry into force of the Lisbon Treaty. The role of the Presidency is administrative and political. On the administrative side it is responsible for procedures and organising the work of the Council during its term. This includes summoning the Council for meetings along with directing the work of COREPER and other committees and working groups. The political element is the role of successfully dealing with issues and mediating in the Council. In particular this includes setting the agenda of the council, hence giving the Presidency substantial influence in the work of the Council during its term. The Presidency also plays a major role in representing the Council within the EU and representing the EU internationally, for example at the United Nations. ### Configurations Legally speaking, the Council is a single entity (this means that technically any Council configuration can adopt decisions that fall within the remit of any other Council configuration) but it is in practice divided into several different council configurations (or ‘(con)formations’). Article 16(6) of the Treaty on European Union provides: > The Council shall meet in different configurations, the list of which shall be adopted in accordance with Article 236 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union. > > > The General Affairs Council shall ensure consistency in the work of the different Council configurations. It shall prepare and ensure the follow-up to meetings of the European Council, in liaison with the President of the European Council and the Commission. > > > > The Foreign Affairs Council shall elaborate the Union's external action on the basis of strategic guidelines laid down by the European Council and ensure that the Union's action is consistent. > > Each council configuration deals with a different functional area, for example agriculture and fisheries. In this formation, the council is composed of ministers from each state government who are responsible for this area: the agriculture and fisheries ministers. The chair of this council is held by the member from the state holding the presidency (see section above). Similarly, the Economic and Financial Affairs Council is composed of national finance ministers, and they are still one per state and the chair is held by the member coming from the presiding country. The Councils meet irregularly throughout the year except for the three major configurations (top three below) which meet once a month. As of 2020[update], there are ten formations: General Affairs (GAC)General affairs co-ordinates the work of the Council, prepares for European Council meetings and deals with issues crossing various council formations. Foreign Affairs (FAC)Chaired by the High Representative, rather than the Presidency, it manages the CFSP, CSDP, trade and development co-operation. It sometimes meets in a **defence configuration**. Economic and Financial Affairs (Ecofin)Composed of economics and finance ministers of the member states. It includes budgetary and eurozone matters via an informal group composed only of eurozone member ministers. Agriculture and Fisheries (Agrifish)Composed of the agriculture and fisheries ministers of the member states. It considers matters concerning the Common Agricultural Policy, the Common Fisheries Policy, forestry, organic farming, food and feed safety, seeds, pesticides, and fisheries. Justice and Home Affairs (JHA)This configuration brings together Justice ministers and Interior Ministers of the Member States. Includes civil protection. Employment, Social Policy, Health and Consumer Affairs (EPSCO)Composed of employment, social protection, consumer protection, health and equal opportunities ministers. Competitiveness (COMPET)Created in June 2002 through the merging of three previous configurations (Internal Market, Industry and Research). Depending on the items on the agenda, this formation is composed of ministers responsible for areas such as European affairs, industry, tourism and scientific research. With the entry into force of the Lisbon Treaty, the EU acquired competence in space matters, and space policy has been attributed to the Competitiveness Council. Transport, Telecommunications and Energy (TTE)Created in June 2002, through the merging of three policies under one configuration, and with a composition varying according to the specific items on its agenda. This formation meets approximately once every two months. Environment (ENV)Composed of environment ministers, who meet about four times a year. Education, Youth, Culture and Sport (EYC)Composed of education, culture, youth, communications and sport ministers, who meet around three or four times a year. Includes audiovisual issues. Complementing these, the Political and Security Committee (PSC) brings together ambassadors to monitor international situations and define policies within the CSDP, particularly in crises. The European Council is similar to a configuration of the Council and operates in a similar way, but is composed of the national leaders (heads of government or state) and has its own President, since 2019, Charles Michel. The body's purpose is to define the general "impetus" of the Union. The European Council deals with the major issues such as the appointment of the President of the European Commission who takes part in the body's meetings. Ecofin's Eurozone component, the Euro group, is also a formal group with its own President. Its European Council counterpart is the Euro summit formalized in 2011 and the TSCG. Following the entry into force of a framework agreement between the EU and ESA there is a **Space Council** configuration—a joint and concomitant meeting of the EU Council and of the ESA Council at ministerial level dealing with the implementation of the ESP adopted by both organisations. ### Administration The General Secretariat of the Council provides the continuous infrastructure of the Council, carrying out preparation for meetings, draft reports, translation, records, documents, agendas and assisting the presidency. The Secretary General of the Council is head of the Secretariat. The Secretariat is divided into seven directorates-general, each administered by a director-general. The Committee of Permanent Representatives (COREPER) is a body composed of representatives from the states (ambassadors, civil servants etc.) who meet each week to prepare the work and tasks of the Council. It monitors and co-ordinates work and deals with the Parliament on co-decision legislation. It is divided into two groups of the representatives (Coreper II) and their deputies (Coreper I). Agriculture is dealt with separately by the Special Committee on Agriculture (SCA). The numerous working groups submit their reports to the Council through Coreper or SCA. Governments represented in the Council -------------------------------------- The Treaty of Lisbon mandated a change in voting system from 1 November 2014 for most cases to double majority Qualified Majority Voting, replacing the voting weights system. Decisions made by the council have to be taken by 55% of member states representing at least 65% of the EU's population. Almost all members of the Council are members of a political party at national level, and most of these are members of a European-level political party. However the Council is composed to represent the Member States rather than political parties and the nature of coalition governments in a number of states means that party breakdown at different configuration of the Council vary depending on which domestic party was assigned the portfolio. However, the broad ideological alignment of the government in each state does influence the nature of the law the Council produces and the extent to which the link between domestic parties puts pressure on the members in the European Parliament to vote a certain way. | State | Governing parties | EU party | Population | Cabinet | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Germany | Social Democratic Party of Germany | | PES | 83,203,320 | Scholz | | Alliance 90/The Greens | | EGP | | Free Democratic Party | | ALDE | | France | Renaissance | | *None* | 67,842,582 | Borne | | Territories of Progress – Social Reformist Movement | | *None* | | Democratic Movement | | EDP | | Italy | Brothers of Italy | | ECR | 59,607,184 | Meloni | | League for Salvini Premier | | ID | | Forza Italia | | EPP | | Spain | Spanish Socialist Workers' Party | | PES | 47,432,805 | Sánchez II | | Podemos | | *None* | | Socialists' Party of Catalonia | | *None* | | United Left | | PEL | | Poland | Law and Justice | | ECR | 37,654,247 | Morawiecki II | | Sovereign Poland | | *None* | | Republican Party | | *None* | | Romania | Social Democratic Party | | PES | 19,038,098 | Ciolacu | | National Liberal Party | | EPP | | Netherlands | People's Party for Freedom and Democracy | | ALDE | 17,734,036 | Rutte IV | | Democrats 66 | | ALDE | | Christian Democratic Appeal | | EPP | | Christian Union | | ECPM | | Belgium | Open Flemish Liberals and Democrats | | ALDE | 11,631,136 | De Croo | | Socialist Party | | PES | | Reformist Movement | | ALDE | | Ecolo | | EGP | | Christian Democratic and Flemish | | EPP | | Forward | | PES | | Green | | EGP | | Greece | New Democracy | | EPP | 10,682,547 | Mitsotakis II | | Czechia | Civic Democratic Party | | ECR | 10,545,457 | Fiala | | Mayors and Independents | | *None* | | Czech Pirate Party | | *None* | | KDU-ČSL | | EPP | | TOP 09 | | EPP | | Portugal | Socialist Party | | PES | 10,467,366 | Costa III | | Sweden | Moderate Party | | EPP | 10,440,000 | Kristersson | | Christian Democrats | | EPP | | Liberals | | ALDE | | Hungary | Fidesz – Hungarian Civic Alliance | | *None* | 9,689,010 | Orbán V | | Christian Democratic People's Party | | EPP | | Austria | Austrian People's Party | | EPP | 8,967,500 | Nehammer | | The Greens – The Green Alternative | | EGP | | Bulgaria | We Continue the Change | | *None* | 6,838,937 | Denkov | | GERB | | EPP | | Yes, Bulgaria! | | *None* | | Green Movement | | EGP | | Denmark | Social Democrats | | PES | 5,864,667 | Frederiksen II | | Left, Denmark's Liberal Party | | ALDE | | Moderates | | *None* | | Finland | National Coalition Party | | EPP | 5,541,241 | Orpo | | Finns Party | | *None* | | Swedish People's Party of Finland | | ALDE | | Christian Democrats | | EPP | | Slovakia | *None* | | *None* | 5,434,712 | Ódor | | Ireland | Fine Gael | | EPP | 5,060,004 | Varadkar II | | Fianna Fáil | | ALDE | | Green Party | | EGP | | Croatia | Croatian Democratic Union | | EPP | 3,862,305 | Plenković II | | Independent Democratic Serb Party | | *None* | | Lithuania | Homeland Union – Lithuanian Christian Democrats | | EPP | 2,805,998 | Šimonytė | | Liberal Movement of the Republic of Lithuania | | ALDE | | Freedom Party | | ALDE | | Slovenia | Freedom Movement | | *None* | 2,107,180 | Golob | | Social Democrats | | PES | | The Left | | PEL | | Latvia | Unity | | EPP | 1,875,757 | Kariņš II | | National Alliance | | ECR | | Latvian Association of Regions | | *None* | | Latvian Green Party | | *None* | | Liepāja Party | | *None* | | Estonia | Estonian Reform Party | | ALDE | 1,331,796 | Kallas III | | Estonia 200 | | *None* | | Social Democratic Party | | PES | | Cyprus | Democratic Rally | | EPP | 904,700 | Christodoulides | | Democratic Party | | *None* | | Movement for Social Democracy | | PES | | Solidarity Movement | | *None* | | Luxembourg | Democratic Party | | ALDE | 643,648 | Bettel II | | Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party | | PES | | The Greens | | EGP | | Malta | Labour Party | | PES | 520,971 | Abela II | Location -------- By a decision of the European Council at Edinburgh in December 1992, the Council has its seat in Brussels but in April, June, and October, it holds its meetings in Luxembourg City. Between 1952 and 1967, the ECSC Council held its Luxembourg City meetings in the Cercle Municipal on Place d’Armes. Its secretariat moved on numerous occasions but between 1955 and 1967 it was housed in the Verlorenkost district of the city. In 1957, with the creation of two new Communities with their own Councils, discretion on location was given to the current Presidency. In practice this was to be in the Château of Val-Duchesse until the autumn of 1958, at which point it moved to 2 Rue Ravensteinstraat in Brussels. The 1965 agreement (finalised by the Edinburgh agreement and annexed to the treaties) on the location of the newly merged institutions, the Council was to be in Brussels but would meet in Luxembourg City during April, June, and October. The ECSC secretariat moved from Luxembourg City to the merged body Council secretariat in the Ravenstein building of Brussels. In 1971 the Council and its secretariat moved into the Charlemagne building, next to the Commission's Berlaymont, but the Council rapidly ran out of space and administrative branch of the Secretariat moved to a building at 76 Rue Joseph II/Jozef II-straat and during the 1980s the language divisions moved out into the Nerviens, Frère Orban, and Guimard buildings. In 1995, the Council moved into the Justus Lipsius building, across the road from Charlemagne.[*clarification needed*] However, its staff was still increasing, so it continued to rent the Frère Orban building to house the Finnish and Swedish language divisions. Staff continued to increase and the Council rented, in addition to owning Justus Lipsius, the Kortenberg, Froissart, Espace Rolin, and Woluwe Heights buildings. Since acquiring the Lex building in 2008, the three aforementioned buildings are no longer in use by the Council services. When the Council is meeting in Luxembourg City, it meets in the Kirchberg Conference Centre, and its offices are based at the European Centre on the plateau du Kirchberg. The Council has also met occasionally in Strasbourg, in various other cities, and also outside the Union: for example in 1974 when it met in Tokyo and Washington, D. C. while trade and energy talks were taking place. Under the Council's present rules of procedures the Council can, in extraordinary circumstances, hold one of its meetings outside Brussels and Luxembourg. From 2017, both the Council of the European Union and the European Council adopted the purpose built Europa building as their official headquarters, although they continue to utilise the facilities afforded by the adjacent Justus Lipsius building. The focal point of the new building, the distinctive multi-storey "lantern" shaped structure in which the main meeting room is located, is utilised in both EU institutions' new official logos. See also -------- * Comparisons with other institutions

Council of the European Union

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_the_European_Union

The **English Civil War** is a generic term for a series of civil wars between Royalists and Parliamentarians in England and Wales from 1642 to 1652. Part of the wider 1639 to 1653 Wars of the Three Kingdoms, they consist of the First English Civil War, the Second English Civil War, and the Third English Civil War. The latter is now usually known as the Anglo-Scottish war (1650–1652), since most of the fighting took place in Scotland, while the Royalists consisted almost entirely of Scots Covenanters and English exiles, with no significant rising in England. While the conflicts in the three kingdoms of England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland had similarities, each had their own specific issues and objectives. The First English Civil War was fought primarily over the correct balance of power between Parliament and Charles I. It ended in June 1646 with Royalist defeat and the king in custody. However, victory exposed Parliamentarian divisions over the nature of the political settlement. The vast majority went to war in 1642 to assert Parliament's right to participate in government, not abolish the monarchy, which meant Charles' refusal to make concessions led to a stalemate. Concern over the political influence of radicals within the New Model Army like Oliver Cromwell led to an alliance between moderate Parliamentarians and Royalists, supported by the Covenanters. Royalist defeat in the 1648 Second English Civil War resulted in the execution of Charles I in January 1649, and establishment of the Commonwealth of England. In 1650, Charles II was crowned king of Scotland, in return for agreeing to create a Presbyterian church in both England and Scotland. The subsequent Anglo-Scottish war ended with Parliamentarian victory at the Worcester on 3 September 1651. Both Ireland and Scotland were incorporated into the Commonwealth, and Britain became a unitary state until the Stuart Restoration in 1660. Terminology ----------- The term "English Civil War" appears most often in the singular, but historians often divide the conflict into two or three separate wars. They were not restricted to England alone, as Wales (having been annexed into the Kingdom of England) was affected by the same political instabilities. The conflicts also involved wars with Scotland and Ireland and civil wars within them. Some historians have favoured the term "the British Civil Wars". From the Restoration to the 19th century, the common phrase for the civil wars was "the rebellion" or "the great rebellion". The wars spanning all four countries are known as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. In the early 19th century, Sir Walter Scott referred to it as "the Great Civil War". The 1911 *Encyclopædia Britannica* called the series of conflicts the "Great Rebellion". Some historians, notably Marxists such as Christopher Hill (1912–2003), favoured the term "English Revolution". Geography --------- Each side had a geographical stronghold, such that minority elements were silenced or fled. The Royalist areas included the countryside, the shires, the cathedral city of Oxford, and the less economically developed areas of northern and western England. Parliament's strengths spanned the industrial centres, ports, and economically advanced regions of southern and eastern England, including the remaining cathedral cities (except York, Chester, Worcester). Lacey Baldwin Smith says, "the words *populous, rich, and rebellious* seemed to go hand in hand". Strategy and tactics -------------------- Many officers and veteran soldiers had fought in European wars, notably the Eighty Years' War between the Spanish and the Dutch, which began in 1568, as well as earlier phases of the Thirty Years' War which began in 1618 and concluded in 1648. The war was of unprecedented scale for the English. During the campaign seasons, 120,000 to 150,000 soldiers would be in the field, a higher proportion of the population than were fighting in Germany in the Thirty Years' War. The main battle tactic came to be known as pike and shot infantry. The two sides would line up opposite one another, with infantry brigades of musketeers in the centre. These carried matchlock muskets, an inaccurate weapon which nevertheless could be lethal at a range of up to 300 yards. Musketeers would assemble three rows deep, the first kneeling, second crouching, and third standing. At times, troops divided into two groups, allowing one to reload while the other fired.[*page needed*] Among the musketeers were pike men, carrying pikes of 12 feet (4 m) to 18 feet (5 m) long, whose main purpose was to protect the musketeers from cavalry charges. Positioned on each side of the infantry were cavalry, with a right wing led by the lieutenant-general and left by the commissary general. Its main aim was to rout the opponents' cavalry, then turn and overpower their infantry.[*page needed*] The Royalist cavaliers' skill and speed on horseback led to many early victories. Prince Rupert, commanding the king's cavalry, used a tactic learned while fighting in the Dutch army, where cavalry would charge at full speed into the opponent's infantry, firing their pistols just before impact.[*page needed*] However, with Oliver Cromwell and the introduction of the more disciplined New Model Army, a group of disciplined pike men would stand its ground, which could have a devastating effect. The Royalist cavalry had a tendency to chase down individual targets after the initial charge, leaving their forces scattered and tired, whereas Cromwell's cavalry was slower but better disciplined. Trained to operate as a single unit, it went on to win many decisive victories. Background ---------- ### The King's rule The English Civil War broke out in 1642, less than 40 years after the death of Queen Elizabeth I. Elizabeth had been succeeded by her first cousin twice-removed, King James VI of Scotland, as James I of England, creating the first personal union of the Scottish and English kingdoms. As King of Scots, James had become accustomed to Scotland's weak parliamentary tradition since assuming control of the Scottish government in 1583, so that upon assuming power south of the border, the new King of England was affronted by the constraints the English Parliament attempted to place on him in exchange for money. Consequently, James's personal extravagance, which resulted in his being perennially short of money, meant that he had to resort to extra-parliamentary sources of income. Moreover, increasing inflation during this period meant that even though Parliament was granting the King the same nominal value of subsidy, the income was actually worth less. This extravagance was tempered by James's peaceful disposition, so that by the succession of his son Charles I in 1625 the two kingdoms had both experienced relative peace, internally and in their relations with each other. Charles followed his father's dream in hoping to unite the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland into a single kingdom. Many English Parliamentarians were suspicious of such a move, fearing that such a new kingdom might destroy old English traditions that had bound the English monarchy. As Charles shared his father's position on the power of the crown (James had described kings as "little gods on Earth", chosen by God to rule in accordance with the doctrine of the "Divine Right of Kings"), the suspicions of the Parliamentarians had some justification. ### Parliament in an English constitutional framework At the time, the Parliament of England did not have a large permanent role in the English system of government. Instead, it functioned as a temporary advisory committee and was summoned only if and when the monarch saw fit. Once summoned, a Parliament's continued existence was at the King's pleasure since it was subject to dissolution by him at any time. Yet in spite of this limited role, Parliament had acquired over the centuries *de facto* powers of enough significance that monarchs could not simply ignore them indefinitely. For a monarch, Parliament's most indispensable power was its ability to raise tax revenues far in excess of all other sources of revenue at the Crown's disposal. By the 17th century, Parliament's tax-raising powers had come to be derived from the fact that the gentry was the only stratum of society with the ability and authority to collect and remit the most meaningful forms of taxation then available at the local level. So if the king wanted to ensure smooth revenue collection, he needed gentry co-operation. For all of the Crown's legal authority, its resources were limited by any modern standard to an extent that if the gentry refused to collect the king's taxes on a national scale, the Crown lacked a practical means of compelling them. From the thirteenth century, monarchs ordered the election of representatives to sit in the House of Commons, with most voters being the owners of property, although in some potwalloper boroughs every male householder could vote. When assembled along with the House of Lords, these elected representatives formed a Parliament. So the concept of Parliaments allowed representatives of the property-owning class to meet, primarily, at least from the point of view of the monarch, to sanction whatever taxes the monarch wished to collect. In the process, the representatives could debate and enact statutes, or acts. However, Parliament lacked the power to force its will upon the monarch; its only leverage was the threat of withholding the financial means required to implement his plans. ### Parliamentary concerns and the Petition of Right Many concerns were raised over Charles's marriage in 1625 to a Roman Catholic French princess, Henrietta Maria. Parliament refused to assign him the traditional right to collect customs duties for his entire reign, deciding instead to grant it only on a provisional basis and negotiate with him. Charles, meanwhile, decided to send an expeditionary force to relieve the French Huguenots, whom French royal troops held besieged in La Rochelle. Such military support for Protestants on the Continent potentially alleviated concerns about the King's marriage to a Catholic. However, Charles's insistence on giving command of the English force to his unpopular royal favourite George Villiers, the Duke of Buckingham, undermined that support. Unfortunately for Charles and Buckingham, the relief expedition proved a fiasco (1627), and Parliament, already hostile to Buckingham for his monopoly on royal patronage, opened impeachment proceedings against him. Charles responded by dissolving Parliament. This saved Buckingham but confirmed the impression that Charles wanted to avoid Parliamentary scrutiny of his ministers. Having dissolved Parliament and unable to raise money without it, the king assembled a new one in 1628. (The elected members included Oliver Cromwell, John Hampden, and Edward Coke.) The new Parliament drew up a Petition of Right, which Charles accepted as a concession to obtain his subsidy. The Petition made reference to Magna Carta, but did not grant him the right of tonnage and poundage, which Charles had been collecting without Parliamentary authorisation since 1625. Several more active members of the opposition were imprisoned, which caused outrage; one, John Eliot, subsequently died in prison and came to be seen as a martyr for the rights of Parliament. ### Personal rule Charles avoided calling a Parliament for the next decade, a period known as the "personal rule of Charles I", or by its critics as the "Eleven Years' Tyranny". During this period, Charles's policies were determined by his lack of money. First and foremost, to avoid Parliament, the King needed to avoid war. Charles made peace with France and Spain, effectively ending England's involvement in the Thirty Years' War. However, that in itself was far from enough to balance the Crown's finances. Unable to raise revenue without Parliament and unwilling to convene it, Charles resorted to other means. One was to revive conventions, often outdated. For example, a failure to attend and receive knighthood at Charles's coronation became a finable offence with the fine paid to the Crown. The King also tried to raise revenue through ship money, demanding in 1634–1636 that the inland English counties pay a tax for the Royal Navy to counter the threat of privateers and pirates in the English Channel. Established law supported the policy of coastal counties and inland ports such as London paying ship money in times of need, but it had not been applied to inland counties before. Authorities had ignored it for centuries, and many saw it as yet another extra-Parliamentary, illegal tax, which prompted some prominent men to refuse to pay it. Charles issued a writ against John Hampden for his failure to pay, and although five judges including Sir George Croke supported Hampden, seven judges found in favour of the King in 1638. The fines imposed on people who refused to pay ship money and standing out against its illegality aroused widespread indignation. During his "Personal Rule", Charles aroused most antagonism through his religious measures. He believed in High Anglicanism, a sacramental version of the Church of England, theologically based upon Arminianism, a creed shared with his main political adviser, Archbishop William Laud. In 1633, Charles appointed Laud Archbishop of Canterbury and started making the Church more ceremonial, replacing the wooden communion tables with stone altars. Puritans accused Laud of reintroducing Catholicism, and when they complained he had them arrested. In 1637, John Bastwick, Henry Burton, and William Prynne had their ears cut off for writing pamphlets attacking Laud's views – a rare penalty for gentlemen, and one that aroused anger. Moreover, the Church authorities revived statutes from the time of Elizabeth I about church attendance and fined Puritans for not attending Anglican services. ### Rebellion in Scotland The end of Charles's independent governance came when he attempted to apply the same religious policies in Scotland. The Church of Scotland, reluctantly episcopal in structure, had independent traditions. Charles wanted one uniform Church throughout Britain and introduced a new, High Anglican version of the English Book of Common Prayer to Scotland in the middle of 1637. This was violently resisted. A riot broke out in Edinburgh, which may have been started in St Giles' Cathedral, according to legend, by Jenny Geddes. In February 1638, the Scots formulated their objections to royal policy in the National Covenant. This document took the form of a "loyal protest", rejecting all innovations not first tested by free Parliaments and General Assemblies of the Church. In the spring of 1639, King Charles I accompanied his forces to the Scottish border to end the rebellion known as the Bishops' War, but after an inconclusive campaign, he accepted the offered Scottish truce: the Pacification of Berwick. This truce proved temporary, and a second war followed in mid-1640. A Scots army defeated Charles's forces in the north, then captured Newcastle. Charles eventually agreed not to interfere in Scotland's religion. ### Recall of the English Parliament Charles needed to suppress the rebellion in Scotland, but had insufficient funds to do so. He needed to seek money from a newly elected English Parliament in 1640. Its majority faction, led by John Pym, used this appeal for money as a chance to discuss grievances against the Crown and oppose the idea of an English invasion of Scotland. Charles took exception to this *lèse-majesté* (offense against the ruler) and, after negotiations went nowhere, dissolved the Parliament after only a few weeks; hence its name, "the Short Parliament". Without Parliament's support, Charles attacked Scotland again, breaking the truce at Berwick, and suffered comprehensive defeat. The Scots went on to invade England, occupying Northumberland and Durham. Meanwhile, another of Charles's chief advisers, Thomas Wentworth, 1st Viscount Wentworth, had risen to the role of Lord Deputy of Ireland in 1632, and brought in much-needed revenue for Charles by persuading the Irish Catholic gentry to pay new taxes in return for promised religious concessions. In 1639, Charles had recalled Wentworth to England and in 1640 made him Earl of Strafford, attempting to have him achieve similar results in Scotland. This time he proved less successful and the English forces fled the field at their second encounter with the Scots in 1640. Almost the whole of Northern England was occupied and Charles forced to pay £850 per day to keep the Scots from advancing. Had he not done so they would have pillaged and burnt the cities and towns of Northern England. All this put Charles in a desperate financial state. As King of Scots, he had to find money to pay the Scottish army in England; as King of England, he had to find money to pay and equip an English army to defend England. His means of raising English revenue without an English Parliament fell critically short of achieving this. Against this backdrop, and according to advice from the Magnum Concilium (the House of Lords, but without the Commons, so not a Parliament), Charles finally bowed to pressure and summoned another English Parliament in November 1640. ### The Long Parliament The new Parliament proved even more hostile to Charles than its predecessor. It immediately began to discuss grievances against him and his government, with Pym and Hampden (of ship money fame) in the lead. They took the opportunity presented by the King's troubles to force various reforming measures – including many with strong "anti-Papist" themes – upon him. The members passed a law stating that a new Parliament would convene at least once every three years – without the King's summons if need be. Other laws passed making it illegal for the king to impose taxes without Parliamentary consent and later gave Parliament control over the King's ministers. Finally, the Parliament passed a law forbidding the King to dissolve it without its consent, even if the three years were up. These laws equated to a tremendous increase in Parliamentary power. Ever since, this Parliament has been known as the Long Parliament. However, Parliament did attempt to avert conflict by requiring all adults to sign The Protestation, an oath of allegiance to Charles. Early in the Long Parliament, the house overwhelmingly accused Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, of high treason and other crimes and misdemeanors. Henry Vane the Younger supplied evidence of Strafford's claimed improper use of the army in Ireland, alleging that he had encouraged the King to use his Ireland-raised forces to threaten England into compliance. This evidence was obtained from Vane's father, Henry Vane the Elder, a member of the King's Privy Council, who refused to confirm it in Parliament out of loyalty to Charles. On 10 April 1641, Pym's case collapsed, but Pym made a direct appeal to the Younger Vane to produce a copy of the notes from the King's Privy Council, discovered by the Younger Vane and secretly turned over to Pym, to the great anguish of the Elder Vane. These notes contained evidence that Strafford had told the King, "Sir, you have done your duty, and your subjects have failed in theirs; and therefore you are absolved from the rules of government, and may supply yourself by extraordinary ways; you have an army in Ireland, with which you may reduce the kingdom." Pym immediately launched a Bill of Attainder stating Strafford's guilt and demanding that he be put to death. Unlike a guilty verdict in a court case, attainder did not require a legal burden of proof to be met, but it did require the king's approval. Charles, however, guaranteed Strafford that he would not sign the attainder, without which the bill could not be passed. Furthermore, the Lords opposed the severity of a death sentence on Strafford. Yet increased tensions and a plot in the army to support Strafford began to sway the issue. On 21 April, the Commons passed the Bill (204 in favour, 59 opposed, and 250 abstained), and the Lords acquiesced. Charles, still incensed over the Commons' handling of Buckingham, refused his assent. Strafford himself, hoping to head off the war he saw looming, wrote to the king and asked him to reconsider. Charles, fearing for the safety of his family, signed on 10 May. Strafford was beheaded two days later. In the meantime, both Parliament and the King agreed to an independent investigation into the king's involvement in Strafford's plot. The Long Parliament then passed the Triennial Act, also known as the Dissolution Act in May 1641, to which the Royal Assent was readily granted. The Triennial Act required Parliament to be summoned at least once in three years. When the King failed to issue a proper summons, the members could assemble on their own. This act also forbade ship money without Parliament's consent, fines in distraint of knighthood, and forced loans. Monopolies were cut back sharply, the Courts of the Star Chamber and High Commission abolished by the Habeas Corpus Act 1640, and the Triennial Act respectively. All remaining forms of taxation were legalised and regulated by the Tonnage and Poundage Act. On 3 May, Parliament decreed The Protestation, attacking the 'wicked counsels' of Charles's government, whereby those who signed the petition undertook to defend 'the true reformed religion', Parliament, and the king's person, honour and estate. Throughout May, the House of Commons launched several bills attacking bishops and Episcopalianism in general, each time defeated in the Lords. Charles and his Parliament hoped that the execution of Strafford and the Protestation would end the drift towards war, but in fact, they encouraged it. Charles and his supporters continued to resent Parliament's demands, and Parliamentarians continued to suspect Charles of wanting to impose episcopalianism and unfettered royal rule by military force. Within months, the Irish Catholics, fearing a resurgence of Protestant power, struck first, and all Ireland soon descended into chaos. Rumours circulated that the King supported the Irish, and Puritan members of the Commons soon started murmuring that this exemplified the fate that Charles had in store for them all. On 4 January 1642, Charles, followed by 400 soldiers, entered the House of Commons and attempted to arrest five members on a charge of treason. The members had learned that he was coming and escaped. Charles not only failed to arrest them, but turned more people against him. ### Local grievances In the summer of 1642, these national troubles helped to polarise opinion, ending indecision about which side to support or what action to take. Opposition to Charles also arose from many local grievances. For example, imposed drainage schemes in The Fens disrupted the livelihood of thousands after the King awarded a number of drainage contracts. Many saw the King as indifferent to public welfare, and this played a role in bringing much of eastern England into the Parliamentarian camp. This sentiment brought with it such people as the Earl of Manchester and Oliver Cromwell, each a notable wartime adversary of the King. Conversely, one of the leading drainage contractors, the Earl of Lindsey, was to die fighting for the King at the Battle of Edgehill. First English Civil War (1642–1646) ----------------------------------- In early January 1642, a few days after failing to capture five members of the House of Commons, Charles feared for the safety of his family and retinue and left the London area for the north country. Further frequent negotiations by letter between the King and the Long Parliament, through to early summer, proved fruitless. On 1 June 1642 the English Lords and Commons approved a list of proposals known as the Nineteen Propositions. In these demands, the Parliament sought a larger share of power in the governance of the kingdom. Before the end of the month the King rejected the Propositions. As the summer progressed, cities and towns declared their sympathies for one faction or the other: for example, the garrison of Portsmouth commanded by Sir George Goring declared for the King, but when Charles tried to acquire arms from Kingston upon Hull, the weaponry depository used in the previous Scottish campaigns, Sir John Hotham, the military governor appointed by Parliament in January, refused to let Charles enter the town, and when Charles returned with more men later, Hotham drove them off. Charles issued a warrant for Hotham's arrest as a traitor but was powerless to enforce it. Throughout the summer, tensions rose and there was brawling in several places, the first death from the conflict taking place in Manchester. At the outset of the conflict, much of the country remained neutral, though the Royal Navy and most English cities favoured Parliament, while the King found marked support in rural communities. The war quickly spread and eventually involved every level of society. Many areas attempted to remain neutral. Some formed bands of Clubmen to protect their localities from the worst excesses of the armies of both sides, but most found it impossible to withstand both King and Parliament. On one side, the King and his supporters fought for traditional government in church and state. On the other, most Parliamentarians initially took up arms to defend what they saw as a traditional balance of government in church and state, which the bad advice the King received from his advisers had undermined before and during the "Eleven Years' Tyranny". The views of the members of Parliament ranged from unquestioning support of the King – at one point during the First Civil War, more members of the Commons and Lords gathered in the King's Oxford Parliament than at Westminster — through to radicals who sought major reforms in religious independence and redistribution of power at a national level. After the debacle at Hull, Charles moved on to Nottingham, raising the royal standard there on 22 August 1642. At the time, Charles had with him about 2,000 cavalry and a small number of Yorkshire infantrymen, and using the archaic system of a Commission of Array, his supporters started to build a larger army around the standard. Charles moved in a westerly direction, first to Stafford, then on to Shrewsbury, as support for his cause seemed particularly strong in the Severn valley area and in North Wales. While passing through Wellington, he declared in what became known as the "Wellington Declaration" that he would uphold the "Protestant religion, the laws of England, and the liberty of Parliament". The Parliamentarians who opposed the King did not remain passive in this pre-war period. As in Hull, they took measures to secure strategic towns and cities by appointing to office men sympathetic to their cause. On 9 June they voted to raise an army of 10,000 volunteers and appointed Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex its commander three days later. He received orders "to rescue His Majesty's person, and the persons of the Prince [of Wales] and the Duke of York [James II] out of the hands of those desperate persons who were about them." The Lords Lieutenant whom Parliament appointed used the Militia Ordinance to order the militia to join Essex's army. Two weeks after the King had raised his standard at Nottingham, Essex led his army north towards Northampton, picking up support along the way (including a detachment of Huntingdonshire cavalry raised and commanded by Oliver Cromwell). By mid-September Essex's forces had grown to 21,000 infantry and 4,200 cavalry and dragoons. On 14 September he moved his army to Coventry and then to the north of the Cotswolds, a strategy that placed it between the Royalists and London. With the size of both armies now in the tens of thousands and only Worcestershire between them, it was inevitable that cavalry reconnaissance units would meet sooner or later. This happened in the first major skirmish of the Civil War, when a troop of about 1,000 Royalist cavalry under Prince Rupert, a German nephew of the King and one of the outstanding cavalry commanders of the war, defeated a Parliamentary cavalry detachment under Colonel John Brown at the Battle of Powick Bridge, which crossed the River Teme close to Worcester. Rupert withdrew to Shrewsbury, where a council-of-war discussed two courses of action: whether to advance towards Essex's new position near Worcester, or march down the now open road towards London. The Council decided on the London route, but not to avoid a battle, for the Royalist generals wanted to fight Essex before he grew too strong, and the temper of both sides made it impossible to postpone the decision. In the Earl of Clarendon's words, "it was considered more counsellable to march towards London, it being morally sure that the earl of Essex would put himself in their way." Hence, the army left Shrewsbury on 12 October, gaining two days' start on the enemy, and moved south-east. This had the desired effect of forcing Essex to move to intercept them. The first pitched battle of the war, at Edgehill on 23 October 1642, proved inconclusive, both Royalists and Parliamentarians claiming victory. The second field action, the stand-off at Turnham Green, saw Charles forced to withdraw to Oxford, which would serve as his base for the rest of the war. In 1643, Royalist forces won at Adwalton Moor, gaining control of most of Yorkshire. In the Midlands, a Parliamentary force under Sir John Gell besieged and captured the cathedral city of Lichfield, after the death of the original commander, Lord Brooke. This group then joined forces with Sir William Brereton at the inconclusive Battle of Hopton Heath (19 March 1643), where the Royalist commander, the Earl of Northampton, was killed. John Hampden died after being wounded in the Battle of Chalgrove Field (18 June 1643). Subsequent battles in the west of England at Lansdowne and Roundway Down also went to the Royalists. Prince Rupert could then take Bristol. In the same year, however, Cromwell formed his troop of "Ironsides", a disciplined unit that demonstrated his military leadership ability. With their assistance he won a victory at the Battle of Gainsborough in July. At this stage, from 7 to 9 August 1643, there were some popular demonstrations in London – both for and against war. They were protesting at Westminster. A peace demonstration by London women, which turned violent, was suppressed; the women were beaten and fired upon with live ammunition, leaving several dead. Many were arrested and incarcerated in Bridewell and other prisons. After these August events, the Venetian ambassador in England reported to the doge that the London government took considerable measures to stifle dissent. In general, the early part of the war went well for the Royalists. The turning point came in the late summer and early autumn of 1643, when the Earl of Essex's army forced the king to raise the Siege of Gloucester and then brushed the Royalists aside at the First Battle of Newbury (20 September 1643), to return triumphantly to London. Parliamentarian forces led by the Earl of Manchester besieged the port of King's Lynn, Norfolk, which under Sir Hamon L'Estrange held out until September. Other forces won the Battle of Winceby, giving them control of Lincoln. Political manoeuvring to gain an advantage in numbers led Charles to negotiate a ceasefire in Ireland, freeing up English troops to fight on the Royalist side in England, while Parliament offered concessions to the Scots in return for aid and assistance. Helped by the Scots, Parliament won at Marston Moor (2 July 1644), gaining York and the north of England. Cromwell's conduct in the battle proved decisive, and showed his potential as a political and as an important military leader. The defeat at the Battle of Lostwithiel in Cornwall, however, marked a serious reverse for Parliament in the south-west of England. Subsequent fighting around Newbury (27 October 1644), though tactically indecisive, strategically gave another check to Parliament. In 1645, Parliament reaffirmed its determination to fight the war to a finish. It passed the Self-denying Ordinance, by which all members of either House of Parliament laid down their commands and re-organized its main forces into the New Model Army, under the command of Sir Thomas Fairfax, with Cromwell as his second-in-command and Lieutenant-General of Horse. In two decisive engagements – the Battle of Naseby on 14 June and the Battle of Langport on 10 July – the Parliamentarians effectively destroyed Charles's armies. In the remains of his English realm, Charles tried to recover a stable base of support by consolidating the Midlands. He began to form an axis between Oxford and Newark-on-Trent in Nottinghamshire. These towns had become fortresses and showed more reliable loyalty to him than others. He took Leicester, which lies between them, but found his resources exhausted. Having little opportunity to replenish them, in May 1646 he sought shelter with a Presbyterian Scottish army at Southwell in Nottinghamshire. Charles was eventually handed over to the English Parliament by the Scots and imprisoned. This marked the end of the First English Civil War. Interbellum ----------- The end of the First Civil War, in 1646, left a partial power vacuum in which any combination of the three English factions, Royalists, Independents of the New Model Army ("the Army"), and Presbyterians of the English Parliament, as well as the Scottish Parliament allied with the Scottish Presbyterians (the "Kirk"), could prove strong enough to dominate the rest. Armed political Royalism was at an end, but despite being a prisoner, Charles I was considered by himself and his opponents (almost to the last) as necessary to ensure the success of whichever group could come to terms with him. Thus he passed successively into the hands of the Scots, the Parliament and the Army. The King attempted to reverse the verdict of arms by "coquetting" with each in turn. On 3 June 1647, Cornet George Joyce of Sir Thomas Fairfax's horse seized the King for the Army, after which the English Presbyterians and the Scots began to prepare for a fresh civil war, less than two years after the conclusion of the first, this time against "Independency", as embodied in the Army. After making use of the Army's sword, its opponents attempted to disband it, to send it on foreign service and to cut off its arrears of pay. The result was that the Army leadership was exasperated beyond control, and, remembering not merely its grievances but also the principle for which the Army had fought, it soon became the most powerful political force in the realm. From 1646 to 1648 the breach between Army and Parliament widened day by day, until finally the Presbyterian party, combined with the Scots and the remaining Royalists, felt itself strong enough to begin a Second Civil War. Second English Civil War (1648–1649) ------------------------------------ Charles I took advantage of the deflection of attention away from himself to negotiate on 28 December 1647 a secret treaty with the Scots, again promising church reform. Under the agreement, called the "Engagement", the Scots undertook to invade England on Charles's behalf and restore him to the throne. A series of Royalist uprisings throughout England and a Scottish invasion occurred in the summer of 1648. Forces loyal to Parliament put down most of those in England after little more than a skirmish, but uprisings in Kent, Essex and Cumberland, the rebellion in Wales, and the Scottish invasion involved pitched battles and prolonged sieges. In the spring of 1649, unpaid Parliamentarian troops in Wales changed sides. Colonel Thomas Horton defeated the Royalist rebels at the Battle of St Fagans (8 May) and the rebel leaders surrendered to Cromwell on 11 July after a protracted two-month siege of Pembroke. Sir Thomas Fairfax defeated a Royalist uprising in Kent at the Battle of Maidstone on 1 June. Fairfax, after his success at Maidstone and the pacification of Kent, turned north to reduce Essex, where, under an ardent, experienced and popular leader, Sir Charles Lucas, the Royalists had taken up arms in great numbers. Fairfax soon drove the enemy into Colchester, but his first attack on the town met with a repulse and he had to settle down to a long siege. In the North of England, Major-General John Lambert fought a successful campaign against several Royalist uprisings, the largest being that of Sir Marmaduke Langdale in Cumberland. Thanks to Lambert's successes, the Scottish commander, the Duke of Hamilton, had to take a western route through Carlisle in his pro-Royalist Scottish invasion of England. The Parliamentarians under Cromwell engaged the Scots at the Battle of Preston (17–19 August). The battle took place largely at Walton-le-Dale near Preston, Lancashire, and resulted in a victory for Cromwell's troops over the Royalists and Scots commanded by Hamilton. This victory marked the end of the Second English Civil War. Nearly all the Royalists who had fought in the First Civil War had given their word not to bear arms against Parliament, and many, like Lord Astley, were therefore bound by oath not to take any part in the second conflict. So the victors in the Second Civil War showed little mercy to those who had brought war into the land again. On the evening of the surrender of Colchester, Parliamentarians had Sir Charles Lucas and Sir George Lisle shot. Parliamentary authorities sentenced the leaders of the Welsh rebels, Major-General Rowland Laugharne, Colonel John Poyer and Colonel Rice Powel to death, but executed only Poyer (25 April 1649), having selected him by lot. Of five prominent Royalist peers who had fallen into Parliamentary hands, three – the Duke of Hamilton, the Earl of Holland, and Lord Capel, one of the Colchester prisoners and a man of high character – were beheaded at Westminster on 9 March. Trial of Charles I for treason ------------------------------ Charles's secret pacts and encouragement of supporters to break their parole caused Parliament to debate whether to return the King to power at all. Those who still supported Charles's place on the throne, such as the army leader and moderate Fairfax, tried again to negotiate with him. The Army, furious that Parliament continued to countenance Charles as a ruler, then marched on Parliament and conducted "Pride's Purge", named after the commanding officer of the operation, Thomas Pride, in December 1648. Troops arrested 45 members and kept 146 out of the chamber. They allowed only 75 members in, and then only at the Army's bidding. This Rump Parliament received orders to set up, in the name of the people of England, a High Court of Justice for the trial of Charles I for treason. Fairfax, a constitutional monarchist, declined to have anything to do with the trial. He resigned as head of the army, so clearing Cromwell's road to power. At the end of the trial the 59 Commissioners (judges) found Charles I guilty of high treason as a "tyrant, traitor, murderer and public enemy". His beheading took place on a scaffold in front of the Banqueting House of the Palace of Whitehall on 30 January 1649. After the Restoration in 1660, nine of the surviving regicides not living in exile were executed and most others sentenced to life imprisonment. After the regicide, Charles, Prince of Wales as the eldest son was publicly proclaimed King Charles II in the Royal Square of St. Helier, Jersey, on 17 February 1649 (after a first such proclamation in Edinburgh on 5 February 1649). It took longer for the news to reach the trans-Atlantic colonies, with the Somers Isles (also known as Bermuda) becoming the first to proclaim Charles II King on 5 July 1649. Third English Civil War (1649–1651) ----------------------------------- ### Ireland Ireland had undergone continual war since the rebellion of 1641, with most of the island controlled by the Irish Confederates. Increasingly threatened by the armies of the English Parliament after Charles I's arrest in 1648, the Confederates signed a treaty of alliance with the English Royalists. The joint Royalist and Confederate forces under the Duke of Ormonde tried to eliminate the Parliamentary army holding Dublin by laying siege, but their opponents routed them at the Battle of Rathmines (2 August 1649). As the former Member of Parliament Admiral Robert Blake blockaded Prince Rupert's fleet in Kinsale, Cromwell could land at Dublin on 15 August 1649 with an army to quell the Royalist alliance. Cromwell's suppression of the Royalists in Ireland in 1649 is still remembered by many Irish people. After the Siege of Drogheda, the massacre of nearly 3,500 people – around 2,700 Royalist soldiers and 700 others, including civilians, prisoners and Catholic priests (Cromwell claimed all had carried arms) – became one of the historical memories that has driven Irish-English and Catholic-Protestant strife during the last three centuries. The Parliamentarian conquest of Ireland ground on for another four years until 1653, when the last Irish Confederate and Royalist troops surrendered. In the wake of the conquest, the victors confiscated almost all Irish Catholic-owned land and distributed it to Parliament's creditors, to Parliamentary soldiers who served in Ireland, and to English who had settled there before the war. ### Scotland The execution of Charles I altered the dynamics of the Civil War in Scotland, which had raged between Royalists and Covenanters since 1644. By 1649, the struggle had left the Royalists there in disarray and their erstwhile leader, the Marquess of Montrose, had gone into exile. At first, Charles II encouraged Montrose to raise a Highland army to fight on the Royalist side. When the Scottish Covenanters, who did not agree with the execution of Charles I and who feared for the future of Presbyterianism under the new Commonwealth, offered him the crown of Scotland, Charles abandoned Montrose to his enemies. Montrose, who had raised a mercenary force in Norway, had already landed and could not abandon the fight. He did not succeed in raising many Highland clans and the Covenanters defeated his army at the Battle of Carbisdale in Ross-shire on 27 April 1650. The victors captured Montrose shortly afterwards and took him to Edinburgh. On 20 May the Scottish Parliament sentenced him to death and had him hanged the next day. Charles II landed in Scotland at Garmouth in Morayshire on 23 June 1650 and signed the 1638 National Covenant and the 1643 Solemn League and Covenant shortly after coming ashore. With his original Scottish Royalist followers and his new Covenanter allies, Charles II became the greatest threat facing the new English republic. In response to the threat, Cromwell left some of his lieutenants in Ireland to continue the suppression of the Irish Royalists and returned to England. He arrived in Scotland on 22 July 1650 and proceeded to lay siege to Edinburgh. By the end of August, disease and a shortage of supplies had reduced his army, and he had to order a retreat towards his base at Dunbar. A Scottish army under the command of David Leslie tried to block the retreat, but Cromwell defeated them at the Battle of Dunbar on 3 September. Cromwell's army then took Edinburgh, and by the end of the year his army had occupied much of southern Scotland. In July 1651, Cromwell's forces crossed the Firth of Forth into Fife and defeated the Scots at the Battle of Inverkeithing (20 July 1651). The New Model Army advanced towards Perth, which allowed Charles, at the head of the Scottish army, to move south into England. Cromwell followed Charles into England, leaving George Monck to finish the campaign in Scotland. Monck took Stirling on 14 August and Dundee on 1 September. The next year, 1652, saw a mopping up of the remnants of Royalist resistance, and under the terms of the "Tender of Union", the Scots received 30 seats in a united Parliament in London, with General Monck as the military governor of Scotland. ### England Although Cromwell's New Model Army had defeated a Scottish army at Dunbar, Cromwell could not prevent Charles II from marching from Scotland deep into England at the head of another Royalist army. They marched to the west of England where English Royalist sympathies were strongest, but although some English Royalists joined the army, they were far fewer in number than Charles and his Scottish supporters had hoped. Cromwell finally engaged and defeated the new Scottish king at Worcester on 3 September 1651. ### Wales For several reasons most of Wales was not as engaged in the English Civil Wars to the same degree as other parts of the British Isles.  Wales was isolated from England, both physically and in language, so the Welsh were not as much engaged as England in the issues between the king and Parliament.  The English considered Wales a remote land, with Welsh, not English, as the primary language. Since England had formally assimilated Wales into the kingdom, starting in 1536 formal agreements had been put in place under Henry VIII and continued under Charles I, that allowed the Welsh local administrative authority and economic control, which allowed the Welsh to function to some degree independently.  Another factor was the Puritan religion, which played a major role in the English Civil Wars but was not widely practiced throughout Wales.  Welsh Puritan religious dominance was found in northeast Wales near Wrexham Wrexham, Denbighshire, and an indirect Puritan influence found along the southwestern coast near Haverfordwest, Pembroke, and Tenby due to a combination of a strong influence by the third earl of Essex and their strong trade relations with Bristol, England, a fervent Puritan stronghold.  In addition, Wales was primarily an agrarian society where most Welsh were concerned with making ends meet, rather than being concerned with the King versus Parliament. Many of the key Welsh Civil Wars leaders were from the gentry class holding Royalist sympathies, or from the Church. Those Welsh who did participate in the Civil Wars battles were underequipped, underfed, and not properly trained for warfare.  The majority of Welsh followed the Protestant faith with a religious perspective that differed from the English puritan zeal. They were also leery of the Irish Catholics invading Wales.  The Welsh also did not want to lose what they had, for the gentry were aware of the destruction the 30 years war caused in Europe. Most of those English Civil War battles where Wales was impacted occurred near the border with England and in south Wales. Some of the more significant engagements were: a.      In Gloucester, England (not far from Wales) Lord Herbert of Raglan, Wales had Welsh troops assisting the royalists trying to take Gloucester in March, August, and September of 1643, but without success; b.     In November 1643 Sir Thomas Myddelton had secured the north Wales royalist Flintshire stronghold, and east of Denbighshire, depriving royalists based in Chester, England of their supplies.  In response to this attack Archbishop John Williams, on behalf of the royalists, repelled this attack, taking Wrexham from the Parliamentarians;   c.      First, in the summer of 1643, royalist forces under Richard Vaughan of Golden Grove, second earl of Carbery, who had been appointed lieutenant-general by the king, was successful in securing three of the southwestern Welsh counties; but in early 1644 parliamentarians conducted a successful sea and land assault campaign on Pembroke, Haverfordwest, Milford Pil; and continuing on to Swansea and Cardiff. As a result of these royalist failures the king replaced Carbery with Colonel Charles Gerard who was able to regain many of these lost territories in Cardiganshire and Carmarthenshire; d.     On September 18, 1644 the first pitched battle on Welsh soil at Montgomery was a successful win for Myddelton; e.      In August 1, 1645 the royalist forces were once again defeated at Colby Moor; f.       During the Second Civil War the royalists were decisively defeated at the battle of St. Fagans near Cardiff, which was one of the last more significant battles. In addition to the Civil Wars impact on the monarchy and the changes in national leadership unexpected outcomes of the English Civil Wars to Wales included significant impacts on the degradation of the country's road system, a degrading of government administrative functions to the general population, destruction of castles with only the remnants of them remaining, and the desecration of churches. ### Immediate aftermath After the Royalist defeat at Worcester, Charles II escaped via safe houses and an oak tree to France. Parliament was left in *de facto* control of England. Resistance continued for a time in Ireland and Scotland, but with the pacification of England, resistance elsewhere did not threaten the military supremacy of the New Model Army and its Parliamentary paymasters. Political control ----------------- During the Wars, the Parliamentarians established a number of successive committees to oversee the war effort. The first, the Committee of Safety set up in July 1642, comprised 15 members of Parliament. After the Anglo-Scottish alliance against the Royalists, the Committee of Both Kingdoms replaced the Committee of Safety between 1644 and 1648. Parliament dissolved the Committee of Both Kingdoms when the alliance ended, but its English members continued to meet as the Derby House Committee. A second Committee of Safety then replaced it. ### Episcopacy During the English Civil War, the role of bishops as wielders of political power and upholders of the established church became a matter of heated political controversy. John Calvin of Geneva had formulated a doctrine of Presbyterianism, which held that the offices of *presbyter* and *episkopos* in the New Testament were identical; he rejected the doctrine of apostolic succession. Calvin's follower John Knox brought Presbyterianism to Scotland when the Scottish church was reformed in 1560. In practice, Presbyterianism meant that committees of lay elders had a substantial voice in church government, as opposed to merely being subjects to a ruling hierarchy. This vision of at least partial democracy in ecclesiology paralleled the struggles between Parliament and the King. A body within the Puritan movement in the Church of England sought to abolish the office of bishop and remake the Church of England along Presbyterian lines. The Martin Marprelate tracts (1588–1589), applying the pejorative name of *prelacy* to the church hierarchy, attacked the office of bishop with satire that deeply offended Elizabeth I and her Archbishop of Canterbury John Whitgift. The vestments controversy also related to this movement, seeking further reductions in church ceremony, and labelling the use of elaborate vestments as "unedifying" and even idolatrous. King James I, reacting against the perceived contumacy of his Presbyterian Scottish subjects, adopted "No Bishop, no King" as a slogan. He tied the hierarchical authority of the bishop to the absolute authority he sought as King, and viewed attacks on the authority of the bishops as attacks on his authority. Matters came to a head when Charles I appointed William Laud as Archbishop of Canterbury. Laud aggressively attacked the Presbyterian movement and sought to impose the full Book of Common Prayer. The controversy eventually led to Laud's impeachment for treason by a bill of attainder in 1645 and subsequent execution. Charles also attempted to impose episcopacy on Scotland. The Scots' violent rejection of bishops and liturgical worship sparked the Bishops' Wars in 1639–1640. During the height of Puritan power under the Commonwealth and the Protectorate, episcopacy was formally abolished in the Church of England on 9 October 1646. The Church of England remained Presbyterian until the Restoration of the monarchy. English overseas possessions ---------------------------- During the English Civil War, the English overseas possessions became highly involved. In the Channel Islands, the island of Jersey and Castle Cornet in Guernsey supported the King until a surrender with honour in December 1651. Although the newer, Puritan settlements in North America, notably Massachusetts, were dominated by Parliamentarians, the older colonies sided with the Crown. Friction between Royalists and Puritans in Maryland came to a head in the Battle of the Severn. The Virginia Company's settlements, Bermuda and Virginia, as well as Antigua and Barbados, were conspicuous in their loyalty to the Crown. Bermuda's Independent Puritans were expelled, settling the Bahamas under William Sayle as the Eleutheran Adventurers. Parliament passed An Act for prohibiting Trade with the Barbadoes, Virginia, Bermuda and Antego in October, 1650, which stated that > due punishment [be] inflicted upon the said Delinquents, do Declare all and every the said persons in Barbada's, Antego, Bermuda's and Virginia, that have contrived, abetted, aided or assisted those horrid Rebellions, or have since willingly joyned with them, to be notorious Robbers and Traitors, and such as by the Law of Nations are not to be permitted any manner of Commerce or Traffic with any people whatsoever; and do forbid to all manner of persons, Foreigners, and others, all manner of Commerce, Traffic and Correspondence whatsoever, to be used or held with the said Rebels in the Barbados, Bermuda's, Virginia and Antego, or either of them. > > The Act also authorised Parliamentary privateers to act against English vessels trading with the rebellious colonies: > All Ships that Trade with the Rebels may be surprized. Goods and tackle of such ships not to be embezeled, till judgement in the Admiralty.; Two or three of the Officers of every ship to be examined upon oath. > > Far to the North, Bermuda's regiment of Militia and its coastal batteries prepared to resist an invasion that never came. Built-up inside the natural defence of a nearly impassable barrier reef, to fend off the might of Spain, these defences would have been a formidable obstacle for the Parliamentary fleet sent in 1651 under the command of Admiral Sir George Ayscue to subdue the trans-Atlantic colonies, but after the fall of Barbados, the Bermudians made a separate peace that respected the internal status quo. The Parliament of Bermuda avoided the Parliament of England's fate during The Protectorate, becoming one of the oldest continuous legislatures in the world. Virginia's population swelled with Cavaliers during and after the English Civil War. Even so, Virginia Puritan Richard Bennett was made Governor answering to Cromwell in 1652, followed by two more nominal "Commonwealth Governors". The loyalty of Virginia's Cavaliers to the Crown was rewarded after the 1660 Restoration of the Monarchy when Charles II dubbed it the *Old Dominion*. Casualties ---------- Figures for casualties during this period are unreliable, but some attempt has been made to provide rough estimates. In England, a conservative estimate is that roughly 100,000 people died from war-related disease during the three civil wars. Historical records count 84,830 combat dead from the wars themselves. Counting in accidents and the two Bishops' wars, an estimate of 190,000 dead is achieved, out of a total population of about five million. It is estimated that from 1638 to 1651, 15%–20% of all adult males in England and Wales served in the military. Around 4% of the total population died from war-related causes, compared to 2.23% in the First World War. As was typical for the era, most combat deaths occurred in minor skirmishes rather than large pitched battles. There were a total of 645 engagements throughout the wars; 588 of these involved fewer than 250 casualties in total, with these 588 accounting for 39,838 fatalities (average count of less than 68) or nearly half of the conflict's combat deaths. There were only 9 major pitched battles (at least 1,000 fatalities) which in total accounted for 15% of casualties. An anecdotal example of how high casualties in England may have been perceived is to be found in the posthumously published writing (generally titled *The History of Myddle*), by a Shropshire man, Richard Gough (lived 1635–1723) of Myddle near Shrewsbury, who, writing in about 1701, commented of men from his rural home parish who joined the Royalist forces: "And out of these three townes [*sic* - ie townships], Myddle, Marton and Newton, there went noe less than twenty men, of which number thirteen were kill'd in the warrs". After listing those he recalled did not return home, four of whose exact fates were unknown, he concluded: "And if soe many dyed out of these 3 townes [townships] wee may reasonably guess that many thousands dyed in England in that warre." Figures for Scotland are less reliable and should be treated with caution. Casualties include the deaths of prisoners-of-war in conditions that accelerated their deaths, with estimates of 10,000 prisoners not surviving or not returning home (8,000 captured during and immediately after the Battle of Worcester were deported to New England, Bermuda and the West Indies to work for landowners as indentured labourers). There are no figures to calculate how many died from war-related diseases, but if the same ratio of disease to battle deaths from English figures is applied to the Scottish figures, a not unreasonable estimate of 60,000 people is achieved, from a population of about one million. Figures for Ireland are described as "miracles of conjecture". Certainly the devastation inflicted on Ireland was massive, with the best estimate provided by Sir William Petty, the father of English demography. Petty estimated that 112,000 Protestants and 504,000 Catholics were killed through plague, war and famine, giving an estimated total of 616,000 dead, out of a pre-war population of about one and a half million. Although Petty's figures are the best available, they are still acknowledged as tentative; they do not include an estimated 40,000 driven into exile, some of whom served as soldiers in European continental armies, while others were sold as indentured servants to New England and the West Indies. Many of those sold to landowners in New England eventually prospered, but many sold to landowners in the West Indies were worked to death. These estimates indicate that England suffered a 4 percent loss of population, Scotland a loss of 6 percent, while Ireland suffered a loss of 41 percent of its population. Putting these numbers into the context of other catastrophes helps to understand the devastation of Ireland in particular. The Great Famine of 1845–1852 resulted in a loss of 16 percent of the population, while during the Soviet famine and Holodomor of 1932–33 the population of the Soviet Ukraine fell by 14 percent. Popular gains ------------- Ordinary people took advantage of the dislocation of civil society in the 1640s to gain personal advantages. The contemporary guild democracy movement won its greatest successes among London's transport workers. Rural communities seized timber and other resources on the sequestrated estates of Royalists and Catholics, and on the estates of the royal family and church hierarchy. Some communities improved their conditions of tenure on such estates. The old *status quo* began a retrenchment after the end of the First Civil War in 1646, and more especially after the Restoration in 1660, but some gains were long-term. The democratic element introduced into the watermen's company in 1642, for example, survived with vicissitudes until 1827. Aftermath --------- The wars left England, Scotland, and Ireland among the few countries in Europe without a monarch. In the wake of victory, many of the ideals (and many idealists) became sidelined. The republican government of the Commonwealth of England ruled England (and later all of Scotland and Ireland) from 1649 to 1653 and from 1659 to 1660. Between the two periods, and due to in-fighting among various factions in Parliament, Oliver Cromwell ruled over the Protectorate as Lord Protector (effectively a military dictator) until his death in 1658. On Oliver Cromwell's death, his son Richard became Lord Protector, but the Army had little confidence in him. After seven months the Army removed Richard. In May 1659 it re-installed the Rump. Military force shortly afterward dissolved this as well. After the second dissolution of the Rump, in October 1659, the prospect of a total descent into anarchy loomed, as the Army's pretense of unity dissolved into factions. Into this atmosphere General George Monck, Governor of Scotland under the Cromwells, marched south with his army from Scotland. On 4 April 1660, in the Declaration of Breda, Charles II made known the conditions of his acceptance of the Crown of England. Monck organised the Convention Parliament, which met for the first time on 25 April 1660. On 8 May 1660, it declared that Charles II had reigned as the lawful monarch since the execution of Charles I in January 1649. Charles returned from exile on 23 May 1660. On 29 May 1660, the populace in London acclaimed him as king. His coronation took place at Westminster Abbey on 23 April 1661. These events became known as the *Restoration*. Although the monarchy was restored, it was still with the consent of Parliament. So the civil wars effectively set England and Scotland on course towards a parliamentary monarchy form of government. The outcome of this system was that the future Kingdom of Great Britain, formed in 1707 under the Acts of Union, managed to forestall the kind of revolution typical of European republican movements which generally resulted in total abolition of their monarchies. Thus the United Kingdom was spared the wave of revolutions that occurred in Europe in the 1840s. Specifically, future monarchs became wary of pushing Parliament too hard, and Parliament effectively chose the line of royal succession in 1688 with the Glorious Revolution. Historical interpretations -------------------------- ### Hobbes' *Behemoth* Thomas Hobbes gave an early historical account of the English Civil War in his *Behemoth*, written in 1668 and published in 1681. He assessed the causes of the war to be the conflicting political doctrines of the time. *Behemoth* offered a uniquely historical and philosophical approach to naming the catalysts for the war. It also attempted to explain why Charles I could not hold his throne and maintain peace in his kingdom. Hobbes analysed the following aspects of English thought during the war: the opinions of divinity and politics that spurred rebellion; rhetoric and doctrine used by the rebels against the king; and how opinions about "taxation, the conscription of soldiers, and military strategy" affected the outcomes of battles and shifts of sovereignty. Hobbes attributed the war to the novel theories of intellectuals and divines spread for their own pride of reputation. He held that clerical pretensions had contributed significantly to the troubles — "whether those of puritan fundamentalists, papal supremacists or divine right Episcopalians". Hobbes wanted to abolish the independence of the clergy and bring it under the control of the civil state. Some scholars suggest that Hobbes's *Behemoth* has not received its due as an academic work, being comparatively overlooked and under-rated in the shadow of the same author's *Leviathan*.[*page needed*] Its scholarly reputation may have suffered because it takes the form of a dialogue, which, while common in philosophy, is rarely adopted by historians. Other factors that hindered its success include Charles II's refusing its publication and Hobbes' lack of empathy with views different from his own. ### Whig and Marxist views In the early decades of the 20th century, the Whig school was the dominant theoretical view. It explained the Civil War as resulting from centuries of struggle between Parliament (notably the House of Commons) and the Monarchy, with Parliament defending the traditional rights of Englishmen, while the Stuart monarchy continually attempted to expand its right to dictate law arbitrarily. The major Whig historian, S. R. Gardiner, popularised the idea that the English Civil War was a "Puritan Revolution" that challenged the repressive Stuart Church and prepared the way for religious toleration. Thus, Puritanism was seen as the natural ally of a people preserving their traditional rights against arbitrary monarchical power. The Whig view was challenged and largely superseded by the Marxist school, which became popular in the 1940s, and saw the English Civil War as a bourgeois revolution. According to Marxist historian Christopher Hill: > The Civil War was a class war, in which the despotism of Charles I was defended by the reactionary forces of the established Church and conservative landlords, Parliament beat the King because it could appeal to the enthusiastic support of the trading and industrial classes in town and countryside, to the yeomen and progressive gentry, and to wider masses of the population whenever they were able by free discussion to understand what the struggle was really about. > > ### Later views In the 1970s, revisionist historians challenged both the Whig and the Marxist theories, notably in the 1973 anthology *The Origins of the English Civil War* (Conrad Russell ed.). These historians focused on the minutiae of the years immediately before the civil war, returning to the contingency-based historiography of Clarendon's *History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England*. This, it was claimed, demonstrated that patterns of war allegiance did not fit either Whig or Marxist theories. Parliament was not inherently progressive, nor the events of 1640 a precursor for the Glorious Revolution. Many members of the bourgeoisie fought for the King, while many landed aristocrats supported Parliament.[*failed verification*] From the 1990s, a number of historians replaced the historical title "English Civil War" with "Wars of the Three Kingdoms" and "British Civil Wars", positing that the civil war in England cannot be understood apart from events in other parts of Britain and Ireland. King Charles I remains crucial, not just as King of England, but through his relationship with the peoples of his other realms. For example, the wars began when Charles forced an Anglican Prayer Book upon Scotland, and when this was met with resistance from the Covenanters, he needed an army to impose his will. However, this need of military funds forced Charles I to call an English Parliament, which was not willing to grant the needed revenue unless he addressed their grievances. By the early 1640s, Charles was left in a state of near-permanent crisis management, confounded by the demands of the various factions. For example, Charles finally made terms with the Covenanters in August 1641, but although this might have weakened the position of the English Parliament, the Irish Rebellion of 1641 broke out in October 1641, largely negating the political advantage he had obtained by relieving himself of the cost of the Scottish invasion. A number of revisionist historians such as William M. Lamont regarded the conflict as a religious war, with John Morrill (1993) stating: 'The English Civil War was not the first European revolution: it was the last of the Wars of Religion.' This view has been criticised by various pre-, post- and anti-revisionist historians. Glen Burgess (1998) examined political propaganda written by the Parliamentarian politicians and clerics at the time, noting that many were or may have been motivated by their Puritan religious beliefs to support the war against the 'Catholic' king Charles I, but tried to express and legitimise their opposition and rebellion in terms of a legal revolt against a monarch who had violated crucial constitutional principles and thus had to be overthrown. They even warned their Parliamentarian allies to not make overt use of religious arguments in making their case for war against the king. However, in some cases it may be argued that they hid their pro-Anglican and anti-Catholic motives behind legal parliance, for example by emphasising that the Church of England was the *legally established* religion: 'Seen in this light, the defenses of Parliament's war, with their apparent legal-constitutional thrust, are not at all ways of saying that the struggle was not religious. On the contrary, they are ways of saying that it was.' Burgess concluded: '[T]he Civil War left behind it just the sort of evidence that we could reasonably expect a war of religion to leave.' Re-enactments ------------- Two large historical societies exist, The Sealed Knot and The English Civil War Society, which regularly re-enact events and battles of the Civil War in full period costume. See also -------- * Chronology of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms * Cromwell's Soldiers' Pocket Bible, booklet Cromwell issued to his army in 1643. * Diggers * English Dissenters * English Revolution * First English Civil War, 1642 * First English Civil War, 1643 * First English Civil War, 1644 * First English Civil War, 1645 * First English Civil War, 1646 * Gunpowder Plot * The Levellers, a movement for political reform. * Thirty Years' War, a defining event in European history during the reign of Charles I * Timeline of the English Civil War, showing events leading up to, culminating in, and resulting from the English Civil Wars. * William Hiseland, the last Royalist veteran of the Civil War References ---------- ### Sources * Abbott, Jacob (2020). "Charles I: Downfall of Strafford and Laud". Retrieved 18 February 2020. * Adair, John (1976). *A Life of John Hampden the Patriot 1594–1643*. London: Macdonald and Jane's Publishers Limited. 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(2008), *Charles II and His Court*, Read Books, ISBN 978-1-140-20445-9 * Burgess, Glenn (1990), "Historiographical reviews on revisionism: an analysis of early Stuart historiography in the 1970s and 1980s", *The Historical Journal*, vol. 33, no. 3, pp. 609–627, doi:10.1017/s0018246x90000013, S2CID 145005781 * Burne, Alfred H.; Young, Peter (1998), *The Great Civil War: A Military History of the First Civil War 1642–1646*, ISBN 9781317868392[*page needed*] * Carlton, Charles (1987), *Archbishop William Laud*, ISBN 9780710204639 * Carlton, Charles (1992), *The Experience of the British Civil Wars*, London: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-10391-6 * Carlton, Charles (1995), *Charles I: The Personal Monarch*, Great Britain: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-12141-5 * Carlton, Charles (1995a), *Going to the wars: The experience of the British civil wars, 1638–1651*, London: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-10391-6 * Carpenter, Stanley D. M. 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Bohn, p. 220 * Hibbert, Christopher (1993), *Cavaliers & Roundheads: the English Civil War, 1642–1649*, Scribner * Hill, Christopher (1972), *The World Turned Upside Down: Radical ideas during the English Revolution*, London: Viking * Hughes, Ann (1985), "The king, the parliament, and the localities during the English Civil War", *Journal of British Studies*, **24** (2): 236–263, doi:10.1086/385833, JSTOR 175704, S2CID 145610725 * Hughes, Ann (1991), *The Causes of the English Civil War*, London: Macmillan * James, Lawrence (2003) [2001], *Warrior Race: A History of the British at War*, New York: St. Martin's Press, p. 187, ISBN 978-0-312-30737-0 * Jenkins, Geraint H. (1987), *The Foundations of Modern Wales, 1642-1780*, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-821734-X * John, Terry (2008), *The Civil War in Pembrokeshire*, Logaston Press * Johnston, William Dawson (1901), *The history of England from the accession of James the Second*, vol. I, Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin and company, pp. 83–86 * Kaye, Harvey J. (1995), *The British Marxist historians: an introductory analysis*, Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-312-12733-6 * Keeble, N. H. (2002), *The Restoration: England in the 1660s*, Oxford: Blackwell * Kelsey, Sean (2003), "The Trial of Charles I", *English Historical Review*, **118** (477): 583–616, doi:10.1093/ehr/118.477.583 * Kennedy, D. E. (2000), *The English Revolution, 1642–1649*, London: Macmillan * Kenyon, J.P. 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(1990), *History and Modernity in the Thought of Thomas Hobbes*, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, p. 33 * Leniham, Pádraig (2008), *Consolidating Conquest: Ireland 1603–1727*, Harlow: Pearson Education * Lindley, Keith (1997), *Popular politics and religion in Civil War London*, Scolar Press * Lodge, Richard (2007), *The History of England – From the Restoration to the Death of William III (1660–1702)*, Read Books * Macgillivray, Royce (1970), "Thomas Hobbes's History of the English Civil War A Study of Behemoth", *Journal of the History of Ideas*, **31** (2): 179–198, doi:10.2307/2708544, JSTOR 2708544 * McClelland, J. S. (1996), *A History of Western Political Thought*, London: Routledge * Newman, P. R. (2006), *Atlas of the English Civil War*, London: Routledge * Norton, Mary Beth (2011), *Separated by Their Sex: Women in Public and Private in the Colonial Atlantic World.*, Cornell University Press, p. ~93, ISBN 978-0-8014-6137-8 * Ohlmeyer, Jane (2002), "Civil Wars of the Three Kingdoms", *History Today*, archived from the original on 5 February 2008, retrieved 31 May 2010 * O'Riordan, Christopher (1993), "Popular Exploitation of Enemy Estates in the English Revolution", *History*, **78** (253): 184–200, doi:10.1111/j.1468-229x.1993.tb01577.x, archived from the original on 26 October 2009 * Pipes, Richard (1999), *Property and Freedom*, Alfred A. 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(13 November 2012), "Thomas Hobbes", *University of Wisconsin-Madison*, archived from the original on 4 July 2017, retrieved 27 March 2015 * Stoyle, Mark (17 February 2011), *History – British History in depth: Overview: Civil War and Revolution, 1603–1714*, BBC * Trevelyan, George Macaulay (2002), *England Under the Stuarts*, London: Routledge * Upham, Charles Wentworth (1842), Jared Sparks (ed.), *Life of Sir Henry Vane, Fourth Governor of Massachusetts in The Library of American Biography*, New York: Harper & Brothers, ISBN 978-1-115-28802-6[*full citation needed*] * Walter, John (1999), *Understanding Popular Violence in the English Revolution: The Colchester Plunderers*, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press * Wanklyn, Malcolm; Jones, Frank (2005), *A Military History of the English Civil War, 1642–1646: Strategy and Tactics*, Harlow: Pearson Education * Wedgwood, C. V. (1970), *The King's War: 1641–1647*, London: Fontana * Weiser, Brian (2003), *Charles II and the Politics of Access*, Woodbridge: Boydell * White, Matthew (January 2012), *Selected Death Tolls for Wars, Massacres and Atrocities Before the 20th century: British Isles, 1641–52* [*self-published source?*] * Young, Peter; Holmes, Richard (1974), *The English Civil War: a military history of the three civil wars 1642–1651*, Eyre Methuen **Attribution:** * This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Atkinson, Charles Francis (1911), "Great Rebellion", in Chisholm, Hugh (ed.), *Encyclopædia Britannica*, vol. 12 (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press, p. 417 Further reading --------------- * Ashley, Maurice (1990), *The English Civil War*, Sutton * Askew, Rachel (2016). "Political iconoclasm: the destruction of Eccleshall Castle during the English Civil Wars". *Post-Medieval Archaeology*. **50** (2): 279–288. doi:10.1080/00794236.2016.1203547. S2CID 157307448. * Bennett, Martyn (1999), *Historical Dictionary of the British and Irish Civil Wars 1637–1660*, Scarecrow Press * Boyer, Richard E., ed. (1966), *Oliver Cromwell and the Puritan revolt; failure of a man or a faith?*, Boston, Heath – excerpts from primary and secondary sources. * Braddick, Michael (2009), *God's Fury, England's Fire: A New History of the English Civil Wars*, London: Penguin, ISBN 978-0141008974 * Burgess, Glenn (1998). "Was the English Civil War a War of Religion? The Evidence of Political Propaganda". *Huntington Library Quarterly*. University of California Press. **61** (2): 173–201. doi:10.2307/3817797. JSTOR 3817797. Retrieved 14 March 2022. * Clarendon (1717), *History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England: Begun in the Year 1641*: Volume I, Part 1, Volume I, Part 2, Volume II, Part 1, Volume II, Part 2, Volume III, Part 1, Volume III, Part 2 + Clarendon (1827), *The Life of Edward, Earl of Clarendon, in which is included a Continuation of his History of the Grand Rebellion*, Clarendon Press: Volume I, Volume II, Volume III * Cust, Richard; Hughes, Ann, eds. (1997), *The English Civil War*, Arnold – emphasis on historiography. * Gardiner, Samuel Rawson (1886–1901), *History of the Great Civil War, 1642–1649*: Volume I (1642–1644); Volume II (1644–1647); Volume III (1645–1647); Volume IV (1647–1649), The basic narrative history used by all other scholars. * Ludlow, Edmund (1894), C.H. Firth (ed.), *The Memoirs of Edmund Ludlow Lieutenant-General of the Horse in the Army of the Commonwealth of England 1625–1672*, Oxford: Clarendon Press * Morrill, John (2014), *The nature of the English Revolution*, Routledge – 20 essays by Morrill. * Prior, Charles W. A.; Burgess, Glenn, eds. (2013), *England's wars of religion, revisited*, Ashgate – 14 scholars discuss the argument of John Morrill that the English Civil War was the last war of religion, rather than the first modern revolution. excerpt; historiography pp. 1–25. * Rakoczy, Lila (2007). *Archaeology of Destruction: A Reinterpretation of Castle Slightings in the English Civil War* (Ph.D. thesis thesis). University of York. OCLC 931130655. open access * Scott, Jonathan (2000), *England's Troubles: Seventeenth-century English political instability in European context*, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-42334-2 + Morgan, Hiram (March 2001), "Jonathan Scott's major reinterpretation of the seventeenth century ... England's crisis is viewed in European perspective", *Reviews in History* (book review), doi:10.14296/RiH/issn.1749.8155 * Taipale, Antti (2021). *Religion and the Battlefield in the First English Civil War (1642–1646): Instructing Soldiers and Dehumanising Enemies* (Ph.D. thesis). University of Helsinki. ISBN 978-951-51-7306-5. * Wiemann, Dirk, ed. (2016), *Perspectives on English Revolutionary Republicanism*, Routledge * Woolrych, Austin (2002), *Britain in revolution: 1625–1660*, Oxford University Press

English Civil War

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Civil_War

**Pope Dionysius** was the bishop of Rome from 22 July 259 to his death on 26 December 268. His task was to reorganize the Roman church, after the persecutions of Emperor Valerian I and the edict of toleration by his successor Gallienus. He also helped rebuild the churches of Cappadocia, devastated by the marauding Goths. Pontificate ----------- Dionysius may have been born in Magna Græcia, but this has not been verified. He was elected pope in 259, after the martyrdom of Sixtus II in 258. The Holy See had been vacant for nearly a year due to difficulty in electing a new pope during the violent persecution which Christians faced. When the persecution had begun to subside, Dionysius was raised to the office of Bishop of Rome. Emperor Valerian I, who had led the persecution, was captured and killed by the King of Persia in 260. The new emperor, Gallienus, issued an edict of toleration, restoring the churches, cemeteries and other properties it had held, leading to the nearly 40-year "Little Peace of the Church". To the new pope fell the task of reorganizing the Roman church, which had fallen into great disorder. On the protest of some of the faithful at Alexandria, he demanded from the bishop of Alexandria, also called Dionysius, explanations concerning his doctrine regarding the relation of God to the Logos, which was satisfied. Pope Dionysius sent large sums of money to the churches of Cappadocia, which had been devastated by the marauding Goths, to rebuild and to ransom those held captive. He brought order to the church and procured a peace after Emperor Gallienus issued an edict of toleration which was to last until 303. He died on 26 December 268. In art, he is portrayed in papal vestments, along with a book. See also -------- * List of popes * List of Catholic saints ### Literature * Friedrich Wilhelm Bautz (1975). "Dionysius". In Bautz, Friedrich Wilhelm (ed.). *Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon (BBKL)* (in German). Vol. 1. Hamm: Bautz. col. 1318. ISBN 3-88309-013-1. * http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05009b.htm CE | Titles of the Great Christian Church | | --- | | Preceded bySixtus II | **Bishop of Rome** 259–268 | Succeeded byFelix I |

Pope Dionysius

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Dionysius

A **crane** is a type of machine, generally equipped with a hoist rope, wire ropes or chains, and sheaves, that can be used both to lift and lower materials and to move them horizontally. It is mainly used for lifting heavy objects and transporting them to other places. The device uses one or more simple machines to create mechanical advantage and thus move loads beyond the normal capability of a human. Cranes are commonly employed in transportation for the loading and unloading of freight, in construction for the movement of materials, and in manufacturing for the assembling of heavy equipment. The first known crane machine was the shaduf, a water-lifting device that was invented in ancient Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) and then appeared in ancient Egyptian technology. Construction cranes later appeared in ancient Greece, where they were powered by men or animals (such as donkeys), and used for the construction of buildings. Larger cranes were later developed in the Roman Empire, employing the use of human treadwheels, permitting the lifting of heavier weights. In the High Middle Ages, harbour cranes were introduced to load and unload ships and assist with their construction—some were built into stone towers for extra strength and stability. The earliest cranes were constructed from wood, but cast iron, iron and steel took over with the coming of the Industrial Revolution. For many centuries, power was supplied by the physical exertion of men or animals, although hoists in watermills and windmills could be driven by the harnessed natural power. The first *mechanical* power was provided by steam engines, the earliest steam crane being introduced in the 18th or 19th century, with many remaining in use well into the late 20th century. Modern cranes usually use internal combustion engines or electric motors and hydraulic systems to provide a much greater lifting capability than was previously possible, although manual cranes are still utilized where the provision of power would be uneconomic. There are many different types of cranes, each tailored to a specific use. Sizes range from the smallest jib cranes, used inside workshops, to the tallest tower cranes, used for constructing high buildings. Mini-cranes are also used for constructing high buildings, to facilitate constructions by reaching tight spaces. Large floating cranes are generally used to build oil rigs and salvage sunken ships. Some lifting machines do not strictly fit the above definition of a crane, but are generally known as cranes, such as stacker cranes and loader cranes. Etymology --------- Cranes were so called from the resemblance to the long neck of the bird, cf. Ancient Greek: γερανός, French *grue*. History ------- ### Ancient Near East The first type of crane machine was the shadouf, which had a lever mechanism and was used to lift water for irrigation. It was invented in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) circa 3000 BC. The shadouf subsequently appeared in ancient Egyptian technology circa 2000 BC. ### Ancient Greece A crane for lifting heavy loads was developed by the Ancient Greeks in the late 6th century BC. The archaeological record shows that no later than c. 515 BC distinctive cuttings for both lifting tongs and lewis irons begin to appear on stone blocks of Greek temples. Since these holes point at the use of a lifting device, and since they are to be found either above the center of gravity of the block, or in pairs equidistant from a point over the center of gravity, they are regarded by archaeologists as the positive evidence required for the existence of the crane. The introduction of the winch and pulley hoist soon led to a widespread replacement of ramps as the main means of vertical motion. For the next 200 years, Greek building sites witnessed a sharp reduction in the weights handled, as the new lifting technique made the use of several smaller stones more practical than fewer larger ones. In contrast to the archaic period with its pattern of ever-increasing block sizes, Greek temples of the classical age like the Parthenon invariably featured stone blocks weighing less than 15–20 metric tons. Also, the practice of erecting large monolithic columns was practically abandoned in favour of using several column drums. Although the exact circumstances of the shift from the ramp to the crane technology remain unclear, it has been argued that the volatile social and political conditions of Greece were more suitable to the employment of small, professional construction teams than of large bodies of unskilled labour, making the crane preferable to the Greek polis over the more labour-intensive ramp which had been the norm in the autocratic societies of Egypt or Assyria. The first unequivocal literary evidence for the existence of the compound pulley system appears in the *Mechanical Problems* (*Mech*. 18, 853a32–853b13) attributed to Aristotle (384–322 BC), but perhaps composed at a slightly later date. Around the same time, block sizes at Greek temples began to match their archaic predecessors again, indicating that the more sophisticated compound pulley must have found its way to Greek construction sites by then. ### Roman Empire The heyday of the crane in ancient times came during the Roman Empire, when construction activity soared and buildings reached enormous dimensions. The Romans adopted the Greek crane and developed it further. We are relatively well informed about their lifting techniques, thanks to rather lengthy accounts by the engineers Vitruvius (*De Architectura* 10.2, 1–10) and Heron of Alexandria (*Mechanica* 3.2–5). There are also two surviving reliefs of Roman treadwheel cranes, with the Haterii tombstone from the late first century AD being particularly detailed. The simplest Roman crane, the *trispastos*, consisted of a single-beam jib, a winch, a rope, and a block containing three pulleys. Having thus a mechanical advantage of 3:1, it has been calculated that a single man working the winch could raise 150 kg (330 lb) (3 pulleys x 50 kg or 110 lb = 150), assuming that 50 kg (110 lb) represent the maximum effort a man can exert over a longer time period. Heavier crane types featured five pulleys (*pentaspastos*) or, in case of the largest one, a set of three by five pulleys (*Polyspastos*) and came with two, three or four masts, depending on the maximum load. The *polyspastos*, when worked by four men at both sides of the winch, could readily lift 3,000 kg (6,600 lb) (3 ropes x 5 pulleys x 4 men x 50 kg or 110 lb = 3,000 kg or 6,600 lb). If the winch was replaced by a treadwheel, the maximum load could be doubled to 6,000 kg (13,000 lb) at only half the crew, since the treadwheel possesses a much bigger mechanical advantage due to its larger diameter. This meant that, in comparison to the construction of the ancient Egyptian pyramids, where about 50 men were needed to move a 2.5 ton[*which?*] stone block up the ramp (50 kg (110 lb) per person), the lifting capability of the Roman *polyspastos* proved to be *60 times* higher (3,000 kg or 6,600 lb per person). However, numerous extant Roman buildings which feature much heavier stone blocks than those handled by the *polyspastos* indicate that the overall lifting capability of the Romans went far beyond that of any single crane. At the temple of Jupiter at Baalbek, for instance, the architrave blocks weigh up to 60 tons each, and one corner cornice block even over 100 tons, all of them raised to a height of about 19 m (62.3 ft). In Rome, the capital block of Trajan's Column weighs 53.3 tons, which had to be lifted to a height of about 34 m (111.5 ft) (see construction of Trajan's Column). It is assumed that Roman engineers lifted these extraordinary weights by two measures (see picture below for comparable Renaissance technique): First, as suggested by Heron, a lifting tower was set up, whose four masts were arranged in the shape of a quadrangle with parallel sides, not unlike a siege tower, but with the column in the middle of the structure (*Mechanica* 3.5). Second, a multitude of capstans were placed on the ground around the tower, for, although having a lower leverage ratio than treadwheels, capstans could be set up in higher numbers and run by more men (and, moreover, by draught animals). This use of multiple capstans is also described by Ammianus Marcellinus (17.4.15) in connection with the lifting of the Lateranense obelisk in the Circus Maximus (c. 357 AD). The maximum lifting capability of a single capstan can be established by the number of lewis iron holes bored into the monolith. In case of the Baalbek architrave blocks, which weigh between 55 and 60 tons, eight extant holes suggest an allowance of 7.5 ton per lewis iron, that is per capstan. Lifting such heavy weights in a concerted action required a great amount of coordination between the work groups applying the force to the capstans. ### Middle Ages During the High Middle Ages, the treadwheel crane was reintroduced on a large scale after the technology had fallen into disuse in western Europe with the demise of the Western Roman Empire. The earliest reference to a treadwheel (*magna rota*) reappears in archival literature in France about 1225, followed by an illuminated depiction in a manuscript of probably also French origin dating to 1240. In navigation, the earliest uses of harbor cranes are documented for Utrecht in 1244, Antwerp in 1263, Bruges in 1288 and Hamburg in 1291, while in England the treadwheel is not recorded before 1331. Generally, vertical transport could be done more safely and inexpensively by cranes than by customary methods. Typical areas of application were harbors, mines, and, in particular, building sites where the treadwheel crane played a pivotal role in the construction of the lofty Gothic cathedrals. Nevertheless, both archival and pictorial sources of the time suggest that newly introduced machines like treadwheels or wheelbarrows did not completely replace more labor-intensive methods like ladders, hods and handbarrows. Rather, old and new machinery continued to coexist on medieval construction sites and harbors. Apart from treadwheels, medieval depictions also show cranes to be powered manually by windlasses with radiating spokes, cranks and by the 15th century also by windlasses shaped like a ship's wheel. To smooth out irregularities of impulse and get over 'dead-spots' in the lifting process flywheels are known to be in use as early as 1123. The exact process by which the treadwheel crane was reintroduced is not recorded, although its return to construction sites has undoubtedly to be viewed in close connection with the simultaneous rise of Gothic architecture. The reappearance of the treadwheel crane may have resulted from a technological development of the windlass from which the treadwheel structurally and mechanically evolved. Alternatively, the medieval treadwheel may represent a deliberate reinvention of its Roman counterpart drawn from Vitruvius' *De architectura* which was available in many monastic libraries. Its reintroduction may have been inspired, as well, by the observation of the labor-saving qualities of the waterwheel with which early treadwheels shared many structural similarities. #### Structure and placement The medieval treadwheel was a large wooden wheel turning around a central shaft with a treadway wide enough for two workers walking side by side. While the earlier 'compass-arm' wheel had spokes directly driven into the central shaft, the more advanced "clasp-arm" type featured arms arranged as chords to the wheel rim, giving the possibility of using a thinner shaft and providing thus a greater mechanical advantage. Contrary to a popularly held belief, cranes on medieval building sites were neither placed on the extremely lightweight scaffolding used at the time nor on the thin walls of the Gothic churches which were incapable of supporting the weight of both hoisting machine and load. Rather, cranes were placed in the initial stages of construction on the ground, often within the building. When a new floor was completed, and massive tie beams of the roof connected the walls, the crane was dismantled and reassembled on the roof beams from where it was moved from bay to bay during construction of the vaults. Thus, the crane "grew" and "wandered" with the building with the result that today all extant construction cranes in England are found in church towers above the vaulting and below the roof, where they remained after building construction for bringing material for repairs aloft. Less frequently, medieval illuminations also show cranes mounted on the outside of walls with the stand of the machine secured to putlogs. #### Mechanics and operation In contrast to modern cranes, medieval cranes and hoists — much like their counterparts in Greece and Rome — were primarily capable of a vertical lift, and not used to move loads for a considerable distance horizontally as well. Accordingly, lifting work was organized at the workplace in a different way than today. In building construction, for example, it is assumed that the crane lifted the stone blocks either from the bottom directly into place, or from a place opposite the centre of the wall from where it could deliver the blocks for two teams working at each end of the wall. Additionally, the crane master who usually gave orders at the treadwheel workers from outside the crane was able to manipulate the movement laterally by a small rope attached to the load. Slewing cranes which allowed a rotation of the load and were thus particularly suited for dockside work appeared as early as 1340. While ashlar blocks were directly lifted by sling, lewis or devil's clamp (German *Teufelskralle*), other objects were placed before in containers like pallets, baskets, wooden boxes or barrels. It is noteworthy that medieval cranes rarely featured ratchets or brakes to forestall the load from running backward. This curious absence is explained by the high friction force exercised by medieval tread-wheels which normally prevented the wheel from accelerating beyond control. #### Harbour usage According to the "present state of knowledge" unknown in antiquity, stationary harbor cranes are considered a new development of the Middle Ages. The typical harbor crane was a pivoting structure equipped with double treadwheels. These cranes were placed docksides for the loading and unloading of cargo where they replaced or complemented older lifting methods like see-saws, winches and yards. Two different types of harbor cranes can be identified with a varying geographical distribution: While gantry cranes, which pivoted on a central vertical axle, were commonly found at the Flemish and Dutch coastside, German sea and inland harbors typically featured tower cranes where the windlass and treadwheels were situated in a solid tower with only jib arm and roof rotating. Dockside cranes were not adopted in the Mediterranean region and the highly developed Italian ports where authorities continued to rely on the more labor-intensive method of unloading goods by ramps beyond the Middle Ages. Unlike construction cranes where the work speed was determined by the relatively slow progress of the masons, harbor cranes usually featured double treadwheels to speed up loading. The two treadwheels whose diameter is estimated to be 4 m or larger were attached to each side of the axle and rotated together. Their capacity was 2–3 tons, which apparently corresponded to the customary size of marine cargo. Today, according to one survey, fifteen treadwheel harbor cranes from pre-industrial times are still extant throughout Europe. Some harbour cranes were specialised at mounting masts to newly built sailing ships, such as in Gdańsk, Cologne and Bremen. Beside these stationary cranes, floating cranes, which could be flexibly deployed in the whole port basin came into use by the 14th century. A sheer hulk (or shear hulk) was used in shipbuilding and repair as a floating crane in the days of sailing ships, primarily to place the lower masts of a ship under construction or repair. Booms known as sheers were attached to the base of a hulk's lower masts or beam, supported from the top of those masts. Blocks and tackle were then used in such tasks as placing or removing the lower masts of the vessel under construction or repair. These lower masts were the largest and most massive single timbers aboard a ship, and erecting them without the assistance of either a sheer hulk or land-based masting sheer was extremely difficult. The concept of sheer hulks originated with the Royal Navy in the 1690s, and persisted in Britain until the early nineteenth century. Most sheer hulks were decommissioned warships; *Chatham*, built in 1694, was the first of only three purpose-built vessels. There were at least six sheer hulks in service in Britain at any time throughout the 1700s. The concept spread to France in the 1740s with the commissioning of a sheer hulk at the port of Rochefort. ### Early modern age A lifting tower similar to that of the ancient Romans was used to great effect by the Renaissance architect Domenico Fontana in 1586 to relocate the 361 t heavy Vatican obelisk in Rome. From his report, it becomes obvious that the coordination of the lift between the various pulling teams required a considerable amount of concentration and discipline, since, if the force was not applied evenly, the excessive stress on the ropes would make them rupture. Cranes were also used domestically during this period. The chimney or fireplace crane was used to swing pots and kettles over the fire and the height was adjusted by a trammel. * Examples of early modern cranes * Erection of the Vatican obelisk in 1586 by means of a lifting towerErection of the Vatican obelisk in 1586 by means of a lifting tower * Old photo of a 15th-century crane on the south tower of the cathedral before completionAn 1868 photo of a 15th-century crane on the unfinished south tower of Cologne Cathedral * Fireplace craneFireplace crane ### Industrial revolution With the onset of the Industrial Revolution the first modern cranes were installed at harbours for loading cargo. In 1838, the industrialist and businessman William Armstrong designed a water-powered hydraulic crane. His design used a ram in a closed cylinder that was forced down by a pressurized fluid entering the cylinder and a valve regulated the amount of fluid intake relative to the load on the crane. This mechanism, the hydraulic jigger, then pulled on a chain to lift the load. In 1845 a scheme was set in motion to provide piped water from distant reservoirs to the households of Newcastle. Armstrong was involved in this scheme and he proposed to Newcastle Corporation that the excess water pressure in the lower part of town could be used to power one of his hydraulic cranes for the loading of coal onto barges at the Quayside. He claimed that his invention would do the job faster and more cheaply than conventional cranes. The corporation agreed to his suggestion, and the experiment proved so successful that three more hydraulic cranes were installed on the Quayside. The success of his hydraulic crane led Armstrong to establish the Elswick works at Newcastle, to produce his hydraulic machinery for cranes and bridges in 1847. His company soon received orders for hydraulic cranes from Edinburgh and Northern Railways and from Liverpool Docks, as well as for hydraulic machinery for dock gates in Grimsby. The company expanded from a workforce of 300 and an annual production of 45 cranes in 1850, to almost 4,000 workers producing over 100 cranes per year by the early 1860s. Armstrong spent the next few decades constantly improving his crane design; his most significant innovation was the hydraulic accumulator. Where water pressure was not available on site for the use of hydraulic cranes, Armstrong often built high water towers to provide a supply of water at pressure. However, when supplying cranes for use at New Holland on the Humber Estuary, he was unable to do this, because the foundations consisted of sand. He eventually produced the hydraulic accumulator, a cast-iron cylinder fitted with a plunger supporting a very heavy weight. The plunger would slowly be raised, drawing in water, until the downward force of the weight was sufficient to force the water below it into pipes at great pressure. This invention allowed much larger quantities of water to be forced through pipes at a constant pressure, thus increasing the crane's load capacity considerably. One of his cranes, commissioned by the Italian Navy in 1883 and in use until the mid-1950s, is still standing in Venice, where it is now in a state of disrepair. Mechanical principles --------------------- There are three major considerations in the design of cranes. First, the crane must be able to lift the weight of the load; second, the crane must not topple; third, the crane must not rupture. * Examples of Mechanical principles * Crane movements * Broken crane in Sermetal Shipyard, former Ishikawajima do Brasil – Rio de Janeiro. The cause of the accident was a lack of maintenance and misuse of the equipment.Broken crane in Sermetal Shipyard, former Ishikawajima do Brasil – Rio de Janeiro. The cause of the accident was a lack of maintenance and misuse of the equipment. * Cranes can mount many different utensils, depending on load (left). Cranes can be remote-controlled from the ground, allowing much more precise control, but without the view that a position atop the crane provides (right).Cranes can mount many different utensils, depending on load (left). Cranes can be remote-controlled from the ground, allowing much more precise control, but without the view that a position atop the crane provides (right). ### Stability For stability, the sum of all moments about the base of the crane must be close to zero so that the crane does not overturn. In practice, the magnitude of load that is permitted to be lifted (called the "rated load" in the US) is some value less than the load that will cause the crane to tip, thus providing a safety margin. Under United States standards for mobile cranes, the stability-limited rated load for a crawler crane is 75% of the tipping load. The stability-limited rated load for a mobile crane supported on outriggers is 85% of the tipping load. These requirements, along with additional safety-related aspects of crane design, are established by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers in the volume ASME B30.5-2018 *Mobile and Locomotive Cranes*. Standards for cranes mounted on ships or offshore platforms are somewhat stricter because of the dynamic load on the crane due to vessel motion. Additionally, the stability of the vessel or platform must be considered. For stationary pedestal or kingpost mounted cranes, the moment produced by the boom, jib, and load is resisted by the pedestal base or kingpost. Stress within the base must be less than the yield stress of the material or the crane will fail. Types ----- ### Mobile There are four principal types of mobile cranes: truck mounted, rough-terrain, crawler, and floating. #### Truck-mounted The most basic truck-mounted crane configuration is a "boom truck" or "lorry loader", which features a rear-mounted rotating telescopic-boom crane mounted on a commercial truck chassis. Larger, heavier duty, purpose-built "truck-mounted" cranes are constructed in two parts: the carrier, often called the *lower*, and the lifting component, which includes the boom, called the *upper*. These are mated together through a turntable, allowing the upper to swing from side to side. These modern hydraulic truck cranes are usually single-engine machines, with the same engine powering the undercarriage and the crane. The upper is usually powered via hydraulics run through the turntable from the pump mounted on the lower. In older model designs of hydraulic truck cranes, there were two engines. One in the lower pulled the crane down the road and ran a hydraulic pump for the outriggers and jacks. The one in the upper ran the upper through a hydraulic pump of its own. Many older operators favor the two-engine system due to leaking seals in the turntable of aging newer design cranes. Hiab invented the world's first hydraulic truck mounted crane in 1947. The name, Hiab, comes from the commonly used abbreviation of Hydrauliska Industri AB, a company founded in Hudiksvall, Sweden 1944 by Eric Sundin, a ski manufacturer who saw a way to utilize a truck's engine to power loader cranes through the use of hydraulics. Generally, these cranes are able to travel on highways, eliminating the need for special equipment to transport the crane unless weight or other size constrictions are in place such as local laws. If this is the case, most larger cranes are equipped with either special trailers to help spread the load over more axles or are able to disassemble to meet requirements. An example is counterweights. Often a crane will be followed by another truck hauling the counterweights that are removed for travel. In addition some cranes are able to remove the entire upper. However, this is usually only an issue in a large crane and mostly done with a conventional crane such as a Link-Belt HC-238. When working on the job site, outriggers are extended horizontally from the chassis then vertically to level and stabilize the crane while stationary and hoisting. Many truck cranes have slow-travelling capability (a few miles per hour) while suspending a load. Great care must be taken not to swing the load sideways from the direction of travel, as most anti-tipping stability then lies in the stiffness of the chassis suspension. Most cranes of this type also have moving counterweights for stabilization beyond that provided by the outriggers. Loads suspended directly aft are the most stable, since most of the weight of the crane acts as a counterweight. Factory-calculated charts (or electronic safeguards) are used by crane operators to determine the maximum safe loads for stationary (outriggered) work as well as (on-rubber) loads and travelling speeds. Truck cranes range in lifting capacity from about 14.5 short tons (12.9 long tons; 13.2 t) to about 2,240 short tons (2,000 long tons; 2,032 t). Although most only rotate about 180 degrees, the more expensive truck mounted cranes can turn a full 360 degrees. * Examples of truck mounted cranes * Automobile crane of the Railway Troops of RussiaAutomobile crane of the Railway Troops of Russia * Liebherr truck mounted crane building a bridgeLiebherr truck mounted crane building a bridge * A Grove truck-mounted crane in road travel configurationA Grove truck-mounted crane in road travel configuration * A model of a crane carried by a flatbed truckA model of a crane carried by a flatbed truck #### Rough terrain A rough terrain crane has a boom mounted on an undercarriage atop four rubber tires that is designed for off-road pick-and-carry operations. Outriggers are used to level and stabilize the crane for hoisting. These telescopic cranes are single-engine machines, with the same engine powering the undercarriage and the crane, similar to a crawler crane. The engine is usually mounted in the undercarriage rather than in the upper, as with crawler crane. Most have 4 wheel drive and 4 wheel steering for traversing tighter and slicker terrain than a standard truck crane, with less site prep. #### Crawler A crawler crane has its boom mounted on an undercarriage fitted with a set of crawler tracks that provide both stability and mobility. Crawler cranes range in lifting capacity from about 40 to 4,000 long tons (44.8 to 4,480.0 short tons; 40.6 to 4,064.2 t) as seen from the XGC88000 crawler crane. The main advantage of a crawler crane is its ready mobility and use, since the crane is able to operate on sites with minimal improvement and stable on its tracks without outriggers. Wide tracks spread the weight out over a great area and are far better than wheels at traversing soft ground without sinking in. A crawler crane is also capable of traveling with a load. Its main disadvantage is its weight, making it difficult and expensive to transport. Typically a large crawler must be disassembled at least into boom and cab and moved by trucks, rail cars or ships to its next location. #### Floating Floating cranes are used mainly in bridge building and port construction, but they are also used for occasional loading and unloading of especially heavy or awkward loads on and off ships. Some floating cranes are mounted on pontoons, others are specialized crane barges with a lifting capacity exceeding 10,000 short tons (8,929 long tons; 9,072 t) and have been used to transport entire bridge sections. Floating cranes have also been used to salvage sunken ships. Crane vessels are often used in offshore construction. The largest revolving cranes can be found on SSCV *Sleipnir*, which has two cranes with a capacity of 10,000 tonnes (11,023 short tons; 9,842 long tons) each. For 50 years, the largest such crane was "Herman the German" at the Long Beach Naval Shipyard, one of three constructed by Nazi Germany and captured in the war. The crane was sold to the Panama Canal in 1996 where it is now known as *Titan*. #### Other types ##### Reach stacker A reach stacker is a vehicle used for handling intermodal cargo containers in small terminals or medium-sized ports. Reach stackers are able to transport a container short distances very quickly and pile them in various rows depending on its access. ##### All terrain An all-terrain crane is a hybrid combining the roadability of a truck-mounted and on-site maneuverability of a rough-terrain crane. It can both travel at speed on public roads and maneuver on rough terrain at the job site using all-wheel and crab steering. AT's have 2–12 axles and are designed for lifting loads up to 2,000 tonnes (2,205 short tons; 1,968 long tons). ##### Pick and carry A pick and carry crane is similar to a mobile crane in that is designed to travel on public roads; however, pick and carry cranes have no stabiliser legs or outriggers and are designed to lift the load and carry it to its destination, within a small radius, then be able to drive to the next job. Pick and carry cranes are popular in Australia, where large distances are encountered between job sites. One popular manufacturer in Australia was Franna, who have since been bought by Terex, and now all pick and carry cranes are commonly called "Frannas", even though they may be made by other manufacturers. Nearly every medium- and large-sized crane company in Australia has at least one and many companies have fleets of these cranes. The capacity range is between 10 and 40 t (9.8 and 39.4 long tons; 11 and 44 short tons) as a maximum lift, although this is much less as the load gets further from the front of the crane. Pick and carry cranes have displaced the work usually completed by smaller truck cranes, as the set-up time is much quicker. Many steel fabrication yards also use pick and carry cranes, as they can "walk" with fabricated steel sections and place these where required with relative ease. ##### Sidelifter A sidelifter crane is a road-going truck or semi-trailer, able to hoist and transport ISO standard containers. Container lift is done with parallel crane-like hoists, which can lift a container from the ground or from a railway vehicle. ##### Carry deck A carry deck crane is a small 4 wheel crane with a 360-degree rotating boom placed right in the centre and an operators cab located at one end under this boom. The rear section houses the engine and the area above the wheels is a flat deck. Very much an American invention the Carry deck can hoist a load in a confined space and then load it on the deck space around the cab or engine and subsequently move to another site. The Carry Deck principle is the American version of the pick and carry crane and both allow the load to be moved by the crane over short distances. ##### Telescopic handler Telescopic handlers are forklift-like trucks that have a set of forks mounted on a telescoping extendable boom like a crane. Early telescopic handlers only lifted in one direction and did not rotate; however, several of the manufacturers have designed telescopic handlers that rotate 360 degrees through a turntable and these machines look almost identical to the Rough Terrain Crane. These new 360-degree telescopic handler/crane models have outriggers or stabiliser legs that must be lowered before lifting; however, their design has been simplified so that they can be more quickly deployed. These machines are often used to handle pallets of bricks and install frame trusses on many new building sites and they have eroded much of the work for small telescopic truck cranes. Many of the world's armed forces have purchased telescopic handlers and some of these are the much more expensive fully rotating types. Their off-road capability and their on site versatility to unload pallets using forks, or lift like a crane make them a valuable piece of machinery. ##### Harbour Dry bulk or container cranes usually in the bay areas or inland water ways. ##### Travel lift A travel lift (also called a boat gantry crane, or boat crane) is a crane with two rectangular side panels joined by a single spanning beam at the top of one end. The crane is mobile with four groups of steerable wheels, one on each corner. These cranes allow boats with masts or tall super structures to be removed from the water and transported around docks or marinas. Not to be confused mechanical device used for transferring a vessel between two levels of water, which is also called a boat lift. ##### Railroad A railroad crane has flanged wheels for use on railroads. The simplest form is a crane mounted on a flatcar. More capable devices are purpose-built. Different types of crane are used for maintenance work, recovery operations and freight loading in goods yards and scrap handling facilities. ##### Aerial Aerial cranes or "sky cranes" usually are helicopters designed to lift large loads. Helicopters are able to travel to and lift in areas that are difficult to reach by conventional cranes. Helicopter cranes are most commonly used to lift loads onto shopping centers and high-rise buildings. They can lift anything within their lifting capacity, such as air conditioning units, cars, boats, swimming pools, etc. They also perform disaster relief after natural disasters for clean-up, and during wild-fires they are able to carry huge buckets of water to extinguish fires. Some aerial cranes, mostly concepts, have also used lighter-than air aircraft, such as airships. ##### Climbing crane Instead of setting up a large crane to construct a wind turbine tower, a smaller climbing crane can help build the tower, climb with it to the top, lift the generator housing to its top, add the rotor blades, then climb down. This has been introduced by Lagerwey Wind and Enercon. ##### Straddle carrier A Straddle carrier moves and stacks intermodal containers. ### Fixed Exchanging mobility for the ability to carry greater loads and reach greater heights due to increased stability, these types of cranes are characterised by the fact that their main structure does not move during the period of use. However, many can still be assembled and disassembled. The structures basically are fixed in one place. #### Ring Ring cranes are some of the largest and heaviest land-based cranes ever designed. A ring-shaped track support the main superstructure allowing for extremely heavy loads (up to thousands of tonnes). #### Tower Tower cranes are a modern form of balance crane that consist of the same basic parts. Fixed to the ground on a concrete slab (and sometimes attached to the sides of structures), tower cranes often give the best combination of height and lifting capacity and are used in the construction of tall buildings. The base is then attached to the mast which gives the crane its height. Further, the mast is attached to the slewing unit (gear and motor) that allows the crane to rotate. On top of the slewing unit there are three main parts which are: the long horizontal jib (working arm), shorter counter-jib, and the operator's cab. Optimization of tower crane location in the construction sites has an important effect on material transportation costs of a project. The long horizontal jib is the part of the crane that carries the load. The counter-jib carries a counterweight, usually of concrete blocks, while the jib suspends the load to and from the center of the crane. The crane operator either sits in a cab at the top of the tower or controls the crane by radio remote control from the ground. In the first case the operator's cab is most usually located at the top of the tower attached to the turntable, but can be mounted on the jib, or partway down the tower. The lifting hook is operated by the crane operator using electric motors to manipulate wire rope cables through a system of sheaves. The hook is located on the long horizontal arm to lift the load which also contains its motor. In order to hook and unhook the loads, the operator usually works in conjunction with a signaller (known as a "dogger", "rigger" or "swamper"). They are most often in radio contact, and always use hand signals. The rigger or dogger directs the schedule of lifts for the crane, and is responsible for the safety of the rigging and loads. Tower cranes can achieve a height under hook of over 100 metres. * Examples of tower cranes * Tower crane atop Mont BlancTower crane atop Mont Blanc * Tower crane cabinTower crane cabin * Tower crane with "luffing" jibTower crane with "luffing" jib * A tower crane rotates on its axis before lowering the lifting hook. ##### Components Tower cranes are used extensively in construction and other industry to hoist and move materials. There are many types of tower cranes. Although they are different in type, the main parts are the same, as follows: * **Mast**: the main supporting tower of the crane. It is made of steel trussed sections that are connected together during installation. * **Slewing unit**: the slewing unit sits at the top of the mast. This is the engine that enables the crane to rotate. * **Operating cabin**: on most tower cranes the operating cabin sits just above the slewing unit. It contains the operating controls, load-movement indicator system (LMI), scale, anemometer, etc. * **Jib**: the jib, or operating arm, extends horizontally from the crane. A "luffing" jib is able to move up and down; a fixed jib has a rolling trolley that runs along the underside to move goods horizontally. * **Counter jib**: holds counterweights, hoist motor, hoist drum and the electronics. * **Hoist winch**: the hoist winch assembly consists of the hoist winch (motor, gearbox, hoist drum, hoist rope, and brakes), the hoist motor controller, and supporting components, such as the platform. Many tower cranes have transmissions with two or more speeds. * **Hook**: the hook (or hooks) is used to connect the material to the crane. It is suspended from the hoist rope either at the tip, for luffing jib cranes, or in the hoist rope belly underneath the trolley for hammerhead cranes. * **Weights**: Large, moveable concrete counterweights are mounted toward the rear of the counterdeck, to compensate for the weight of the goods lifted and keep the center of gravity over the supporting tower. ##### Assembly A tower crane is usually assembled by a telescopic jib (mobile) crane of greater reach (also see "self-erecting crane" below) and in the case of tower cranes that have risen while constructing very tall skyscrapers, a smaller crane (or derrick) will often be lifted to the roof of the completed tower to dismantle the tower crane afterwards, which may be more difficult than the installation. Tower cranes can be operated by remote control, removing the need for the crane operator to sit in a cab atop the crane. ##### Operation Each model and distinctive style of tower crane has a predetermined lifting chart that can be applied to any radii available, depending on its configuration. Similar to a mobile crane, a tower crane may lift an object of far greater mass closer to its center of rotation than at its maximum radius. An operator manipulates several levers and pedals to control each function of the crane. ##### Safety When a tower crane is used in proximity to buildings, roads, power lines, or other tower cranes, a tower crane anti-collision system is used. This operator support system reduces the risk of a dangerous interaction occurring between a tower crane and another structure. In some countries, such as France, tower crane anti-collision systems are mandatory. #### Self-erecting tower cranes Generally a type of pedestrian operated tower crane, self-erecting tower cranes are transported as a single unit and can be assembled by a qualified technician without the assistance of a larger mobile crane. They are bottom slewing cranes that stand on outriggers, have no counter jib, have their counterweights and ballast at the base of the mast, cannot climb themselves, have a reduced capacity compared to standard tower cranes, and seldom have an operator's cabin. In some cases, smaller self-erecting tower cranes may have axles permanently fitted to the tower section to make maneuvering the crane onsite easier. Tower cranes can also use a hydraulic-powered jack frame to raise themselves to add new tower sections without any additional other cranes assisting beyond the initial assembly stage. This is how it can grow to nearly any height needed to build the tallest skyscrapers when tied to a building as the building rises. The maximum unsupported height of a tower crane is around 265 ft. For a video of a crane getting taller, see "Crane Building Itself" on YouTube. For another animation of such a crane in use, see "SAS Tower Construction Simulation" on YouTube. Here, the crane is used to erect a scaffold, which, in turn, contains a gantry to lift sections of a bridge spire. #### Telescopic A telescopic crane has a boom that consists of a number of tubes fitted one inside the other. A hydraulic cylinder or other powered mechanism extends or retracts the tubes to increase or decrease the total length of the boom. These types of booms are often used for short term construction projects, rescue jobs, lifting boats in and out of the water, etc. The relative compactness of telescopic booms makes them adaptable for many mobile applications. Though not all telescopic cranes are mobile cranes, many of them are truck-mounted. A telescopic tower crane has a telescopic mast and often a superstructure (jib) on top so that it functions as a tower crane. Some telescopic tower cranes also have a telescopic jib. #### Hammerhead The "hammerhead", or giant cantilever, crane is a fixed-jib crane consisting of a steel-braced tower on which revolves a large, horizontal, double cantilever; the forward part of this cantilever or jib carries the lifting trolley, the jib is extended backwards in order to form a support for the machinery and counterbalancing weight. In addition to the motions of lifting and revolving, there is provided a so-called "racking" motion, by which the lifting trolley, with the load suspended, can be moved in and out along the jib without altering the level of the load. Such horizontal movement of the load is a marked feature of later crane design. These cranes are generally constructed in large sizes and can weigh up to 350 tons[*which?*]. The design of *Hammerkran* evolved first in Germany around the turn of the 19th century and was adopted and developed for use in British shipyards to support the battleship construction program from 1904 to 1914. The ability of the hammerhead crane to lift heavy weights was useful for installing large pieces of battleships such as armour plate and gun barrels. Giant cantilever cranes were also installed in naval shipyards in Japan and in the United States. The British government also installed a giant cantilever crane at the Singapore Naval Base (1938) and later a copy of the crane was installed at Garden Island Naval Dockyard in Sydney (1951). These cranes provided repair support for the battle fleet operating far from Great Britain. In the British Empire, the engineering firm Sir William Arrol & Co. was the principal manufacturer of giant cantilever cranes; the company built a total of fourteen. Among the sixty built in the world, few remain; seven in England and Scotland of about fifteen worldwide. The Titan Clydebank is one of the four Scottish cranes on the River Clyde and preserved as a tourist attraction. #### Level luffing Normally a crane with a hinged jib will tend to have its hook also move up and down as the jib moves (or *luffs*). A level luffing crane is a crane of this common design, but with an extra mechanism to keep the hook at the same level when luffing. #### Overhead An overhead crane, also known as a bridge crane, is a type of crane where the hook-and-line mechanism runs along a horizontal beam that itself runs along two widely separated rails. Often it is in a long factory building and runs along rails along the building's two long walls. It is similar to a gantry crane. Overhead cranes typically consist of either a single beam or a double beam construction. These can be built using typical steel beams or a more complex box girder type. Pictured on the right is a single bridge box girder crane with the hoist and system operated with a control pendant. Double girder bridge are more typical when needing heavier capacity systems from 10 tons[*which?*] and above. The advantage of the box girder type configuration results in a system that has a lower deadweight yet a stronger overall system integrity. Also included would be a hoist to lift the items, the bridge, which spans the area covered by the crane, and a trolley to move along the bridge. The most common overhead crane use is in the steel industry. At every step of the manufacturing process, until it leaves a factory as a finished product, steel is handled by an overhead crane. Raw materials are poured into a furnace by crane, hot steel is stored for cooling by an overhead crane, the finished coils are lifted and loaded onto trucks and trains by overhead crane, and the fabricator or stamper uses an overhead crane to handle the steel in his factory. The automobile industry uses overhead cranes for handling of raw materials. Smaller workstation cranes handle lighter loads in a work-area, such as CNC mill or saw. Almost all paper mills use bridge cranes for regular maintenance requiring removal of heavy press rolls and other equipment. The bridge cranes are used in the initial construction of paper machines because they facilitate installation of the heavy cast iron paper drying drums and other massive equipment, some weighing as much as 70 tons. In many instances the cost of a bridge crane can be largely offset with savings from not renting mobile cranes in the construction of a facility that uses a lot of heavy process equipment. #### Electric overhead traveling crane This is most common type of overhead crane, found in many factories. These cranes are electrically operated by a control pendant, radio/IR remote pendant, or from an operator cabin attached to the crane. #### Gantry A gantry crane has a hoist in a fixed machinery house or on a trolley that runs horizontally along rails, usually fitted on a single beam (mono-girder) or two beams (twin-girder). The crane frame is supported on a gantry system with equalized beams and wheels that run on the gantry rail, usually perpendicular to the trolley travel direction. These cranes come in all sizes, and some can move very heavy loads, particularly the extremely large examples used in shipyards or industrial installations. A special version is the container crane (or "Portainer" crane, named by the first manufacturer), designed for loading and unloading ship-borne containers at a port. Most container cranes are of this type. #### Deck Located on the ships and boats, these are used for cargo operations or boat unloading and retrieval where no shore unloading facilities are available. Most are diesel-hydraulic or electric-hydraulic. #### Jib A jib crane is a type of crane where a horizontal member (*jib* or *boom*), supporting a moveable hoist, is fixed to a wall or to a floor-mounted pillar. Jib cranes are used in industrial premises and on military vehicles. The jib may swing through an arc, to give additional lateral movement, or be fixed. Similar cranes, often known simply as hoists, were fitted on the top floor of warehouse buildings to enable goods to be lifted to all floors. #### Bulk-handling Bulk-handling cranes are designed from the outset to carry a shell grab or bucket, rather than using a hook and a sling. They are used for bulk cargoes, such as coal, minerals, scrap metal etc. #### Loader A loader crane (also called a *knuckle-boom crane* or *articulating crane*) is an hydraulically powered articulated arm fitted to a truck or trailer, and is used for loading/unloading the vehicle cargo. The numerous jointed sections can be folded into a small space when the crane is not in use. One or more of the sections may be telescopic. Often the crane will have a degree of automation and be able to unload or stow itself without an operator's instruction. Unlike most cranes, the operator must move around the vehicle to be able to view his load; hence modern cranes may be fitted with a portable cabled or radio-linked control system to supplement the crane-mounted hydraulic control levers. In the United Kingdom and Canada, this type of crane is often known colloquially as a "Hiab", partly because this manufacturer invented the loader crane and was first into the UK market, and partly because the distinctive name was displayed prominently on the boom arm. A **rolloader** crane is a loader crane mounted on a chassis with wheels. This chassis can ride on the trailer. Because the crane can move on the trailer, it can be a light crane, so the trailer is allowed to transport more goods. #### Stacker A crane with a forklift type mechanism used in automated (computer-controlled) warehouses (known as an automated storage and retrieval system (AS/RS)). The crane moves on a track in an aisle of the warehouse. The fork can be raised or lowered to any of the levels of a storage rack and can be extended into the rack to store and retrieve the product. The product can in some cases be as large as an automobile. Stacker cranes are often used in the large freezer warehouses of frozen food manufacturers. This automation avoids requiring forklift drivers to work in below-freezing temperatures every day. #### Block-setting crane A **block-setting crane** is a form of crane. They were used for installing the large stone blocks used to build breakwaters, moles and stone piers. Efficiency increase of cranes ----------------------------- Lifetime of existing cranes made of welded metal structures can often be extended for many years by aftertreatment of welds. During development of cranes, load level (lifting load) can be significantly increased by taking into account the IIW recommendations, leading in most cases to an increase of the permissible lifting load and thus to an efficiency increase. Similar machines ---------------- The generally accepted definition of a crane is a machine for lifting and moving heavy objects by means of ropes or cables suspended from a movable arm. As such, a lifting machine that does not use cables, or else provides only vertical and not horizontal movement, cannot strictly be called a 'crane'. Types of crane-like lifting machine include: * Block and tackle * Capstan (nautical) * Hoist (device) * Winch * Windlass * Cherry picker More technically advanced types of such lifting machines are often known as "cranes", regardless of the official definition of the term. Special examples ---------------- * Finnieston Crane, a.k.a. the *Stobcross Crane*  – Category A-listed example of a "hammerhead" (cantilever) crane in Glasgow's former docks, built by the William Arrol company.  – 50 m (164 ft) tall, 175 tonnes (172 long tons; 193 short tons) capacity, built 1926 * Taisun  – double bridge crane at Yantai, China.  – 20,000 tonnes (22,046 short tons; 19,684 long tons) capacity, World Record Holder  – 133 m (436 ft) tall, 120 m (394 ft) span, lift-height 80 m (262 ft) * Kockums Crane  – shipyard crane formerly at Kockums, Sweden.  – 138 m (453 ft) tall, 1,500 tonnes (1,500 long tons; 1,700 short tons) capacity, since moved to Ulsan, South Korea * Samson and Goliath (cranes)  – two gantry cranes at the Harland & Wolff shipyard in Belfast built by Krupp  – *Goliath* is 96 m (315 ft) tall, *Samson* is 106 m (348 ft)  – span 140 m (459 ft), lift-height 70 m (230 ft), capacity 840 tonnes (830 long tons; 930 short tons) each, 1,600 tonnes (1,600 long tons; 1,800 short tons) combined * Breakwater Crane Railway  – self-propelled steam crane that formerly ran the length of the breakwater at Douglas.  – ran on 10 ft (3,048 mm) gauge track, the broadest in the British Isles * Liebherr TCC 78000  – Heavy-duty gantry crane used for heavy lifting operated in Rostock, Germany.  – 1,600 tonnes (1,570 long tons; 1,760 short tons) capacity, 112 m (367 ft) lift-height Crane operators --------------- Crane operators are skilled workers and heavy equipment operators. Key skills that are needed for a crane operator include: * An understanding of how to use and maintain machines and tools * Good team working skills * Attention to details * Good spatial awareness. * Patience and the ability to stay calm in stressful situations Terminology ----------- * Luffing * Slewing * Hoisting See also -------- * Accredited Crane Operator Certification * Banksman * Cherry picker * Davit * Floating sheerleg * Gantry crane * Lifting devices with one, two, and three legs: + derrick + sheers + gyn * Overhead crane * Pallet * Patient lift * Sidelifter * Steam shovel * Taisun * Telescopic handler **History of cranes**

Crane (machine)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crane_(machine)

**Verona** (/vəˈroʊnə/ *və-ROH-nə*, Italian: [veˈroːna] (); Venetian: *Verona* or *Veròna*) is a city on the Adige River in Veneto, Italy, with 258,031 inhabitants. It is one of the seven provincial capitals of the region, and is the largest city municipality in the region and the second largest in northeastern Italy. The metropolitan area of Verona covers an area of 1,426 km2 (550.58 sq mi) and has a population of 714,310 inhabitants. It is one of the main tourist destinations in northern Italy because of its artistic heritage and several annual fairs and shows as well as the opera season in the Arena, an ancient Roman amphitheater. Between the 13th and 14th century, the city was ruled by the della Scala Family. Under the rule of the family, in particular of Cangrande I della Scala, the city experienced great prosperity, becoming rich and powerful and being surrounded by new walls. The Della Scala era is preserved in numerous monuments around Verona. Two of William Shakespeare's plays are set in Verona: *Romeo and Juliet* (which also features Romeo's visit to Mantua) and *The Two Gentlemen of Verona*. It is unknown if Shakespeare ever visited Verona or Italy, but his plays have lured many visitors to Verona and surrounding cities. Verona was also the birthplace of Isotta Nogarola, who is said to be the first major female humanist and one of the most important humanists of the Renaissance. In November 2000 the city was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO because of its urban structure and architecture. The city is scheduled to host the 2026 Winter Olympics closing ceremonies. History ------- The precise details of Verona's early history remain a mystery along with the origin of the name. One theory is it was a city of the Euganei, who were obliged to give it up to the Cenomani (550 BC). With the conquest of the Valley of the Po, the Veronese territory became Roman (about 300 BC). Verona became a Roman *colonia* in 89 BC. It was classified as a *municipium* in 49 BC, when its citizens were ascribed to the Roman tribe *Poblilia* or *Publicia*. The city became important because it was at the intersection of several roads. Stilicho defeated Alaric and his Visigoths here in 402. But, after Verona was conquered by the Ostrogoths in 489, the Gothic domination of Italy began. Theoderic the Great was said to have built a palace there. It remained under the power of the Goths throughout the Gothic War (535–552), except for a single day in 541, when the Byzantine officer Artabazes made an entrance. The defections of the Byzantine generals over the booty made it possible for the Goths to regain possession of the city. In 552 Valerian vainly endeavored to enter the city, but it was only when the Goths were fully overthrown that they surrendered it. In 569, it was taken by Alboin, King of the Lombards, in whose kingdom it was, in a sense, the second most important city. There, Alboin was killed by his wife in 572. The dukes of Treviso often resided there. Adalgisus, son of Desiderius, in 774 made his last desperate resistance in Verona to Charlemagne, who had destroyed the Lombard kingdom. Verona became the ordinary residence of the kings of Italy, the government of the city becoming hereditary in the family of Count Milo, progenitor of the counts of San Bonifacio. From 880 to 951 the two Berengarii resided there. Under Holy Roman and Austrian rule, Verona was alternately known in German as *Bern*, *Welsch-Bern* or *Dietrichsbern*. Otto I ceded to Verona the marquisate dependent on the Duchy of Bavaria, however, the increasing wealth of the burgher families eclipsed the power of the counts, and in 1135 Verona was organised as a free commune. In 1164 Verona joined with Vicenza, Padua and Treviso to create the Veronese League, which was integrated with the Lombard League in 1167 to battle against Frederick I Barbarossa. Victory was achieved at the Battle of Legnano in 1176, and the Treaty of Venice signed in 1177 followed by the Peace of Constance in 1183. When Ezzelino III da Romano was elected *podestà* in 1226, he converted the office into a permanent lordship. In 1257 he caused the slaughter of 11,000 Paduans on the plain of Verona (Campi di Verona).[*clarification needed*] Upon his death, the Great Council elected Mastino I della Scala as podestà, and he converted the "signoria" into a family possession, though leaving the burghers a share in the government. Failing to be re-elected podestà in 1262, he affected a coup d'état, and was acclaimed Capitano del Popolo, with the command of the communal troops. Long internal discord took place before he succeeded in establishing this new office, to which was attached the function of confirming the podestà. In 1277, Mastino della Scala was killed by the faction of the nobles. The reign of his son Alberto as capitano (1277–1302) was a time of incessant war against the counts of San Bonifacio, who were aided by the House of Este. Of his sons, Bartolomeo, Alboino and Cangrande I, only the last shared the government (1308); he was great as warrior, prince, and patron of the arts; he protected Dante, Petrarch, and Giotto. By war or treaty, he brought under his control the cities of Treviso (1308), Vicenza (1311), and Padua (1328). At that time before the Black death, the city was home to more than 40,000 people. Cangrande was succeeded by Mastino II (1329–1351) and Alberto, sons of Alboino. Mastino continued his uncle's policy, conquering Brescia in 1332 and carrying his power beyond the Mincio. He purchased Parma (1335) and Lucca (1339). After the King of France, he was the richest prince of his time. But a powerful league was formed against him in 1337 – Florence, Venice, the Visconti, the Este, and the Gonzaga. After a three years war, the Scaliger dominions were reduced to Verona and Vicenza (Mastino's daughter Regina-Beatrice della Scala married to Barnabò Visconti). Mastino's son Cangrande II (1351–1359) was a cruel, dissolute, and suspicious tyrant; not trusting his own subjects, he surrounded himself with Brandenburg mercenaries. He was killed by his brother Cansignorio (1359–1375), who beautified the city with palaces, provided it with aqueducts and bridges, and founded the state treasury. He also killed his other brother, Paolo Alboino. Fratricide seems to have become a family custom, for Antonio (1375–1387), Cansignorio's natural brother, slew his brother Bartolomeo, thereby arousing the indignation of the people, who deserted him when Gian Galeazzo Visconti of Milan made war on him. Having exhausted all his resources, he fled from Verona at midnight (19 October 1387), thus putting an end to the Scaliger domination, which, however, survived in its monuments. The year 1387 is also the year of the Battle of Castagnaro, between Giovanni Ordelaffi, for Verona, and John Hawkwood, for Padua, who was the winner. Antonio's son Canfrancesco attempted in vain to recover Verona (1390). Guglielmo (1404), natural son of Cangrande II, was more fortunate; with the support of the people and the Carraresi, he drove out the Milanese, but he died ten days after. After a period of Cararrese rule, Verona submitted to Venice (1405). The last representatives of the Scaligeri lived at the imperial court and repeatedly attempted to recover Verona by the aid of popular risings. From 1508 to 1517, the city was in the power of the Emperor Maximilian I. There were numerous outbreaks of the plague, and in 1629–1633, Italy was struck by its worst outbreak in modern times. Around 33,000 people died in Verona (over 60% of the population at the time) in 1630–1631. In 1776, a method of bellringing was developed called Veronese bellringing art. Verona was occupied by Napoleon in 1797, but on Easter Monday the populace rose and drove out the French. It was then that Napoleon made an end of the Venetian Republic. Verona became Austrian territory when Napoleon signed the Treaty of Campo Formio in October 1797. The Austrians took control of the city on 18 January 1798. It was taken from Austria by the Treaty of Pressburg in 1805 and became part of Napoleon's Kingdom of Italy, but was returned to Austria following Napoleon's defeat in 1814, when it became part of the Austrian-held Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia. The Congress of Verona, which met on 20 October 1822, was part of the series of international conferences or congresses, opening with the Congress of Vienna in 1814–1815, that marked the continuing enforcement of the "Concert of Europe". In 1866, following the Third Italian War of Independence, Verona, along with the rest of Venetia, became part of a united Italy. The advent of fascism added another dark chapter to the annals of Verona. Throughout Italy, the Jewish population was hit by the Manifesto of Race, a series of anti-Semitic laws passed in 1938, and after the invasion by Nazi Germany in 1943, deportations to Nazi concentration camps. An Austrian Fort (now a church, the Santuario della Madonna di Lourdes), was used to incarcerate and torture Allied troops, Jews and anti-fascists, especially after 1943, when Verona became part of the Italian Social Republic. As in Austrian times, Verona became of great strategic importance to the regime. Galeazzo Ciano, Benito Mussolini's son-in-law, was accused of plotting against the republic; in a show trial staged in January 1944 by the Nazi and fascist hierarchy at Castelvecchio (the Verona trial), Ciano was executed on the banks of the Adige with many other officers on what is today Via Colombo. This marked another turning point in the escalation of violence that would only end with the final liberation by allied troops and partisans on 26 April 1945. After World War II, as Italy joined the NATO alliance, Verona once again acquired its strategic importance, due to its geographical closeness to the Iron Curtain. The city became the seat of SETAF (South European Allied Terrestrial Forces) and had during the whole duration of the Cold War period a strong military presence, especially American, which has since decreased. Geography --------- ### Climate Verona has a humid subtropical climate characteristic of Northern Italy's inland plains, with hot summers and cool, humid winters, even though Lake Garda has a partial influence on the city. The relative humidity is high throughout the year, especially in winter when it causes fog, mainly from dusk until late morning, although the phenomenon has become less and less frequent in recent years. | Climate data for Verona (1971–2000, extremes 1946–present) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 19.8(67.6) | 22.1(71.8) | 27.2(81.0) | 31.8(89.2) | 36.6(97.9) | 38(100) | 38.2(100.8) | 39.0(102.2) | 33.2(91.8) | 29.2(84.6) | 23.6(74.5) | 18.8(65.8) | 39.0(102.2) | | Average high °C (°F) | 6.1(43.0) | 8.9(48.0) | 13.4(56.1) | 17.2(63.0) | 22.7(72.9) | 26.3(79.3) | 29.2(84.6) | 28.8(83.8) | 24.4(75.9) | 18.0(64.4) | 11.0(51.8) | 6.7(44.1) | 17.7(63.9) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 2.5(36.5) | 4.5(40.1) | 8.4(47.1) | 12.0(53.6) | 17.2(63.0) | 20.8(69.4) | 23.6(74.5) | 23.3(73.9) | 19.0(66.2) | 13.3(55.9) | 7.1(44.8) | 3.1(37.6) | 12.9(55.2) | | Average low °C (°F) | −1.2(29.8) | 0.1(32.2) | 3.4(38.1) | 6.8(44.2) | 11.7(53.1) | 15.4(59.7) | 18.0(64.4) | 17.8(64.0) | 13.7(56.7) | 8.7(47.7) | 3.2(37.8) | −0.4(31.3) | 8.1(46.6) | | Record low °C (°F) | −18.4(−1.1) | −18.4(−1.1) | −10.4(13.3) | −2.2(28.0) | 0.0(32.0) | 3.8(38.8) | 7.3(45.1) | 8.1(46.6) | 2.0(35.6) | −4.6(23.7) | −7.9(17.8) | −15.5(4.1) | −18.4(−1.1) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 50.9(2.00) | 43.3(1.70) | 48.7(1.92) | 70.4(2.77) | 74.2(2.92) | 87.2(3.43) | 62.6(2.46) | 81.7(3.22) | 76.2(3.00) | 91.0(3.58) | 64.8(2.55) | 52.5(2.07) | 803.5(31.63) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 6.8 | 5.1 | 6.0 | 8.9 | 8.6 | 8.6 | 5.5 | 5.8 | 6.0 | 7.4 | 7.1 | 6.2 | 82.0 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 85 | 78 | 73 | 75 | 73 | 73 | 73 | 74 | 76 | 81 | 84 | 84 | 77 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 94 | 102 | 156 | 180 | 241 | 255 | 304 | 262 | 199 | 158 | 72 | 81 | 2,104 | | Source 1: Servizio Meteorologico (humidity 1961–1990) | | Source 2: Danish Meteorological Institute (sun, 1931–1960) | Demographics ------------ 2017 largest resident foreign-born groups| Country of birth | Population | | --- | --- | | Romania Romania | 12,520 | | Sri Lanka Sri Lanka | 7,234 | | Moldova Moldova | 5,008 | | Nigeria Nigeria | 3,233 | | Morocco Morocco | 2,857 | | Albania Albania | 2,500 | | China China | 1,975 | | Ghana Ghana | 1,444 | In 2009, 265,368 people were residing in Verona, located in the province of Verona, Veneto, of whom 47.6% were male and 52.4% were female. Minors (children aged 0–17) totaled 16.05% of the population compared to pensioners who number 22.36%. This compares with the Italian average of 18.06% (minors) and 19.94% (pensioners). The average age of Verona residents is 43 compared to the Italian average of 42. In the five years between 2002 and 2007, the population of Verona grew by 3.05%, while Italy as a whole grew by 3.85%. The current birth rate of Verona is 9.24 births per 1,000 inhabitants compared to the Italian average of 9.45 births. As of 2009[update], 87% of the population was Italian. The largest immigrant group comes from other European nations (the largest coming from Romania): 3.60%, South Asia: 2.03%, and sub-saharan Africa 1.50%. The city is predominantly Roman Catholic, but due to immigration now has some Orthodox Christian, and Muslim followers. Government ---------- Since the local government political reorganization in 1993, Verona has been governed by the City Council of Verona, which is based in *Palazzo Barbieri*. Voters elect directly 33 councilors and the Mayor of Verona every five years. Verona is also the capital of its own province. The Provincial Council is seated in *Palazzo del Governo*. The current Mayor of Verona is Damiano Tommasi, elected on 26 June 2022. Verona has traditionally been a right-wing traditionalist Catholic city, reflecting its former status as one of the major cities of Italian Social Republic, and the right-wing politics of the Veneto region. In October 2018, Verona became the first city in Italy to declare itself pro-life, and hosted the American Christian right lobby group World Congress of Families' conference in 2019. Despite this, since the mayors became directly elected in 1994, the city has elected two left-wing mayors - Paolo Zanotto in 2002 and current mayor Damiano Tommasi in 2022, largely due to incumbent mayor Federico Sboarina's refusal to include center-right parties in his right-wing coalition. Main sights ----------- Because of the value and importance of its many historical buildings, Verona has been named a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Verona preserved many ancient Roman monuments (including the magnificent Arena) in the early Middle Ages, but many of its early medieval edifices were destroyed or heavily damaged by the earthquake of 3 January 1117, which led to a massive Romanesque rebuilding. The Carolingian period *Versus de Verona* contains an important description of Verona in the early medieval era. ### Roman edifices The Roman military settlement in what is now the center of the city was to expand through the cardines and decumani that intersect at right angles. This structure has been kept to the present day and is clearly visible from the air. Further development has not reshaped the original map. Though the Roman city with its basalt-paved roads is mostly hidden from view it stands virtually intact about 6 m below the surface. Most palazzi and houses have cellars built on Roman structures that are rarely accessible to visitors. Piazza delle Erbe, near the Roman forum was rebuilt by Cangrande I and Cansignorio della Scala I, lords of Verona, using material (such as marble blocks and statues) from Roman spas and villas. Verona is famous for its Roman amphitheater, the Arena, found in the city's largest piazza, the Piazza Bra. Completed around 30 AD, it is the third-largest in Italy after Rome's Colosseum and the arena at Capua. It measures 139 meters long and 110 meters wide, and could seat some 25,000 spectators in its 44 tiers of marble seats. The *ludi* (shows and gladiator games) performed within its walls were so famous that they attracted spectators from far beyond the city. The current two-story façade is actually the internal support for the tiers; only a fragment of the original outer perimeter wall in white and pink limestone from Valpolicella, with three stories remains. The interior is very impressive and is virtually intact, and has remained in use even today for public events, fairs, theatre, and open-aired opera during warm summer nights. There is also a variety of other Roman monuments to be found in the town, such as the Roman theatre of Verona. This theatre was built in the 1st century BC, but through the ages had fallen in disuse and had been built upon to provide housing. In the 18th century Andrea Monga, a wealthy Veronese, bought all the houses that in time had been built over the theatre, demolished them, and saved the monument. Not far from it is the Ponte di Pietra ("Stone Wall Bridge"), another Roman landmark that has survived to this day. The *Arco dei Gavi* (Gavi Arch) was built in the 1st century AD and is famous for having the name of the builder (architect Lucius Vitruvius Cordone) engraved on it, a rare case in the architecture of the epoque. It originally straddled the main Roman road into the city, now the Corso Cavour. It was demolished by French troops in 1805 and rebuilt in 1932. Nearby is the *Porta Borsari*, an archway at the end of Corso Porta Borsari. This is the façade of a 3rd-century gate in the original Roman city walls. The inscription is dated 245 AD and gives the city name as *Colonia Verona Augusta*. Corso Porta Borsari, the road passing through the gate is the original Via Sacra of the Roman city. Today, it is lined with several Renaissance palazzi and the ancient Church of Santi Apostoli, a few meters from Piazza delle Erbe. *Porta Leoni* is the 1st century BC ruin of what was once part of the Roman city gate. A substantial portion is still standing as part of the wall of a medieval building. The street itself is an open archaeological site, and the remains of the original Roman street and gateway foundations can be seen a few feet below the present street level. As can be seen from there, the gate contains a small court guarded by towers. Here, carriages and travelers were inspected before entering or leaving the city. *Santo Stefano* church is dedicated to the first Christian martyr, was erected in the Paleochristian era, and houses the burials of the first bishops of Verona. Throughout the centuries Saint Stephen underwent complex architectural transformations. Particularly striking is the rare two-story ambulatory, probably built to give pilgrims visual access to the abundant collection of important relics for which the church was famous. Also to be visited is the cruciform crypt with its forest of columns, arches, and cross vaults. Saint Stephen was the first Christian martyr and, according to the Acts of the Apostles, was stoned just outside Jerusalem, in a place still remembered today, near the so-called "Porta Leoni". ### Medieval architecture * The *Basilica of San Zeno Maggiore* is a Romanesque style church, the third such structure on its site, built from 1123 to 1135, over the 4th-century shrine to Verona's patron saint, St. Zeno (bishop of Verona from 362 to 380 when he died). The façade dominates the large square, and is flanked with a 72-meter-tall bell tower, which is mentioned by Dante in Canto 18 of Purgatory in the Divine Comedy. The weathered Veronese stone gives a warm golden glow, and the restrained lines of the pillars, columns, and cornices, and the gallery with its double windows, give the façade an air of harmonious elegance. The huge rose window is decorated as a Wheel of Fortune. The lintels above the portal have carvings of the months of the year. Each side of the doorway is embellished with 18 bas-relief panels of biblical scenes, and the inner bronze door panels have 48 primitive but forceful depictions of Biblical scenes and episodes from the life of St Zeno. The meaning of some of the scenes is now unknown, but the extraordinarily vivid energy of the figures is a superb blend of traditional and Ottonian influences. The interior of the church is divided into the Lower Church, occupying about ⅔ of the structure, and the Upper Church, occupying the remainder. The walls are covered with 12th and 14th century frescos and the ceiling of the nave is a magnificent example of a ship's keel ceiling. The vaulted crypt contains the tomb of St. Zeno, the first Bishop of Verona, as well as the tombs of several other saints. North of the church is a pleasant cloister. The church also houses the tomb of King Pippin of Italy (777–810). * The *Basilica of San Lorenzo* is another Romanesque church, albeit smaller. It dates from around 1177, but was built on the site of a Paleochristian church, fragments of which remain. The church is built of alternating tracks of brick and stone, and has two cylindrical towers, housing spiral staircases to the women's galleries. The interior is sober but still quiet. The striped bands of stone and brick and the graceful arches complement the setting. * *Santa Maria Antica* is a small Romanesque church that served as the private chapel of the Scaligeri clan, and is famous for the Gothic Scaliger Tombs. The *Duomo* is also a notable Romanesque church. * Sant'Anastasia is a huge and lofty church built from 1290 to 1481 by the Dominicans to hold the massive congregations attracted by their sermons. The Pellegrini chapel houses the fresco *St. George and the Princess of Trebizond* by Pisanello as well as the grave of Wilhelm von Bibra. An art festival is held in the square each may. With a span length of 48.70 m (159.78 ft), the segmental arch bridge Ponte Scaligero featured, at the time of its completion in 1356, the world's largest bridge arch. Notable people -------------- * Aleardo Aleardi (1812–1878), a poet * Berto Barbarani (1872–1945), poet * Paolo Bellasio (1554–1594), composer of the Renaissance; member of the Roman School * Stefano Bernardi (1580–1637), baroque composer * Massimo Bubola, singer-songwriter born in Terrazzo * Paolo Caliari (1528–1588), well known as "Veronese", painter * Lou Campi (1905–1989), professional bowler * Mario Capecchi (born 1937), Nobel prize in Medicine, 2007 * Giovanni Francesco Caroto, painter * Catullus, Latin poet * Walter Chiari, actor * Gigliola Cinquetti, a singer who brought Italy its first Eurovision Song Contest win in 1964 * Lorenzo Comendich, painter * Damiano Cunego, former world number 1 cyclist and former Giro d'Italia winner * Giorgio de Stefani, tennis player, finalist at the 1932 French Open * Franco Donatoni, composer * Gino Fano, mathematician * Girolamo Fracastoro, also known as Fracastorius, renowned scholar, physician, and poet * Giovanni Giocondo, architect and scholar * Girolamo dai Libri, illuminator of manuscripts and painter * Romano Guardini, theologian * Claudio Guglielmoni, retired professional football player * Marc' Antonio Ingegneri, composer, teacher of Claudio Monteverdi * Ernestine von Kirchsberg, Austrian landscape painter * Cesare Lombroso, criminologist * Scipione Maffei, writer and historian * Matteo Manassero, British amateur golf champion, 2009 * Arnoldo Mondadori, editor * Romeo Montague and Juliet Capulet, fictional characters from Shakespeare's play *Romeo and Juliet* * Marcantonio Negri, Baroque composer, associate of Monteverdi * Carlo Pedrotti, 19th-century composer, conductor, voice teacher, and opera administrator * St. Peter Martyr, Dominican preacher and saint * Ippolito Pindemonte, poet * Ratherius, Medieval bishop and writer * Francesca Rettondini, actress * Carlo Rovelli, physicist and writer * Vincenzo Ruffo, composer of the Renaissance * Emilio Salgari, novelist * Antonio Salieri, composer * Michele Sammicheli, architect * Sara Simeoni, the former world high jump primatist and Olympic gold medalist * Marco Stroppa, composer * Bartolomeo Tromboncino, composer of the Renaissance period * Giorgio Zancanaro, baritone * Achille Lauro, singer, rapper, and songwriter who will represent San Marino in the Eurovision Song Contest 2022 Verona was the birthplace of Catullus, and the town that Julius Caesar chose for relaxing stays. It has had an association with many important people and events that have been significant in the history of Europe, such as Theoderic the Great, king of Ostrogoths, Alboin and Rosamund, the Lombard Dukes, Charlemagne and Pippin of Italy, Berengar I, and Dante. Conclaves were held here, as were important congresses. Verona featured in the travel diaries of Goethe, Stendhal, Paul Valéry and Michel de Montaigne. The British writer Tim Parks has been living near Verona since the 1980s and the city is central to many of his books, notably A Season with Verona and Italian Neighbors. Sport ----- Stadio Marcantonio Bentegodi, which was used as a venue at the 1990 FIFA World Cup is home to Verona's major football clubs Hellas Verona. The city has two professional football teams nowadays. Historically, the city's major team has been Hellas Verona. They won the Italian Serie A championship in 1984–85 and played in the European Cup the following year. Chievo Verona represented Chievo, a suburb of Verona, and were created in 1929. However, they ceased to exist in 2021 due to outstanding tax payments. As of the 2021–22 season, Hellas plays in the first division of Italian football, Serie A, while Virtus Verona, the other club in the city, plays in the Serie C. The teams of Hellas and Chievo contested the Derby della Scala and shared the 38,402-seater Stadio Marcantonio Bentegodi (now only home to Hellas due to the fold of Chievo), which was used as a venue at the 1990 FIFA World Cup. Verona is home to the volleyball team Marmi Lanza Verona (now in Serie A1), the rugby team Franklin and Marshall Cus Verona Rugby (now in Serie A1), and the basketball team Scaligera Basket (now in Legadue). The city has twice hosted the UCI Road World Championships, in 1999 (with Treviso as co-host) and in 2004. The city also regularly hosts stages of the Giro d'Italia annual cycling race. Verona also hosted the baseball world cup in 2009, and the Volleyball World Cup in September–October 2010. Verona is hosting the Volleyball Women's World Championship in September–October 2014. Infrastructure and transport ---------------------------- ### Public transit Public transit has been operated by the provincial public transport company, *Azienda Trasporti Verona* (ATV), since 2007. From 1884 to 1951, the city was served by the Verona tram network [it]. Trolleybuses replaced the trams which were themselves replaced by buses in 1975. A new trolleybus network is currently under review by ATV and is expected to open in 2022. An incline lift, the Verona funicular, opened in 2017 and provides access from the Ponte Pietra to the Roman theatre museum and San Pietro Castle. ### Railways Verona lies at a major route crossing where the north–south rail line from the Brenner Pass to Rome intersects with the east–west line between Milan and Venice, giving the city rail access to most of Europe. In addition to regional and local services, the city is served by direct international trains to Zurich, Innsbruck, and Munich. ÖBB nightjet provides overnight sleeper service via Verona on its La Spezia to Wien and München lines. Verona's main station is Verona Porta Nuova railway station, to the south of the city center. It is considered to be the ninth busiest railway station in Italy, handling approximately 68,000 passengers per day, or 25 million passengers per year. There is a lesser station to the east of the city at Porta Vescovo, which used to be the main station in Verona, but now only receives trains between Venice and Porta Nuova. ### Airport Verona Airport is located 10 km (6.2 mi) southwest of Verona. It handles around 3 million passengers per year. It is linked to Porta Nuova railway station by a frequent bus service. There are direct flights between Verona and Rome Fiumicino, Munich, Berlin, Moscow, Naples, Frankfurt, Catania, London Gatwick, Dublin, Palermo, Cork, Manchester, Liverpool and Cagliari among others. International relations ----------------------- ### Twin towns – sister cities Verona is twinned with: * United States Albany, United States * South Africa Johannesburg, South Africa * Germany Munich, Germany * Japan Nagahama, Japan * France Nîmes, France * Croatia Pula, Croatia * Belgium Saint-Josse-ten-Noode, Belgium * Austria Salzburg, Austria ### Friendship pacts Verona has friendly relations with: * Peru Ayacucho, Peru * State of Palestine Bethlehem, Palestine * Greece Corfu, Greece * Germany Detmold, Germany * United States Fresno, United States * China Hangzhou, China * Russia Kazan, Russia * Albania Korçë, Albania * Slovakia Košice, Slovakia * Serbia Kragujevac, Serbia * South Korea Namwon, South Korea * China Ningbo, China * North Macedonia Prilep, North Macedonia * Israel Ra'anana, Israel * Albania Tirana, Albania * China Zhuji, China * Libya Zintan, Libya In popular culture ------------------ Two of William Shakespeare's plays, *Romeo and Juliet* and *The Two Gentlemen of Verona*, are set in the city of Verona. No evidence suggests that Shakespeare had ever been to the city. See also -------- * Idea Verona, an Italian language, art, and culture school for foreigners visiting or living in Verona

Verona

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verona

The **Black Stone** (Arabic: ٱلْحَجَرُ ٱلْأَسْوَد, **al-Ḥajaru al-Aswad**, 'Black Stone') is a rock set into the eastern corner of the Kaaba, the ancient building in the center of the Grand Mosque in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. It is revered by Muslims as an Islamic relic which, according to Muslim tradition, dates back to the time of Adam and Eve. The stone was venerated at the Kaaba in pre-Islamic pagan times. According to Islamic tradition, it was set intact into the Kaaba's wall by the Islamic prophet Muhammad in 605 CE, five years before his first revelation. Since then, it has been broken into fragments and is now cemented into a silver frame in the side of the Kaaba. Its physical appearance is that of a fragmented dark rock, polished smooth by the hands of pilgrims. Islamic tradition holds that it fell from heaven as a guide for Adam and Eve to build an altar. It has often been described as a meteorite. Muslim pilgrims circle the Kaaba as a part of the *tawaf* ritual during the *hajj* and many try to stop to kiss the Black Stone, emulating the kiss that Islamic tradition records that it received from Muhammad. While the Black Stone is revered, Islamic theologians emphasize that it has no divine significance and that its importance is historical in nature. Physical description -------------------- The Black Stone was originally a single piece of rock but today consists of several pieces that have been cemented together. They are surrounded by a silver frame which is fastened by silver nails to the Kaaba's outer wall. The fragments are themselves made up of smaller pieces which have been combined to form the seven or eight fragments visible today. The Stone's exposed face measures about 20 centimetres (7.9 in) by 16 centimetres (6.3 in). Its original size is unclear and the recorded dimensions have changed considerably over time, as the pieces have been rearranged in their cement matrix on several occasions. In the 10th century, an observer described the Black Stone as being one cubit (46 cm or 18 in) long. By the early 17th century, it was recorded as measuring 140 by 122 cm (4 ft 7 in by 4 ft 0 in). According to Ali Bey in the 18th century, it was described as 110 cm (3 ft 7 in) high, and Muhammad Ali Pasha reported it as being 76 cm (2 ft 6 in) long by 46 cm (1 ft 6 in) wide. The Black Stone is attached to the east corner of the Kaaba, known as *al-Rukn al-Aswad* (the 'Corner of the Black Stone'). Another stone, known as the *Hajar as-Sa’adah* ('Stone of Felicity') is set into the Kaaba's opposite corner, *al-Rukn al-Yamani* (the 'Yemeni Corner'), at a somewhat lower height than the Black Stone. The choice of the east corner may have had ritual significance; it faces the rain-bringing east wind (*al-qabul*) and the direction from which Canopus rises. The silver frame around the Black Stone and the black *kiswah* or cloth enveloping the Kaaba were for centuries maintained by the Ottoman Sultans in their role as Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques. The frames wore out over time due to the constant handling by pilgrims and were periodically replaced. Worn-out frames were brought back to Istanbul, where they are still kept as part of the sacred relics in the Topkapı Palace. ### Appearance of the Black Stone The Black Stone was described by European travellers to Arabia in the 19th- and early-20th centuries, who visited the Kaaba disguised as pilgrims. Swiss traveller Johann Ludwig Burckhardt visited Mecca in 1814, and provided a detailed description in his 1829 book *Travels in Arabia*: > It is an irregular oval, about seven inches [18 cm] in diameter, with an undulated surface, composed of about a dozen smaller stones of different sizes and shapes, well joined together with a small quantity of cement, and perfectly well smoothed; it looks as if the whole had been broken into as many pieces by a violent blow, and then united again. It is very difficult to determine accurately the quality of this stone which has been worn to its present surface by the millions of touches and kisses it has received. It appeared to me like a lava, containing several small extraneous particles of a whitish and of a yellow substance. Its colour is now a deep reddish brown approaching to black. It is surrounded on all sides by a border composed of a substance which I took to be a close cement of pitch and gravel of a similar, but not quite the same, brownish colour. This border serves to support its detached pieces; it is two or three inches in breadth, and rises a little above the surface of the stone. Both the border and the stone itself are encircled by a silver band, broader below than above, and on the two sides, with a considerable swelling below, as if a part of the stone were hidden under it. The lower part of the border is studded with silver nails. > > Visiting the Kaaba in 1853, Richard Francis Burton noted that: > The colour appeared to me black and metallic, and the centre of the stone was sunk about two inches below the metallic circle. Round the sides was a reddish-brown cement, almost level with the metal, and sloping down to the middle of the stone. The band is now a massive arch of gold or silver gilt. I found the aperture in which the stone is, one span and three fingers broad. > > Ritter von Laurin, the Austrian consul-general in Egypt, was able to inspect a fragment of the Stone removed by Muhammad Ali in 1817 and reported that it had a pitch-black exterior and a silver-grey, fine-grained interior in which tiny cubes of a bottle-green material were embedded. There are reportedly a few white or yellow spots on the face of the Stone, and it is officially described as being white with the exception of the face. History and tradition --------------------- The Black Stone was held in reverence well before Islam. It had long been associated with the Kaaba, which was built in the pre-Islamic period and was a site of pilgrimage of Nabataeans who visited the shrine once a year to perform their pilgrimage. The Kaaba held 360 idols of the Meccan gods.[*failed verification*] The Semitic cultures of the Middle East had a tradition of using unusual stones to mark places of worship, a phenomenon which is reflected in the Hebrew Bible as well as the Quran, while bowing, worshiping and praying to such sacred objects is also described in the Tanakh as idolatrous and was the subject of prophetic rebuke. The meteorite-origin theory of the Black Stone has seen it likened by some writers to the meteorite which was placed and worshipped in the Greek Temple of Artemis. The Kaaba has been associated with fertility rites of Arabia.[*failed verification*] Some writers remark on the apparent similarity of the Black Stone and its frame to the external female genitalia. However, the silver frame was placed on the Black Stone to secure the fragments, after the original stone was broken. A "red stone" was associated with the deity of the south Arabian city of Ghaiman, and there was a "white stone" in the Kaaba of al-Abalat (near the city of Tabala, south of Mecca). Worship at that time period was often associated with stone reverence, mountains, special rock formations, or distinctive trees. The Kaaba marked the location where the sacred world intersected with the profane, and the embedded Black Stone was a further symbol of this as an object as a link between heaven and earth. Aziz Al-Azmeh claims that the divine name *ar-Rahman* (one of the names of God in Islam and cognate to one of the Jewish names of God *Ha'Rachaman*, both meaning "the Merciful One" or "the Gracious One") was used for astral gods in Mecca and might have been associated with the Black Stone. The stone is also thought to be associated with Allat. Muhammad is said to have called the stone "the right hand of al-Rahman". ### Muhammad According to Islamic belief Muhammad is credited with setting the Black Stone in the current place in the wall of the Kaaba. A story found in Ibn Ishaq's *Sirah Rasul Allah* tells how the clans of Mecca renovated the Kaaba following a major fire which had partly destroyed the structure. The Black Stone had been temporarily removed to facilitate the rebuilding work. The clans could not agree on which one of them should have the honour of setting the Black Stone back in its place. They decided to wait for the next man to come through the gate and ask him to make the decision. That person was 35-year-old Muhammad, five years before his prophethood. He asked the elders of the clans to bring him a cloth and put the Black Stone in its centre. Each of the clan leaders held the corners of the cloth and carried the Black Stone to the right spot. Then, Muhammad set the stone in place, satisfying the honour of all of the clans. After his Conquest of Mecca in 630, Muhammad is said to have ridden round the Kaaba seven times on his camel, touching the Black Stone with his stick in a gesture of reverence. ### Desecrations The Stone has suffered repeated desecrations and damage over the course of time. It is said to have been struck and smashed to pieces by a stone fired from a catapult during the Umayyad Caliphate's siege of Mecca in 683. The fragments were rejoined by Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr using a silver ligament. In January 930, it was stolen by the Qarmatians, who carried the Black Stone away to their base in Hajar (modern Eastern Arabia). According to Ottoman historian Qutb al-Din, writing in 857, the Qarmatian leader Abu Tahir al-Jannabi set the Black Stone up in his own mosque, the *Masjid al-Dirar*, with the intention of redirecting the *hajj* away from Mecca. This failed, as pilgrims continued to venerate the spot where the Black Stone had been. According to the historian al-Juwayni, the Stone was returned twenty-three years later, in 952. The Qarmatians held the Black Stone for ransom, and forced the Abbasids to pay a huge sum for its return. It was wrapped in a sack and thrown into the Friday Mosque of Kufa, accompanied by a note saying "By command we took it, and by command we have brought it back." Its abduction and removal caused further damage, breaking the stone into seven pieces. Its abductor, Abu Tahir, is said to have met a terrible fate; according to Qutb al-Din, "the filthy Abu Tahir was afflicted with a gangrenous sore, his flesh was eaten away by worms, and he died a most terrible death." To protect the shattered stone, the custodians of the Kaaba commissioned a pair of Meccan goldsmiths to build a silver frame to surround it, and it has been enclosed in a similar frame ever since. In the 11th century, a man allegedly sent by the Fatimid caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah attempted to smash the Black Stone but was killed on the spot, having caused only slight damage. In 1674, according to Johann Ludwig Burckhardt, someone allegedly smeared the Black Stone with excrement so that "every one who kissed it retired with a sullied beard". According to the archaic Sunni belief, by the accusation of one boy, the Persian of an unknown faith was suspected of sacrilege, where Sunnis of Mecca "have turned the circumstance to their own advantage" by assaulting, beating random Persians and forbidding them from Hajj until the ban was overturned by the order of Muhammad Ali. The explorer Sir Richard Francis Burton pointed out on the alleged "excrement action" that "it is scarcely necessary to say that a Shi'a, as well as a Sunni, would look upon such an action with lively horror", and that the real culprit was "some Jew or Christian, who risked his life to gratify a furious bigotry". Ritual role ----------- The Black Stone plays a central role in the ritual of *istilam*, when pilgrims kiss the Black Stone, touch it with their hands or raise their hands towards it while repeating the takbir, "God is Greatest". They perform this in the course of walking seven times around the Kaaba in a counterclockwise direction (*tawaf*), emulating the actions of Muhammad. At the end of each circuit, they perform *istilam* and may approach the Black Stone to kiss it at the end of *tawaf*. In modern times, large crowds make it practically impossible for everyone to kiss the stone, so it is currently acceptable to point in the direction of the Stone on each of their seven circuits around the Kaaba. Some even say that the Stone is best considered simply as a marker, useful in keeping count of the ritual circumambulations that one has performed. Writing in *Dawn in Madinah: A Pilgrim's Progress*, Muzaffar Iqbal described his experience of venerating the Black Stone during a pilgrimage to Mecca: > At the end of the second [circumambulation of the Kaaba], I was granted one of those extraordinary moments which sometimes occur around the Black Stone. As I approached the Corner the large crowd was suddenly pushed back by a strong man who had just kissed the Black Stone. This push generated a backward current, creating a momentary opening around the Black Stone as I came to it; I swiftly accepted the opportunity reciting, *Bismillahi Allahu akbar wa lillahi-hamd* ["In the name of God, God is great, all praise to God"], put my hands on the Black Stone and kissed it. Thousands of silver lines sparkled, the Stone glistened, and something stirred deep inside me. A few seconds passed. Then I was pushed away by the guard. > > The Black Stone and the Kaaba's opposite corner, *al-Rukn al-Yamani*, are both often perfumed by the mosque's custodians. This can cause problems for pilgrims in the state of ihram ("consecration"), who are forbidden from using scented products and will require a *kaffara* (donation) as a penance if they touch either. Meaning and symbolism --------------------- Islamic tradition holds that the Black Stone fell from Jannah to show Adam and Eve where to build an altar, which became the first temple on Earth. Muslims believe that the stone was originally pure and dazzling white, but has since turned black because of the sins of the people who touch it. Its black colour is deemed to symbolize the essential spiritual virtue of detachment and poverty for God (*faqr*) and the extinction of ego required to progress towards God (*qalb*). According to a prophetic tradition, "Touching them both (the Black Stone and *al-Rukn al-Yamani*) is an expiation for sins." Adam's altar and the stone were said to have been lost during Noah's Flood and forgotten. Ibrahim (Abraham) was said to have later found the Black Stone at the original site of Adam's altar when the angel Jibrail revealed it to him. Ibrahim ordered his son Ismael – who in Muslim belief is an ancestor of Muhammad – to build a new temple, the Kaaba, into which the stone was to be embedded. Another tradition says that the Black Stone was originally an angel that had been placed by God in the Garden of Eden to guard Adam. The angel was absent when Adam ate the forbidden fruit and was punished by being turned into a jewel – the Black Stone. God granted it the power of speech and placed it at the top of Abu Qubays, a mountain in the historic region of Khurasan, before moving the mountain to Mecca. When Ibrahim took the Black Stone from Abu Qubays to build the Kaaba, the mountain asked Ibrahim to intercede with God so that it would not be returned to Khurasan and would stay in Mecca. Another tradition holds that it was brought down to Earth by "an angel from heaven." According to some scholars, the Black Stone was the same stone that Islamic tradition describes as greeting Muhammad before his prophethood. This led to a debate about whether the Black Stone's greeting comprised actual speech or merely a sound, and following that, whether the stone was a living creature or an inanimate object. Whichever was the case, the stone was held to be a symbol of prophethood. A hadith records that, when the second Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab (580–644) came to kiss the stone, he said in front of all assembled: "No doubt, I know that you are a stone and can neither harm anyone nor benefit anyone. Had I not seen Allah's Messenger [Muhammad] kissing you, I would not have kissed you." In the hadith collection Kanz al-Ummal, it is recorded that Ali responded to Umar, saying, "This stone (Hajar Aswad) can indeed benefit and harm. ... Allah says in Quran that he created human beings from the progeny of Adam and made them witness over themselves and asked them, 'Am I not your creator?' Upon this, all of them confirmed it. Thus Allah wrote this confirmation. And this stone has a pair of eyes, ears and a tongue and it opened its mouth upon the order of Allah, who put that confirmation in it and ordered to witness it to all those worshippers who come for Hajj." Muhammad Labib al-Batanuni, writing in 1911, commented on the practice that the pre-Islamic practice of venerating stones (including the Black Stone) arose not because such stones are "sacred for their own sake, but because of their relation to something holy and respected". The Indian Islamic scholar Muhammad Hamidullah summed up the meaning of the Black Stone: > [T]he Prophet has named the (Black Stone) the "right hand of God" (*yamin-Allah*), and for purpose. In fact one poses there one's hand to conclude the pact, and God obtains there our pact of allegiance and submission. In the quranic terminology, God is the king, and ... in (his) realm there is a metropolis (*Umm al-Qurra*) and in the metropolis naturally a palace (*Bait-Allah*, home of God). If a subject wants to testify to his loyalty, he has to go to the royal palace and conclude personally the pact of allegiance. The right hand of the invisible God must be visible symbolically. And that is the *al-Hajar al-Aswad*, the Black Stone in the Ka'bah. > > In recent years several literalist views of the Black Stone have emerged. A small minority accepts as literally true a *hadith*, usually taken as allegorical, which asserts that "the Stone will appear on the Day of Judgement (Qiyamah) with eyes to see and a tongue to speak, and give evidence in favour of all who kissed it in true devotion, but speak out against whoever indulged in gossip or profane conversations during his circumambulation of the Kaaba". Scientific origins ------------------ The nature of the Black Stone has been much debated. It has been described variously as basalt stone, an agate, a piece of natural glass or—most popularly—a stony meteorite. Paul Partsch [de], the curator of the Austro-Hungarian imperial collection of minerals, published the first comprehensive analysis of the Black Stone in 1857, in which he favoured a meteoritic origin for the stone. Robert Dietz and John McHone proposed in 1974 that the Black Stone was actually an agate, judging from its physical attributes and a report by an Arab geologist that the stone contained clearly discernible diffusion banding characteristic of agates. A significant clue to its nature is provided by an account of the stone's recovery in 951 CE, after it had been stolen 21 years earlier. According to a chronicler, the stone was identified by its ability to float in water. If this account is accurate, it would rule out the Black Stone being an agate, a basalt lava, or a stony meteorite, though it would be compatible with it being glass or pumice. Elsebeth Thomsen of the University of Copenhagen proposed a different hypothesis in 1980. She suggested that the Black Stone may be a glass fragment, or impactite, from the impact of a fragmented meteorite that fell 6,000 years ago at Wabar, a site in the Rub' al Khali desert 1,100 km east of Mecca. A 2004 scientific analysis of the Wabar site suggests that the impact event happened much more recently than first thought and might have occurred within the last 200–300 years. The meteoritic hypothesis is viewed by geologists as doubtful. The British Natural History Museum suggests that it may be a pseudometeorite; in other words, a terrestrial rock mistakenly attributed to a meteoritic origin. The Black Stone has never been analysed with modern scientific techniques and its origins remain the subject of speculation. See also -------- * Baetylus References ---------- 21°25′21.02″N 39°49′34.58″E / 21.4225056°N 39.8262722°E / 21.4225056; 39.8262722

Black Stone

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Stone

**Ganesha** (Sanskrit: गणेश, IAST: **Gaṇeśa**), also spelled **Ganesh**, and also known as **Ganapati**, **Vinayaka**, and **Pillaiyar**, is one of the best-known and most worshipped deities in the Hindu pantheon and is the Supreme God in the Ganapatya sect. His depictions are found throughout India. Hindu denominations worship him regardless of affiliations. Devotion to Ganesha is widely diffused and extends to Jains and Buddhists and beyond India. Although Ganesha has many attributes, he is readily identified by his elephant head. He is widely revered, more specifically, as the remover of obstacles and thought to bring good luck; the patron of arts and sciences; and the deva of intellect and wisdom. As the god of beginnings, he is honoured at the start of rites and ceremonies. Ganesha is also invoked as a patron of letters and learning during writing sessions. Several texts relate mythological anecdotes associated with his birth and exploits. While scholars differ about his origins dating him between 1st century BCE and 2nd century CE, Ganesha was well established by the 4th and 5th centuries CE, during the Gupta period and had inherited traits from Vedic and pre-Vedic precursors. Hindu mythology identifies him as the son of Parvati and Shiva of the Shaivism tradition, but he is a pan-Hindu god found in its various traditions. In the *Ganapatya* tradition of Hinduism, Ganesha is the Supreme Being. The principal texts on Ganesha include the *Ganesha Purana*, the *Mudgala Purana* and the *Ganapati Atharvasirsha*. Etymology and other names ------------------------- Ganesha has been ascribed many other titles and epithets, including *Ganapati* (*Ganpati*), *Vighneshvara*, and Pillaiyar. The Hindu title of respect *Shri* (Sanskrit: श्री; IAST: **śrī**; also spelled *Sri* or *Shree*) is often added before his name. The name *Ganesha* is a Sanskrit compound, joining the words *gana* (*gaṇa*), meaning a 'group, multitude, or categorical system' and *isha* (*īśa*), meaning 'lord or master'. The word *gaṇa* when associated with Ganesha is often taken to refer to the gaṇas, a troop of semi-divine beings that form part of the retinue of Shiva, Ganesha's father. The term more generally means a category, class, community, association, or corporation. Some commentators interpret the name "Lord of the *Gaṇas*" to mean "Lord of Hosts" or "Lord of created categories", such as the elements. *Ganapati* (गणपति; *gaṇapati*), a synonym for *Ganesha*, is a compound composed of **gaṇa**, meaning "group", and **pati**, meaning "ruler" or "lord". Though the earliest mention of the word *Ganapati* is found in hymn 2.23.1 of the 2nd-millennium BCE *Rigveda*, it is however uncertain that the Vedic term referred specifically to Ganesha. The *Amarakosha*, an early Sanskrit lexicon, lists eight synonyms of *Ganesha*: *Vinayaka*, **Vighnarāja** (equivalent to *Vighnesha*), **Dvaimātura** (one who has two mothers), **Gaṇādhipa** (equivalent to *Ganapati* and *Ganesha*), *Ekadanta* (one who has one tusk), *Heramba*, *Lambodara* (one who has a pot belly, or, literally, one who has a hanging belly), and *Gajanana* (**gajānana**); having the face of an elephant. *Vinayaka* (विनायक; **vināyaka**) or *Binayaka* is a common name for Ganesha that appears in the *Purāṇa*s and in Buddhist Tantras. This name is reflected in the naming of the eight famous Ganesha temples in Maharashtra known as the *Ashtavinayak* (Marathi: अष्टविनायक, *aṣṭavināyaka*). The names *Vighnesha* (विघ्नेश; **vighneśa**) and *Vighneshvara* (विघ्नेश्वर; **vighneśvara**) (Lord of Obstacles) refers to his primary function in Hinduism as the master and remover of obstacles (**vighna**). A prominent name for Ganesha in the Tamil language is *Pillai* (Tamil: பிள்ளை) or *Pillaiyar* (பிள்ளையார்). A. K. Narain differentiates these terms by saying that *pillai* means a "child" while *pillaiyar* means a "noble child". He adds that the words *pallu*, *pella*, and *pell* in the Dravidian family of languages signify "tooth or tusk", also "elephant tooth or tusk". Anita Raina Thapan notes that the root word *pille* in the name *Pillaiyar* might have originally meant "the young of the elephant", because the Pali word *pillaka* means "a young elephant". In the Burmese language, Ganesha is known as *Maha Peinne* (မဟာပိန္နဲ, pronounced [məhà pèiɰ̃né]), derived from Pali *Mahā Wināyaka* (မဟာဝိနာယက). The widespread name of Ganesha in Thailand is *Phra Phikanet*. The earliest images and mention of Ganesha names as a major deity in present-day Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam date from the 7th and 8th centuries, and these mirror Indian examples of the 5th century or earlier. In Sri Lankan, among Sinhalese Buddhists, he is known as *Gana deviyo*, and revered along with Buddha, Vishnu, Skanda and others deities. Iconography ----------- Ganesha is a popular figure in Indian art. Unlike those of some deities, representations of Ganesha show wide variations and distinct patterns changing over time. He may be portrayed standing, dancing, heroically taking action against demons, playing with his family as a boy, sitting down on an elevated seat, or engaging in a range of contemporary situations. Ganesha images were prevalent in many parts of India by the 6th century CE. The 13th-century statue pictured is typical of Ganesha statuary from 900 to 1200, after Ganesha had been well-established as an independent deity with his own sect. This example features some of Ganesha's common iconographic elements. A virtually identical statue has been dated between 973 and 1200 by Paul Martin-Dubost, and another similar statue is dated c. 12th century by Pratapaditya Pal. Ganesha has the head of an elephant and a big belly. This statue has four arms, which is common in depictions of Ganesha. He holds his own broken tusk in his lower-right hand and holds a delicacy, which he samples with his trunk, in his lower-left hand. The motif of Ganesha turning his trunk sharply to his left to taste a sweet in his lower-left hand is a particularly archaic feature. A more primitive statue in one of the Ellora Caves with this general form has been dated to the 7th century. Details of the other hands are difficult to make out on the statue shown. In the standard configuration, Ganesha typically holds an axe or a goad in one upper arm and a pasha (noose) in the other upper arm. In rare instances, he may be depicted with a human head. The influence of this old constellation of iconographic elements can still be seen in contemporary representations of Ganesha. In one modern form, the only variation from these old elements is that the lower-right hand does not hold the broken tusk but is turned towards the viewer in a gesture of protection or fearlessness (Abhaya mudra). The same combination of four arms and attributes occurs in statues of Ganesha dancing, which is a very popular theme. ### Common attributes Ganesha has been represented with the head of an elephant since the early stages of his appearance in Indian art. Puranic myths provide many explanations for how he got his elephant head. One of his popular forms, *Heramba-Ganapati*, has five elephant heads, and other less-common variations in the number of heads are known. While some texts say that Ganesha was born with an elephant head, he acquires the head later in most stories. The most recurrent motif in these stories is that Ganesha was created by Parvati using clay to protect her and Shiva beheaded him when Ganesha came between Shiva and Parvati. Shiva then replaced Ganesha's original head with that of an elephant. Details of the battle and where the replacement head came from vary from source to source. Another story says that Ganesha was created directly by Shiva's laughter. Because Shiva considered Ganesha too alluring, he gave him the head of an elephant and a protruding belly. Ganesha's earliest name was *Ekadanta* (One Tusked), referring to his single whole tusk, the other being broken. Some of the earliest images of Ganesha show him holding his broken tusk. The importance of this distinctive feature is reflected in the *Mudgala Purana*, which states that the name of Ganesha's second incarnation is Ekadanta. Ganesha's protruding belly appears as a distinctive attribute in his earliest statuary, which dates to the Gupta period (4th to 6th centuries). This feature is so important that according to the *Mudgala Purana*, two different incarnations of Ganesha use names based on it: *Lambodara* (Pot Belly, or, literally, Hanging Belly) and *Mahodara* (Great Belly). Both names are Sanskrit compounds describing his belly (IAST: **udara**). The *Brahmanda Purana* says that Ganesha has the name Lambodara because all the universes (i.e., cosmic eggs; IAST: **brahmāṇḍas**) of the past, present, and future are present in him. 6th-century Ganesha Statue in Badami caves temples, depicting Ganesha with two armsGanesha in Bronze from 13th century Vijayanagar Empire, depicting Ganesha with four arms The number of Ganesha's arms varies; his best-known forms have between two and sixteen arms. Many depictions of Ganesha feature four arms, which is mentioned in Puranic sources and codified as a standard form in some iconographic texts. His earliest images had two arms. Forms with 14 and 20 arms appeared in Central India during the 9th and the 10th centuries. The serpent is a common feature in Ganesha iconography and appears in many forms. According to the *Ganesha Purana*, Ganesha wrapped the serpent Vasuki around his neck. Other depictions of snakes include use as a sacred thread (IAST: **yajñyopavīta**) wrapped around the stomach as a belt, held in a hand, coiled at the ankles, or as a throne. Upon Ganesha's forehead may be a third eye or the sectarian mark (IAST: *tilaka*), which consists of three horizontal lines. The *Ganesha Purana* prescribes a *tilaka* mark as well as a crescent moon on the forehead. A distinct form of Ganesha called *Bhalachandra* (IAST: **bhālacandra**; "Moon on the Forehead") includes that iconographic element. Ganesha is often described as red in colour. Specific colours are associated with certain forms. Many examples of color associations with specific meditation forms are prescribed in the Sritattvanidhi, a treatise on Hindu iconography. For example, white is associated with his representations as *Heramba-Ganapati* and *Rina-Mochana-Ganapati* (Ganapati Who Releases from Bondage). *Ekadanta-Ganapati* is visualised as blue during meditation in that form. ### Vahanas The earliest Ganesha images are without a vahana (mount/vehicle). Of the eight incarnations of Ganesha described in the *Mudgala Purana*, Ganesha uses a mouse (shrew) in five of them, a lion in his incarnation as *Vakratunda*, a peacock in his incarnation as *Vikata*, and Shesha, the divine serpent, in his incarnation as *Vighnaraja*. *Mohotkata* uses a lion, **Mayūreśvara** uses a peacock, *Dhumraketu* uses a horse, and *Gajanana* uses a mouse, in the four incarnations of Ganesha listed in the *Ganesha Purana*. Jain depictions of Ganesha show his vahana variously as a mouse, elephant, tortoise, ram, or peacock. Ganesha is often shown riding on or attended by a mouse. Martin-Dubost says that the rat began to appear as the principal vehicle in sculptures of Ganesha in central and western India during the 7th century; the rat was always placed close to his feet. The mouse as a mount first appears in written sources in the *Matsya Purana* and later in the *Brahmananda Purana* and *Ganesha Purana*, where Ganesha uses it as his vehicle in his last incarnation. The Ganapati Atharvashirsa includes a meditation verse on Ganesha that describes the mouse appearing on his flag. The names **Mūṣakavāhana** (mouse-mount) and **Ākhuketana** (rat-banner) appear in the *Ganesha Sahasranama*. The mouse is interpreted in several ways. According to Grimes, "Many, if not most of those who interpret *Gaṇapati*'s mouse, do so negatively; it symbolizes **tamoguṇa** as well as desire". Along these lines, Michael Wilcockson says it symbolises those who wish to overcome desires and be less selfish. Krishan notes that the rat is destructive and a menace to crops. The Sanskrit word **mūṣaka** (mouse) is derived from the root **mūṣ** (stealing, robbing). It was essential to subdue the rat as a destructive pest, a type of *vighna* (impediment) that needed to be overcome. According to this theory, showing Ganesha as master of the rat demonstrates his function as *Vigneshvara* (Lord of Obstacles) and gives evidence of his possible role as a folk *grāma-devatā* (village deity) who later rose to greater prominence. Martin-Dubost notes a view that the rat is a symbol suggesting that Ganesha, like the rat, penetrates even the most secret places. Features -------- ### Removal of obstacles The central icon of Ganesha at the Dagadusheth Halwai Ganapati temple. The central icon of Ganesha at the Dagadusheth Halwai Ganapati temple. Ganesha is *Vighneshvara* (*Vighnaraja,* Marathi – *Vighnaharta)*, the Lord of Obstacles, both of a material and spiritual order. He is popularly worshipped as a remover of obstacles, though traditionally he also places obstacles in the path of those who need to be checked. Hence, he is often worshipped by the people before they begin anything new. Paul Courtright says that Ganesha's *dharma* and his raison d'être is to create and remove obstacles. Krishan notes that some of Ganesha's names reflect shadings of multiple roles that have evolved over time. Dhavalikar ascribes the quick ascension of Ganesha in the Hindu pantheon, and the emergence of the *Ganapatyas*, to this shift in emphasis from **vighnakartā** (obstacle-creator) to **vighnahartā** (obstacle-averter). However, both functions continue to be vital to his character. ### Buddhi (Intelligence) Ganesha is considered to be the Lord of letters and learning. In Sanskrit, the word *buddhi* is an active noun that is variously translated as intelligence, wisdom, or intellect. The concept of buddhi is closely associated with the personality of Ganesha, especially in the Puranic period, when many stories stress his cleverness and love of intelligence. One of Ganesha's names in the *Ganesha Purana* and the *Ganesha Sahasranama* is *Buddhipriya*. This name also appears in a list of 21 names at the end of the *Ganesha Sahasranama* that Ganesha says are especially important. The word *priya* can mean "fond of", and in a marital context it can mean "lover" or "husband", so the name may mean either "Fond of Intelligence" or "Buddhi's Husband". ### Om Ganesha is identified with the Hindu mantra Om. The term **oṃkārasvarūpa** (Om is his form), when identified with Ganesha, refers to the notion that he personifies the primal sound. The *Ganapati Atharvashirsa* attests to this association. Chinmayananda translates the relevant passage as follows: > (O Lord Ganapati!) You are (the Trimurti) Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesa. You are Indra. You are fire [Agni] and air [*Vāyu*]. You are the sun [*Sūrya*] and the moon [Chandrama]. You are Brahman. You are (the three worlds) Bhuloka [earth], Antariksha-loka [space], and Swargaloka [heaven]. You are Om. (That is to say, You are all this). > > Some devotees see similarities between the shape of Ganesha's body in iconography and the shape of Om in the Devanāgarī and Tamil scripts. ### First chakra According to Kundalini yoga, Ganesha resides in the first chakra, called Muladhara (*mūlādhāra*). *Mula* means "original, main"; *adhara* means "base, foundation". The muladhara chakra is the principle on which the manifestation or outward expansion of primordial Divine Force rests. This association is also attested to in the *Ganapati Atharvashirsa*. Courtright translates this passage as follows: "You continually dwell in the sacral plexus at the base of the spine [*mūlādhāra cakra*]." Thus, Ganesha has a permanent abode in every being at the Muladhara. Ganesha holds, supports and guides all other chakras, thereby "governing the forces that propel the wheel of life". Family and consorts ------------------- Though Ganesha is popularly held to be the son of Shiva and Parvati, the Puranic texts give different versions about his birth. In some he was created by Parvati, or by Shiva or created by Shiva *and* Parvati, in another he appeared mysteriously and was discovered by Shiva and Parvati or he was born from the elephant headed goddess Malini after she drank Parvati's bath water that had been thrown in the river. The family includes his brother, the god of war, Kartikeya, who is also called Skanda and Murugan. Regional differences dictate the order of their births. In northern India, Skanda is generally said to be the elder, while in the south, Ganesha is considered the firstborn. In northern India, Skanda was an important martial deity from about 500 BCE to about 600 CE, after which worship of him declined significantly. As Skanda fell, Ganesha rose. Several stories tell of sibling rivalry between the brothers and may reflect sectarian tensions. Ganesha's marital status, the subject of considerable scholarly review, varies widely in mythological stories. One pattern of myths identifies Ganesha as an unmarried *brahmachari*. This view is common in southern India and parts of northern India. Another popularly-accepted mainstream pattern associates him with the concepts of *Buddhi* (intellect), *Siddhi* (spiritual power), and *Riddhi* (prosperity); these qualities are personified as goddesses, said to be Ganesha's wives. He also may be shown with a single consort or a nameless servant (Sanskrit: **daşi**). Another pattern connects Ganesha with the goddess of culture and the arts, Sarasvati or *Śarda* (particularly in Maharashtra). He is also associated with the goddess of luck and prosperity, Lakshmi. Another pattern, mainly prevalent in the Bengal region, links Ganesha with the banana tree, Kala Bo. The *Shiva Purana* says that Ganesha had begotten two sons: *Kşema* (safety) and *Lābha* (profit). In northern Indian variants of this story, the sons are often said to be *Śubha* (auspiciousness) and *Lābha*. The 1975 Hindi film *Jai Santoshi Maa* shows Ganesha married to Riddhi and Siddhi and having a daughter named Santoshi Ma, the goddess of satisfaction. This story has no Puranic basis, but Anita Raina Thapan and Lawrence Cohen cite Santoshi Ma's cult as evidence of Ganesha's continuing evolution as a popular deity. Worship and festivals --------------------- Ganesha is worshipped on many religious and secular occasions, especially at the beginning of ventures such as buying a vehicle or starting a business. K.N Soumyaji says, "there can hardly be a [Hindu] home [in India] which does not house an idol of Ganapati. ... Ganapati, being the most popular deity in India, is worshipped by almost all castes and in all parts of the country". Devotees believe that if Ganesha is propitiated, he grants success, prosperity and protection against adversity. Ganesha is a non-sectarian deity. Hindus of all denominations invoke him at the beginning of prayers, important undertakings, and religious ceremonies. Dancers and musicians, particularly in southern India, begin art performances such as the Bharatanatyam dance with a prayer to Ganesha. Mantras such as *Om Shri *Gaṇeshāya* Namah* (Om, salutation to the Illustrious Ganesha) are often used. One of the most famous mantras associated with Ganesha is *Om *Gaṃ* Ganapataye Namah* (Om, *Gaṃ*, Salutation to the Lord of Hosts). Devotees offer Ganesha sweets such as modaka and small sweet balls called laddus. He is often shown carrying a bowl of sweets, called a **modakapātra**. Because of his identification with the color red, he is often worshipped with red sandalwood paste (*raktachandana*) or red flowers. *Dūrvā* grass (*Cynodon dactylon*) and other materials are also used in his worship. Festivals associated with Ganesh are Ganesha Chaturthi or Vināyaka chaturthī in the **śuklapakṣa** (the fourth day of the waxing moon) in the month of *Bhadrapada* (August/September) and the Ganesh Jayanti (Ganesha's birthday) celebrated on the *cathurthī* of the **śuklapakṣa** (fourth day of the waxing moon) in the month of *magha* (January/February)." ### Ganesha Chaturthi An annual festival honours Ganesha for ten days, starting on Ganesha Chaturthi, which typically falls in late August or early September. The festival begins with people bringing in clay idols of Ganesha, symbolising the god's visit. The festival culminates on the day of Ananta Chaturdashi, when the idols (*murtis*) are immersed in the most convenient body of water. Some families have a tradition of immersion on the 2nd, 3rd, 5th, or 7th day. In 1893, Lokmanya Tilak transformed this annual Ganesha festival from private family celebrations into a grand public event. He did so "to bridge the gap between the Brahmins and the non-Brahmins and find an appropriate context in which to build a new grassroots unity between them" in his nationalistic strivings against the British in Maharashtra. Because of Ganesha's wide appeal as "the god for Everyman", Tilak chose him as a rallying point for Indian protest against British rule. Tilak was the first to install large public images of Ganesha in pavilions, and he established the practice of submerging all the public images on the tenth day. Today, Hindus across India celebrate the Ganapati festival with great fervour, though it is most popular in the state of Maharashtra. The festival also assumes huge proportions in Mumbai, Pune, and in the surrounding belt of Ashtavinayaka temples. ### Temples In Hindu temples, Ganesha is depicted in various ways: as a subordinate deity (**pãrśva-devatã**); as a deity related to the principal deity (**parivāra-devatã**); or as the principal deity of the temple (*pradhāna*). As the god of transitions, he is placed at the doorway of many Hindu temples to keep out the unworthy, which is analogous to his role as Parvati's doorkeeper. In addition, several shrines are dedicated to Ganesha himself, of which the Ashtavinayak (Sanskrit: अष्टविनायक; *aṣṭavināyaka*; lit. "eight Ganesha (shrines)") in Maharashtra are particularly well known. Located within a 100-kilometer radius of the city of Pune, each of the eight shrines celebrates a particular form of Ganapati, complete with its own lore. The eight shrines are: Morgaon, Siddhatek, Pali, Mahad, Theur, Lenyadri, Ozar and Ranjangaon. There are many other important Ganesha temples at the following locations: Siddhivinayak temple in Mumbai, Ganpatipule temple at Ganpatipule, Binkhambi Ganesh mandir in Kolhapur, Jai Vinayak temple in Jaigad, Ratnagiri, Wai in Maharashtra; Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh; Jodhpur, Nagaur and Raipur (Pali) in Rajasthan; Baidyanath in Bihar; Baroda, Dholaka, and Valsad in Gujarat and Dhundiraj Temple in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. Prominent Ganesha temples in southern India include the following: Kanipakam in Andhra Pradesh; the Rockfort Ucchi Pillayar Temple at Tiruchirapalli, Puliakulam Munthi Vinayagar Temple at Coimbatore and Karpaga Vinayagar Temple in Pillaiyarpatti which is a town named after Ganesha in Tamil Nadu; Kottarakkara, Pazhavangadi, Kasargod in Kerala; Hampi, and Idagunji in Karnataka; and Bhadrachalam in Telangana. T. A. Gopinatha notes, "Every village however small has its own image of **Vighneśvara** (Vigneshvara) with or without a temple to house it in. At entrances of villages and forts, below **pīpaḹa** (Sacred fig) trees ... in a niche ... in temples of **Viṣṇu** (Vishnu) as well as **Śiva** (Shiva) and also in separate shrines specially constructed in **Śiva** temples ... the figure of **Vighneśvara** is invariably seen." Ganesha temples have also been built outside of India, including Southeast Asia, Nepal (including the four *Vinayaka* shrines in the Kathmandu Valley), and in several western countries. Rise to prominence ------------------ ### First appearance An elephant–headed anthropomorphic figure on Indo-Greek coins from the 1st century BCE has been proposed by some scholars to be "incipient Ganesha", but this has been strongly contested. Others have suggested Ganesha may have been an emerging deity in India and southeast Asia around the 2nd century CE based on the evidence from archaeological excavations in Mathura and outside India. First terracotta images of Ganesha are from 1st century CE found in Ter, Pal, Verrapuram, and Chandraketugarh. These figures are small, with an elephant head, two arms, and chubby physique. The earliest Ganesha icons in stone were carved in Mathura during Kushan times (2nd–3rd centuries CE). Ganesha appeared in his classic form as a clearly-recognizable deity with well-defined iconographic attributes in the early 4th to 5th centuries CE. Some of the earliest known Ganesha images include two images found in eastern Afghanistan. The first image was discovered in the ruins north of Kabul along with those of Surya and Shiva. It is dated to the 4th century. The second image found in Gardez, the Gardez Ganesha, has an inscription on Ganesha pedestal that has helped date it to the 5th century. Another Ganesha sculpture is embedded in the walls of Cave 6 of the Udayagiri Caves in Madhya Pradesh. This is dated to the 5th century. An early iconic image of Ganesha with elephant head, a bowl of sweets and a goddess sitting in his lap has been found in the ruins of the Bhumara Temple in Madhya Pradesh, and this is dated to the 5th-century Gupta period. Other recent discoveries, such as one from Ramgarh Hill, are also dated to the 4th or 5th century. An independent cult with Ganesha as the primary deity was well established by about the 10th century. Narain summarises the lack of evidence about Ganesha's history before the 5th century as follows: > What is inscrutable is the somewhat dramatic appearance of Gaṇeśa on the historical scene. His antecedents are not clear. His wide acceptance and popularity, which transcend sectarian and territorial limits, are indeed amazing. On the one hand, there is the pious belief of the orthodox devotees in Gaṇeśa's Vedic origins and in the *Purāṇic* explanations contained in the confusing, but nonetheless interesting, mythology. On the other hand, there are doubts about the existence of the idea and the icon of *this* deity" before the fourth to fifth century A.D. ... [I]n my opinion, indeed there is no convincing evidence [in ancient Brahmanic literature] of the existence of this divinity prior to the fifth century. > > The evidence for more ancient Ganesha, suggests Narain, may reside outside Brahmanic or Sanskritic traditions, or outside geocultural boundaries of India. Ganesha appears in China by the 6th century, states Brown, and his artistic images in temple setting as "remover of obstacles" in South Asia appear by about 400 CE. He is, states Bailey, recognised as goddess Parvati's son and integrated into Shaivism theology by early centuries of the common era. ### Possible influences Courtright reviews various speculative theories about the early history of Ganesha, including supposed tribal traditions and animal cults, and dismisses all of them in this way: > In this search for a historical origin for Gaṇeśa, some have suggested precise locations outside the *Brāhmaṇic* tradition.... These historical locations are intriguing to be sure, but the fact remains that they are all speculations, variations on the Dravidian hypothesis, which argues that anything not attested to in the Vedic and Indo-European sources must have come into *Brāhmaṇic* religion from the Dravidian or aboriginal populations of India as part of the process that produced Hinduism out of the interactions of the Aryan and non-Aryan populations. There is no independent evidence for an elephant cult or a totem; nor is there any archaeological data pointing to a tradition prior to what we can already see in place in the *Purāṇic* literature and the iconography of *Gaṇeśa*. > > Thapan's book on the development of Ganesha devotes a chapter to speculations about the role elephants had in early India but concludes that "although by the second century CE the elephant-headed **yakṣa** form exists it cannot be presumed to represent *Gaṇapati-Vināyaka*. There is no evidence of a deity by this name having an elephant or elephant-headed form at this early stage. *Gaṇapati-Vināyaka* had yet to make his debut." The Pashupati seal (c. 2300 BCE - 2000 BCE) depicts 4 animals including an elephant around a deity who is claimed by some to be Shiva. Brown notes that this seal indicates the sacredness of elephants before Vedic period. One theory of the origin of Ganesha is that he gradually came to prominence in connection with the four Vinayakas (*Vināyakas*). In Hindu mythology, the *Vināyakas* were a group of four troublesome demons who created obstacles and difficulties but who were easily propitiated. The name Vināyaka is a common name for Ganesha both in the *Purāṇas* and in Buddhist Tantras. Krishan is one of the academics who accept this view, stating flatly of Ganesha, "He is a non-Vedic god. His origin is to be traced to the four Vināyakas, evil spirits, of the *Mānavagŗhyasūtra* (7th–4th century BCE) who cause various types of evil and suffering". Depictions of elephant-headed human figures, which some identify with Ganesha, appear in Indian art and coinage as early as the 2nd century. According to Ellawala, the elephant-headed Ganesha as lord of the Ganas was known to the people of Sri Lanka in the early pre-Christian era. ### Vedic and epic literature The title "Leader of the group" (Sanskrit: **gaṇapati**) occurs twice in the *Rig Veda*, but in neither case does it refer to the modern Ganesha. The term appears in RV 2.23.1 as a title for Brahmanaspati, according to commentators. While this verse doubtless refers to Brahmanaspati, it was later adopted for worship of Ganesha and is still used today. In rejecting any claim that this passage is evidence of Ganesha in the *Rig Veda*, Ludo Rocher says that it "clearly refers to *Bṛhaspati*—who is the deity of the hymn—and *Bṛhaspati* only". Equally clearly, the second passage (RV 10.112.9) refers to Indra, who is given the epithet '*gaṇapati*', translated "Lord of the companies (of the *Maruts*)." However, Rocher notes that the more recent Ganapatya literature often quotes the Rigvedic verses to give Vedic respectability to Ganesha. The Sangam period Tamil poet Avvaiyar (3rd century BCE), invokes Ganesha while preparing the invitation to the three Tamil Kingdoms for giving away in marriage of Angavay and Sangavay of Ceylon in marriage to the King of Tirucovalur (pp. 57–59). Two verses in texts belonging to Black Yajurveda, **Maitrāyaṇīya Saṃhitā** (2.9.1) and **Taittirīya Āraṇyaka** (10.1), appeal to a deity as "the tusked one" (*Dantiḥ*), "elephant-faced" (Hastimukha), and "with a curved trunk" (*Vakratuṇḍa*). These names are suggestive of Ganesha, and the 14th century commentator Sayana explicitly establishes this identification. The description of Dantin, possessing a twisted trunk (*vakratuṇḍa*) and holding a corn-sheaf, a sugar cane, and a club, is so characteristic of the Puranic Ganapati that Heras says "we cannot resist to accept his full identification with this Vedic Dantin". However, Krishan considers these hymns to be post-Vedic additions. Thapan reports that these passages are "generally considered to have been interpolated". Dhavalikar says, "the references to the elephant-headed deity in the **Maitrāyaṇī Saṃhitā** have been proven to be very late interpolations, and thus are not very helpful for determining the early formation of the deity". Ganesha does not appear in the Indian epic literature that is dated to the Vedic period. A late interpolation to the epic poem *Mahabharata* (1.1.75–79) says that the sage Vyasa (*Vyāsa*) asked Ganesha to serve as his scribe to transcribe the poem as he dictated it to him. Ganesha agreed but only on the condition that Vyasa recites the poem uninterrupted, that is, without pausing. The sage agreed but found that to get any rest he needed to recite very complex passages so Ganesha would have to ask for clarifications. The story is not accepted as part of the original text by the editors of the critical edition of the *Mahabharata*, in which the twenty-line story is relegated to a footnote in an appendix. The story of Ganesha acting as the scribe occurs in 37 of the 59 manuscripts consulted during the preparation of the critical edition. Ganesha's association with mental agility and learning is one reason he is shown as scribe for *Vyāsa*'s dictation of the *Mahabharata* in this interpolation. Richard L. Brown dates the story to the 8th century, and Moriz Winternitz concludes that it was known as early as c. 900, but it was not added to the *Mahabharata* some 150 years later. Winternitz also notes that a distinctive feature in South Indian manuscripts of the *Mahabharata* is their omission of this Ganesha legend. The term **vināyaka** is found in some recensions of the **Śāntiparva** and **Anuśāsanaparva** that are regarded as interpolations. A reference to **Vighnakartṛīṇām** ("Creator of Obstacles") in *Vanaparva* is also believed to be an interpolation and does not appear in the critical edition. ### Puranic period Stories about Ganesha often occur in the Puranic corpus. Brown notes while the Puranas "defy precise chronological ordering", the more detailed narratives of Ganesha's life are in the late texts, c. 600–1300. Yuvraj Krishan says that the Puranic myths about the birth of Ganesha and how he acquired an elephant's head are in the later Puranas, which were composed of c. 600 onwards. He elaborates on the matter to say that references to Ganesha in the earlier Puranas, such as the Vayu and Brahmanda Puranas, are later interpolations made during the 7th to 10th centuries. In his survey of Ganesha's rise to prominence in Sanskrit literature, Ludo Rocher notes that: > Above all, one cannot help being struck by the fact that the numerous stories surrounding *Gaṇeśa* concentrate on an unexpectedly limited number of incidents. These incidents are mainly three: his birth and parenthood, his elephant head, and his single tusk. Other incidents are touched on in the texts, but to a far lesser extent. > > Ganesha's rise to prominence was codified in the 9th century when he was formally included as one of the five primary deities of Smartism. The 9th-century philosopher Adi Shankara popularised the "worship of the five forms" (Panchayatana puja) system among orthodox Brahmins of the Smarta tradition. This worship practice invokes the five deities Ganesha, Vishnu, Shiva, Devi, and Surya. Adi Shankara instituted the tradition primarily to unite the principal deities of these five major sects on an equal status. This formalised the role of Ganesha as a complementary deity. ### Scriptures Once Ganesha was accepted as one of the five principal deities of Hinduism, some Hindus chose Ganesha as their principal deity. They developed the Ganapatya tradition, as seen in the *Ganesha Purana* and the *Mudgala Purana*. The date of composition for the *Ganesha Purana* and the *Mudgala Purana*—and their dating relative to one another—has sparked academic debate. Both works were developed over time and contain age-layered strata. Anita Thapan reviews comment about dating and provide her own judgment. "It seems likely that the core of the Ganesha Purana appeared around the twelfth and thirteenth centuries", she says, "but was later interpolated." Lawrence W. Preston considers the most reasonable date for the *Ganesha Purana* to be between 1100 and 1400, which coincides with the apparent age of the sacred sites mentioned by the text. R.C. Hazra suggests that the *Mudgala Purana* is older than the *Ganesha Purana*, which he dates between 1100 and 1400. However, Phyllis Granoff finds problems with this relative dating and concludes that the *Mudgala Purana* was the last of the philosophical texts concerned with Ganesha. She bases her reasoning on the fact that, among other internal evidence, the *Mudgala Purana* specifically mentions the *Ganesha Purana* as one of the four Puranas (the *Brahma*, the *Brahmanda*, the *Ganesha*, and the *Mudgala* Puranas) which deal at length with Ganesha. While the kernel of the text must be old, it was interpolated until the 17th and 18th centuries as the worship of Ganapati became more important in certain regions. Another highly regarded scripture in the *Ganapatya* tradition, the Sanskrit *Ganapati Atharvashirsa*, was probably composed during the 16th or 17th century. The *Ganesha Sahasranama* is part of the Puranic literature, and is a litany of a thousand names and attributes of Ganesha. Each name in the sahasranama conveys a different meaning and symbolises a different aspect of Ganesha. Versions of the *Ganesha Sahasranama* are found in the *Ganesha Purana*. Beyond India and Hinduism ------------------------- (clockwise from top) Ganesha in Tibet (as Maharakta), Nepal, Thailand, Japan (as Kangiten) and coat of arms of Salatiga, Indonesia. Commercial and cultural contacts extended India's influence in Western and Southeast Asia. Ganesha is one of a number of Hindu deities who consequently reached foreign lands. Ganesha was particularly worshipped by traders and merchants, who went out of India for commercial ventures. From approximately the 10th century onwards, new networks of exchange developed including the formation of trade guilds and a resurgence of money circulation. During this time, Ganesha became the principal deity associated with traders. The earliest inscription invoking Ganesha before any other deity is associated with the merchant community. Hindus migrated to Maritime Southeast Asia and took their culture, including Ganesha, with them. Statues of Ganesha are found throughout the region, often beside Shiva sanctuaries. The forms of Ganesha found in the Hindu art of Philippines, Java, Bali, and Borneo show specific regional influences. The spread of Hindu culture throughout Southeast Asia established Ganesha worship in modified forms in Burma, Cambodia, and Thailand. In Indochina, Hinduism and Buddhism were practised side by side, and mutual influences can be seen in the iconography of Ganesha in the region. In Thailand, Cambodia, and among the Hindu classes of the Chams in Vietnam, Ganesha was mainly thought of as a remover of obstacles. Among the Indonesian, who predominantly profess Muslim faith, Ganesha is not worshipped, but seen as a symbol of knowledge, wisdom and education. Many Indonesian public universities feature Ganesha's likeness in their grounds or logo. Blitar, Salatiga City, and Kediri Regency are among three local governments that include Ganesha in their regency/city official seals. Indonesia is the only country who featured Ganesha on her bill (20 thousand denomination, between 1998 and 2008), although it is no longer in circulation. Today in Buddhist Thailand, Ganesha is regarded as a remover of obstacles, the god of success. Thailand regards Ganesha mainly as the god of arts and academics. The belief was initiated by King Vajiravudh of the Chakri dynasty who was devoted to Ganesha personally. He even built a Ganesha shrine at his personal palace, Sanam Chandra Palace in Nakhon Pathom Province where he focused on his academic and literature works. His personal belief regarding Ganesha as the god of arts formally became prominent following the establishment of the Fine Arts Department where he took Ganesha as the seal. Today, Ganesha is depicted both in the seal of the Fine Arts Department, and Thailand's first prominent fine arts academy; the Silpakorn University. Before the arrival of Islam, Afghanistan had close cultural ties with India, and the adoration of both Hindu and Buddhist deities was practised. Examples of sculptures from the 5th to the 7th centuries have survived, suggesting that the worship of Ganesha was then in vogue in the region. Ganesha appears in Mahayana Buddhism, not only in the form of the Buddhist god *Vināyaka*, but also as a Hindu demon form with the same name. His image appears in Buddhist sculptures during the late Gupta period. As the Buddhist god *Vināyaka*, he is often shown dancing. This form, called *Nṛtta* Ganapati, was popular in northern India, later adopted in Nepal, and then in Tibet. In Nepal, the Hindu form of Ganesha, known as Heramba, is popular; he has five heads and rides a lion. Tibetan representations of Ganesha show ambivalent views of him. A Tibetan rendering of Ganapati is *tshogs bdag*. In one Tibetan form, he is shown being trodden under foot by *Mahākāla*,(Shiva) a popular Tibetan deity. Other depictions show him as the Destroyer of Obstacles, and sometimes dancing. Ganesha appears in China and Japan in forms that show distinct regional character. In northern China, the earliest known stone statue of Ganesha carries an inscription dated to 531. In Japan, where Ganesha is known as Kangiten, the Ganesha cult was first mentioned in 806. The canonical literature of Jainism does not mention the worship of Ganesha. However, Ganesha is worshipped by some Jains, for whom he appears to have taken over certain functions of the god of wealth, Kubera. Jain ties with the trading community support the idea that Jainism took up Ganesha worship as a result of commercial connections and influence of Hinduism. The earliest known Jain Ganesha statue dates to about the 9th century. A 15th-century Jain text lists procedures for the installation of its images. Images of Ganesha appear in some Jain temples of Rajasthan and Gujarat. See also -------- * Gajasura * Cultural depictions of elephants Explanatory notes ----------------- 1. ↑ Bombay edition 1. ↑ For the human-headed form of Ganesha in: * Adhi Vinayaka temple near Koothanur, Tamil Nadu. * Cambodia, see Brown 1991, p. 10 * Nandrudayan Vinayaka Temple. * Uthrapathiswaraswamy Temple. General references ------------------ * Pal, Pratapaditya (1995). *Ganesh, the Benevolent*. the University of Michigan: Marg Publications. ISBN 9788185026312. * Apte, Vaman Shivram (1965). *The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary* (Fourth revised and enlarged ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN 978-8120805675. * Bailey, Greg (1995). *Ganeśapurāna: Introduction, translation, notes and index*. Harrassowitz. ISBN 978-3447036474. * Bhattacharyya, Haridas, ed. (1956). *The Cultural Heritage of India*. Calcutta: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. Four volumes. * Brown, Robert (1991), *Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God*, Albany: State University of New York, ISBN 978-0791406571 * Chinmayananda, Swami (1987), *Glory of Ganesha*, Bombay: Central Chinmaya Mission Trust, ISBN 978-8175973589 * Courtright, Paul B. (1985), **Gaṇeśa*: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings*, New York: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195057423 * Ellawala, H (1969), *Social History of Early Ceylon*, Colombo: Department of Cultural Affairs. * Getty, Alice (1936). *Gaṇeśa: A Monograph on the Elephant-Faced God* (1992 reprint ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-8121503778. * Grimes, John A. (1995), *Ganapati: Song of the Self*, SUNY Series in Religious Studies, Albany: State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791424407 * Heras, H. (1972), *The Problem of Ganapati*, Delhi: Indological Book House * Khokar, Ashish; Saraswati, S. (2005), *Ganesha-Karttikeya*, New Delhi: Rupa and Co, ISBN 978-8129107763 * Krishan, Yuvraj (1981–1982), "*The Origins of Gaṇeśa*", *Artibus Asiae*, Artibus Asiae Publishers, **43** (4): 285–301, doi:10.2307/3249845, JSTOR 3249845 * Krishan, Yuvraj (1999), *Gaṇeśa: Unravelling An Enigma*, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ISBN 978-8120814134 * Krishna, Murthy, K. (1985), *Mythical Animals in Indian Art*, New Delhi: Abhinav Publications, ISBN 978-0391032873 * Martin-Dubost, Paul (1965), *Gaṇeśa, the Enchanter of the Three Worlds*, the University of Michigan: Franco-Indian Research, ISBN 9788190018432 * Mate, M.S. (1962), *Temples and Legends of Maharashtra*, Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, OCLC 776939647 * Metcalf, Thomas R.; Metcalf, Barbara Daly, *A Concise History of India*, ISBN 978-0521630276 * Nagar, Shanti Lal (1992). *The Cult of Vinayaka*. New Delhi: Intellectual Publishing House. ISBN 978-81-7076-044-3. * Oka, Krishnaji Govind (1913), *The Nāmalingānuśāsana (Amarakosha) of Amarasimha: with the Commentary (*Amarakoshodghāṭana*) of Kshīrasvāmin*, Poona: Law Printing Press, retrieved 14 September 2007. * Ramachandra Rao, S.K. (1992), *The Compendium on Gaṇeśa*, Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, ISBN 978-8170308287 * Saraswati, Swami Tattvavidananda (2004), **Gaṇapati Upaniṣad**, Delhi: D.K. Printworld Ltd., ISBN 978-8124602652 * Śāstri Khiste, *Baṭukanātha* (1991), **Gaṇeśasahasranāmastotram: mūla evaṁ srībhāskararāyakṛta 'khadyota' vārtika sahita**, *Vārāṇasī*: Prācya Prakāśana. Source text with a commentary by Bhāskararāya in Sanskrit. * Śāstri, Hargovinda (1978), **Amarkoṣa* with Hindi commentary*, Vārānasi: Chowkhambā Sanskrit Series Office * Thapan, Anita Raina (1997). *Understanding Gaṇapati: Insights into the Dynamics of a Cult*. New Delhi: Manohar Publishers. ISBN 978-8173041952.

Ganesha

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganesha

**Philosophy** (from Greek: φιλοσοφία, *philosophia*, 'love of wisdom') is the systematized study of general and fundamental questions, such as those concerning existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language. Philosophical methods include questioning, critical discussion, rational argument, and systematic presentation. Historically, philosophy encompassed all bodies of knowledge and a practitioner was known as a philosopher. Natural philosophy, the origins of which trace back to Ancient Greece, encompasses astronomy, medicine, and physics. In the transition to the modern era, various areas of investigation that were traditionally part of philosophy became separate academic disciplines such as psychology, sociology, linguistics, and economics. Today, major subfields of academic philosophy include metaphysics, which is concerned with the fundamental nature of existence and reality; epistemology, which studies the nature of knowledge and belief; ethics, which is concerned with moral value; and logic, which studies the rules of inference that allow one to derive conclusions from true premises. The history of philosophy is itself a philosophical undertaking. Other notable subfields include philosophy of religion, philosophy of science, political philosophy, aesthetics, philosophy of language, and philosophy of mind. Etymology --------- The word "philosophy" comes from the ancient Greek φίλος, *phílos*: "love"; and σοφία, *sophía*: "wisdom". Some sources claim the term was coined by Pythagoras (c. 570 – c. 495 BCE), although this theory is disputed by others. The word entered the English language by way of multiple sources, but primarily from the French *philosophie*, which is itself a borrowing from the Latin *philosophia*. Before the modern age, the term *philosophy* was used in a very wide sense, which encompassed the individual sciences, like physics or mathematics, as its sub-disciplines, but the contemporary usage is more narrow and brings one into the realm of academic philosophy. In the oldest surviving history of philosophy, *Lives and Opinions of the Eminent Philosophers* (3rd century), Diogenes Laërtius presents a three-part division of ancient Greek philosophical inquiry: * Natural philosophy (i.e., physics, from Greek: *ta physika*, lit. 'things having to do with *physis* [nature]') was the study of the constitution and processes of transformation in the physical world. * Moral philosophy (i.e., ethics, from *êthika*, 'having to do with character, disposition, manners') was the study of goodness, right and wrong, justice and virtue. * Metaphysical philosophy (i.e., logic, from *logikós*, 'of or pertaining to reason or speech') was the study of existence, causation, god, logic, forms, and other abstract objects. In *Against the Logicians*, the Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus detailed the variety of ways in which the ancient Greek philosophers had divided philosophy, noting that this three-part division was agreed to by Plato, Aristotle, Xenocrates, and the Stoics. The Academic Skeptic philosopher Cicero also followed this tripartite distinction. This division is not obsolete. In the 19th century, however, the growth of modern research universities led academic philosophy and other disciplines to professionalize and specialize. For this reason, our vocabulary has changed to reflect the fact that many parts of ancient philosophy are now autonomous sciences in their own right; for example: * Natural philosophy has split into the various natural sciences, especially physics, astronomy, chemistry, biology, and cosmology. * Moral philosophy has birthed the social sciences, while still including value theory (e.g., ethics, aesthetics, political philosophy, etc.). * Metaphysical philosophy has generated formal sciences such as logic, mathematics, and philosophy of science, while still including epistemology, ontology, and so forth. For instance, Newton's *Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy* (1687) – now classified as a book of physics – uses the term *natural philosophy* in its own self-description because, at the time, that term still encompassed disciplines such as astronomy, medicine, and physics, which later became associated with the modern sciences. Conceptions of philosophy ------------------------- ### General conception The practice of philosophy is characterized by various general features: it is a form of rational inquiry, it aims to be systematic, and it tends to critically reflect on its own methods and presuppositions. It requires thinking "as hard and as clearly...about some of the most interesting and enduring problems that human minds have ever encountered"; many of these we cannot avoid, but are unable to answer once and for all. For instance, according to the 18th-century philosopher Immanuel Kant, the task of philosophy is united by four questions: (1) *What can I know?*; (2) *What should I do?*; (3) *What may I hope?*; and (4) *What is the human being?* His entire career, as he conceived it, was devoted to systematically addressing these four questions. Bertrand Russell offers this justification for undertaking the labor of philosophical thought: > *The man who has no tincture of philosophy goes through life imprisoned in the prejudices derived from common sense, from the habitual beliefs of his age or his nation, and from convictions which have grown up in his mind without the cooperation or consent of his deliberate reason.* > > Aristotle, more generously, opens his *Metaphysics* by explaining the need for philosophy with the claim that "All human beings by nature stretch themselves out toward knowing". In a further passage, he adds, it is "by way of *wondering* [that] people both now and at first begin to philosophize, wondering first about the strange things near at hand, then going forward little by little in this way and coming to impasses about greater things". On its way into modern English from c.1175 Old French and Anglo-Norman, "philosophy" has acquired, and to some extent still retains, the meanings of "advanced study of the speculative subjects (logic, ethics, physics, and metaphysics)", "deep wisdom consisting of love of truth and virtuous living", "profound learning as transmitted by the ancient writers", and "the study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and existence, and the basic limits of human understanding". ### Academic definitions Attempts to define philosophy in more precise and specific terms are typically controversial. Some approaches argue that there is a set of essential features shared by all parts of philosophy, while others see only weaker family resemblances or contend that it is merely an empty blanket term. Often, they are only accepted by theorists belonging to a certain philosophical movement and are revisionistic in that many presumed parts of philosophy would not deserve the title "philosophy" if they were true. Some definitions characterize philosophy in relation to its method, like pure reasoning. Others focus more on its topic, for example, as the study of the biggest patterns of the world as a whole or as the attempt to answer the big questions. Both approaches have the problem that they are usually either too wide, by including non-philosophical disciplines, or too narrow, by excluding some philosophical sub-disciplines. Many definitions of philosophy emphasize its intimate relation to science. In this sense, philosophy is sometimes understood as a proper science in its own right. According to some naturalistic philosophers, like Willard Van Orman Quine, philosophy is an empirical yet very abstract science that is concerned with very wide-ranging empirical patterns instead of particular observations. Science-based definitions usually face the problem of explaining why philosophy in its long history has not made the type of progress as seen in other sciences. This problem is avoided by seeing philosophy as an immature or provisional science whose subdisciplines cease to be philosophy once they have fully developed. In this sense, philosophy is the midwife of the sciences. Other definitions focus more on the contrast between science and philosophy. A common theme among many such conceptions is that philosophy is concerned with meaning, understanding, or the clarification of language. According to one view, philosophy is conceptual analysis, which involves finding the necessary and sufficient conditions for the application of concepts. Another presents philosophy as a linguistic therapy. According to Ludwig Wittgenstein, for example, philosophy aims at dispelling misunderstandings to which humans are susceptible due to the confusing structure of natural language. Some phenomenologists, such as Edmund Husserl and his followers, characterize philosophy as the science of essences. Many other conceptions of philosophy do not clearly fall into any of the aforementioned categories. An early approach found in ancient Greek and Roman philosophy, that philosophy is the spiritual practice of developing one's rational capacities, has been rehabilitated by philosophers such as Pierre Hadot and Michel Foucault. This practice is an expression of the philosopher's love of wisdom and has the aim of improving one's well-being by leading a reflective life. A closely related approach identifies the development and articulation of worldviews as the principal task of philosophy, i.e., to express how things on the grand scale hang together and which practical stance we should take towards them. Another definition characterizes philosophy as *thinking about thinking* in order to emphasize its reflective nature. Historical overview ------------------- In one general sense, philosophy is associated with wisdom, intellectual culture, and a search for knowledge. In this sense, all cultures and literate societies ask philosophical questions, such as "how are we to live" and "what is the nature of reality". A broad and impartial conception of philosophy, then, finds a reasoned inquiry into such matters as reality, morality, and life in all world civilizations. ### Western philosophy Western philosophy is the philosophical tradition of the Western world, dating back to pre-Socratic thinkers who were active in 6th-century Greece (BCE), such as Thales (c. 624 – c. 545 BCE) and Pythagoras (c. 570 – c. 495 BCE) who practiced a "love of wisdom" (Latin: *philosophia*) and were also termed "students of nature" (*physiologoi*). Western philosophy can be divided into three eras: 1. Ancient (Greco-Roman). 2. Medieval philosophy (referring to Christian European thought). 3. Modern philosophy (beginning in the 17th century). #### Ancient era While our knowledge of the ancient era begins with Thales in the 6th century BCE, little is known about the philosophers who came before Socrates (commonly known as the pre-Socratics). The ancient era was dominated by Greek philosophical schools. Most notable among the schools influenced by Socrates' teachings were Plato, who founded the Platonic Academy, and his student Aristotle, who founded the Peripatetic school. Other ancient philosophical traditions influenced by Socrates included Cynicism, Cyrenaicism, Stoicism, and Academic Skepticism. Two other traditions were influenced by Socrates' contemporary, Democritus: Pyrrhonism and Epicureanism. Important topics covered by the Greeks included metaphysics (with competing theories such as atomism and monism), cosmology, the nature of the well-lived life (*eudaimonia*), the possibility of knowledge, and the nature of reason (logos). With the rise of the Roman empire, Greek philosophy was increasingly discussed in Latin by Romans such as Cicero and Seneca (see Roman philosophy). #### Medieval era Medieval philosophy (5th–16th centuries) took place during the period following the fall of the Western Roman Empire and was dominated by the rise of Christianity; it hence reflects Judeo-Christian theological concerns while also retaining a continuity with Greco-Roman thought. Problems such as the existence and nature of God, the nature of faith and reason, metaphysics, and the problem of evil were discussed in this period. Some key medieval thinkers include Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, Boethius, Anselm and Roger Bacon. Philosophy for these thinkers was viewed as an aid to theology (*ancilla theologiae*), and hence they sought to align their philosophy with their interpretation of sacred scripture. This period saw the development of scholasticism, a text critical method developed in medieval universities based on close reading and disputation on key texts. The Renaissance period saw increasing focus on classic Greco-Roman thought and on a robust humanism. #### Modern era Early modern philosophy in the Western world begins with thinkers such as Thomas Hobbes and René Descartes (1596–1650). Following the rise of natural science, modern philosophy was concerned with developing a secular and rational foundation for knowledge and moved away from traditional structures of authority such as religion, scholastic thought and the Church. Major modern philosophers include Spinoza, Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley, Hume, and Kant. 19th-century philosophy (sometimes called late modern philosophy) was influenced by the wider 18th-century movement termed "the Enlightenment", and includes figures such as Hegel, a key figure in German idealism; Kierkegaard, who developed the foundations for existentialism; Thomas Carlyle, representative of the great man theory; Nietzsche, a famed anti-Christian; John Stuart Mill, who promoted utilitarianism; Karl Marx, who developed the foundations for communism; and the American William James. The 20th century saw the split between analytic philosophy and continental philosophy, as well as philosophical trends such as phenomenology, existentialism, logical positivism, pragmatism and the linguistic turn (see Contemporary philosophy). ### Middle Eastern philosophy #### Pre-Islamic philosophy The regions of the Fertile Crescent, Iran and Arabia are home to the earliest known philosophical wisdom literature. According to the assyriologist Marc Van de Mieroop, Babylonian philosophy was a highly developed system of thought with a unique approach to knowledge and a focus on writing, lexicography, divination, and law. It was also a bilingual intellectual culture, based on Sumerian and Akkadian. Early Wisdom literature from the Fertile Crescent was a genre that sought to instruct people on ethical action, practical living, and virtue through stories and proverbs. In Ancient Egypt, these texts were known as *sebayt* ('teachings'), and they are central to our understandings of Ancient Egyptian philosophy. The most well known of these texts is *The Maxims of Ptahhotep.* Theology and cosmology were central concerns in Egyptian thought. Perhaps the earliest form of a monotheistic theology also emerged in Egypt, with the rise of the Amarna theology (or Atenism) of Akhenaten (14th century BCE), which held that the solar creation deity Aten was the only god. This has been described as a "monotheistic revolution" by egyptologist Jan Assmann, though it also drew on previous developments in Egyptian thought, particularly the "New Solar Theology" based around Amun-Ra. These theological developments also influenced the post-Amarna Ramesside theology, which retained a focus on a single creative solar deity (though without outright rejection of other gods, which are now seen as manifestations of the main solar deity). This period also saw the development of the concept of the *ba* (soul) and its relation to god. Jewish philosophy and Christian philosophy are religious-philosophical traditions that developed both in the Middle East and in Europe, which both share certain early Judaic texts (mainly the Tanakh) and monotheistic beliefs. Jewish thinkers such as the Geonim of the Talmudic Academies in Babylonia and Maimonides engaged with Greek and Islamic philosophy. Later Jewish philosophy came under strong Western intellectual influences and includes the works of Moses Mendelssohn who ushered in the Haskalah (the Jewish Enlightenment), Jewish existentialism, and Reform Judaism. The various traditions of Gnosticism, which were influenced by both Greek and Abrahamic currents, originated around the first century and emphasized spiritual knowledge (*gnosis*). Pre-Islamic Iranian philosophy begins with the work of Zoroaster, one of the first promoters of monotheism and of the dualism between good and evil. This dualistic cosmogony influenced later Iranian developments such as Manichaeism, Mazdakism, and Zurvanism. #### Islamic philosophy Islamic philosophy is the philosophical work originating in the Islamic tradition and is mostly done in Arabic. It draws from the religion of Islam as well as from Greco-Roman philosophy. After the Muslim conquests, the translation movement (mid-eighth to the late tenth century) resulted in the works of Greek philosophy becoming available in Arabic. Early Islamic philosophy developed the Greek philosophical traditions in new innovative directions. This intellectual work inaugurated what is known as the Islamic Golden Age. The two main currents of early Islamic thought are Kalam, which focuses on Islamic theology, and Falsafa, which was based on Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism. The work of Aristotle was very influential among philosophers such as Al-Kindi (9th century), Avicenna (980 – June 1037), and Averroes (12th century). Others such as Al-Ghazali were highly critical of the methods of the Islamic Aristotelians and saw their metaphysical ideas as heretical. Islamic thinkers like Ibn al-Haytham and Al-Biruni also developed a scientific method, experimental medicine, a theory of optics, and a legal philosophy. Ibn Khaldun was an influential thinker in philosophy of history. Islamic thought also deeply influenced European intellectual developments, especially through the commentaries of Averroes on Aristotle. The Mongol invasions and the destruction of Baghdad in 1258 are often seen as marking the end of the Golden Age. Several schools of Islamic philosophy continued to flourish after the Golden Age, however, and include currents such as Illuminationist philosophy, Sufi philosophy, and Transcendent theosophy. The 19th- and 20th-century Arab world saw the *Nahda* movement (literally meaning 'The Awakening'; also known as the 'Arab Renaissance'), which had a considerable influence on contemporary Islamic philosophy. ### Eastern philosophy #### Indian philosophy Indian philosophy (Sanskrit: *darśana*, lit. 'point of view', 'perspective') refers to the diverse philosophical traditions that emerged since the ancient times on the Indian subcontinent. Indian philosophy chiefly considers epistemology, theories of consciousness and theories of mind, and the physical properties of reality. Indian philosophical traditions share various key concepts and ideas, which are defined in different ways and accepted or rejected by the different traditions. These include concepts such as *dhárma*, *karma*, *pramāṇa,* *duḥkha, saṃsāra* and *mokṣa.* Some of the earliest surviving Indian philosophical texts are the Upanishads of the later Vedic period (1000–500 BCE), which are considered to preserve the ideas of Brahmanism. Indian philosophical traditions are commonly grouped according to their relationship to the Vedas and the ideas contained in them. Jainism and Buddhism originated at the end of the Vedic period, while the various traditions grouped under Hinduism mostly emerged after the Vedic period as independent traditions. Hindus generally classify Indian philosophical traditions as either orthodox (*āstika*) or heterodox (*nāstika*) depending on whether they accept the authority of the Vedas and the theories of *brahman* and *ātman* found therein. The schools which align themselves with the thought of the Upanishads, the so-called "orthodox" or "Hindu" traditions, are often classified into six *darśanas* or philosophies:Sānkhya, Yoga, Nyāya, Vaisheshika, Mimāmsā and Vedānta. The doctrines of the Vedas and Upanishads were interpreted differently by these six schools of Hindu philosophy, with varying degrees of overlap. They represent a "collection of philosophical views that share a textual connection", according to Chadha (2015). They also reflect a tolerance for a diversity of philosophical interpretations within Hinduism while sharing the same foundation. Hindu philosophers of the six orthodox schools developed systems of epistemology (*pramana*) and investigated topics such as metaphysics, ethics, psychology (*guṇa*), hermeneutics, and soteriology within the framework of the Vedic knowledge, while presenting a diverse collection of interpretations. The commonly named six orthodox schools were the competing philosophical traditions of what has been called the "Hindu synthesis" of classical Hinduism. There are also other schools of thought which are often seen as "Hindu", though not necessarily orthodox (since they may accept different scriptures as normative, such as the Shaiva Agamas and Tantras), these include different schools of Shavism such as Pashupata, Shaiva Siddhanta, non-dual tantric Shavism (i.e. Trika, Kaula, etc.). The "Hindu" and "Orthodox" traditions are often contrasted with the "unorthodox" traditions (*nāstika,* literally "those who reject"), though this is a label that is not used by the "unorthodox" schools themselves. These traditions reject the Vedas as authoritative and often reject major concepts and ideas that are widely accepted by the orthodox schools (such as *Ātman*, *Brahman*, and *Īśvara*). These unorthodox schools include Jainism (accepts *ātman* but rejects *Īśvara,* Vedas and *Brahman*), Buddhism (rejects all orthodox concepts except rebirth and karma), Cārvāka (materialists who reject even rebirth and karma) and Ājīvika (known for their doctrine of fate).< Jain philosophy is one of the only two surviving "unorthodox" traditions (along with Buddhism). It generally accepts the concept of a permanent soul (*jiva*) as one of the five *astikayas* (eternal, infinite categories that make up the substance of existence). The other four being *dhárma*, *adharma*, *ākāśa* ('space'), and *pudgala* ('matter'). Jain thought holds that all existence is cyclic, eternal and uncreated. Some of the most important elements of Jain philosophy are the Jain theory of karma, the doctrine of nonviolence (ahiṃsā) and the theory of "many-sidedness" or Anēkāntavāda. The *Tattvartha Sutra* is the earliest known, most comprehensive and authoritative compilation of Jain philosophy. #### Buddhist philosophy Buddhist philosophy begins with the thought of Gautama Buddha (fl. between 6th and 4th century BCE) and is preserved in the early Buddhist texts. It originated in the Indian region of Magadha and later spread to the rest of the Indian subcontinent, East Asia, Tibet, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia. In these regions, Buddhist thought developed into different philosophical traditions which used various languages (like Tibetan, Chinese and Pali). As such, Buddhist philosophy is a trans-cultural and international phenomenon. The dominant Buddhist philosophical traditions in East Asian nations are mainly based on Indian Mahayana Buddhism. The philosophy of the Theravada school is dominant in Southeast Asian countries like Sri Lanka, Burma and Thailand. Because ignorance to the true nature of things is considered one of the roots of suffering (*dukkha*), Buddhist philosophy is concerned with epistemology, metaphysics, ethics and psychology. Buddhist philosophical texts must also be understood within the context of meditative practices which are supposed to bring about certain cognitive shifts. Key innovative concepts include the Four Noble Truths as an analysis of *dukkha*, *anicca* (impermanence), and *anatta* (non-self). After the death of the Buddha, various groups began to systematize his main teachings, eventually developing comprehensive philosophical systems termed *Abhidharma*. Following the Abhidharma schools, Indian Mahayana philosophers such as Nagarjuna and Vasubandhu developed the theories of *śūnyatā* ('emptiness of all phenomena') and *vijñapti-matra* ('appearance only'), a form of phenomenology or transcendental idealism. The Dignāga school of *pramāṇa* ('means of knowledge') promoted a sophisticated form of Buddhist epistemology. There were numerous schools, sub-schools, and traditions of Buddhist philosophy in ancient and medieval India. According to Oxford professor of Buddhist philosophy Jan Westerhoff, the major Indian schools from 300 BCE to 1000 CE were: the Mahāsāṃghika tradition (now extinct), the Sthavira schools (such as Sarvāstivāda, Vibhajyavāda and Pudgalavāda) and the Mahayana schools. Many of these traditions were also studied in other regions, like Central Asia and China, having been brought there by Buddhist missionaries. After the disappearance of Buddhism from India, some of these philosophical traditions continued to develop in the Tibetan Buddhist, East Asian Buddhist and Theravada Buddhist traditions. #### East Asian philosophy East Asian philosophical thought began in Ancient China, and Chinese philosophy begins during the Western Zhou Dynasty and the following periods after its fall when the "Hundred Schools of Thought" flourished (6th century to 221 BCE). This period was characterized by significant intellectual and cultural developments and saw the rise of the major philosophical schools of China such as Confucianism (also known as Ruism), Legalism, and Taoism as well as numerous other less influential schools like Mohism and Naturalism. These philosophical traditions developed metaphysical, political and ethical theories such Tao, Yin and yang, Ren and Li. These schools of thought further developed during the Han (206 BCE – 220 CE) and Tang (618–907 CE) eras, forming new philosophical movements like *Xuanxue* (also called *Neo-Taoism*), and Neo-Confucianism. Neo-Confucianism was a syncretic philosophy, which incorporated the ideas of different Chinese philosophical traditions, including Buddhism and Taoism. Neo-Confucianism came to dominate the education system during the Song dynasty (960–1297), and its ideas served as the philosophical basis of the imperial exams for the scholar official class. Some of the most important Neo-Confucian thinkers are the Tang scholars Han Yu and Li Ao as well as the Song thinkers Zhou Dunyi (1017–1073) and Zhu Xi (1130–1200). Zhu Xi compiled the Confucian canon, which consists of the Four Books (the *Great Learning*, the *Doctrine of the Mean*, the *Analects* of Confucius, and the *Mencius*). The Ming scholar Wang Yangming (1472–1529) is a later but important philosopher of this tradition as well. Buddhism began arriving in China during the Han Dynasty, through a gradual Silk road transmission, and through native influences developed distinct Chinese forms (such as Chan/Zen) which spread throughout the East Asian cultural sphere. Chinese culture was highly influential on the traditions of other East Asian states, and its philosophy directly influenced Korean philosophy, Vietnamese philosophy and Japanese philosophy. During later Chinese dynasties like the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), as well as in the Korean Joseon dynasty (1392–1897), a resurgent Neo-Confucianism led by thinkers such as Wang Yangming (1472–1529) became the dominant school of thought and was promoted by the imperial state. In Japan, the Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1867) was also strongly influenced by Confucian philosophy. Confucianism continues to influence the ideas and worldview of the nations of the Chinese cultural sphere today. In the Modern era, Chinese thinkers incorporated ideas from Western philosophy. Chinese Marxist philosophy developed under the influence of Mao Zedong, while a Chinese pragmatism developed under Hu Shih. The old traditional philosophies also began to reassert themselves in the 20th century. For example, New Confucianism, led by figures such as Xiong Shili, has become quite influential. Likewise, Humanistic Buddhism is a recent modernist Buddhist movement. Modern Japanese thought meanwhile developed under strong Western influences such as the study of Western Sciences (Rangaku) and the modernist Meirokusha intellectual society, which drew from European enlightenment thought and promoted liberal reforms as well as Western philosophies like Liberalism and Utilitarianism. Another trend in modern Japanese philosophy was the "National Studies" (*Kokugaku*) tradition. This intellectual trend sought to study and promote ancient Japanese thought and culture. Kokugaku thinkers such as Motoori Norinaga sought to return to a pure Japanese tradition which they called Shinto that they saw as untainted by foreign elements. During the 20th century, the Kyoto School, an influential and unique Japanese philosophical school, developed from Western phenomenology and Medieval Japanese Buddhist philosophy such as that of Dogen. ### African philosophy African philosophy is philosophy produced by African people, philosophy that presents African worldviews, ideas and themes, or philosophy that uses distinct African philosophical methods. Modern African thought has been occupied with Ethnophilosophy, that is, defining the very meaning of African philosophy and its unique characteristics and what it means to be African. The philosophical tradition in Africa derived from both ancient Egypt and scholarly texts in medieval Africa. During the 17th century, Ethiopian philosophy developed a robust literary tradition as exemplified by Zera Yacob. Another early African philosopher was Anton Wilhelm Amo (c. 1703–1759) who became a respected philosopher in Germany. Distinct African philosophical ideas include Ujamaa, the Bantu idea of 'Force', Négritude, Pan-Africanism and Ubuntu. Contemporary African thought has also seen the development of Professional philosophy and of Africana philosophy, the philosophical literature of the African diaspora which includes currents such as black existentialism by African-Americans. Some modern African thinkers have been influenced by Marxism, African-American literature, Critical theory, Critical race theory, Postcolonialism and Feminism. ### Indigenous American philosophy Indigenous-American philosophical thought consists of a wide variety of beliefs and traditions among different American cultures. Among some of U.S. Native American communities, there is a belief in a metaphysical principle called the 'Great Spirit' (Siouan: *wakȟáŋ tȟáŋka*; Algonquian: *gitche manitou*). Another widely shared concept was that of *orenda* ('spiritual power'). According to Whiteley (1998), for the Native Americans, "mind is critically informed by transcendental experience (dreams, visions and so on) as well as by reason." The practices to access these transcendental experiences are termed *shamanism*. Another feature of the indigenous American worldviews was their extension of ethics to non-human animals and plants. In Mesoamerica, Nahua philosophy was an intellectual tradition developed by individuals called *tlamatini* ('those who know something') and its ideas are preserved in various Aztec codices and fragmentary texts. Some of these philosophers are known by name, such as Nezahualcoyotl, Aquiauhtzin, Xayacamach, Tochihuitzin coyolchiuhqui and Cuauhtencoztli. These authors were also poets and some of their work has survived in the original Nahuatl. Aztec philosophers developed theories of metaphysics, epistemology, values, and aesthetics. Aztec ethics was focused on seeking *tlamatiliztli* ('knowledge', 'wisdom') which was based on moderation and balance in all actions as in the Nahua proverb "the middle good is necessary". The Nahua worldview posited the concept of an ultimate universal energy or force called *Ōmeteōtl* ('Dual Cosmic Energy') which sought a way to live in balance with a constantly changing, "slippery" world. The theory of *Teotl* can be seen as a form of Pantheism. According to James Maffie, Nahua metaphysics posited that teotl is "a single, vital, dynamic, vivifying, eternally self-generating and self-conceiving as well as self-regenerating and self-reconceiving sacred energy or force". This force was seen as the all-encompassing life force of the universe and as the universe itself. The Inca civilization also had an elite class of philosopher-scholars termed the *amawtakuna* or *amautas* who were important in the Inca education system as teachers of philosophy, theology, astronomy, poetry, law, music, morality and history. Young Inca nobles were educated in these disciplines at the state college of Yacha-huasi in Cuzco, where they also learned the art of the quipu. Incan philosophy (as well as the broader category of Andean thought) held that the universe is animated by a single dynamic life force (sometimes termed *camaquen* or *camac*, as well as *upani* and *amaya*). This singular force also arises as a set of dual complementary yet opposite forces. These "complementary opposites" are called yanantin and masintin. They are expressed as various polarities or dualities (such as male–female, dark–light, life and death, above and below) which interdependently contribute to the harmonious whole that is the universe through the process of reciprocity and mutual exchange called *ayni*. The Inca worldview also included the belief in a creator God (Viracocha) and reincarnation. Branches of philosophy ---------------------- Philosophical questions can be grouped into various branches. These groupings allow philosophers to focus on a set of similar topics and interact with other thinkers who are interested in the same questions. These divisions are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive. For example, political philosophy, ethics, and aesthetics are sometimes linked under the general heading of value theory as they involve a normative or evaluative aspect. Furthermore, philosophical inquiry sometimes overlaps with other disciplines in the natural or social sciences, religion, or mathematics. ### Aesthetics Aesthetics is the "critical reflection on art, culture, and nature". It addresses the nature of art, beauty, and taste; enjoyment, emotional values, perception; and the creation and appreciation of beauty. It is more precisely defined as the study of sensory or sensory-emotional values, sometimes called judgments of sentiment and taste. Its major divisions are art theory, literary theory, film theory and music theory. An example from art theory is to discern the set of principles underlying the work of a particular artist or artistic movement such as the Cubist aesthetic. ### Ethics Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, studies what constitutes good and bad conduct, right and wrong values, and good and evil. Its primary investigations include exploring how to live a good life and identifying standards of morality. It also includes investigating whether there *is* a best way to live or a universal moral standard, and if so, how we come to learn about it. The main branches of ethics are normative ethics, meta-ethics, and applied ethics. The three main views in contemporary philosophical ethics about what constitute moral actions are: * Consequentialism, which judges actions based on their consequences. One such view is utilitarianism, which judges actions based on the net happiness (or pleasure) and/or lack of suffering (or pain) that they produce. * Deontology, which judges actions based on whether they are in accordance with one's moral duty. In the standard form defended by Immanuel Kant, deontology is concerned with whether a choice respects the moral agency of other people, regardless of its consequences. * Virtue ethics, which judges actions based on the moral character of the agent who performs them and whether they conform to what an ideally virtuous agent would do. ### Epistemology Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies knowledge. Epistemologists examine putative sources of knowledge, including perceptual experience, reason, memory, and testimony. They also investigate questions about the nature of truth, belief, justification, and rationality. Philosophical skepticism, which raises doubts about some or all claims to knowledge, has been a topic of interest throughout the history of philosophy. It arose early in Presocratic philosophy and became formalized with Pyrrho, the founder of the earliest Western school of philosophical skepticism. It features prominently in the works of modern philosophers René Descartes and David Hume and has remained a central topic in contemporary epistemological debates. One central debate in contemporary epistemology is about the conditions required for a belief to constitute knowledge, which might include truth and justification. This debate was largely the result of attempts to solve the Gettier problem, according to which well justified reasons for a belief turn out to be false. Another common subject of contemporary debates is the regress problem, which occurs when trying to offer proof or justification for any belief, statement, or proposition. The problem is that whatever the source of justification may be, that source must either be without justification (in which case it must be treated as an arbitrary foundation for belief), or it must have some further justification (in which case justification must either be the result of circular reasoning, as in coherentism, or the result of an infinite regress, as in infinitism). ### Metaphysics Metaphysics is the study of the most general features of reality, such as existence, time, objects and their properties, wholes and their parts, events, processes and causation and the relationship between mind and body. Metaphysics includes cosmology, the study of the world in its entirety and ontology, the study of being, along with the philosophy of space and time. Metaphysics deals with the topic of identity. Essence is the set of attributes that make an object what it fundamentally is and without which it loses its identity, while accident is a property that the object has, without which the object can still retain its identity. Particulars are objects that are said to exist in space and time, as opposed to abstract objects, such as numbers, and universals, which are properties held by multiple particulars, such as redness or a gender. The type of existence, if any, of universals and abstract objects is an issue of debate. ### Logic Logic is the study of reasoning and argument. Deductive reasoning is when, given certain premises, conclusions are unavoidably implied. Rules of inference are used to infer conclusions such as, modus ponens, where given "A" and "If A then B", then "B" must be concluded. Because sound reasoning is an essential element of all sciences, social sciences and humanities disciplines, logic became a formal science. Sub-fields include mathematical logic, philosophical logic, modal logic, computational logic, and non-classical logics. ### Mind and language Philosophy of language explores the nature, origins, and use of language. Philosophy of mind explores the nature of the mind and its relationship to the body, as typified by disputes between reductive materialism and dualism. In recent years, this branch has become related to cognitive science. ### Philosophy of science The philosophy of science explores the foundations, methods, history, implications and purpose of science. Many of its subdivisions correspond to specific branches of science. For example, philosophy of biology deals specifically with the metaphysical, epistemological and ethical issues in the biomedical and life sciences. ### Political philosophy Political philosophy is the study of government and the relationship of individuals (or families and clans) to communities including the state. It includes questions about justice, law, property and the rights and obligations of the citizen. ### Philosophy of religion Philosophy of religion deals with questions that involve religion and religious ideas from a philosophically neutral perspective (as opposed to theology which begins from religious convictions). Traditionally, religious questions were not seen as a separate field from philosophy proper, and the idea of a separate field only arose in the 19th century. Issues include the existence of God, the relationship between reason and faith, questions of religious epistemology, the relationship between religion and science, how to interpret religious experiences, questions about the possibility of an afterlife, the problem of religious language, the existence of souls, and responses to religious pluralism and diversity. Methods of philosophy --------------------- Methods of philosophy are ways of conducting philosophical inquiry. They include techniques for arriving at philosophical knowledge and justifying philosophical claims as well as principles used for choosing between competing theories. A great variety of methods has been employed throughout the history of philosophy. Many of them differ significantly from the methods used in the natural sciences in that they do not use experimental data obtained through measuring equipment. The choice of one's method usually has important implications both for how philosophical theories are constructed and for the arguments cited for or against them. This choice is often guided by epistemological considerations about what constitutes philosophical evidence, how much support it offers, and how to acquire it. Various disagreements on the level of philosophical theories have their source in methodological disagreements and the discovery of new methods has often had important consequences both for how philosophers conduct their research and for what claims they defend. Some philosophers engage in most of their theorizing using one particular method while others employ a wider range of methods based on which one fits the specific problem investigated best. Conceptual analysis is a well-known method in analytic philosophy. It aims to clarify the meaning of concepts by analyzing them into their fundamental constituents. Another method often employed in analytic philosophy is based on common sense. It starts with commonly accepted beliefs and tries to draw interesting conclusions from them, which it often employs in a negative sense to criticize philosophical theories that are too far removed from how the average person sees the issue. It is very similar to how ordinary language philosophy tackles philosophical questions by investigating how ordinary language is used. Various methods in philosophy give particular importance to intuitions, i.e., non-inferential impressions about the correctness of specific claims or general principles. For example, they play an important role in thought experiments, which employ counterfactual thinking to evaluate the possible consequences of an imagined situation. These anticipated consequences can then be used to confirm or refute philosophical theories. The method of reflective equilibrium also employs intuitions. It seeks to form a coherent position on a certain issue by examining all the relevant beliefs and intuitions, some of which often have to be deemphasized or reformulated in order to arrive at a coherent perspective. Pragmatists stress the significance of concrete practical consequences for assessing whether a philosophical theory is true or false. Phenomenologists seek knowledge about the realm of appearances. They do so by suspending their judgments about the external world in order to focus on how things appear independent of their underlying reality, a technique known as epoché. Experimental philosophy is of rather recent origin. Its methods differ from most other methods of philosophy in that it tries to answer philosophical questions by gathering empirical data in ways similar to social psychology and the cognitive sciences. Outside the academic profession ------------------------------- Some of those who study philosophy become professional philosophers, typically by working as professors who teach, research and write in academic institutions. However, most students of academic philosophy contribute to law, journalism, religion, sciences, politics, business, or various arts. For example, public figures who have degrees in philosophy include comedians Steve Martin and Ricky Gervais, filmmaker Terrence Malick, Pope John Paul II, Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger, technology entrepreneur Peter Thiel, U.S. Supreme Court Justice Stephen Breyer, *Jeopardy!* host Alex Trebek, and US vice presidential candidate Carly Fiorina. Curtis White has argued that philosophical tools are essential to humanities, sciences and social sciences. Recent efforts to avail the general public to the work and relevance of philosophers include the million-dollar Berggruen Prize, first awarded to Charles Taylor in 2016. Some philosophers argue that this professionalization has negatively affected the discipline. ### Women in philosophy Although men have generally dominated philosophical discourse, women philosophers have engaged in the discipline throughout history. The list of female philosophers throughout history is vast. Ancient examples include Hipparchia of Maroneia (active c. 325 BCE) and Arete of Cyrene (active 5th–4th centuries BCE). Some women philosophers were accepted during the medieval and modern eras, but none became part of the Western canon until the 20th and 21st century, when many suggest that G.E.M. Anscombe, Hannah Arendt, bell hooks, Simone de Beauvoir, Simone Weil, and Susanne Langer entered the canon. In the early 1800s, some colleges and universities in the UK and the US began admitting women, producing more female academics. Nevertheless, U.S. Department of Education reports from the 1990s indicate that few women ended up in philosophy and that philosophy is one of the least gender-proportionate fields in the humanities, with women making up somewhere between 17% and 30% of philosophy faculty according to some studies. Prominent 21st century philosophers include Judith Butler, Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Martha Nussbaum, Onora O'Neill, and Nancy Fraser. See also -------- * List of important publications in philosophy * List of years in philosophy * List of philosophy journals * List of philosophy awards * List of unsolved problems in philosophy * Lists of philosophers References ---------- ### Bibliography * Edwards, Paul, ed. (1967). *The Encyclopedia of Philosophy*. Macmillan & Free Press. * Kant, Immanuel (1881). *Critique of Pure Reason*. Macmillan. * Baldwin, Thomas, ed. (2003). *The Cambridge History of Philosophy 1870–1945*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59104-1. * Copenhaver, Brian P.; Schmitt, Charles B. (1992). *Renaissance philosophy*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-219203-5. * Lindberg, David C. (2007). "Science before the Greeks". *The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context* (Second ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. pp. 1–27. ISBN 978-0-226-48205-7. * Nadler, Steven (2008). *A Companion to Early Modern Philosophy*. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-99883-0. * Rutherford, Donald (2006). *The Cambridge Companion to Early Modern Philosophy*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-82242-8. * Schmitt, C.B.; Skinner, Quentin, eds. (1988). *The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-39748-3. * Kenny, Anthony (2012). *A New History of Western Philosophy*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-958988-3. * Honderich, T., ed. (1995). *The Oxford Companion to Philosophy*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-866132-0. * Bunnin, Nicholas; Tsui-James, Eric, eds. (2008). *The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy*. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-99787-1. * Copleston, Frederick Charles (1953). *A history of philosophy: volume III: Ockham to Suárez*. Paulist Press. ISBN 978-0-8091-0067-5. * Leaman, Oliver; Morewedge, Parviz (2000). "Islamic philosophy modern". In Craig, Edward (ed.). *Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy*. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-22364-5. * Buccellati, Giorgio (1981). "Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia". *Journal of the American Oriental Society*. **101** (1): 35–47. doi:10.2307/602163. JSTOR 602163. * *Philosophy before the Greeks. The Pursuit of Truth in Ancient Babylonia*. Princeton University Press. 2015. ISBN 978-0691157184. * Westerhoff, Jan (2018). *The Golden Age of Indian Buddhist Philosophy*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Further reading --------------- ### General introduction * Aristotle (1941). Richard McKeon (ed.). *The Basic Works of Aristotle*. New York: Random House. * Blumenau, Ralph. *Philosophy and Living*. ISBN 978-0-907845-33-1 * Craig, Edward. *Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction*. ISBN 978-0-19-285421-6 * Harrison-Barbet, Anthony, *Mastering Philosophy*. ISBN 978-0-333-69343-8 * Russell, Bertrand. *The Problems of Philosophy*. ISBN 978-0-19-511552-9 * Sinclair, Alistair J. *What is Philosophy? An Introduction*, 2008, ISBN 978-1-903765-94-4 * Sober, Elliott. (2001). *Core Questions in Philosophy: A Text with Readings*. Upper Saddle River, Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-189869-1 * Solomon, Robert C. *Big Questions: A Short Introduction to Philosophy*. ISBN 978-0-534-16708-0 * Warburton, Nigel. *Philosophy: The Basics*. ISBN 978-0-415-14694-4 * Nagel, Thomas. *What Does It All Mean? A Very Short Introduction to Philosophy*. ISBN 978-0-19-505292-3 * *Classics of Philosophy (Vols. 1, 2, & 3)* by Louis P. Pojman * Cottingham, John. Western Philosophy: An Anthology. 2nd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub., 2008. Print. Blackwell Philosophy Anthologies. * Tarnas, Richard. *The Passion of the Western Mind: Understanding the Ideas That Have Shaped Our World View*. ISBN 978-0-345-36809-6 ### Topical introductions #### African * Imbo, Samuel Oluoch. *An Introduction to African Philosophy.* ISBN 978-0-8476-8841-8 #### Eastern * *A Source Book in Indian Philosophy* by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Charles A. Moore * Hamilton, Sue. *Indian Philosophy: a Very Short Introduction*. ISBN 978-0-19-285374-5 * Kupperman, Joel J. *Classic Asian Philosophy: A Guide to the Essential Texts*. ISBN 978-0-19-513335-6 * Lee, Joe and Powell, Jim. *Eastern Philosophy For Beginners*. ISBN 978-0-86316-282-4 * Smart, Ninian. *World Philosophies*. ISBN 978-0-415-22852-7 * Copleston, Frederick. *Philosophy in Russia: From Herzen to Lenin and Berdyaev*. ISBN 978-0-268-01569-5 #### Islamic * *Medieval Islamic Philosophical Writings* edited by Muhammad Ali Khalidi * Leaman, Oliver (14 April 2000). *A Brief Introduction to Islamic Philosophy*. ISBN 978-0-7456-1960-6. * Corbin, Henry (23 June 2014) [1993]. *History Of Islamic Philosophy*. Translated by Sherrard, Liadain; Sherrard, Philip. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-135-19888-6. * Aminrazavi, Mehdi Amin Razavi; Nasr, Seyyed Hossein; Nasr, PH.D., Seyyed Hossein (16 December 2013). *The Islamic Intellectual Tradition in Persia*. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-78105-6. ### Historical introductions #### General * Oizerman, Teodor (1988). *The Main Trends in Philosophy. A Theoretical Analysis of the History of Philosophy* (PDF). translated by H. Campbell Creighton, M.A., Oxon (2nd ed.). Moscow: Progress Publishers. ISBN 978-5-01-000506-1. Archived from the original (DjVu, etc.) on 6 March 2012. Retrieved 20 January 2011. First published in Russian as Главные философские направления. * Higgins, Kathleen M. and Solomon, Robert C. *A Short History of Philosophy*. ISBN 978-0-19-510196-6 * Durant, Will, *Story of Philosophy: The Lives and Opinions of the World's Greatest Philosophers*, Pocket, 1991, ISBN 978-0-671-73916-4 * Oizerman, Teodor (1973). *Problems of the History of Philosophy*. translated from Russian by Robert Daglish (1st ed.). Moscow: Progress Publishers. Archived from the original on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 20 January 2011. First published in Russian as Проблемы историко-философской науки. #### Ancient * Knight, Kelvin. *Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre*. ISBN 978-0-7456-1977-4 #### Medieval * *The Phenomenology Reader* by Dermot Moran, Timothy Mooney * Kim, J. and Ernest Sosa, Ed. (1999). *Metaphysics: An Anthology*. Blackwell Philosophy Anthologies. Oxford, Blackwell Publishers Ltd. * Husserl, Edmund; Welton, Donn (1999). *The Essential Husserl: Basic Writings in Transcendental Phenomenology*. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-21273-3. #### Modern and contemporary * *The English Philosophers from Bacon to Mill* by Edwin Arthur * *European Philosophers from Descartes to Nietzsche* by Monroe Beardsley * *Existentialism: Basic Writings (Second Edition)* by Charles Guignon, Derk Pereboom * Curley, Edwin, *A Spinoza Reader*, Princeton, 1994, ISBN 978-0-691-00067-1 * Bullock, Alan, R.B. Woodings, and John Cumming, *eds*. *The Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thinkers*, in series, *Fontana Original[s]*. Hammersmith, Eng.: Fontana Press, 1992 [1983]. xxv, 867 p. ISBN 978-0-00-636965-3 * Scruton, Roger. *A Short History of Modern Philosophy*. ISBN 978-0-415-26763-2 * *Contemporary Analytic Philosophy: Core Readings* by James Baillie * Appiah, Kwame Anthony. *Thinking it Through  – An Introduction to Contemporary Philosophy*, 2003, ISBN 978-0-19-513458-2 * Critchley, Simon. *Continental Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction*. ISBN 978-0-19-285359-2 ### Reference works * Chan, Wing-tsit (1963). *A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy*. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-01964-2. * Huang, Siu-chi (1999). *Essentials of Neo-Confucianism: Eight Major Philosophers of the Song and Ming Periods*. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-26449-8. * *The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy* by Robert Audi * *The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy* (10 vols.) edited by Edward Craig, Luciano Floridi (available online by subscription); or * *The Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy* edited by Edward Craig (an abridgement) * Edwards, Paul, ed. (1967). *The Encyclopedia of Philosophy*. Macmillan & Free Press.; in 1996, a ninth supplemental volume appeared that updated the classic 1967 encyclopedia. * *International Directory of Philosophy and Philosophers*. Charlottesville, Philosophy Documentation Center. * *Directory of American Philosophers*. Charlottesville, Philosophy Documentation Center. * *Routledge History of Philosophy* (10 vols.) edited by John Marenbon * *History of Philosophy* (9 vols.) by Frederick Copleston * *A History of Western Philosophy* (5 vols.) by W.T. Jones * *History of Italian Philosophy* (2 vols.) by Eugenio Garin. Translated from Italian and Edited by Giorgio Pinton. Introduction by Leon Pompa. * *Encyclopaedia of Indian Philosophies* (8 vols.), edited by Karl H. Potter et al. (first 6 volumes out of print) * *Indian Philosophy* (2 vols.) by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan * *A History of Indian Philosophy* (5 vols.) by Surendranath Dasgupta * *History of Chinese Philosophy* (2 vols.) by Fung Yu-lan, Derk Bodde * *Instructions for Practical Living and Other Neo-Confucian Writings by Wang Yang-ming* by Chan, Wing-tsit * *Encyclopedia of Chinese Philosophy* edited by Antonio S. Cua * *Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion* by Ingrid Fischer-Schreiber, Franz-Karl Ehrhard, Kurt Friedrichs * *Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy* by Brian Carr, Indira Mahalingam * *A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English* by John A. Grimes * *History of Islamic Philosophy* edited by Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Oliver Leaman * *History of Jewish Philosophy* edited by Daniel H. Frank, Oliver Leaman * *A History of Russian Philosophy: From the Tenth to the Twentieth Centuries* by Valerii Aleksandrovich Kuvakin * Ayer, A.J. et al., Ed. (1994) *A Dictionary of Philosophical Quotations*. Blackwell Reference Oxford. Oxford, Basil Blackwell Ltd. * Blackburn, S., Ed. (1996)*The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy*. Oxford, Oxford University Press. * Mautner, T., Ed. *The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy*. London, Penguin Books. * Runes, D., ed. (1942). *The Dictionary of Philosophy*. New York: The Philosophical Library, Inc. Archived from the original on 24 April 2014. Retrieved 27 December 2005. * Angeles, P.A., Ed. (1992). *The HarperCollins Dictionary of Philosophy*. New York, Harper Perennial. * Bunnin, Nicholas; Tsui-James, Eric, eds. (15 April 2008). *The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy*. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-99787-1. * Hoffman, Eric, Ed. (1997) *Guidebook for Publishing Philosophy*. Charlottesville, Philosophy Documentation Center. * Popkin, R.H. (1999). *The Columbia History of Western Philosophy*. New York, Columbia University Press. * Bullock, Alan, and Oliver Stallybrass, *jt. eds*. *The Harper Dictionary of Modern Thought*. New York: Harper & Row, 1977. xix, 684 p. *N.B*.: First published in England under the title, "*The Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought*". ISBN 978-0-06-010578-5 * Reese, W.L. *Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion: Eastern and Western Thought*. Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1980. iv, 644 p. ISBN 978-0-391-00688-1

Philosophy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy

**Zoroaster**, also known as **Zarathustra**, is regarded as the spiritual founder of Zoroastrianism. He is said to have been an Iranian-Arian prophet who founded a religious movement that challenged the existing traditions of ancient Iranian religion, and inaugurated a movement that eventually became a staple religion in ancient Iran. He was a native speaker of Avestan and lived in the eastern part of the Iranian plateau, but his exact birthplace is uncertain. He was the first founder of the monotheistic religion in the world and also had a tremendous impact on Plato, Pythagoras, Abraham, Judaism, Christianity and Islam. He lived between 1000 and 1500 BC. There is little scholarly consensus on when he lived. Some scholars, using linguistic and socio-cultural evidence, suggest a dating to somewhere in the second millennium BC. Other scholars date him to the 7th and 6th centuries BC as a near-contemporary of Cyrus the Great and Darius the Great. Zoroastrianism eventually became the official state religion of ancient Iran—particularly during the era of the Achaemenid Empire—and its distant subdivisions from around the 6th century BC until the 7th century AD, when the religion itself began to decline following the Arab-Muslim conquest of Iran. Zoroaster is credited with authorship of the *Gathas* as well as the *Yasna Haptanghaiti*, a series of hymns composed in his native Avestan dialect that comprise the core of Zoroastrian thinking. Little is known about Zoroaster; most of his life is known only from these scant texts. By any modern standard of historiography, no evidence can place him into a fixed period and the historicization surrounding him may be a part of a trend from before the 10th century AD that historicizes legends and myths. Name and etymology ------------------ Zoroaster's name in his native language, Avestan, was probably *Zaraθuštra*. His translated name, "Zoroaster", derives from a later (5th century BC) Greek transcription, *Zōroastrēs* (Ζωροάστρης), as used in Xanthus's *Lydiaca* (Fragment 32) and in Plato's *First Alcibiades* (122a1). This form appears subsequently in the Latin **Zōroastrēs** and, in later Greek orthographies, as Ζωροάστρις *Zōroastris*. The Greek form of the name appears to be based on a phonetic transliteration or semantic substitution of Avestan *zaraθ-* with the Greek ζωρός *zōros* (literally "undiluted") and the BMAC substrate *-uštra* with ἄστρον *astron* ("star"). In Avestan, *Zaraθuštra* is generally accepted to derive from an Old Iranian *\*Zaratuštra-*; The element half of the name (*-uštra-*) is thought to be the Indo-Iranian root for "camel", with the entire name meaning "he who can manage camels". Reconstructions from later Iranian languages—particularly from the Middle Persian (300 BC) *Zardusht*,[*further explanation needed*] which is the form that the name took in the 9th- to 12th-century Zoroastrian texts—suggest that *\*Zaratuštra-* might be a zero-grade form of *\*Zarantuštra-*. Subject then to whether *Zaraθuštra* derives from *\*Zarantuštra-* or from *\*Zaratuštra-*, several interpretations have been proposed. If *Zarantuštra* is the original form, it may mean "with old/aging camels", related to Avestic *zarant-* (*cf.* Pashto *zōṛ* and Ossetian *zœrond*, "old"; Middle Persian *zāl*, "old"): * "with angry/furious camels": from Avestan *\*zarant-*, "angry, furious". * "who is driving camels" or "who is fostering/cherishing camels": related to Avestan *zarš-*, "to drag". * Mayrhofer (1977) proposed an etymology of "who is desiring camels" or "longing for camels" and related to Vedic Sanskrit *har-*, "to like", and perhaps (though ambiguous) also to Avestan *zara-*. * "with yellow camels": parallel to Younger Avestan *zairi-*. The interpretation of the *-θ-* (/θ/) in Avestan *zaraθuštra* was for a time itself subjected to heated debate because the *-θ-* is an irregular development: As a rule, *\*zarat-* (a first element that ends in a dental consonant) should have Avestan *zarat-* or *zarat̰-* as a development from it. Why this is not so for *zaraθuštra* has not yet been determined. Notwithstanding the phonetic irregularity, that Avestan *zaraθuštra* with its *-θ-* was linguistically an actual form is shown by later attestations reflecting the same basis. All present-day, Iranian-language variants of his name derive from the Middle Iranian variants of *Zarθošt*, which, in turn, all reflect Avestan's fricative *-θ-*. In Middle Persian, the name is 𐭦𐭫𐭲𐭥𐭱𐭲 *Zardu(x)št*, in Parthian *Zarhušt*, in Manichaean Middle Persian *Zrdrwšt*, in Early New Persian *Zardušt*, and in modern (New Persian), the name is زرتشت *Zartosht*. The name is attested in Classical Armenian sources as *Zradašt* (often with the variant *Zradešt*). The most important of these testimonies were provided by the Armenian authors Eznik of Kolb, Elishe, and Movses Khorenatsi. The spelling Zradašt was formed through an older form which started with *\*zur-*, a fact which the German Iranologist Friedrich Carl Andreas (1846–1930) used as evidence for a Middle Persian spoken form *\*Zur(a)dušt*. Based on this assumption, Andreas even went so far to form conclusions from this also for the Avestan form of the name. However, the modern Iranologist Rüdiger Schmitt rejects Andreas's assumption, and states that the older form which started with *\*zur-* was just influenced by Armenian *zur* ("wrong, unjust, idle"), which therefore means that "the name must have been reinterpreted in an anti-Zoroastrian sense by the Armenian Christians". Furthermore, Schmitt adds: "it cannot be excluded, that the (Parthian or) Middle Persian form, which the Armenians took over (*Zaradušt* or the like), was merely metathesized to pre-Arm. *\*Zuradašt*". Date ---- There is no consensus on the dating of Zoroaster; the Avesta gives no direct information about it, while historical sources are conflicting. Some scholars base their date reconstruction on the Proto-Indo-Iranian language and Proto-Indo-Iranian religion, and thus his origin is considered to have been somewhere in northeastern Iran and sometime between 1500 and 500 BC. Some scholars such as Mary Boyce (who dated Zoroaster to somewhere between 1700 and 1000 BC) used linguistic and socio-cultural evidence to place Zoroaster between 1500 and 1000 BC (or 1200 and 900 BC). The basis of this theory is primarily proposed on linguistic similarities between the Old Avestan language of the Zoroastrian Gathas and the Sanskrit of the Rigveda (c. 1700–1100 BC), a collection of early Vedic hymns. Both texts are considered to have a common archaic Indo-Iranian origin. The Gathas portray an ancient Stone-Bronze Age bipartite society of warrior-herdsmen and priests (compared to Bronze tripartite society; some conjecture that it depicts the Yaz culture), and that it is thus implausible that the Gathas and Rigveda could have been composed more than a few centuries apart. These scholars suggest that Zoroaster lived in an isolated tribe or composed the Gathas before the 1200–1000 BC migration by the Iranians from the steppe to the Iranian Plateau. The shortfall of the argument is the vague comparison, and the archaic language of Gathas does not necessarily indicate time difference. Other scholars propose a period between 7th and 6th century BC, for example, c. 650–600 BC or 559–522 BC. The latest possible date is the mid 6th century BC, at the time of Achaemenid Empire's Darius I, or his predecessor Cyrus the Great. This date gains credence mainly from attempts to connect figures in Zoroastrian texts to historical personages; thus some have postulated that the mythical Vishtaspa who appears in an account of Zoroaster's life was Darius I's father, also named Vishtaspa (or Hystaspes in Greek). However, if this were true, it seems unlikely that the Avesta would not mention that Vishtaspa's son became the ruler of the Persian Empire, or that this key fact about Darius's father would not be mentioned in the Behistun Inscription. It is also possible that Darius I's father was named in honor of the Zoroastrian patron, indicating possible Zoroastrian faith by Arsames. Classical scholarship in the 6th to 4th century BC believed he existed 6,000 years before Xerxes I's invasion of Greece in 480 BC (Xanthus, Eudoxus, Aristotle, Hermippus), which is a possible misunderstanding of the Zoroastrian four cycles of 3,000 years (i.e. 12,000 years). This belief is recorded by Diogenes Laërtius, and variant readings could place it 600 years before Xerxes I, somewhere before 1000 BC. However, Diogenes also mentions Hermodorus's belief that Zoroaster lived 5,000 years before the Trojan War, which would mean he lived around 6200 BC. The 10th-century Suda provides a date of 500 years before the Trojan War. Pliny the Elder cited Eudoxus who placed his death 6,000 years before Plato, c. 6300 BC. Other pseudo-historical constructions are those of Aristoxenus who recorded Zaratas the Chaldeaean to have taught Pythagoras in Babylon, or lived at the time of mythological Ninus and Semiramis. According to Pliny the Elder, there were two Zoroasters. The first lived thousands of years ago, while the second accompanied Xerxes I in the invasion of Greece in 480 BC. Some scholars propose that the chronological calculation for Zoroaster was developed by Persian magi in the 4th century BC, and as the early Greeks learned about him from the Achaemenids, this indicates they did not regard him as a contemporary of Cyrus the Great, but as a remote figure. Some later pseudo-historical and Zoroastrian sources (the *Bundahishn*, which references a date "258 years before Alexander") place Zoroaster in the 6th century BC, which coincided with the accounts by Ammianus Marcellinus from the 4th century AD. The traditional Zoroastrian date originates in the period immediately following Alexander the Great's conquest of the Achaemenid Empire in 330 BC. The Seleucid rulers who gained power following Alexander's death instituted an "Age of Alexander" as the new calendrical epoch. This did not appeal to the Zoroastrian priesthood who then attempted to establish an "Age of Zoroaster". To do so, they needed to establish when Zoroaster had lived, which they accomplished by (erroneously, according to Mary Boyce some even identified Cyrus with Vishtaspa) counting back the length of successive generations, until they concluded that Zoroaster must have lived "258 years before Alexander". This estimate then re-appeared in the 9th- to 12th-century Arabic and Pahlavi texts of Zoroastrian tradition, like the 10th century Al-Masudi who cited a prophecy from a lost Avestan book in which Zoroaster foretold the Empire's destruction in 300 years, but the religion would last for 1,000 years. Another possible date from the 9th century BC or before was suggested by Silk Road Seattle, using its own interpretations of Victor H. Mair's writings on the topic. Mair himself guessed that Zoroaster could have been born in the 2nd millennium BC. Almut Hintze, the British Library, and the European Research Council have dated Zoroaster to roughly 3,500 years ago, in the 2nd millennium BC. Place ----- The birthplace of Zoroaster is also unknown, and the language of the Gathas is not similar to the proposed north-western and north-eastern regional dialects of Persia. It is also suggested that he was born in one of the two areas and later lived in the other area. *Yasna* 9 and 17 cite the Ditya River in Airyanem Vaējah (Middle Persian *Ērān Wēj*) as Zoroaster's home and the scene of his first appearance. The Avesta (both Old and Younger portions) does not mention the Achaemenids or of any West Iranian tribes such as the Medes, Persians, or even Parthians. The *Farvardin Yasht* refers to some Iranian peoples that are unknown in the Greek and Achaemenid sources about the 6th and 5th century BC Eastern Iran. The *Vendidad* contain seventeen regional names, most of which are located in north-eastern and eastern Iran. However, in *Yasna* 59.18, the *zaraθuštrotema*, or supreme head of the Zoroastrian priesthood, is said to reside in 'Ragha' (Badakhshan). In the 9th- to 12th-century Middle Persian texts of Zoroastrian tradition, this 'Ragha' and with many other places appear as locations in Western Iran. While the land of Media does not figure at all in the Avesta (the westernmost location noted in scripture is Arachosia), the *Būndahišn*, or "Primordial Creation," (20.32 and 24.15) puts Ragha in Media (medieval Rai). However, in Avestan, Ragha is simply a toponym meaning "plain, hillside." Apart from these indications in Middle Persian sources that are open to interpretations, there are a number of other sources. The Greek and Latin sources are divided on the birthplace of Zarathustra. There are many Greek accounts of Zarathustra, referred usually as Persian or Perso-Median Zoroaster; Ctesias located him in Bactria, Diodorus Siculus placed him among Ariaspai (in Sistan), Cephalion and Justin suggest east of greater Iran whereas Pliny and Origen suggest west of Iran as his birthplace. Moreover, they have the suggestion that there has been more than one Zoroaster. On the other hand, in post-Islamic sources Shahrastani (1086–1153) an Iranian writer originally from Shahristān, present-day Turkmenistan, proposed that Zoroaster's father was from Atropatene (also in Medea) and his mother was from Rey. Coming from a reputed scholar of religions, this was a serious blow for the various regions who all claimed that Zoroaster originated from *their* homelands, some of which then decided that Zoroaster must then have then been buried in their regions or composed his Gathas there or preached there. Also Arabic sources of the same period and the same region of historical Persia consider Azerbaijan as the birthplace of Zarathustra. By the late 20th century, most scholars had settled on an origin in eastern Greater Iran. Gnoli proposed Sistan, Baluchistan (though in a much wider scope than the present-day province) as the homeland of Zoroastrianism; Frye voted for Bactria and Chorasmia; Khlopin suggests the Tedzen Delta in present-day Turkmenistan. Sarianidi considered the Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex region as "the native land of the Zoroastrians and, probably, of Zoroaster himself." Boyce includes the steppes to the west from the Volga. The medieval "from Media" hypothesis is no longer taken seriously, and Zaehner has even suggested that this was a Magi-mediated issue to garner legitimacy, but this has been likewise rejected by Gershevitch and others. The 2005 *Encyclopedia Iranica* article on the history of Zoroastrianism summarizes the issue with "while there is general agreement that he did not live in western Iran, attempts to locate him in specific regions of eastern Iran, including Central Asia, remain tentative". Life ---- Zoroaster is recorded as the son of Pourušaspa of the Spitamans or Spitamids (Avestan *spit* mean "brilliant" or "white"; some argue that Spitama was a remote progenitor) family, and Dugdōw, while his great-grandfather was Haēčataspa. All the names appear appropriate to the nomadic tradition. His father's name means "possessing gray horses" (with the word *aspa* meaning horse), while his mother's means "milkmaid". According to the tradition, he had four brothers, two older and two younger, whose names are given in much later Pahlavi work. The training for priesthood probably started very early around seven years of age. He became a priest probably around the age of fifteen, and according to Gathas, he gained knowledge from other teachers and personal experience from traveling when he left his parents at age twenty. By the age of thirty, he experienced a revelation during a spring festival; on the river bank he saw a shining Being, who revealed himself as Vohu Manah (Good Purpose) and taught him about Ahura Mazda (Wise Lord) and five other radiant figures. Zoroaster soon became aware of the existence of two primal Spirits, the second being Angra Mainyu (Destructive Spirit), with opposing concepts of Asha (order) and Druj (deception). Thus he decided to spend his life teaching people to seek Asha. He received further revelations and saw a vision of the seven Amesha Spenta, and his teachings were collected in the Gathas and the Avesta. Eventually, at the age of about forty-two, he received the patronage of queen Hutaosa and a ruler named Vishtaspa, an early adherent of Zoroastrianism (possibly from Bactria according to the Shahnameh). According to the tradition, he lived for many years after Vishtaspa's conversion, managed to establish a faithful community, and married three times. His first two wives bore him three sons, Isat Vâstra, Urvatat Nara, and Hvare Chithra, and three daughters, Freni, Thriti, and Pouruchista. His third wife, Hvōvi, was childless. Zoroaster died when he was 77 years and 40 days old. The later Pahlavi sources like Shahnameh, instead claim that an obscure conflict with Tuiryas people led to his death, murdered by a *karapan* (a priest of the old religion) named Brādrēs. ### Cypress of Kashmar The Cypress of Kashmar is a mythical cypress tree of legendary beauty and gargantuan dimensions. It is said to have sprung from a branch brought by Zoroaster from Paradise and to have stood in today's Kashmar in northeastern Iran and to have been planted by Zoroaster in honor of the conversion of King Vishtaspa to Zoroastrianism. According to the Iranian physicist and historian Zakariya al-Qazwini King Vishtaspa had been a patron of Zoroaster who planted the tree himself. In his *ʿAjā'ib al-makhlūqāt wa gharā'ib al-mawjūdāt* ("The Wonders of Creatures and the Marvels of Creation"), he further describes how the Al-Mutawakkil in 247 AH (861 AD) caused the mighty cypress to be felled, and then transported it across Iran, to be used for beams in his new palace at Samarra. Before, he wanted the tree to be reconstructed before his eyes. This was done in spite of protests by the Iranians, who offered a very great sum of money to save the tree. Al-Mutawakkil never saw the cypress, because he was murdered by a Turkic soldier (possibly in the employ of his son) on the night when it arrived on the banks of the Tigris. Influences ---------- ### In Christianity ### In Islam A number of parallels have been drawn between Zoroastrian teachings and Islam. Such parallels include the evident similarities between Amesha Spenta and the archangel Gabriel, praying five times a day, covering one's head during prayer, and the mention of Thamud and Iram of the Pillars in the Quran. These may also indicate the vast influence of the Achaemenid Empire on the development of either religion. The Sabaeans, who believed in free will coincident with Zoroastrians, are also mentioned in the Quran. #### Muslim scholastic views Like the Greeks of classical antiquity, Islamic tradition understands Zoroaster to be the founding prophet of the Magians (via Aramaic, Arabic *Majus*, collective *Majusya*). The 11th-century Cordoban Ibn Hazm (Zahiri school) contends that *Kitabi* "of the Book" cannot apply in light of the Zoroastrian assertion that their books were destroyed by Alexander. Citing the authority of the 8th-century al-Kalbi, the 9th- and 10th-century Sunni historian al-Tabari (I, 648) reports that Zaradusht bin Isfiman (an Arabic adaptation of "Zarathustra Spitama") was an inhabitant of Israel and a servant of one of the disciples of the prophet Jeremiah. According to this tale, Zaradusht defrauded his master, who cursed him, causing him to become leprous (cf. Elisha's servant Gehazi in Jewish Scripture). The apostate Zaradusht then eventually made his way to Balkh (present day Afghanistan) where he converted Bishtasb (i.e. Vishtaspa), who in turn compelled his subjects to adopt the religion of the Magians. Recalling other tradition, al-Tabari (I, 681–683) recounts that Zaradusht accompanied a Jewish prophet to Bishtasb/Vishtaspa. Upon their arrival, Zaradusht translated the sage's Hebrew teachings for the king and so convinced him to convert (Tabari also notes that they had previously been *Sabi*s) to the Magian religion. The 12th-century heresiographer al-Shahrastani describes the Majusiya into three sects, the *Kayumarthiya*, the *Zurwaniya* and the *Zaradushtiya*, among which Al-Shahrastani asserts that only the last of the three were properly followers of Zoroaster. As regards the recognition of a prophet, Zoroaster has said: "They ask you as to how should they recognize a prophet and believe him to be true in what he says; tell them what he knows the others do not, and he shall tell you even what lies hidden in your nature; he shall be able to tell you whatever you ask him and he shall perform such things which others cannot perform." (Namah Shat Vakhshur Zartust, .5–7. 50–54) #### Ahmadiyya view The Ahmadiyya Community views Zoroaster as a Prophet of Allah and describe the expressions of the all-good Ahura Mazda and evil Ahriman as merely referring to the coexistence of forces of good and evil enabling humans to exercise free will. ### In Manichaeism Manichaeism considered Zoroaster to be a figure in a line of prophets of which Mani (216–276) was the culmination. Zoroaster's ethical dualism is—to an extent—incorporated in Mani's doctrine, which viewed the world as being locked in an epic battle between opposing forces of good and evil. Manicheanism also incorporated other elements of Zoroastrian tradition, particularly the names of supernatural beings; however, many of these other Zoroastrian elements are either not part of Zoroaster's own teachings or are used quite differently from how they are used in Zoroastrianism. ### In the Baháʼí Faith Zoroaster appears in the Baháʼí Faith as a "Manifestation of God", one of a line of prophets who have progressively revealed the Word of God to a gradually maturing humanity. Zoroaster thus shares an exalted station with Abraham, Moses, Krishna, Jesus, Muhammad, the Báb, and the founder of the Baháʼí Faith, Bahá'u'lláh. Shoghi Effendi, the head of the Baháʼí Faith in the first half of the 20th century, saw Bahá'u'lláh as the fulfillment of a post-Sassanid Zoroastrian prophecy that saw a return of Sassanid emperor Bahram: Shoghi Effendi also stated that Zoroaster lived roughly 1000 years before Jesus. Philosophy ---------- In the Gathas, Zoroaster sees the human condition as the mental struggle between *aša* and *druj*. The cardinal concept of *aša*—which is highly nuanced and only vaguely translatable—is at the foundation of all Zoroastrian doctrine, including that of Ahura Mazda (who is *aša*), creation (that is *aša*), existence (that is *aša*), and as the condition for free will. The purpose of humankind, like that of all other creation, is to sustain and align itself to *aša*. For humankind, this occurs through active ethical participation in life, ritual, and the exercise of constructive/good thoughts, words and deeds. Elements of Zoroastrian philosophy entered the West through their influence on Judaism and Platonism and have been identified as one of the key early events in the development of philosophy. Among the classic Greek philosophers, Heraclitus is often referred to as inspired by Zoroaster's thinking. In 2005, the Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy ranked Zarathustra as first in the chronology of philosophers. Zarathustra's impact lingers today due in part to the system of religious ethics he founded called Mazdayasna. The word *Mazdayasna* is Avestan and is translated as "Worship of Wisdom/Mazda" in English. The encyclopedia Natural History (Pliny) claims that Zoroastrians later educated the Greeks who, starting with Pythagoras, used a similar term, philosophy, or "love of wisdom" to describe the search for ultimate truth. Zoroaster emphasized the freedom of the individual to choose right or wrong and individual responsibility for one's deeds. This personal choice to accept *aša* and shun *druj* is one's own decision and not a dictate of Ahura Mazda. For Zoroaster, by thinking good thoughts, saying good words, and doing good deeds (e.g. assisting the needy, doing good works, or conducting good rituals) we increase *aša* in the world and in ourselves, celebrate the divine order, and we come a step closer on the everlasting road to Frashokereti. Thus, we are not the slaves or servants of Ahura Mazda, but we can make a personal choice to be co-workers, thereby perfecting the world as saoshyants ("world-perfecters") and ourselves and eventually achieve the status of an Ashavan ("master of Asha"). Iconography ----------- Although a few recent depictions of Zoroaster show him performing some deed of legend, in general the portrayals merely present him in white vestments (which are also worn by present-day Zoroastrian priests). He often is seen holding a collection of unbound rods or twigs, known as a *baresman* (Avestan; Middle Persian *barsom*), which is generally considered to be another symbol of priesthood, or with a book in hand, which may be interpreted to be the Avesta. Alternatively, he appears with a mace, the *varza*—usually stylized as a steel rod crowned by a bull's head—that priests carry in their installation ceremony. In other depictions he appears with a raised hand and thoughtfully lifted finger, as if to make a point. Zoroaster is rarely depicted as looking directly at the viewer; instead, he appears to be looking slightly upwards, as if beseeching. Zoroaster is almost always depicted with a beard, this along with other factors bearing similarities to 19th-century portraits of Jesus. A common variant of the Zoroaster images derives from a Sassanid-era rock-face carving. In this depiction at Taq-e Bostan, a figure is seen to preside over the coronation of Ardashir I or II. The figure is standing on a lotus, with a *baresman* in hand and with a gloriole around his head. Until the 1920s, this figure was commonly thought to be a depiction of Zoroaster, but in recent years is more commonly interpreted to be a depiction of Mithra. Among the most famous of the European depictions of Zoroaster is that of the figure in Raphael's 1509 The School of Athens. In it, Zoroaster and Ptolemy are having a discussion in the lower right corner. The prophet is holding a star-studded globe. Western references to Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism -------------------------------------------------- ### In classical antiquity The Greeks—in the Hellenistic sense of the term—had an understanding of Zoroaster as expressed by Plutarch, Diogenes Laertius, and Agathias that saw him, at the core, to be the "prophet and founder of the religion of the Iranian peoples," Beck notes that "the rest was mostly fantasy". Zoroaster was set in the ancient past, six to seven millennia before the Common Era, and was described as a king of Bactria or a Babylonian (or teacher of Babylonians), and with a biography typical of a Neopythagorean sage, i.e. having a mission preceded by ascetic withdrawal and enlightenment. However, at first mentioned in the context of dualism, in Moralia, Plutarch presents Zoroaster as "Zaratras," not realizing the two to be the same, and he is described as a "teacher of Pythagoras". Zoroaster has also been described as a sorcerer-astrologer – the creator of both magic and astrology. Deriving from that image, and reinforcing it, was a "mass of literature" attributed to him and that circulated the Mediterranean world from the 3rd century BC to the end of antiquity and beyond. The language of that literature was predominantly Greek, though at one stage or another various parts of it passed through Aramaic, Syriac, Coptic or Latin. Its ethos and cultural matrix was likewise Hellenistic, and "the ascription of literature to sources beyond that political, cultural and temporal framework represents a bid for authority and a fount of legitimizing "alien wisdom". Zoroaster and the magi did not compose it, but their names sanctioned it." The attributions to "exotic" names (not restricted to magians) conferred an "authority of a remote and revelatory wisdom." Among the named works attributed to "Zoroaster" is a treatise *On Nature* (*Peri physeos*), which appears to have originally constituted four volumes (i.e. papyrus rolls). The framework is a retelling of Plato's Myth of Er, with Zoroaster taking the place of the original hero. While Porphyry imagined Pythagoras listening to Zoroaster's discourse, *On Nature* has the sun in middle position, which was how it was understood in the 3rd century. In contrast, Plato's 4th-century BC version had the sun in second place above the moon. Colotes accused Plato of plagiarizing Zoroaster, and Heraclides Ponticus wrote a text titled *Zoroaster* based on his perception of "Zoroastrian" philosophy, in order to express his disagreement with Plato on natural philosophy. With respect to substance and content in *On Nature* only two facts are known: that it was crammed with astrological speculations, and that Necessity (*Ananké*) was mentioned by name and that she was in the air. Pliny the Elder names Zoroaster as the inventor of magic (*Natural History* 30.2.3). "However, a principle of the division of labor appears to have spared Zoroaster most of the responsibility for introducing the dark arts to the Greek and Roman worlds." That "dubious honor" went to the "fabulous magus, Ostanes, to whom most of the pseudepigraphic magical literature was attributed." Although Pliny calls him the inventor of magic, the Roman does not provide a "magician's persona" for him. Moreover, the little "magical" teaching that is ascribed to Zoroaster is actually very late, with the very earliest example being from the 14th century. Association with astrology according to Roger Beck, were based on his Babylonian origin, and Zoroaster's Greek name was identified at first with star-worshiping (*astrothytes* "star sacrificer") and, with the *Zo-*, even as the *living* star.[*verification needed*] Later, an even more elaborate mythoetymology evolved: Zoroaster died by the living (*zo-*) flux (*ro-*) of fire from the star (*astr-*) which he himself had invoked, and even, that the stars killed him in revenge for having been restrained by him.[*verification needed*] The alternate Greek name for Zoroaster was Zaratras or Zaratas/Zaradas/Zaratos. Pythagoreans considered the mathematicians to have studied with Zoroaster in Babylonia. Lydus, in *On the Months*, attributes the creation of the seven-day week to "the Babylonians in the circle of Zoroaster and Hystaspes," and who did so because there were seven planets. Lucian of Samosata, in *Mennipus* 6, reports deciding to journey to Babylon "to ask one of the magi, Zoroaster's disciples and successors," for their opinion. While the division along the lines of Zoroaster/astrology and Ostanes/magic is an "oversimplification, the descriptions do at least indicate what the works are *not*"; they were not expressions of Zoroastrian doctrine, they were not even expressions of what the Greeks and Romans "*imagined* the doctrines of Zoroastrianism to have been" [emphases in the original]. The assembled fragments do not even show noticeable commonality of outlook and teaching among the several authors who wrote under each name. Almost all Zoroastrian pseudepigrapha is now lost, and of the attested texts—with only one exception—only fragments have survived. Pliny's 2nd- or 3rd-century attribution of "two million lines" to Zoroaster suggest that (even if exaggeration and duplicates are taken into consideration) a formidable pseudepigraphic corpus once existed at the Library of Alexandria. This corpus can safely be assumed to be pseudepigrapha because no one before Pliny refers to literature by "Zoroaster", and on the authority of the 2nd-century Galen of Pergamon and from a 6th-century commentator on Aristotle it is known that the acquisition policies of well-endowed royal libraries created a market for fabricating manuscripts of famous and ancient authors. The exception to the fragmentary evidence (i.e. reiteration of passages in works of other authors) is a complete Coptic tractate titled *Zostrianos* (after the first-person narrator) discovered in the Nag Hammadi library in 1945. A three-line cryptogram in the colophones following the 131-page treatise identify the work as "words of truth of Zostrianos. God of Truth [*logos*]. Words of Zoroaster." Invoking a "God of Truth" might seem Zoroastrian, but there is otherwise "nothing noticeably Zoroastrian" about the text and "in content, style, ethos and intention, its affinities are entirely with the congeners among the Gnostic tractates." Another work circulating under the name of "Zoroaster" was the *Asteroskopita* (or *Apotelesmatika*), and which ran to five volumes (i.e. papyrus rolls). The title and fragments suggest that it was an astrological handbook, "albeit a very varied one, for the making of predictions." A third text attributed to Zoroaster is *On Virtue of Stones* (*Peri lithon timion*), of which nothing is known other than its extent (one volume) and that **pseudo-Zoroaster** *sang* it (from which Cumont and Bidez[*who?*] conclude that it was in verse). Numerous other fragments preserved in the works of other authors are attributed to "Zoroaster," but the titles of those books are not mentioned. These pseudepigraphic texts aside, some authors did draw on a few genuinely Zoroastrian ideas. The *Oracles of Hystaspes*, by "Hystaspes", another prominent magian pseudo-author, is a set of prophecies distinguished from other Zoroastrian pseudepigrapha in that it draws on real Zoroastrian sources. Some allusions are more difficult to assess:[*original research?*] in the same text that attributes the invention of magic to Zoroaster,[*clarification needed*] Pliny states that Zoroaster laughed on the day of his birth, although in an earlier place, Pliny had sworn in the name of Hercules that no child had ever done so before the 40th day from his birth. This notion of Zoroaster's laughter also appears in the 9th– to 11th-century texts of genuine Zoroastrian tradition, and for a time it was assumed[*weasel words*] that the origin of those myths lay with indigenous sources. Pliny also records that Zoroaster's head had pulsated so strongly that it repelled the hand when laid upon it, a presage of his future wisdom. The Iranians were however just as familiar with the Greek writers, and the provenance of other descriptions are clear. For instance, Plutarch's description of its dualistic theologies reads thus: "Others call the better of these a god and his rival a daemon, as, for example, Zoroaster the Magus, who lived, so they record, five thousand years before the siege of Troy. He used to call the one Horomazes and the other Areimanius". ### In the modern era An early reference to Zoroaster in English literature occur in the writings of the physician-philosopher Sir Thomas Browne who asserted in his Religio Medici (1643): I believe, besides Zoroaster, there were divers that writ before Moses, who notwithstanding have suffered the common fate of time. In E. T. A. Hoffmann's novel *Klein Zaches, genannt Zinnober* (1819), the mage Prosper Alpanus states that Professor Zoroaster was his teacher. In his seminal work *Also sprach Zarathustra (Thus Spoke Zarathustra)* (1885) the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche uses the native Iranian name Zarathustra which has a significant meaning as he had used the familiar Greek-Latin name in his earlier works. It is believed that Nietzsche invents a characterization of Zarathustra as the mouthpiece for Nietzsche's own ideas about morality. Notable influence on modern Western culture ------------------------------------------- The German composer Richard Strauss's large-scale tone-poem *Also sprach Zarathustra* (1896) was inspired by Nietzsche's book. A sculpture of Zoroaster by Edward Clarke Potter, representing ancient Persian judicial wisdom and dating to 1896, towers over the Appellate Division Courthouse of New York State at East 25th Street and Madison Avenue in Manhattan. A sculpture of Zoroaster appears with other prominent religious figures on the south side of the exterior of Rockefeller Memorial Chapel on the campus of the University of Chicago.[*who?*][*when?*] See also -------- * *Also sprach Zarathustra*, a tone poem composed in 1896 by Richard Strauss * Cypress of Kashmar * List of founders of religious traditions * List of unsolved deaths * *Thus Spoke Zarathustra: A Book for All and None*, a philosophical novel by German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, composed in four parts between 1883 and 1885. * Zartosht Bahram e Pazhdo, author of a Persian epic biography on Zoroaster. * Zoroaster and the Mount Savalan * *Zoroastre*, an opera by Jean-Philippe Rameau | | | | --- | --- | | a:**^** | Originally proposed by Burnouf | | b:**^** | For refutation of these and other proposals, see Humbach, 1991. | | c:**^** | The *Bundahishn* computes "200 and some years" (*GBd* xxxvi.9) or "284 years" (*IBd* xxxiv.9). That '258 years' was the generally accepted figure is however noted by al-Biruni and al-Masudi, with the latter specifically stating (in 943/944 AD) that "the Magians count a period of two hundred and fifty-eight years between their prophet and Alexander." | | d:**^** | "258 years before Alexander" is only superficially precise. It has been suggested that this "traditional date" is an adoption of some date from foreign sources, from the Greeks or the Babylonians for example, which the priesthood then reinterpreted. A simpler explanation is that the priests subtracted 42 (the age at which Zoroaster is said to have converted Vistaspa) from the round figure of 300. | | e:**^** | From a letter of the Universal House of Justice, Department of the Secretariat, May 13, 1979, to Mrs. Gayle Woolson published in: Hornby (1983), p. 501. | | f:**^** | By choosing the name of 'Zarathustra' as prophet of his philosophy, as he has expressed clearly, he followed the paradoxical aim of paying homage to the original Iranian prophet and reversing his teachings at the same time. The original Zoroastrian world view interprets being essentially on a moralistic basis and depicts the world as an arena for the struggle of the two fundamentals of being, Good and Evil, represented in two antagonistic divine figures. On the contrary, Nietzsche wants his philosophy to be Beyond Good and Evil. | | g:**^** | *Ecce Homo* quotations are per the Ludovici translation. Paraphrases follow the original passage (*Warum ich ein Schicksal bin* 3), available in the public domain on p. 45 of the Project Gutenberg EBook. | 1. ↑ Stausberg 2002, vol. I, pp. 58–59. 2. 1 2 3 4 West 2010, p. 4 3. ↑ Boyce 1996, pp. 3–4. 4. ↑ "How Zoroastrianism influenced the Western world". 2017. 5. ↑ "How Zoroastrianism influenced the Western world". 2017. 6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 West 2013, pp. 89–109 7. ↑ "Zarathustra". *World History Encyclopedia*. Retrieved 29 March 2020. 8. 1 2 Boyce 1996, p. 3 9. 1 2 3 West 2010, pp. 4–8 10. 1 2 3 Lincoln 1991, pp. 149–150: "At present, the majority opinion among scholars probably inclines toward the end of the second millennium or the beginning of the first, although there are still those who hold for a date in the seventh century." 11. ↑ Fischer 2004, pp. 58–59 12. ↑ Goucher, Candice; Walton, Linda (2013), *World History: Journeys from Past to Present*, Routledge, p. 100, ISBN 978-1-135-08828-6 13. 1 2 Boyce 2001, pp. 1–3 14. ↑ Stausberg, Vevaina & Tessmann 2015, pp. 60–61. 15. 1 2 Schlerath 1977, pp. 133–135 16. 1 2 3 4 Schmitt 2003. 17. ↑ Paul Horn, Grundriß der neupersischen Etymologie, Strassburg 1893 18. 1 2 Mayrhofer 1977, pp. 43–53. 19. ↑ Bailey 1953, pp. 40–42. 20. ↑ Markwart 1930, pp. 7ff. 21. 1 2 3 MacKenvie, D.N. (1971). *A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary* (PDF). London: Oxford University Press. p. 98. ISBN 0-19-713559-5. 22. ↑ Durkin-Meisterernst, Desmond (2004). *Dictionary Of Manichean Middle Persian & Parthian*. 23. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Schmitt, Rüdiger (2002). "ZOROASTER i. THE NAME". *Encyclopaedia Iranica*. 24. ↑ Boyce 1996, pp. 3, 189–191 25. ↑ Stausberg, Vevaina & Tessmann 2015, p. 61 26. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Nigosian 1993, pp. 15–16 27. 1 2 3 4 Shahbazi 1977, pp. 25–35 28. ↑ Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (1997), *Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture*, Taylor & Francis, pp. 310–311, 653, ISBN 978-1-884964-98-5 29. ↑ Boyce 1982, pp. 1–7 30. ↑ West 2010, p. 18 31. ↑ Stausberg 2008, p. 572 32. 1 2 West 2010, p. 6 33. ↑ Stausberg, Vevaina & Tessmann 2015, p. 441 34. ↑ Boyce 1982, p. 260 35. ↑ Boyce 1996, pp. 285–292 36. 1 2 Tuplin, Christopher (2007). *Persian Responses: Political and Cultural Interaction with(in) the Achaemenid Empire*. ISD LLC. p. 246. 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Accessed on 31 August 2016. 70. 1 2 Hinnel, J (1997), *The Penguin Dictionary of Religion*, Penguin Books UK 71. 1 2 3 Quoted in Büchner 1936, p. 105 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBüchner1936 (help).[*full citation needed*] 72. ↑ "Zoroastrianism". *www.alislam.org*. 73. ↑ Widengren 1961, p. 76. 74. ↑ Widengren 1961, pp. 43–45. 75. ↑ Widengren 1961, pp. 44–45. 76. ↑ Zaehner 1972, p. 21. 77. ↑ Taherzadeh 1976, p. 3. 78. ↑ Buck 1998. 79. ↑ Blackburn 1994, p. 405. 80. ↑ Gladisch, August (1859), *Herakleitos Und Zoroaster: Eine Historische Untersuchung*, p. IV, hdl:2027/hvd.32044085119394 81. ↑ Blackburn 2005, p. 409. 82. ↑ Frankfort, H., Frankfort, H. A. G., Wilson, J. A., & Jacobsen, T. (1964). Before Philosophy. Penguin, Harmondsworth. 83. ↑ Jones, W.H.S. (1963). "Pliny Natural History Vol 8; Book XXX". Heinemann. Archived from the original on 1 January 2017. Retrieved 28 December 2016. 84. ↑ Stausberg 2002, vol. I, p. 58. 85. ↑ See Plutarch's *Isis and Osiris* 46-7, Diogenes Laertius 1.6–9, and Agathias 2.23-5. 86. 1 2 Beck 1991, p. 525. 87. 1 2 Brenk, Frederick E. (1977). *In Mist Apparelled: Religious Themes in Plutarch's Moralia and Lives, Volumes 48–50*. Mnemosyne, bibliotheca classica Batava [Vol. 48: Supplementum]. Leiden, NDL: Brill Archive. p. 129. ISBN 9004052410. Retrieved 19 March 2017. 88. 1 2 Beck 1991, p. 491. 89. ↑ Beck 2003, para. 4. 90. 1 2 3 4 Beck 1991, p. 493. 91. ↑ Nock et al. 1929, p. 111. 92. ↑ Livingstone 2002, pp. 144–145. 93. ↑ Livingstone 2002, p. 147. 94. 1 2 Beck 2003, para. 7. 95. ↑ Beck 1991, p. 522. 96. 1 2 Beck 1991, p. 523. 97. ↑ Cf. 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(2005), "Zoroastrianism: Historical Review", *Encyclopaedia Iranica*, New York: Encyclopædia Iranica online * Markwart, Joseph (1930), *Das erste Kapitel der Gatha Uštavati* (Orientalia 50), Rome: Pontificio Instituto Biblico * Mayrhofer, Manfred (1977), *Zum Namengut des Avesta*, Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften * Moulton, James Hope (1917), *The Treasure of the Magi*, Oxford: Oxford University Press * Moulton, James Hope (1913), *Early Zoroastrianism*, London: Williams and Norgate * Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm; Ludovici, Anthony Mario, trans.; Levy, Oscar, ed. (1911), *Ecco Homo*, The Complete Works of Friedrich Nietzsche, Edinburgh: T. N. Foulis `{{citation}}`: `|first3=` has generic name (help) * Nigosian, Solomon Alexander (1993), *The Zoroastrian Faith: Tradition and Modern Research*, McGill-Queen's Press, ISBN 978-0-7735-1144-6 * Nock, A. D.; Stuart, Duane Reed; Reitzenstein, R.; Schaeder, H. H.; Saxl, Fr. (1929), "(Book Review) Studien zum antiken Synkretismus aus Iran und Griechenland by R. Reitzenstein & H. H. Schaeder", *The Journal of Hellenic Studies*, The Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 49, **49** (1): 111–116, doi:10.2307/625011, JSTOR 625011 * Sarianidi, V. (1987), "South-West Asia: Migrations, the Aryans and Zoroastrians", *International Association for the Study of Cultures of Central Asia Information Bulletin*, **13**: 44–56 * Shahbazi, A. Shapur (1977), "The 'Traditional Date of Zoroaster' Explained", *Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies*, **40** (1): 25–35, doi:10.1017/S0041977X00040386, S2CID 161582719 * Schlerath, Bernfried (1977), "Noch einmal Zarathustra", *Die Sprache*, **23** (2): 127–135 * Schmitt, Rüdiger (2003), "Zoroaster, the name", *Encyclopaedia Iranica*, New York: Encyclopædia Iranica online * Sieber, John (July 1973), "An Introduction to the Tractate Zostrianos from Nag Hammadi", *Novum Testamentum*, **15** (3): 233–240, doi:10.1163/156853673X00079 * Stausberg, Michael (2002), *Die Religion Zarathushtras, Vol. I & II* [*Zoroaster's religion*] (in German), Stuttgart: Kohlhammer * Stausberg, Michael (2004), *Die Religion Zarathushtras, Vol. III* [*Zoroaster's religion*] (in German), Stuttgart: Kohlhammer * Stausberg, Michael (2005), "Zoroaster, as perceived in Western Europe after antiquity", *Encyclopaedia Iranica*, vol. OT9, New York: Encyclopædia Iranica online * Stausberg, Michael (2008), "On the State and Prospects of the Study of Zoroastrianism", *Numen*, **55** (5): 561–600, doi:10.1163/156852708X310536, S2CID 143903349 * Stausberg, Michael; Vevaina, Yuhan Sohrab-Dinshaw; Tessmann, Anna (2015), *The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Zoroastrianism*, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-1-4443-3135-6 * Taherzadeh, Adib (1976), *The Revelation of Bahá'u'lláh, Volume 1: Baghdad 1853–63*, Oxford: George Ronald, ISBN 0-85398-270-8 * Watkins, Alison (2006), "Where Got I That Truth? Psychic Junk in a Modernist Landscape", *Writing Junk: Culture, Landscape, Body* (Conference Proceedings), Worcester: University College, pp. 3–4 * Werba, Chlodwig (1982), *Die arischen Personennamen und ihre Träger bei den Alexanderhistorikern (Studien zur iranischen Anthroponomastik)*, Vienna: n.p. (Institut für Südasien-, Tibet- und Buddhismuskunde der Universität Wien) * West, Martin Litchfield (2010), *The Hymns of Zoroaster: A New Translation of the Most Ancient Sacred Texts of Iran*, I.B.Tauris, ISBN 978-0-85773-156-2 * West, Martin Litchfield (2013), *Hellenica: Volume III: Philosophy, Music and Metre, Literary Byways, Varia*, OUP Oxford, ISBN 978-0-19-960503-3 * Widengren, Geo (1961), *Mani and Manichaeism*, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, OCLC 640889566 * Zaehner, Robert Charles (1972), *Zurvan: A Zoroastrian Dilemma*, New York: Biblo and Tannen, ISBN 978-0-8196-0280-0 * Zaehner, Robert Charles (1958), *A Comparison of Religions*, London: Faber and Faber. Cf. especially Chapter IV: *Prophets Outside Israel* * Bahram, Zartusht (2010), *The Book of Zoroaster, or The Zartusht-Nāmah*, London: Lulu

Zoroaster

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroaster

**Prešov** (Slovak pronunciation: [ˈpreʂɔw] (), Hungarian: *Eperjes*, Rusyn and Ukrainian: Пряшів) is a city in Eastern Slovakia. It is the seat of administrative Prešov Region (Slovak: *Prešovský kraj*) and Šariš, as well as the historic Sáros County of the Kingdom of Hungary. With a population of approximately 90,000 for the city, and in total about 110,000 with the metropolitan area, it is the third-largest city in Slovakia. It belongs to the Košice-Prešov agglomeration and is the natural cultural, economic, transport and administrative center of the Šariš region. It lends its name to the Eperjes-Tokaj Hill-Chain which was considered as the geographic entity on the first map of Hungary from 1528. There are many tourist attractions in Prešov such as castles (e.g. Šariš Castle), pools and the old town. Etymology --------- The first written mention is from 1247 (*Theutonici de Epuryes*). Several authors derived the name from Hungarian: *eper* (strawberry). The theory was questioned in the 1940s and newer Slovak works suggest a derivation from Slavic personal name Preš/Prešä and its later phonetic adaptation (introduction of *e* before the initial consonant group and removal of the suffix, the original form then ceased to exist). Strawberries depicted on the coat of arms of Prešov are not necessarily determinative, the Latin name *Fragopolis* (strawberry city) is only a modern translation. Other alternative names of the city include German: *Preschau* or *Eperies*, Hungarian *Eperjes*, Polish *Preszów*, Romany *Peryeshis*, Russian *Пряшев* (*Pryashev*) and Rusyn and Ukrainian *Пряшів* (*Priashiv*). People from Prešov are traditionally known as *koňare* which means "horse keepers". Characteristics --------------- The old town is a showcase of Baroque, Rococo and Gothic architecture. The historical center is lined with buildings built in these styles. In the suburbs, however, the Soviet influence is clearly evident through the massive concrete panel buildings (*paneláky*) of the housing estates (*sídliska*) and the Sekčov district. More Soviet-style architecture is seen in the government buildings near the city center. Significant industries in the city include mechanical and electrical engineering companies and the clothing industry. Solivary, the only salt mining and processing company in Slovakia, also operates in the city. The city is a seat of a Greek Catholic metropolitan see and of the primate of the autocephalous Orthodox Church of the Czech Lands and Slovakia. Many concerts, operas, operettas and stage plays are performed at the new building of the Jonáš Záborský Theatre (Divadlo Jonáša Záborského), as well as at the older theatre premises. The city and the region were contenders for European Capital of Culture 2013. The nearby city of Košice was chosen. Topography ---------- Prešov lies in the eastern part of Slovakia at the confluence of the rivers Torysa and Sekčov in the Košice Basin. It is surrounded by Slanské vrchy from the east and Šarišská vrchovina from the west. Roads I / 18 (Poprad - Michalovce), I / 68 (direction Stará Ľubovňa), I / 20 (direction Košice) intersect in the town and the south-western connection of the D1 motorway (Poprad - Košice) is being built. The Košice - Muszyna railway line leads through Prešov, to which the lines to Humenné and Bardejov connect. Košice lies 36 km (22 mi) south, Poprad 75 km (47 mi) west, Bardejov 41 km (25 mi) north and Vranov nad Topľou 46 km (29 mi) east. City Districts -------------- *Self-governing city districts*. Territorial districts of self-governing city districts: * Circuit number 1: Sídlisko III, Sídlisko Mladosť, Rúrky * Circuit number 2: Sídlisko II, Kalvária, pod Kamennou baňou, pod Wilecovou hôrkou, Borkút, Vydumanec, Kvašná voda, Cemjata * Circuit number 3: north of the city, Mier, Šidlovec, Dúbrava, Surdok, Kúty, Širpo, Nižná Šebastová * Circuit number 4: city center – Staré mesto, Táborisko, Sídlisko Duklianskych hrdinov * Circuit number 5: Solivar, Soľná Baňa, Šváby, Delňa, Tichá Dolina * Circuit number 5.5: Šimonov * Circuit number 6: southern part of the housing project Sekčov – building 1 – 4 * Circuit number 7: northern part of the housing project Sekčov – building 5 – 7, Šalgovík Cadastral city district: Prešov, Nižná Šebastová, Solivar, Šalgovík, Cemjata *Other districts*: Delňa, Dúbrava, Kalvária, Rúrky, Soľná Baňa, Šarišské Lúky, Širpo, Šidlovec, Táborisko, Teľov, Vydumanec, Borkút, Kúty, Surdok *Housing estates*: Duklianskych hrdinov, Mier, Mladosť, Sekčov, Sídlisko II, Sídlisko III, Šváby *Previous city districts*: Haniska (1970 – 1990), Ľubotice (1970 – 1990), Šarišské Lúky (1970 – 1990, since 1990 it's a part of the village Ľubotice) In the last few years and today, the construction of new residential areas and satellite towns in Prešov is being realized, especially in the district Šidlovec, Solivar, Šalgovík, Tichá dolina and Surdok. Watercourses ------------ * Torysa with tributaries: + Šidlovský potok (L) + Vydumanec (R) + Malkovský potok (R) + Sekčov (L) + Delňa (L) * Continues to Sekčov: + Šebastovka (L) + Ľubotický potok (L) + Šalgovícky potok (L) + Soľný potok (L) + Baracký potok (R) History ------- Habitation in the area around Prešov dates as far back as the Paleolithic period. The oldest discovered tools and mammoth bones are 28,000 years old. Continuous settlement dates back to the 8th century. After the Mongol invasion in 1241, King Béla IV of Hungary invited German colonists to fill the gaps in population. Prešov became a German-speaking settlement, related to the Zipser German and Carpathian German areas, and was elevated to the rank of a royal free town in 1347 by Louis the Great. In 1412, Prešov helped to create the Pentapolitana, the league of five towns, a trading group. The first record of a school dates from 1429. After the collapse of the old Kingdom of Hungary after the Ottoman invasion of 1526, Prešov became a border city and changed hands several times between two usually rivalrous domains, Habsburg Royal Hungary and Hungarian states normally backed by the Ottomans: the Eastern Hungarian Kingdom, the Principality of Transylvania, and the Principality of Upper Hungary. Still, Prešov went through an economic boom thanks to trade with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. In the 16th century it brought in grape vines from the nearby Tokaj wine region, and was home to German-Hungarian, Polish and Greek wine merchants. Some of the first books on Tokaj wine were written in German in Prešov. In 1572, salt mining began in Solivar (at that time a nearby town, now part of Prešov). Antun Vrančić, a Croatian prelate, writer, diplomat and Archbishop of Esztergom, died in Prešov in 1573. Prešov was prominent in the Protestant Reformation. It was at the front line in the 1604–1606 Bocskai Uprising, when Imperial Army commander Giorgio Basta retreated to the town after failing to take Košice from the Protestant rebels. In 1647 the Habsburgs designated it the capital of Sáros county. In late January 1657, Transylvanian Prince George II Rákóczi, a Protestant, invaded Poland with army of some 25,000 which crossed the Carpathians on the road from Prešov to Krosno. Wolfgang Schustel, a Lutheran reformer during the Reformation, who adopted an uncompromising position on public piety worked in Prešov and other towns. In 1667, the important Evangelical Lutheran College of Eperjes was established by Lutherans in the town. Imre Thököly, the Protestant Hungarian rebel and Ottoman ally studied at the Protestant college here. In 1685 he was defeated here by the Habsburg at the Battle of Eperjes. In 1687 twenty-four prominent citizens and noblemen were executed, under a tribunal instituted by the Austrian general Antonio Caraffa, for supporting the uprising of Imre Thököly: > "The city particularly suffered during the religious conflicts of the seventeenth century, when it had a reputation for Protestant anti-Habsburg sentiment. In 1687, General Carafa, an emissary of the Austrian emperor, imprisoned a group of local noblemen suspected of insurrection in a former wine warehouse off the square now known as Caraffa's Prison. He subsequently, and notoriously, had 24 of them tortured, executed and their heads placed on spikes around the town, after what we would now call a show trial." > > At the beginning of the 18th century, the population was decimated by the Bubonic plague and fires and was reduced to a mere 2,000 inhabitants. By the second half of the century, however, the town had recovered; crafts and trade improved, and new factories were built. In 1752 the salt mine in Solivar was flooded. Since then salt has been extracted from salt brine through boiling. The English author John Paget visited Presov and describes it in his 1839 book *Hungary and Transylvania*. In 1870 the first railway line was built, connecting the town to Košice. At the end of the 19th century, the town introduced electricity, telephone, telegraph and a sewage systems. In 1887 fire destroyed a large part of the town. In 1918, Czechoslovak troops began occupying Eastern Slovakia, along with Prešov. On 16 June 1919, Hungarian troops entered the city and the very brief Slovak Soviet Republic was declared here with the support of the Hungarian Soviet Republic. The short-lived republic collapsed in 7 July 1919 and Czechoslovak troops re-entered Prešov. In 1920, after the Treaty of Trianon, Prešov definitively became part of the newly created Czechoslovakia. During World War II, the nearby town of Košice again became part of the Kingdom of Hungary as a result of the First Vienna Award. As a result, many institutions moved from Košice to Prešov, thus increasing the town's importance. In 1944, a professional Slovak Theatre was established in Prešov. The city is a site in the Holocaust: > "In 1940, on the eve of the Holocaust, Prešov contained five synagogues and more than one in six of the city's population—4,308 people—was Jewish. Three of the synagogues are still standing, but the Jewish community now numbers fewer than 60. Outside the sole functioning synagogue, on Švermova just off the main square, is a memorial to the 6,400 Jews from Prešov and the surrounding region who died in the Holocaust. The broad path leading to the tombstone-shaped monument, surrounded by prison-like bars, is intended to represent the Jewish pre-war population; the narrow path that leads on from it to the synagogue, those who survived." > > About two thousand Jews were deported from Prešov to the Dęblin–Irena Ghetto in May 1942. Only a few dozen survived. On 19 January 1945 Prešov was taken by Soviet troops of the 1st Guards Army. After 1948, during the Communist era in Czechoslovakia, Prešov became an industrial center. Due to World War II, Prešov lost the majority of its Jewish population. Nonetheless, population of the city increased rapidly from 28,000 in 1950 to 52,000 in 1970 and 89,000 in 1990. Overview of significant historical events ----------------------------------------- * 4th – 5th century – arrival of Slavs to the territory of Prešov * 1247 – the first written mention of Prešov * 1299 – granting of city rights by King Andrew III of Hungary * 1412 (the 80s of the 15th century) – Prešov belongs to Pentapolitana (community of 5 royal cities - Prešov, Košice, Bardejov, Levoča, Sabinov) * 1429 – the first mention of a town school in Prešov * 1453 – the first coat of arms of Prešov * 1455 – granting the right of the city of Prešov to organize an annual three-day fair by King Ladislaus the Posthumous * 1502 – 1505 – beginning of the construction of the Co-Cathedral of St. Nicholas * 1647 – sanctification of the Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Confession of the Holy Trinity Church * 1667 – College in Prešov, Evangelical Educational Center of Upper Hungary, National Cultural Monument * 1687 – Caraffa's slaughterhouse, 24 executed townspeople * 1703 – the beginning of the most powerful anti-Habsburg uprising led by Francis II. Rákocim * The end of the 18th century – arrival of the first Jews in Prešov * 1816 – Prešov becomes the seat of an independent Greek Catholic diocese * 1848 – construction of the 1st Jewish synagogue * 1886, 1887 – big devastating fires affect Prešov * November 1, 1918 – in the afternoon, 41 soldiers and 2 civilians were executed in the city square. This event is also known as the Prešov Uprising (Prešovská vzbura) * 16 June 1919 – from the balcony of the town hall the Slovenská Soviet Republic (SSR) was declared * 1923 – 1924 – construction of the Art Nouveau building of Bosáková bank * December 20, 1944 - the bombing of the city is reminiscent of a small monument on Konštantínova Street * January 19, 1945 – liberation of Prešov by the Red Army, the end of World War II is reminiscent of the Liberators Memorial * 1950 – the center becomes a city monument reserve * 1972 – The Solivary is becoming a national cultural monument * July 2, 1995 – Pope John Paul II visited Prešov * 2021 – Pope Francis visited Prešov ### The highest representatives of the city By granting city privileges in 1299, the people of Prešov gained the right to elect their vogt. Such a vogt embodied the highest executive and judicial power in the city. He was elected among the esteemed burghers, usually for one year. The first vogt in the city of Prešov, whose name has been preserved, was Hanus called Ogh, who is mentioned in historical sources as early as 1314. However, historians have not been able to complete the complete list of all the vogts of Prešov until from 1497. For the first time, a woman became the highest representative of Prešov in 2014, when Andrea Turčanová became the winner of the election. In the elections of 2018, she strengthened her position and won the elections to the mayor of Prešov. Military -------- Prešov already had an important geographical position in the Middle Ages, because it was located at the crossroads of trade routes and also belonged to the important defense system of the emerging Hungarian state. The beginnings of the army in Prešov date back to this area, as Hungarian tribes and their allies, which were military-guard groups of Asian ethnic groups, came to these areas to establish guard settlements and fortresses to defend the emerging Kingdom of Hungary from enemy attacks. To this day, the names of the nearby hills Veľká and Lysá stráž have been preserved. The city had its own garrison probably since 1374, when it was given the right to build defensive walls with bastions and towers by King Louis I. The importance of the military garrison certainly increased because the city of Prešov became a free royal town in the 14th century. At the end of the 16th century, during the 15-year war with Turkey, the city had to sustain a large imperial army. From 1604, when the first of a number of anti-Habsburg uprisings of the Hungarian estates broke out, until 1710, when the city capitulated to a strong Habsburg army, Prešov was besieged many times by various insurgent troops, even by imperial troops. For example: Bocskai uprising, General Bast's troops, Juraj I. Rákoci's insurgents, Veshelini's conspiracy, Kuruk's insurgents, Tököli's uprising, General Caraffa's Prešov slaughterhouses and the insurgents led by Francis II. Rákocim. Prešov then flourished until 1848, because it did not experience any war. The revolutionary years of 1848–49 pulled not only the free royal city of Prešov, but the whole country into the whirlwind of events. Volunteer towns. Due to its strategic location, Prešov experienced several changes of military forces during this period. For example, General Schlick's imperial army was replaced by Görgey's Hungarian army, which was soon replaced by Austrian and Slovak volunteer units, which in turn were replaced by imperial soldiers together with the Russian army. The fact that the military importance of Prešov continued to grow is also evidenced by the data from the census of 1900, when out of 14,447 inhabitants of Prešov there were up to 1,349 soldiers. The local military garrison consisted of several units of the joint army and militia, the largest of which was the 67th Imperial and Royal Infantry Regiment. The hardships of World War I and especially its end tragically affected the life of Prešov, because on November 1, 1918, under the influence of the revolution in Budapest, soldiers of the 67th Regiment and some other smaller units in Prešov refused to obey their commanders and looted some shops in Prešov. After the arrival of military reinforcements, the insurgents were arrested and despite the fact that there were no casualties during the riots, the statistical court sentenced the participants in the uprising to death. On the same day, November 1, 1918, 41 soldiers and 2 civilians were executed in the square. This event is also known as the Prešov Uprising. The bombing of the city on December 20, 1944, was also devastating for the city of Prešov. From July 4, 1945, shortly after the end of World War II, military units in the territory of Czechoslovakia were reorganized according to the model of the Red Army. Since then, the following military headquarters have been located in the city of Prešov: infantry regiment headquarters, rifle division headquarters, tank division headquarters, motorized rifle division headquarters, mechanized division headquarters, army corps headquarters, mechanized brigade headquarters. From 1918 to 2019, these soldiers, who were born in Prešov, brigadier general František Bartko, major general Vojtech Gejza Danielovič, lieutenant general Alexander Mucha, Brigadier General Ing. Karol Navrátil, brigadier general Ing. Ivan Pach, major general Emil Perko, major general Jozef Zadžora. Geography --------- Prešov lies at an altitude of 250 m (820 ft) above sea level and covers an area of 70.4 km2 (27.2 sq mi). It is located in the north-eastern Slovakia, at the northern reaches of the Košice Basin, at the confluence of the Torysa River with its tributary Sekčov. Mountain ranges nearby include Slanské vrchy (south-east), Šarišská vrchovina (south-west), Bachureň (west) and Čergov (north). The neighbouring city of Košice is 34 km (21 mi) to the south. Prešov is about 50 km (31 mi) south of the Polish border, 60 km (37 mi) north of the Hungarian border and is some 410 km (250 mi) northeast of Bratislava (by road). ### Climate Prešov has a warm humid continental climate, bordering an oceanic climate. Prešov has four distinct seasons and is characterized by a significant variation between somewhat warm summers and slightly cold, snowy winters. | Climate data for Prešov (2011-2020) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 9.9(49.8) | 15.0(59.0) | 22.3(72.1) | 26.5(79.7) | 29.3(84.7) | 36.1(97.0) | 37.0(98.6) | 35.1(95.2) | 34.3(93.7) | 25.7(78.3) | 20.7(69.3) | 10.6(51.1) | 37.0(98.6) | | Average high °C (°F) | 0.1(32.2) | 3.7(38.7) | 9.6(49.3) | 16.1(61.0) | 20.0(68.0) | 24.9(76.8) | 26.2(79.2) | 26.4(79.5) | 21.7(71.1) | 14.3(57.7) | 7.8(46.0) | 1.8(35.2) | 14.4(57.9) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | −2.3(27.9) | 0.4(32.7) | 4.7(40.5) | 9.9(49.8) | 14.0(57.2) | 18.8(65.8) | 20.0(68.0) | 20.0(68.0) | 15.9(60.6) | 9.7(49.5) | 4.7(40.5) | −0.1(31.8) | 9.6(49.4) | | Average low °C (°F) | −4.8(23.4) | −3.1(26.4) | −0.2(31.6) | 3.8(38.8) | 8.2(46.8) | 12.8(55.0) | 13.6(56.5) | 13.4(56.1) | 10.0(50.0) | 5.3(41.5) | 1.6(34.9) | −2.1(28.2) | 4.9(40.8) | | Record low °C (°F) | −21.1(−6.0) | −20.7(−5.3) | −18.0(−0.4) | −6.8(19.8) | −2.3(27.9) | 3.3(37.9) | 5.4(41.7) | 4.7(40.5) | −2.3(27.9) | −5.4(22.3) | −11.3(11.7) | −18.4(−1.1) | −21.1(−6.0) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 25.2(0.99) | 23.8(0.94) | 22.4(0.88) | 36.7(1.44) | 95.5(3.76) | 84.5(3.33) | 86.3(3.40) | 63.4(2.50) | 44.7(1.76) | 62.4(2.46) | 34.8(1.37) | 21.4(0.84) | 601.1(23.67) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 6.7 | 5.0 | 5.2 | 6.0 | 11.5 | 8.3 | 10.0 | 6.3 | 5.8 | 7.9 | 6.1 | 5.2 | 84 | | Source: infoclimat.fr | Demographics ------------ ### Historic In the past, Prešov was a typical multiethnic town where Slovak, Hungarian, German, and Yiddish were spoken. **Population of Prešov according to "mother tongue" 1880–1910**| Mother tongue | census 1880 | census 1890 | census 1900 | census 1910 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Number |  % | Number |  % | Number |  % | Number |  % | | Slovak | 5,705 | 56.27% | 5,573 | 53.74% | 6,804 | 47.10% | 6,494 | 39.78% | | Hungarian | 1,963 | 19.36% | 2,670 | 25,74% | 5,513 | 38.16% | 7,976 | 48.86% | | German | 1,889 | 18.63% | 1,786 | 17.22% | 1,705 | 11.80% | 1,404 | 8.60% | | Romanian | 2 | 0.02% | 4 | 0.04% | 27 | 0.19% | 170 | 1.04% | | Rusyn | 162 | 1.60% | 106 | 1.02% | 121 | 0.84% | 47 | 0.29% | | Serbo-Croatian | 5 | 0.05% | - | - | - | - | - | - | | Serbian | - | - | 5 | 0.05% | 5 | 0.03% | 2 | 0.01% | | Croatian | - | - | 0 | 0.0% | 6 | 0.04% | 4 | 0.02% | | Slovenian | - | - | 0 | 0,0% | - | - | - | - | | Other | 132 | 1.30% | 227 | 2,19% | 226 | 1.84% | 226 | 1.38% | | Foreign (non-Hungarian) | 30 | 0.30% | - | - | - | - | - | - | | Cannot speak | 251 | 2.48% | - | - | - | - | - | - | | | Total | 10,139 | 10,317 | 14,447 | 16,323 | Before World War II Prešov was a home for a large Jewish population of 4,300 and housed a major Jewish museum. During 1939 and 1940 the Jewish community absorbed a flow of Jewish refugees from German Nazi-occupied Poland, and in 1941 additional deportees from Bratislava. In 1942 a series of deportations of Prešov's Jews to the German Nazi death camps in Poland began. Plaques in the town hall and a memorial in the surviving synagogue record that 2 6,400 Jews were deported from the town under the Tiso government of the First Slovak Republic. Only 716 Jewish survivors were found in the city and its surrounding when it was liberated by the Soviet Red Army in January 1945. ### Modern Historical population| Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1910 | 16,323 | —     | | 1930 | 21,377 | +31.0% | | 1950 | 20,300 | −5.0% | | 1965 | 39,630 | +95.2% | | 1980 | 68,530 | +72.9% | | 1991 | 87,771 | +28.1% | | 2001 | 92,791 | +5.7% | | 2011 | 91,782 | −1.1% | | 2021 | 83,897 | −8.6% | | source | According to the 2011 census, Prešov had 91 782 inhabitants, 81.14% declared Slovak nationality, 1.70% Romani, 1.59% Rusyn, 0,7% Ukrainian, 0.48% Czech, 0.14% Hungarian, 13.8% did not declare any nationality. Religion -------- ### Roman Catholic Church Prešov is the seat of the Roman Co-Cathedral of St. Nicholas. The city is part of the metropolitan Košice Archdiocese. ### Greek Catholic Church Prešov is the seat of the Slovak Greek Catholic metropolis and the Prešov Greek Catholic Archeparchy, which was founded on November 3, 1815, by Emperor Francis II. ### Orthodox Church The Prešov Orthodox Diocese was established after World War II by the division of the Mukachevo-Prešov Orthodox Diocese. The Cathedral of St. Prince Alexander Nevsky was built between 1946 and 1950 in the traditional Russian style. ### Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Confession Prešov is also the seat of the diocese of the Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Confession in Slovakia. ### Religious education There are two theological faculties in the city - the Greek Catholic Theological Faculty and the Orthodox Theological Faculty. Both are part of the University of Prešov. ### Religious make-up The religious make-up was 55.8% Roman Catholics, 12.44% people with no religious affiliation, 8.15% Greek Catholics, 4.05% Lutherans, 1.55% Orthodox, 17.16% did not declare any religious affiliation. On the contrary, we see an increase in the number of atheists, Greek Catholics and the unidentified. Culture ------- ### Theaters * Alexander Dukhnovych Theater * Jonas Záborský Theater * CILILING Children's Theater (www.cililing.sk) * Babadlo Children's Theater * DRaK Children's Theater * Portal Theater * Theater studio in Hlavná * Erik Németh Theater * Prešov National Theater * Black Eagle Culture and Recreation Park * Viola - center for art ### Museums * Regional Museum * Museum of Ruthenian Culture SNM * Solivar Museum * Barkány's collection of Judaica - exposition of the Museum of Jewish Culture in the Prešov Synagogue * Wine Museum ### Galleries * Šariš Gallery * Caraffa Prison Gallery * Wall Gallery * Creative Design Gallery * Atrium Gallery * J.D Galéria J.L - exterior gallery on Okružná street, showing paintings of historical Prešov ### Libraries * P. O. Hviezdoslav Library in Prešov * State Scientific Library Prešov * University Library of the University of Prešov ### Cinemas * Scala (former Panorama Cinema) * Cinemax Max (5 halls) * Cinemax Novum (8 halls) * Star OC Eperia (5 halls) * Garden Cinema * Prešov Amphitheater ### Science * Regional Observatory and Planetarium * Unipolab - science park of the University of Prešov ### Music Thanks to the lively musical life and the success of Prešov's music production, the city of Prešov has earned the nickname "Slovak Seattle" or "City of Music" long ago, mainly through the media. However, many musicians from Prešov work not only within their hometown or region, but also reap success in the whole of Slovakia, neighboring countries or even Europe. However, not only the number of mainstream successful musicians contributed to the musical life of the city, in the past and today, but also more or less (un) known groups and musical subcultures, steadily operating in the city foothills (genres: metal, punk, alternative scene, gospel, pop-rock, folk, jazz, country), concert rooms and clubs (Véčko, Bizarre, Christiania, City Club, Stromoradie, Za siedmimi oknami, Wave, Ester rock club, Netopier, Staré Mexico, Insomnia), rock shows of bands with a long tradition (Rock League, over 20 years, Prešov student Liverpool, 6 years, Ladder), but also festivals (Sigortus, Dobrý festival, (t)urbanfest, ImROCK FEST, East Side Music Festival, Festival zlej hudby, Farfest, or Jazz Prešov). Important events include the Dni mesta Prešov (Days of the City of Prešov), which are held annually on the occasion of the celebrations of the first written mention of the city (as of 2021, 774th anniversary). The celebrations usually include open-air concerts right in the center on Hlavná Street, whereas several guests from the domestic and European alternative scene took turns throughout the years. That includes: Deti Picasso (Russia), Myster Möbius (France/Hungary), Masfél (Hungary), Prague Selection II.; Laura a její tygři (Czech Republic), Srečna Mladina (Slovenia), Squartet (Italy), but also Slovak groups Heľenine Oči, Chiki liki tu-a, Arzén, Mango Molas, Alter Ego, Kapátske chrbáty a Komajota. Part of the city's celebrations are also side stages, where young bands can also try their luck. In 2009, the first Prešov film festival. *Bastion film festival*, was established. The festival takes place on the historic wall behind the Franciscan Church. The organizers are PKO Prešov and Prešov composer and guitarist David Kollar. After many years, the constant influx and modification of music groups, which are often enforced throughout Slovakia, required documentation, which took place through the Internet database of Prešov bands and performers under the name Frenky's Music Encyclopedia. Historically and currently, the ever-growing database of Prešov musicians is run by Michal Frank, a journalist and editor-in-chief of the Prešov Korzár. *Významní prešovskí hudobníci a kapely*: * Ivan Tásler * Peha * Katarína Knechtová * Groovin’ Heads * Chiki liki tu-a * Katka Koščová * Heľenine oči * Mloci * Peter Lipa * David Kollar * Hrdza * Komajota * Nuda * Peter Nagy * Grand Band * Frown * Raindown * Strecha * AMC Trio * IMT Smile * Edo Klena Buildings --------- * State Scientific Library * Culture and Recreation Park * Observatory and planetarium * Fountains and small fountains in Prešov * New Jonáš Záborský Theater * Jonáš Záborský Historical Theater * White House (PSK headquarters) ### Historical monuments * Cathedral of St. John the Baptist, which houses the remains of the Blessed Martyrs of Prešov bl. Pavel Petr Gojdič and Vasil Hopek and a faithful copy of the Turin Canvas. * Co-Cathedral of St. Nicholas * Church of St. Alexander Nevsky * Bosák's house (bank) * Caraffa Prison (gallery) * Florian's Gate * Gothic gate * Sculpture of the Immaculate Conception * Sculpture of St. Roch * Evangelical College * Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Confession * Church of St. Joseph * Greek Catholic Episcopal Palace * Rákóczi Palace – the seat of the Regional Museum * Klobušický Palace - seat of the Regional Court * Tauth's house * Weber's house * De Rossi's House * Szyrmayi Curia – the seat of the Orthodox Theological Faculty of University of Prešov * Old town school * Wierdt House – the seat of the regional monument office * Prešov Calvary – an important monument from the first half of the 18th century. Construction began in 1721 and was completed around 1752. The construction was led by the Jesuits, who administered the Roman Catholic parish. Calvary consists of 16 baroque chapels and a church in honor of the St. Cross, which is built on the highest point * Historic town hall * Jewish Synagogue – it houses the Judaica Museum of the Jewish Culture of the Slovak National Museum in Bratislava (one of the most beautiful synagogues in Slovakia) * Neological synagogue on Konštantínova street * Sancta Maria Institute – the seat of the gymasium on Konštantínova Street * Kumšt - originally a bastion, rebuilt into the Vodárenská bastion, Jewish Museum (1929 - 1939), since 1947 under the administration of the Regional Museum in Prešov * Blacksmith's bastion * Franciscan Bastion * Remains of the city fortifications * Church of Donatus of Muenstereifel on Cemjata * Neptune Fountain * Jonas Záborský Theater * Black Eagle Culture and Recreation Park * Alexander Duchnovič Theater - Pulský Palace * Dry mill * Solivar National Cultural Monument * Church of St. Stephen on Hrádku - Salt Castle (Castrum Salis), Solivar * Water tower (currently a lookout tower), Táborisko * Renaissance manor-house in Nižná Šebastová * Parish Church of the Blessed Name of Jesus and Mary and Franciscan Monastery, Nižná Šebastová * Statue of Christ in Rio de Janeiro on Trojica * Statue of John Paul II * Historic underground reservoir on Calvary ### Castles Prešov has the largest number of preserved castle ruins among all the regional towns in its vicinity, which led to the creation of the Prešov Castle Road project in 2019. The aim was to connect these castles with an imaginary tourist line and thus support the development of tourism in Prešov and its surroundings. 6 castles took part in the Prešov Castle Road project, namely: * Šariš Castle * Kapušany Castle * Zbojnícky Castle * Lipov Castle * Obišov Castle * Šebeš Castle ### Parks The construction of a central city park, situated between the Sekčov housing estate and Táborisko, is being prepared. In addition to the planned central city park, there are several parks and parks in Prešov: Northern Park - near Trojica, there is a sculpture of the Immaculate Conception * South Park – Hlavná Street, includes a monument to the liberators and the Neptune Fountain * Garden of Art – Svätoplukova street * Manor garden – Nižná Šebastová * Kolman's garden * Sculpture park by the amphitheater * St. John of Nepomuk Park - Nižná Šebastová * Legionary Square Park * Park artillerymen's Lesík * Čierny Most Park * Sekčov Park * Clementisova Park * Youth Square Park * Zabíjaná Lesopark * Cemjata Lesopark * Borkút Lesopark Sports ------ ### Football Prešov is home to one professional football team: 1. FC Tatran Prešov which is the oldest football team in Slovakia. ### Ice hockey The city's ice hockey club is HC 21 Prešov. Home arena of Prešov is ICE Arena and it has capacity of 5500 visitors. Prešov had hockey team since 1928 (HC Prešov Penguins) but in 2019 it has folded. ### Handball The city's handball club is HT Tatran Prešov which is Slovakia's most popular and currently most successful club. The handball team of Prešov is taking part not only in the Slovak league (where it is dominating), but also in the international SEHA League with the best handball teams from the region. Many handball players from this team are also members of the Slovak national handball team. ### Other * City multipurpose sports hall * Tatran Handball Arena (home stadium HT Tatran Prešov) * Women's Handball Hall - Sídlisko II, by the river Torysa, near Kaufland * ICE Arena (home stadium HC Prešov Penguins) * University of Prešov Hall * Velodrome Prešov * Bike Center Prešov, Pumptrack and Dirt track, Sekčov Regular events -------------- * Academic Prešov - student art festival * Turbanfest - a festival of alternative music, theaters and workshops * Prešov Music Spring (classical music concerts) * Golden Barrel - a show of cartoonists from around the world * Slovak Libraries Week * Earth Day * Evening run through Prešov * Šariš hackathon * Prešov Half Marathon * Lear Run * Tour de Prešov - cycling marathon * Santa's run * Santa's gift * Salt day * Salt Fair, connected with the International Museum Day * The bobbin lace festival - the international participation of bobbins - lasts 1 week. The first days are the courses of bobbin lace and by the end of the week, the event itself is connected with the demonstration of bobbin and the sale of everything related to this technique * Good festival * Bad music festival * Days of the city of Prešov * Discovering Prešov * Prešov Trinity Fair and festival of historical fencing and craft groups * Prešov Cultural Summer * Beer Festival - equestrian complex in Sídlisko III * Muvina - wine show * Church night * Prešov markets and parkour races * Prešov Music Autumn (classical music concerts) * JAZZ Prešov - International Jazz Festival * Jazz rock festival * Súťaž mladých barmanov a čašníkov – EUROCUP * IMAGE - Fashion Show * Opal grain - business competition * Gorazdov literary Prešov * Farmers markets * Prešov Student Liverpool - Young musical talents * Christmas Salon - exhibition of Prešov artists * Prešov Christmas Markets * New Year's Eve - a joint celebration of the New Year * Guitar Night * Prešov likes to read Economy and infrastructure -------------------------- ### Industrial parks The following industrial parks and industrial zones are located in Prešov: * Priemyselný park IPZ Prešov - Záborské (*Industrial park IPZ Prešov - Záborské*) * CTPark Prešov south * CTPark Prešov north * Priemyselný park Záturecká (*Záturecká Industrial park*) * Priemyselný park Grófske (*Grófske Industrial park* - under construction) * Priemyselný areál Šalgovík (*Šalgovík industrial area*) * Priemyselná zóna Budovateľská (*Budovateľská Industrial zone*) * Priemyselná zóna Širpo (*Širpo Industrial zone*) * Priemyselná zóna Delňa (*Delňa Industrial zone*) ### Transport #### Traffic Prešov is connected by the D1 motorway to the south with Košice, to the west with Poprad and Ružomberok. The completion of its connecting sections enabling motorway connections to Bratislava and Žilina is expected in 2024. A high-quality connection with Poland via Svidník and Hungary is to be provided by the R4 expressway. Today, Prešov has a southwestern motorway bypass, which has been under construction since 2017 and was officially opened on October 28, 2021. The southwestern bypass of Prešov forms part of the D1 motorway in the section Prešov - west and Prešov - south. Since 2019, the 1st stage of the northern bypass from the Prešov - West (Vydumanec) junction to the Prešov - North (Dúbrava) junction, which will be part of the R4 expressway, has been under construction. After the overall construction, the Prešov motorway bypass will bypass the whole city, divert transit traffic in all directions and connect the D1 with the R4. It will start at D1 Prešov - South junction, continue towards the northwest, to the Prešov - West junction, there it will connect to the already completed parts of the D1 motorway, at this junction the R4 will connect to D1. Completion of the construction of the 1st stage (PO west-PO north) of the northern bypass R4 is planned for the summer of 2023 and the 2nd stage (PO north-PO east) is now under the tender with planned opening in 2027. International routes of European importance E50 and E371, first class roads I/18, I/68 and I/20 and second class road 546 pass through Prešov. In 2017, the last stage of the so-called Embankment communication (Nábrežná komunikácia), including the reconstruction of the intersection at ZVL, which relieved the city center of transit traffic. #### City transport Urban public transport is provided by the Transport Company of the City of Prešov (*Dopravný podnik mesta Prešov, a. s.*), which operates a total of 45 regular public transport lines by the following means of transport: * trolleybuses (lines: 1, 2, 4, 5, 5D, 7, 8, 38) * buses (daily lines: 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 28, 29, 30, 32, 32A, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 48, nočné linky: N1, N2, N3) #### Vehicle fleet MHD Today, the following vehicles are operated in MHD (*Metská hromadná doprava* - Public transport) Prešov: * trolleybuses: Škoda 24 Tr Irisbus, Škoda 25 Tr Irisbus, Škoda 31 Tr SOR, Škoda 30 Tr SOR * buses: Karosa B 941 / B 941E, Karosa B 961 / B 961E, Solaris Urbino 12, Karosa Irisbus Citybus 12M, Karosa Irisbus Citybus 18M, Irisbus Citelis 12M, Irisbus Citelis 18M, Iveco First FCLLI, SOR NB 12 City, SOR NB 18 City, Solaris Urbino 18, Irisbus Crossway LE 12M, SOR BN 10.5 (leased from DPB) #### History of public transport The history of public transport in Prešov began in 1949, when Local Transport was established, a municipal enterprise of the city of Prešov as the operator of regular public transport in the territory of Prešov. After the end of World War II, it was not possible to start public transport with a new vehicle fleet, so an offer was accepted for the purchase of older Tatra vehicles from public transport facilities in Prague, Plzeň and Bratislava. The vehicles were initially parked in the courtyard of the old prison on Konštantínova Street, where the company was also located. On September 4, 1949, the traffic on the first lines was ceremoniously opened. Already in the first year of operation, the Prešov public transport buses went beyond the city limits to the municipalities of Šarišské Lúky, Nižná Šebastová, Haniska and Solivar. The following year, the development of public transport continued with the introduction of additional bus lines. The state hospital, Záhrady, Sídlisko II, Budovateľská and Čapajevova street were gradually connected to the public transport network in the 1950s, as well as other municipalities: the town of Veľký Šariš and its part Kanaš, Malý Šariš, Ľubotice, Fintice, Teriakovce and Záborské. In 1959, the first night line began operating and the company was located on its own premises on Petrovanská Street, where it moved in 1951. The year 1958, when the construction of the trolleybus network in the city was approved, brought a new stage in the development of urban transport. All high-capacity intra-city lines were to be electrified, while bus transport was to remain ancillary. Line 1 Was the first to be electrified, which led from Nižná Šebastová through Šarišské Lúky to Solivar. Although its construction was delayed by several technical problems, on May 13, 1962, passengers got to experience trolleybuses. A new depot for trolleybuses and buses was completed in Šarišské Lúky, where the entire vehicle fleet as well as the company's administration moved. Work on other sections soon began, so in 1966 trolleybuses were already running on Košická, Sabinovská and Budovateľská streets. and Gottwald today 17 Novembra Street. In the first half of the 1970s, the track along Sabinovská Street was extended to Dúbrava and trolleybuses also began to serve industrial Širpo. Other projects of lines to Sídlisko III, Šváby, Haniska and Delňa could no longer be carried out. Under the influence of cheap oil, buses also began to gain ground in Prešov. Bus transport recorded a quantitative development, when buses also started to run to Táborisko, Šidlovec, Cemjata, on Pod Kamennou baňou Street and Sídlisko III. In terms of quality, however, this mode of transport has struggled with constant difficulties such as the lack of vehicles, their low capacity and breakdown. These shortcomings were not gradually overcome until the late 1970s. Nevertheless, due to the non-construction of the trolleybus line to Sídlisko III, the service of which was crucial at that time, the buses fully prevailed. The period of the turn of the 1970s and 1980s, when the possibilities of public transport were significantly limited by the lack of fuel, pointed to the suitability of trolleybus transport. Following a review at government level, the electrification program was re-launched. Sídlisko III was the first to be connected to the trolleybus transport network (1985). Trolleybuses achieved a majority share in public transport in the city of Prešov after 1992, when trolleybus transport was introduced to the largest housing estate Sekčov. The issue of the tariff in Prešov has always been characterized by an ever-changing number of tariff bands, on the basis of which the rates for individual journeys were set. In 1949, there were three fare zones, and it was possible to change to another vehicle on one ticket. In 1969, single-ticket transfers were canceled and the number of bands was reduced to two. Since 1984, the government's acreage has simplified the tariff and there has been no division of the network into bands. Different fares for travel to neighboring municipalities were reintroduced in 1993 and existed until 1996. Special rates also applied in 1997 – 99 and again in 2000. Tickets were originally bought from the guide directly in the vehicle, later sold by the driver, respectively a ticketing machine was installed in the vehicle. In 1977, the sale of tickets outside the vehicle was introduced. Since 1995, it is again possible to buy a ticket from the driver, but at an increased price. Public transport is improved by the gradual renewal of the vehicle fleet, focused on low-floor vehicles, the introduction of computer technology into traffic management as well as the reconstruction of track sections of the trolleybus track and overhauls of vehicles. In the future, it is planned to expand ecological trolleybus transport to the Šváby housing estate and the second connection of the city center and the Sekčov housing estate along Rusínská Street. #### Rail transport Three railway lines Košice - Muszyna with a connection to Poland, the line Prešov - Humenné and Prešov - Bardejov pass through the city. The length of the railway network in the city is 16.7 km (10.4 mi). In 2007, the main railway station in Prešov was modernized, and in 2019, the pre-station area was reconstructed, including the underpass under Masarykova Street, as well as MHD (Public transport) stops. The following railway stations and stops are located in Prešov: * Prešov railway station – Main station * Prešov Railway stop – Old Town * Šarišské Lúky railway station * Prešov Railway station – Nižná Šebastová As part of the integrated transport project, the construction of other railway stops in the city is also planned. #### Bus transport The main bus transport operator in the Prešov self-governing region is the company SAD Prešov, a.s., which provides suburban, long-distance and international transport. Suburban transport is performed on 63 bus lines serving the districts of Prešov, Bardejov, Sabinov, Svidník, Košice surroundings, Košice, Vranov nad Topľou, Stropkov, Stará Ľubovňa and Levoča. The main transport terminal in Prešov within the bus service is the Prešov Bus Station. SAD Prešov, a.s. in addition to the performance of suburban, long-distance and international transport,also ensures the performance of public transport in Bardejov. #### Air Transport There is currently no public civil airport in Prešov. There is an air base in the Nižná Šebastová district. #### Bicycle transport The international cycle route of European significance EuroVelo 11 leads through the functional territory of the city of Prešov, which passes through the cadastres of the municipalities of Veľký Šariš, Prešov, Haniska and Kendice. The route is a part of the General Cycling Route as branch H1 - the main cycling route and belongs to the strategic goals of the Prešov self-governing region, as the main axis of the region. V súčasnosti je v rámci EuroVelo 11 prevádzke súvislá cyklotrasa v trase Wilec hôrka - Mestská hala - Sídlisko II - Sídlisko III - Veľký Šariš - Šarišské Michaľany. Súčasťou tejto trasy je aj cyklomost pod Šarišským hradom s historickým vzhľadom, ktorý sa stal novou vyhľadávanou atrakciou. A part of this route is also a bicycle bridge under the Šariš Castle with a historical look, which has become a new sought-after attraction. Another important cycling route is the so-called a cycle railway leading from Solivar in Prešov to the Sigord recreational area. In addition to these important cycle routes, there are a number of other local cycle routes in Prešov in various parts of the city. So far, the newest cycle routes in Prešov are the cycle route on Masarykova Street, completed in 2019 and the Mlynský náhon cycle route, completed in 2020. Their completion was ensured by the cycling connection of Sídlisko III with the city center and with the Sekčov and Šváby housing estates. In 2020, a new cycle route was also completed at the Sekčov housing estate on the route from Laca Novomeského Street to Šalgovík. For lovers of mountain biking, there are Prešov singletracks available in the Prešov forests, which together form eight routes of varying difficulty with a total length of approximately 20 km (12.4 mi). Prešov singletracks are one of the most attractive cycling areas in Prešov and its surroundings. They are well marked and maintained in excellent condition. The routes lead through Malkovská hôrka, to the recreation center Cemjata (Kyslá and Kvašná voda), to Borkút and it is also possible to get to the Calvary in Prešov. Healthcare ---------- The largest providers of health care in Prešov are the following public and private facilities: * University Hospital with J. A. Raiman Polyclinic Prešov (Fakultná nemocnica s poliklinikou J. A. Raimana Prešov) * Military hospital (Vojenská nemocnica) * Oáza General Hospital (Všeobecná nemocnica Oáza) * Polyclinic Prešov (Poliklinika Prešov) * Polyclinic ProCare Prešov (Poliklinika ProCare Prešov) * St. Elizabeth Hospital * Analytical-diagnostic laboratory and outpatient clinics (Analyticko-diagnostické laboratórium a ambulancie (AdLa)) * Sofyc Clinic - one-day surgery clinic (Sofyc Clinic - klinika jednodňovej chirurgie) * Gynstar - one-day care in the field of gynecology and obstetrics (Gynstar - jednodňová starostlivosť v odbore gynekológia a pôrodníctvo) In addition to these facilities, medical services are also provided by other smaller clinics and health centers. Education --------- Institutions of tertiary education in the city are the University of Prešov with 12,600 students, including 867 doctoral students, and the private International Business College ISM Slovakia in Prešov, with 455 students. In addition, the Faculty of Manufacturing Technologies of the Technical University of Košice is based in the city. There are 15 public primary schools, six private primary schools and two religious primary schools. Overall, they enroll 9,079 pupils. The city's system of secondary education consists of 10 gymnasia with 3,675 students, 4 specialized high schools with 5,251 students and 11 vocational schools with 5,028 students. Business -------- There are several business (shopping) centers in Prešov. EPERIA Shopping Mall has taken its name according to historic city name Eperies. It is located at the river bank Sekčov, between the "Hobby park" at the west side (with DIY chain store HORNBACH) and STOP-SHOP point from south side. Total shopping area of all three units is approximately 140.000 sq m. Recently new-opened Shopping Mall NOVUM in the very heart of city centre with 33.000 sq. m is the second largest. There are also ZOC-Max Prešov SC, ZOC Koral, Solivaria SC and close Lubotice Retail Park. with an additional area together of cca 40.000 sq. m. One of the most favorite popular locations in Prešov is Plaza Beach Resort. It is an exotic place in a cozy and calm city area, consisting of a luxury hotel with a restaurant and outside swimming pools. The resort has been built in a Mediterranean style. Hiking trails ------------- * European walking route E8 + Prešov – Miháľov – Kurimka – Dukla – Iwonicz-Zdrój – Rymanów-Zdrój – Puławy – Tokarnia (778 m) – Kamień (717 m) – Komańcza – Cisna – Ustrzyki Górne – Tarnica – Wołosate Twin towns – sister cities -------------------------- Prešov is twinned with: * Italy Brugherio, Italy * Bulgaria Gabrovo, Bulgaria * Greece Keratsini, Greece * France La Courneuve, France * Ukraine Mukachevo, Ukraine * Poland Nowy Sącz, Poland * Hungary Nyíregyháza, Hungary * United States Pittsburgh, United States * Czech Republic Prague 10 (Prague), Czech Republic * Germany Remscheid, Germany * Israel Rishon LeZion, Israel Panorama -------- View from Calvary (2006) Gallery ------- * Christmas congratulation from PrešovChristmas congratulation from Prešov * Cathedral of St. John the BaptistCathedral of St. John the Baptist * Cathedral of St. NicholasCathedral of St. Nicholas * Historical building of the collegeHistorical building of the college * Renaissance House Sigismund RákócziRenaissance House Sigismund Rákóczi * Late Gothic Caraffa prisonLate Gothic Caraffa prison * SynagogueSynagogue * Blacksmith bastionBlacksmith bastion * Town hallTown hall * Orthodox Cathedral of St. Prince A. NevskyOrthodox Cathedral of St. Prince A. Nevsky * CalvaryCalvary * ImmaculataImmaculata * Statue of St. RochusStatue of St. Rochus * Main StreetMain Street * Bishop's Palace Greek Catholic ChurchBishop's Palace Greek Catholic Church * Slovak streetSlovak street * Remnants of city wallsRemnants of city walls * Franciscan Church of St. JosephFranciscan Church of St. Joseph * https://atrios.sk/referencia/hobby-park-presov/Hobby Park Presov See also -------- * List of people from Prešov * University of Prešov * Executive Court of Prešov * Šariš Brewery

Prešov

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre%C5%A1ov

The **iPhone 7** and **iPhone 7 Plus** are smartphones that were designed, developed, and marketed by Apple Inc. They are the tenth generation of the iPhone. They were announced on September 7, 2016, at the Bill Graham Civic Auditorium in San Francisco by Apple CEO Tim Cook, and were released on September 16, 2016, succeeding the iPhone 6, iPhone 6 Plus, iPhone 6S and iPhone 6S Plus as the flagship devices in the iPhone series. Apple also released the iPhone 7 and iPhone 7 Plus in numerous countries worldwide throughout September and October 2016. They were succeeded as flagship devices by the iPhone 8 and iPhone 8 Plus on September 12, 2017, and were discontinued with the announcement of the iPhone 11 and iPhone 11 Pro on September 10, 2019. The iPhone 7's overall design is similar to the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6S. Changes introduced included new color options (Matte Black and Jet Black), water and dust resistance, a new capacitive, static home button, revised antenna bands, and the controversial removal of the 3.5 mm headphone jack. The device's internal hardware received upgrades, including a heterogeneous quad-core system-on-chip with improved system and graphics performance, upgraded 12 megapixel rear-facing cameras with optical image stabilization on all models, and an additional telephoto lens exclusive to the iPhone 7 Plus to provide enhanced (2x) optical zoom capabilities and portrait mode. The front camera is the first in the series with 1080p (Full HD) video resolution. The iPhone 7 & 7 Plus are supported from iOS 10 to iOS 15, and they are the third to support six versions of iOS before support was terminated, after the iPhone 5S. History ------- Prior to its announcement, multiple aspects of the iPhone 7 were heavily rumoured. Apple's plans to remove the 3.5 mm headphone jack received significant media attention. Other rumors included a flush camera, stereo speakers, a 256 gigabyte storage option, and a larger 3,100 mAh battery. On August 29, 2016, invitations to a press event at the Bill Graham Civic Auditorium in San Francisco, California on September 7, 2016, were sent out to members of the media, prompting immediate speculation of the iPhone 7's upcoming announcement. The iPhone 7 was officially announced at that event, with pre-orders beginning September 9, and general availability on September 16. The iPhone 7 launched in 30 new countries later in September, with further international rollouts throughout October and November 2016. Indonesia was the last country to release the iPhone 7 and 7 Plus, with availability starting on March 31, 2017, following Apple's research and development investment in the country. On March 21, 2017, Apple announced an iPhone 7 with a red color finish (and white front), as part of its partnership with Product Red to highlight its AIDS fundraising campaign. It launched on March 24, 2017, but it was later discontinued after the announcement of the iPhone 8, iPhone 8 Plus and iPhone X in September 2017 as well as the 256 GB Variant. On September 12, 2017, Apple announced the iPhone 8 and iPhone 8 Plus as direct successors to the iPhone 7 and 7 Plus, alongside the iPhone X. The iPhone 7 & 7 Plus, as well as the iPhone XS and its Max variant were discontinued and removed from Apple's website after the announcement of the iPhone 11 and iPhone 11 Pro on September 10, 2019. They are no longer available for sale. On June 6, 2022, Apple announced on its website that iPhone 7 and 7 Plus will not receive support for iOS 16. Controversially the iPad (5th generation), which has the A9 chip, will receive iPadOS 16, along with the 6th and 7th generation iPads, which have almost identical hardware to the iPhone 7 and 7 Plus respectively. Specifications -------------- ### Design | Color | Name | Front | Antenna | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | Black | Black | Black | | | Jet Black | | | Silver | White | Light Grey | | | Gold | White | | | Rose Gold | | | (Product) RED | Red | * Back and side detail from a standard iPhone 7 in Rose GoldBack and side detail from a standard iPhone 7 in Rose Gold * Dual cameras on the back of the iPhone 7 PlusDual cameras on the back of the iPhone 7 Plus The iPhone 7's exterior is similar in shape and volume to the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6S, although the camera bump is bigger on the iPhone 7. Alongside the existing silver, gold, and rose gold colors, the device is offered in new colors of matte black, glossy "jet black", and, for a limited time, red. The "jet black" color is a dark shade, high-gloss black finish. It is created through a multi-step process, beginning with an anodization phase to make the surface of the casing a porous aluminum oxide, and then using a machine to sweep the casing through a powdered compound, absorbed by aluminum oxide. The process is concluded with an "ultrafine particle bath" for additional finishing; the entire process takes less than an hour. #### Water protection iPhone 7 is rated IP67 water and dust resistant, making it the first officially water-resistant iPhone, although tests have resulted in malfunctions, specifically distorted speakers, after water exposure. The warranty does not cover any water damage to the phone. #### Home button iPhone 7's home button uses a capacitive mechanism for input rather than a physical push-button, as on previous models, meaning direct skin contact (or a capacitive glove) is required to operate the device. Physical feedback is provided via a Taptic Engine vibrator, and the button is also pressure-sensitive. iPhone 7 retains the 3D Touch display system introduced on the iPhone 6S, providing pressure-sensitive touchscreen input. #### Headphone plug removal The iPhone 7 and iPhone 7 Plus are the first iPhones not to feature a 3.5mm headphone jack. It was replaced by a second speaker grille that serves as a vent for the internal barometer. A Lightning-to-3.5-mm-connector adapter, as well as in-ear headphones that use the Lightning connector, were bundled with the device, and the adapter is also sold separately as an accessory. The adapter is also compatible with other iPhone, iPad, and iPod Touch devices running iOS 10 and newer. ### Hardware #### Chipsets iPhone 7 uses the Apple A10 Fusion 64-bit system-on-chip, which consists of two low-power cores and two high-power cores (only two cores are used at any point in time). The A10 chip also features a hexa-core graphics chip capable of "console-level gaming". As with prior models, iPhone 7 is available in two sizes: one with a 4.7 in (120 mm) screen, and a "Plus" variant with a 5.5 in (140 mm) screen. The displays have identical sizes and resolutions to iPhone 6S, but with a wider color gamut and increased brightness. The screen-to-body ratio is about ~66% and ~68% for the 7 and 7 Plus, respectively. Both device variants also contain a new iteration of Apple's motion coprocessor, the M10. Unlike previous iPhone models, internal storage options for iPhone 7 begin at 32 GB instead of 16 GB, and max out at 256 GB. iPhone 7 Plus offers 3 GB of RAM, more than any other previous iPhone; the 4.7-inch iPhone 7 has 2 GB. #### Cameras * iPhone 7 Plus with dual-lens cameraiPhone 7 Plus with dual-lens camera * Capturing timelapse photos using an iPhone 7Capturing timelapse photos using an iPhone 7 The iPhone 7 includes a 12-megapixel rear-facing camera with a quad-LED "True Tone" flash; its aperture was widened to f/1.8, and the standard-size phone model adds optical image stabilization – a feature that was previously exclusive to Plus models. The iPhone 7 Plus includes a second 12-megapixel telephoto lens, which can be used to achieve 2× optical zoom, and up to 10× digital zoom. However, the telephoto camera has an f/2.8 aperture and lacks optical image stabilization. The iPhone 7 and 7 Plus record video with single-channel mono audio. Still photos with 6.5 megapixels (3412×1920) can be captured during video recording. The front-facing camera was upgraded to a 7-megapixel sensor with automatic image stabilization. The iPhone 7 and 7 Plus are the first iPhones to be able to record 1080p video using the front camera. ### Battery Life The iPhone 7 has a 1,960 mAh battery which can last about 3-5 hours. The iPhone 7 Plus has 2,900 mAh battery and can last for 5-8 hours. ### Software The iPhone 7 originally shipped with iOS 10 pre-installed. The iPhone 7 Plus received an exclusive portrait camera mode in the iOS 10.1 software update. This camera mode is capable of producing a bokeh effect using depth of field analysis of the second camera of dual-lens in the back of iPhone 7 Plus. Mainstream software support for the iPhone 7 was dropped when iOS 16 was released. But, it still receives iOS 15 security updates (as of May 18, 2023). The current version of iOS to support iPhone 7 is iOS 15.7.6. The device can also run Android 10 unofficially via a project called Project Sandcastle made by Corellium, a security research company. Ubuntu 20.04 “Focal Fossa” has also been ported via Project Sandcastle. ### Accessories * Headphone jack adapter with an iPhone 7 Plus beside itHeadphone jack adapter with an iPhone 7 Plus beside it * iPhone 7 unboxed set in SilveriPhone 7 unboxed set in Silver Each iPhone 7 originally came with a Lightning-to-3.5-mm adapter, although this was omitted starting on September 12, 2018. Apple sells the adapter independently as well. Apple also unveiled several Bluetooth wireless headphones ostensibly intended for use with the iPhone 7, including AirPods, wireless in-ear headphones, and three new Beats headphone products. All four products utilize an in-house wireless chip known as the Apple W1, which is designed to provide low-power Bluetooth operation and integration with iOS and macOS devices (though they are still compatible with other Bluetooth-supported devices). Reception --------- Reception of the iPhone 7 was mixed. Although reviewers noted improvements to the camera, especially the dual rear camera on the Plus model, the phone was criticized for the lack of innovation in its build quality. Many reviews panned the removal of the 3.5 mm headphone jack; some critics argued that the change was meant to bolster licensing of the proprietary Lightning connector and the sales of Apple's own wireless headphone products, and questioned the effects of the change on audio quality. Apple was also mocked by critics for Phil Schiller's statement that such a drastic change required "courage." Gordon Kelly of *Forbes* noted that rival smartphones, such as the Samsung Galaxy S7, had increased battery life and added water resistance over its predecessor while retaining the headphone jack, and that the iPhone 7's camera photo quality was improved but still lagging behind some phones already on the market, including the Galaxy S7 and Nexus 6P. Kelly praised how Apple was able to extract improved brightness and accurate color reproduction from its LCD display panel, while noting that it was old technology which was also well behind rivals who had already moved to sharper 1080p or even 2K screens. The iPhone 7's exterior, which reuses the aging design of the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6S, was criticized, especially the size of the device and thick top/bottom bezels, with Kelly writing that "the iPhone 7 Plus is simply far too big for a smartphone with a 5.5-inch display". Nilay Patel of *The Verge* described the devices as being "full of aggressive breaks from convention" despite their design continuity with previous models (going as far as dubbing them "a prototype of next year's rumored drastic iPhone redesign disguised as an iPhone 6"), citing the headphone jack removal (which he felt was an attempt to encourage the use of wireless headphones), heterogeneous CPU, and home button redesign. The display quality was considered an improvement over previous models, albeit "not as insane" as the quad HD displays on competing phones. The Taptic Engine was considered the "first really valuable new UI concept I've seen on phones in years" (as opposed to the "gimmick" of 3D Touch), Patel felt that the cameras of the devices were a "step" above the 6S in terms of performance, and praised the dual-lens camera on the 7 Plus for enhancing the phone's camera functionality. However, he panned the lack of editing features that made use of them. In regards to the enhanced Bluetooth audio support provided by devices containing the W1 chip, he argued that Apple "took away an established open standard in favor of new technologies, but instead of making the experience of using those new technologies better across the board, it made every third-party wireless audio product a second-class citizen of the Apple ecosystem." Giving the iPhone 7 a 9 out of 10, he concluded that the devices were "legitimately among the most interesting, opinionated, powerful phones Apple has ever shipped, and the most confident expressions of the company's vision in a long time. iOS 10 is excellent, the cameras are better, and the performance is phenomenal. And the batteries last longer." John McCann of *TechRadar* wrote that for the first time, the phablet-sized iPhone 7 Plus was "markedly better" than the smaller model. He highlighted improved battery life and praised the camera, calling the Plus' dual cameras "excellent" for point-and-shoot, and "much improved" for low-light performance. McCann wrote that the lack of a headphone jack was "initially frustrating", but noted that it was a "positive step forward for the mobile industry", despite the "short-term effects ... making the most noise for now". ### Headphone jack controversy Criticism of the iPhone 7 centered around the removal of the headphone jack, including the inability to use wired headphones with the included adapter and charge the device simultaneously. In a particularly scathing article, Nilay Patel of *The Verge* wrote that removing the headphone jack, "a deeply established standard" as he put it, would be "user-hostile and stupid". He goes on to list reasons why removing the port is negative, concluding with "No one is asking for this" and "Vote with your dollars". Gordon Kelly of *Forbes* noted that wireless audio technology was immature at the moment, with Bluetooth audio quality being inferior and Lightning's audio reliability still in question. The removal of the headphone jack meant that in Patel's words, "You’re being pushed into an era where you will have to pay more for decent headphones due to their need for an integrated DAC and/or Lightning licensing", and pointed out that "the only company to profit from this situation is Apple, who will now be charging licensing fees to millions of headphone companies". In particular, Apple's vice president Phil Schiller, who announced the change, was mocked extensively online for stating that removing the headphone jack took 'courage'. An online petition created by the consumer group SumOfUs, that accuses Apple of planned obsolescence and causing substantial electronic waste by removing the headphone jack, reached over 300,000 signatures. Issues ------ ### Hissing noises Some users have reported a strange hissing noise during heavy usage of the phone. *CNET* reports it as "faint buzzes and hums coming from the backside". *The Daily Telegraph* speculates that the iPhone 7's new A10 Fusion processor is the source of the noise, linking to tweets that compare the phone's hissing sound to "hearing the fans spin up loudly whenever your Mac’s CPU gets used to its actual potential." ### Performance differences *The Guardian* reported in October 2016 that storage tests from *Unbox Therapy* and *GSMArena* showed that the 32 GB iPhone 7 is "significantly" slower than the 128 and 256 GB versions, measuring data write speeds of 341 MB/s on a 128 GB iPhone 7 model versus 42 MB/s on a 32 GB model. October 2016 network tests by *Cellular Insights* showed that models A1660 and A1661 with Qualcomm modems had "a significant performance edge" over models A1778 and A1784 with Intel modems. Inspection of the modems also found that the Qualcomm version's ability to use Ultra HD Voice had been turned off, likely to "level the playing field between the Qualcomm, and Intel variants". The report concluded with the statement that "We are not sure what was the main reason behind Apple's decision to source two different modem suppliers for the newest iPhone". *Bloomberg* reported in November 2016 that tests by researchers from Twin Prime and Cellular Insights had shown the two modems to perform similarly on some U.S. cellular networks despite one of the modems being technically capable of faster connectivity. Apple spokeswoman Trudy Muller told the publication that "Every iPhone 7 and iPhone 7 Plus meets or exceeds all of Apple’s wireless performance standards, quality metrics, and reliability testing ... In all of our rigorous lab tests based on wireless industry standards, in thousands of hours of real-world field testing, and in extensive carrier partner testing, the data shows there is no discernible difference in the wireless performance of any of the models". *Bloomberg* quoted analysts and technology advisers who stated that "[Apple] don’t want one version to get the reputation that it is better" and that "This may not impact the fanboys, but it may make other consumers think twice about buying an Apple phone, especially if they think they might be purchasing a sub-standard product". ### Perception of slogan in Cantonese-speaking regions The iPhone 7's "This is 7" slogan has been misunderstood when translated to certain other languages. The phone's slogan in Mainland China is "7, is here;" (Chinese: 7，在此; pinyin: *7, zài cǐ*), while in Hong Kong, its slogan is, "This, is iPhone 7;" (Chinese: 這，就是iPhone 7; Jyutping: *ze5, zau6 si6 iPhone 7*). In Cantonese, the local language of Hong Kong, the slogan could be mistakenly interpreted as "This is penis". "Tsat", (Chinese: 杘; Jyutping: *cat6*), is a common slang term for an erect penis, and "seven", (Chinese: 七; Jyutping: *cat1*), which varies only in tone, is often used as a euphemism. ### Replacing the home button In the iPhone 7, Apple added a software lock that prevents individuals from attempting to replace the home button on their own. Users are now required to go to an Apple Store to have repairs done, with "recalibration" of the button being necessary. This is a step further than Apple went with iPhone 5S, 6 and 6S, where only Touch ID functionality would get disabled but the "return-to-home" functionality still worked. ### Failure to connect to cellular service Some iPhone 7 devices with the model numbers A1660, A1779 and A1780 suffer from a problem where they show a "No service" message even when cellular reception is available. Apple will repair those devices for free within four years of the first retail sale of the unit. ### Loop Disease Some iPhone 7 devices suffer from a problem that affects audio in the device. Users reported a grayed-out speaker button during calls, grayed-out voice memo icon, and occasional freezing of the device. A few users also complained that lightning EarPods failed to work with the device and that the Wi-Fi button would be grayed out after restarting the iPhone. On May 4, 2018, Apple acknowledged the issue through an internal memo. If an affected iPhone 7 was no longer covered by warranty, Apple said its service providers could request an exception for this particular issue. The exemptions abruptly ended in July 2018 when Apple deleted the internal document. Many customers have complained Apple has charged customers around $350 to fix the issue. Many customers complain the issue first appeared after a software update. Sales ----- Apple has deliberately withheld pre-order sales numbers, citing that these are "no longer a representative metric for our investors and customers". Without releasing specific numbers, T-Mobile US stated that the iPhone 7 had broken the carrier's all-time record for first-day pre-order sales. The following weekend, T-Mobile US stated that iPhone 7 was its biggest iPhone launch ever, being "up nearly 4x compared to the next most popular iPhone". On September 14, 2016, two days before the iPhone 7 went on sale, Apple announced that due to high demand, they had sold out of all "jet black" iPhone 7's, and all colors of the iPhone 7 Plus. This caused issues for customers in the iPhone Upgrade Program, who were unable to reserve new phones. After customer complaints and a class action lawsuit, Apple made changes to ensure members of the program could get new phones as soon as possible. In May 2017, analytics research company Strategy Analytics announced that iPhone 7 and iPhone 7 Plus were the best-selling smartphones worldwide during the first quarter of 2017, selling 21.5 million and 17.4 million units, respectively. ### US carrier trade-in deals For the initial U.S. sales of the iPhone 7, all four major wireless carriers announced trade-in deals. Under the deals, the monthly installment plan cost of the iPhone 7 is negated by a monthly credit on consumers' bill, but consumers who cancel their service with the carrier or pay off the phone prior to the installment contract completion will not receive credits for the remaining months. Jacob Kastrenakes of *The Verge* noted that the deals effectively constituted a return to two-year phone contracts, in which the deals "essentially lock you into that carrier for two years". In the wake of these deals, Verizon announced they had seen an increase in sales over the release of the previous year's iPhone 6S, AT&T said that sales had exceeded its expectations, and T-Mobile and Sprint announced "huge increases in sales", with T-Mobile seeing a demand roughly four times higher for the 7 than the 6. ### Reports about trimmed production In December 2016, *DigiTimes* reported that Apple had reduced production of the iPhone 7 because of decreasing demand for the product after the initial surge of interest waned. A reason cited was consumers and suppliers turning their attention to next year's iPhone model. A new report from *Nikkei* at the end of December included details on sales and production of the iPhone 7. The report, "based on data from suppliers", stated that Apple would trim production of the iPhone 7 by 10% in the first quarter of 2017, following "sluggish" sales. *Nikkei* reported that Apple previously trimmed production of the iPhone 7 by 20% due to accumulated inventory of the previous model, but that the new models had "sold more sluggishly than expected". Additionally, the report notes that the "iPhone 7 Plus, which features two cameras on its back face, remains popular", but "a shortage of camera sensors has curbed Apple's ability to meet demand for the phones". See also -------- * List of iPhone models * History of the iPhone * Comparison of smartphones * Timeline of iPhone models | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | Preceded byiPhone 6S / 6S Plus | **iPhone** 10th generation | Succeeded byiPhone 8 / 8 PlusiPhone X |

IPhone 7

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_7

**Regina** (/rɪˈdʒaɪnə/ *rih-JY-nə*) is the capital city of the Canadian province of Saskatchewan. The city is the second-largest in the province, after Saskatoon, and is a commercial centre for southern Saskatchewan. As of the 2021 census, Regina had a city population of 226,404, and a Metropolitan Area population of 249,217. It is governed by Regina City Council. The city is surrounded by the Rural Municipality of Sherwood No. 159. Regina was previously the seat of government of the North-West Territories, of which the current provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta originally formed part, and of the District of Assiniboia. The site was previously called Wascana ("Buffalo Bones" in Cree), but was renamed to Regina (Latin for "Queen") in 1882 in honour of Queen Victoria. This decision was made by Queen Victoria's daughter Princess Louise, who was the wife of the Governor General of Canada, the Marquess of Lorne. Unlike other planned cities in the Canadian West, on its treeless flat plain Regina has few topographical features other than the small spring run-off, Wascana Creek. Early planners took advantage of such opportunity by damming the creek to create a decorative lake to the south of the central business district with a dam a block and a half west of the later elaborate 260 m (850 ft) long Albert Street Bridge across the new lake. Regina's importance was further secured when the new province of Saskatchewan designated the city its capital in 1906. Wascana Centre, created around the focal point of Wascana Lake, remains one of Regina's attractions and contains the Provincial Legislative Building, both campuses of the University of Regina, First Nations University of Canada, the Royal Saskatchewan Museum, the Regina Conservatory (in the original Regina College buildings), the Saskatchewan Science Centre, the MacKenzie Art Gallery and the Saskatchewan Centre of the Arts. Residential neighbourhoods include precincts beyond the historic city centre are historically or socially noteworthy neighbourhoods – namely Lakeview and The Crescents, both of which lie directly south of downtown. Immediately to the north of the central business district is the old warehouse district, increasingly the focus of shopping, nightclubs and residential development; as in other western cities of North America, the periphery contains shopping malls and big box stores. In 1912, the Regina Cyclone destroyed much of the town; in the 1930s, the Regina Riot brought further attention and, in the midst of the 1930s drought and Great Depression, which hit the Canadian Prairies particularly hard with their economic focus on dry land grain farming. The CCF (now the NDP, a major left-wing political party in Canada), formulated its foundation Regina Manifesto of 1933 in Regina. In 2007 Saskatchewan's agricultural and mineral resources came into new demand, and Saskatchewan was described as entering a new period of strong economic growth. History ------- ### Early history (1882–1945) Regina was established as the territorial seat of government in 1882 when Edgar Dewdney, the lieutenant-governor of the North-West Territories, insisted on the site over the better developed Battleford, Troy and Fort Qu'Appelle (the latter some 48 km (30 mi) to the east, one on rolling plains and the other in the Qu'Appelle Valley between two lakes). These communities were considered better locations for what was anticipated to be a metropole for the Canadian plains. These locations had ample access to water and resided on treed rolling parklands. "Pile-of-Bones", as the site for Regina was then called (or, in Cree, *Oskana kâ-asastêki*), was by contrast located in arid and featureless grassland. Lieutenant-Governor Dewdney had acquired land adjacent to the route of the future CPR line at Pile-of-Bones, which was distinguished only by collections of bison bones near a small spring run-off creek, some few kilometres downstream from its origin in the midst of what are now wheat fields. There was an "obvious conflict of interest" in Dewdney's choosing the site of Pile-of-Bones as the territorial seat of government and it was a national scandal at the time. But until 1897, when responsible government was accomplished in the Territories, the lieutenant-governor and council governed by fiat and there was little legitimate means of challenging such decisions outside the federal capital of Ottawa. There, the Territories were remote and of little concern. Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll, wife of the then Governor General of Canada, named the new community *Regina*, in honour of her mother, Queen Victoria. Commercial considerations prevailed and the town's authentic development soon began as a collection of wooden shanties and tent shacks clustered around the site designated by the CPR for its future station, some 3.2 km (2 mi) to the east of where Dewdney had reserved substantial landholdings for himself and where he sited the Territorial (now the Saskatchewan) Government House. Regina attained national prominence in 1885 during the North-West Rebellion when troops were mostly able to be transported by train on the CPR from eastern Canada as far as Qu'Appelle Station, before marching to the battlefield in the further Northwest – Qu'Appelle having been the major debarkation and distribution centre until 1890 when the completion of the Qu’Appelle, Long Lake, and Saskatchewan Railway linked Regina with Saskatoon and Prince Albert. Subsequently, the rebellion's leader, Louis Riel, was tried and hanged in Regina – giving the infant community increased and, at the time, not unwelcome national attention in connection with a figure who was generally at the time considered an unalloyed villain in anglophone Canada. The episode, including Riel's imprisonment, trial and execution, brought the new Regina *Leader* (later the *Leader-Post*) to national prominence. Regina was incorporated as a city on 19 June 1903, with the MLA who introduced the charter bill, James Hawkes, declaring, "Regina has the brightest future before it of any place in the North West Territories". Several years later the city was proclaimed the capital of the 1905 province of Saskatchewan on 23 May 1906, by the first provincial government, led by Premier Walter Scott; the monumental Saskatchewan Legislative Building was built between 1908 and 1912. The "Regina Cyclone" was a tornado that devastated the city on 30 June 1912 and remains the deadliest tornado in Canadian history, with a total of 28 fatalities, the population of the city having been 30,213 in 1911. Green funnel clouds formed and touched down south of the city, tearing a swath through the residential area between Wascana Lake and Victoria Avenue, continuing through the downtown business district, rail yards, warehouse district, and northern residential area. From 1920 to 1926 Regina used Single transferable vote (STV), a form of proportional representation, to elect its councillors. Councillors were elected in one at-large district. Each voter cast just a single vote, using a ranked transferable ballot. Regina grew rapidly until the beginning of the Great Depression, in 1929, though only to a small fraction of the originally anticipated population explosion as population centre of the new province. By this time, Saskatchewan was considered the third province of Canada in both population and economic indicators. Thereafter, Saskatchewan never recovered its early promise and Regina's growth slowed and at times reversed. In 1933, Regina hosted the first national convention Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (predecessor of the NDP). At the convention, the CCF adopted a programme known as the Regina Manifesto, which set out the new party's goals. In 1935, Regina gained notoriety for the Regina Riot, an incident of the On-to-Ottawa Trek. (See The Depression, the CCF and the Regina Riot.) Beginning in the 1930s, Regina became known as a centre of considerable political activism and experimentation as its people sought to adjust to new, reduced economic realities, including the co-operative movement and medicare. ### Modern history (1945–present) The disappearance of the Simpson's, Eaton's and Army & Navy retail department stores in or near the central business district and Simpsons-Sears to the north on Broad Street, left only the Hudson's Bay Company as a large department store in Regina-centre. This, with the proliferation of shopping malls beginning in the 1960s and "big box stores" in the 1990s on the periphery, together with a corresponding drift of entertainment venues (and all but one downtown cinema) to the city outskirts, had depleted the city centre. The former Hudson's Bay Company department store (previously the site of the Regina Theatre though long vacant after that burned to the ground) has been converted into offices; Globe Theatre, located in the old Post Office building at 11th Avenue and Scarth Street, Casino Regina and its show lounge in the former CPR train station, the Cornwall Centre and downtown restaurants now draw people downtown again. Many buildings of significance and value were lost during the period from 1945 through approximately 1970: Knox United Church was demolished in 1951; the Romanesque Revival city hall in 1964 (the failed shopping mall which replaced it is now office space for the Government of Canada) and the 1894 Supreme Court of the North-West Territories building at Hamilton Street and Victoria Avenue in 1965. In 1962 Wascana Centre Authority was established to govern the sprawling 50-year-old, 930 ha (2,300 acres) urban park and legislative grounds. A 100-year plan was developed by World Trade Centre Architect Minoru Yamasaki and landscape architect Thomas Church, as part of developing a new University of Saskatchewan campus in the southeast end of the park. The master plan has been subsequently revised every five to seven years since, most recently in 2016. Wascana Centre has made Regina as enjoyable and fulfilling for residents as it had long been the "metropole" for farmers and residents of small neighbouring towns. Despite the setting, improbable though it always was compared with other more likely sites for the capitol, the efforts' results were favourable. The long-imperilled Government House was saved in 1981 after decades of neglect and returned to viceregal use, the former Anglican diocesan property at Broad Street and College Avenue is being redeveloped with strict covenants to maintain the integrity of the diocesan buildings and St Chad's School and the former Sacred Heart Academy building immediately adjacent to the Roman Catholic Cathedral has been converted into townhouses. Recently older buildings have been put to new uses, including the old Normal School on the Regina College campus of the University of Regina (now the Canada Saskatchewan Production Studios) and the old Post Office on the Scarth Street Mall. The Warehouse District, immediately adjacent to the central business district to the north of the CPR line, has become a desirable commercial and residential precinct as historic warehouses have been converted to retail, nightclubs and residential use. Geography --------- The city is situated on a broad, flat, treeless plain. There is an abundance of parks and greenspaces: all of its trees — some 300,000 — shrubs and other plants were hand-planted. As in other prairie cities, American elms were planted in front yards in residential neighbourhoods and on boulevards along major traffic arteries and are the dominant species in the urban forest. In recent years the pattern of primary and high school grounds being acreages of prairie sports grounds has been re-thought and such grounds have been landscaped with artificial hills and parks. Newer residential subdivisions in the northwest and southeast have, instead of spring runoff storm sewers, decorative landscaped lagoons. The streetscape is now endangered by Dutch elm disease, which has spread through North America from the eastern seaboard and has now reached the Canadian prairies; for the time being it is controlled by pest management programs and species not susceptible to the disease are being planted; the disease has the potential to wipe out Regina's elm population. ### Climate Regina experiences a warm summer humid continental climate (Köppen: *Dfb*), with more than 70% of average annual precipitation in the warmest six months, and is in the NRC Plant Hardiness Zone 3b. Regina has warm summers and cold, dry winters, prone to extremes at all times of the year. Average annual precipitation is 389.7 mm (15.34 in) and is heaviest from May through August, with June being the wettest month with an average of 75 mm (2.95 in) of precipitation. The average daily temperature for the year is 3.1 °C (37.6 °F). The lowest temperature ever recorded was −50.0 °C (−58 °F) on 1 January 1885, while the highest recorded temperature was 43.9 °C (111 °F) on 5 July 1937. | Climate data for Regina International Airport, 1981–2010 normals, extremes 1883–present | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 10.4(50.7) | 15.6(60.1) | 24.4(75.9) | 32.8(91.0) | 37.2(99.0) | 40.6(105.1) | 43.9(111.0) | 41.3(106.3) | 37.2(99.0) | 32.0(89.6) | 23.6(74.5) | 15.0(59.0) | 43.9(111.0) | | Average high °C (°F) | −9.3(15.3) | −6.4(20.5) | 0.4(32.7) | 11.6(52.9) | 18.5(65.3) | 22.8(73.0) | 25.8(78.4) | 25.5(77.9) | 19.1(66.4) | 11.0(51.8) | 0.1(32.2) | −7.1(19.2) | 9.3(48.7) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | −14.7(5.5) | −11.7(10.9) | −4.8(23.4) | 4.8(40.6) | 11.3(52.3) | 16.2(61.2) | 18.9(66.0) | 18.1(64.6) | 11.8(53.2) | 4.3(39.7) | −5.2(22.6) | −12.4(9.7) | 3.1(37.6) | | Average low °C (°F) | −20.1(−4.2) | −17.0(1.4) | −9.9(14.2) | −2.0(28.4) | 4.1(39.4) | 9.5(49.1) | 11.9(53.4) | 10.7(51.3) | 4.6(40.3) | −2.4(27.7) | −10.5(13.1) | −17.7(0.1) | −3.2(26.2) | | Record low °C (°F) | −50.0(−58.0) | −47.8(−54.0) | −40.6(−41.1) | −28.9(−20.0) | −13.3(8.1) | −5.6(21.9) | −2.2(28.0) | −5.0(23.0) | −16.1(3.0) | −26.1(−15.0) | −37.2(−35.0) | −48.3(−54.9) | −50.0(−58.0) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 15.3(0.60) | 9.4(0.37) | 19.7(0.78) | 24.1(0.95) | 51.4(2.02) | 70.9(2.79) | 66.9(2.63) | 44.8(1.76) | 32.8(1.29) | 24.5(0.96) | 14.2(0.56) | 15.7(0.62) | 389.7(15.34) | | Average rainfall mm (inches) | 0.6(0.02) | 0.8(0.03) | 5.1(0.20) | 18.1(0.71) | 47.6(1.87) | 70.9(2.79) | 66.9(2.63) | 44.8(1.76) | 32.1(1.26) | 18.3(0.72) | 3.1(0.12) | 0.5(0.02) | 308.9(12.16) | | Average snowfall cm (inches) | 19.4(7.6) | 11.4(4.5) | 18.8(7.4) | 6.9(2.7) | 3.6(1.4) | 0.0(0.0) | 0.0(0.0) | 0.0(0.0) | 0.7(0.3) | 6.9(2.7) | 13.0(5.1) | 19.5(7.7) | 100.2(39.4) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 0.2 mm) | 10.9 | 8.3 | 9.3 | 8.5 | 10.9 | 13.5 | 10.8 | 9.5 | 8.9 | 8.1 | 8.3 | 10.9 | 117.9 | | Average rainy days (≥ 0.2 mm) | 0.85 | 0.77 | 2.5 | 6.3 | 10.5 | 13.5 | 10.8 | 9.5 | 8.7 | 6.1 | 1.7 | 1.0 | 72.3 | | Average snowy days (≥ 0.2 cm) | 11.7 | 8.8 | 8.5 | 3.3 | 0.96 | 0.04 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.52 | 2.7 | 8.2 | 11.7 | 56.2 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 76.1 | 76.4 | 69.5 | 44.5 | 42.9 | 48.3 | 48.8 | 45.4 | 45.5 | 52.4 | 68.2 | 75.7 | 57.8 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 96.1 | 133.5 | 154.5 | 236.6 | 262.4 | 277.7 | 325.4 | 287.4 | 198.1 | 163.3 | 97.9 | 85.4 | 2,318.2 | | Percent possible sunshine | 36.3 | 47.2 | 42.0 | 57.3 | 54.8 | 56.6 | 65.8 | 63.9 | 52.1 | 48.9 | 36.0 | 34.0 | 49.6 | | Average ultraviolet index | 1 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 6 | 7 | 7 | 6 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 3 | | Source: Environment Canada and Weather Atlas | Cityscape --------- Some neighbourhoods of note include: 1. the remaining residential portion of the original town between the CPR tracks and Wascana Lake 2. the downtown business district, deemed "Market Square"; 3. the Cathedral Area; 4. the historic and affluent Crescents area, immediately to the north of Wascana Creek west of the Albert Street bridge and dam which creates Wascana Lake; 5. Germantown, originally a poor and ill-serviced area of continental Europeans; 6. Lakeview, adjacent to the provincial Legislative Building and office buildings, a neighbourhood of some imposing mansions dating from before the First World War through the post-War '20s boom; and 7. the Warehouse District, formerly the reception zone for freight, being redeveloped as desirable residential accommodation, restaurants, nightclubs and shopping precincts. ### Bedroom communities From its first founding, particularly once motorcars were common, Reginans have retired to the nearby Qu'Appelle Valley on weekends, for summer and winter holidays and indeed as a place to live permanently and commute from. Since the 1940s, many of the towns near Regina have steadily lost population as western Canada's agrarian economy reorganised itself from small family farm landholdings of a quarter-section (160 acres [65 ha], the original standard land grant to homesteaders) to the multi-section (a "section" being 640 acres [260 ha]) landholdings that are increasingly necessary for economic viability. Some of these towns have enjoyed something of a renaissance as a result of the excellent roads that for many decades seemed likely to doom them; they – and to some extent the nearby city of Moose Jaw – are now undergoing a mild resurgence as commuter satellites for Regina. Qu'Appelle, at one time intended to be the metropole for the original District of Assiniboia in the North-West Territories (as they then were), saw during the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s Regina cottagers pass through en route to the Qu'Appelle Valley; Highway 10, which bypassed Qu'Appelle, running directly from Balgonie to Fort Qu'Appelle off Highway Number 1, quickly ended this. Qu'Appelle has recently seen more interest taken in it as a place to live. Fort Qu'Appelle and its neighbouring resort villages on the Fishing Lakes remain a summer vacation venue of choice; Indian Head is far enough from Regina to have an autonomous identity but close enough that its charm and vitality attract commuters – it "has a range of professional services and tradespeople, financial institutions, and a number of retail establishments." It was the scene of outdoor filming sequences in the CBC television series "Little Mosque on the Prairie." White City and Emerald Park are quasi-suburbs of Regina, as have become Balgonie, Pense, Grand Coulee, Pilot Butte and Lumsden in the Qu'Appelle Valley, some 16 km (10 mi) to the north of Regina. Regina Beach — situated on Last Mountain Lake (known locally as Long Lake) and a 30-minute drive from Regina – has been a summer favourite of Reginans from its first establishment and since the 1970s has also become a commuter satellite; Rouleau (also known as the town of Dog River in the CTV television sitcom *Corner Gas*) is 45 km (28 mi) southwest of Regina and in the summer months used to "bustle with film crews." Culture ------- Regina has a substantial cultural life in music, theatre and dance, supported by the fine arts constituency at the University of Regina, which has faculties of music, theatre and arts. At various times this has attracted notable artistic talent: the Regina Five were artists at Regina College (the university's predecessor) who gained national fame in the 1950s. The long-established MacKenzie Art Gallery once occupied cramped quarters adjacent to Darke Hall on the University of Regina College Avenue Campus; since relocated to a large building at the southwest corner of the provincial government site, at Albert Street near 23rd Avenue. Donald M. Kendrick, Bob Boyer and Joe Fafard, now with significant international reputations, have been other artists from or once in Regina. The Regina Symphony Orchestra, Canada's oldest continuously performing orchestra, performs in the Saskatchewan Centre of the Arts (now the Conexus Arts Centre). Concerts and recitals are performed both by local and visiting musicians in the Centre of the Arts and assorted other auditoriums including the University of Regina. The Regina Conservatory of Music operates in the former girls' residence wing of the Regina College building. The Regina Little Theatre began in 1926, and performed in Regina College before building its own theatre in 1981. Regina lacked a large concert and live theatre venue for many years after the loss to fire of the Regina Theatre in 1938 and the demolition of the 1906 City Hall in 1964 at a time when preservation of heritage architecture was not yet a fashionable issue. But until the demolition of downtown cinemas which doubled as live theatres the lack was not urgent, and Darke Hall on the Regina College campus of the university provided a small concert and stage venue. Annual festivals in and near Regina through the year include the Regina International Film Festival; Cathedral Village Arts Festival; the Craven Country Jamboree; the Regina Folk Festival; Queen City Pride; the Queer City Cinema film festival; the Regina Dragon Boat Festival; and Mosaic, mounted by the Regina Multicultural Council, which earned Heritage Canada's designation of 2004 "Cultural Capital of Canada" (in the over 125,000 population category). The annual Kiwanis Music Festival affords rising musical talents the opportunity to achieve nationwide recognition. The city's summer agricultural exhibition was originally established in 1884 as the Assiniboia Agricultural Association, then from the mid-1960s and up until 2009 as Buffalo Days then from that time until today, the Queen City Ex. This was remedied in 1970 with the construction of the Saskatchewan Centre of the Arts (now the Conexus Arts Centre) as a Canadian Centennial project, a theatre and concert hall complex overlooking Wascana Lake which is one of the most acoustically perfect concert venues in North America; it is home to the Regina Symphony Orchestra (Canada's oldest continuously performing orchestra), Opera Saskatchewan and New Dance Horizons, a contemporary dance company. The Royal Saskatchewan Museum (the present 1955 structure a Saskatchewan Golden Jubilee project) dates from 1906. The old Post Office at Scarth Street and 11th Avenue, temporarily used as a city hall after the demolition of the 1906 City Hall, is now home to the Globe Theatre, founded in 1966 as "Saskatchewan's first professional theatre since 1927." Holy Rosary Roman Catholic Cathedral and Knox-Metropolitan United Church have particularly impressive Casavant Frères pipe organs, maintain substantial musical establishments and are frequently the venues for choral concerts and organ recitals. The Regina Public Library is a citywide library system with nine branches. Its facilities include the RPL Film theatre which plays non-mainstream cinema, the Dunlop Art Gallery, special literacy services and a prairie history collection. The MacKenzie Art Gallery in Wascana Centre and the Dunlop Art Gallery have permanent collections and sponsor travelling exhibitions. The Saskatchewan Archives and the Saskatchewan Genealogical Library also offer information for those interested in the people of Saskatchewan. ### Parks and attractions Regina has a substantial proportion of its overall area dedicated as parks and greenspaces, with biking paths, cross-country skiing venues and other recreational facilities throughout the city; Wascana Lake, the venue for summer boating activities, is regularly cleared of snow in winter for skating and there are toboggan runs both in Wascana Centre and downstream on the banks of Wascana Creek. Victoria Park is in the central business district and numerous greenspaces throughout the residential subdivisions and newer subdivisions in the north and west of the city contain large ornamental ponds to add interest to residential precincts such as Rochdale, Lakewood, Lakeridge, Spruce Meadows and Windsor Park; older school playing fields throughout the city have also been converted into landscaped parks. The city operates five municipal golf courses, including two in King's Park northeast of the city. Kings Park Recreation facility is also home to ball diamonds, picnic grounds, and stock car racing. Within half an hour's drive are the summer cottage and camping country and winter ski resorts in the Qu'Appelle Valley with Last Mountain and Buffalo Pound Lakes and the four Fishing Lakes of Pasqua, Echo, Mission and Katepwa; slightly farther east are Round and Crooked Lakes, also in the Qu'Appelle Valley, and to the southeast the Kenosee Lake cottage country. Wascana Centre is a 9.3 km2 (3.6 sq mi) park built around Wascana Lake and designed in 1961 by Minoru Yamasaki — the Seattle-born architect best known as the designer of the original World Trade Center in New York – in tandem with his starkly modernist design for the new Regina Campus of the University of Saskatchewan. Wascana Lake was created as a "stock watering hole" — for the CPR's rolling stock, that is – in 1883 when a dam and bridge were constructed 1½ blocks to the west of the present Albert Street Bridge. A new dam and bridge were built in 1908, and Wascana Lake was used as a domestic water source, to cool the city's power plant and, in due course, for the new provincial legislative building. By the 1920s, with Boggy Creek as a source of domestic water and wells into the aquifer under Regina, Wascana Lake had ceased to have a utilitarian purpose and had become a primarily recreational facility, with bathing and boating its principal uses. It was drained in the 1930s as part of a government relief project; 2,100 men widened and dredged the lake bed and created two islands using only hand tools and horse-drawn wagons. During the fall and winter of 2003–2004, Wascana Lake was again drained and dredged to deepen it while adding a new island, a promenade area beside Albert Street Bridge, water fountains, and a waterfall to help aerate the lake. Downstream from Wascana Lake, Wascana Creek continues to provide a lush parkland on its increasingly intensively developed perimeter; in the northwest quadrant of the city Wascana Creek has a second weir with a smaller reservoir in A.E. Wilson Park. #### Visitor attractions Regina is a travel destination for residents of southeastern Saskatchewan and the immediately adjacent regions of the neighbouring US states of North Dakota and Montana, and an intermediate stopping point for travellers on the Trans-Canada Highway. Attractions for visitors in Regina include: * Wascana Centre, a 9.3 km2 (3.6 sq mi) park around Wascana Lake bringing together lands containing government, recreational, cultural, educational and environmental buildings and facilities. * Victoria Park in downtown Regina offers the Regina Folk Festival and other outdoor festivities including the nearby Farmers Market in the summertime. * the Royal Saskatchewan Museum (a museum of natural history); * the Saskatchewan Science Centre, housed in the 1914 Powerhouse on east Wascana Lake; * the Norman Mackenzie Art Gallery and numerous smaller galleries and museums; * the Roman Catholic cathedral on 13th Avenue in the West End, but also perhaps to a somewhat lesser extent the Anglican cathedral in downtown Regina and the Romanian Orthodox cathedral on Victoria Avenue in the East End; * the Hotel Saskatchewan first opened by the CPR has accommodated royalty on numerous occasions and still maintains the ambiance of a bygone time * Knox-Metropolitan United Church on Victoria Park in downtown Regina: the surviving downtown congregation of the United Church (Metropolitan Methodist and the now demolished or closed Knox, Carmichael and St Andrew's United Churches, previously Presbyterian, were its antecedents or now-defunct daughter congregations) with the largest pipe organ in Regina; * the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) national training centre and the museum; * Government House, where regular tours are available, conducted by guides in "period" costume and the Lieutenant-Governor holds an annual levée on New Year's Day; * Casino Regina, in the old Union Station; * the Globe Theatre in the Old Post Office building on the Scarth Street Mall; * events held at Mosaic Stadium sports stadium and the Saskatchewan Centre of the Arts; * REAL District, formerly Evraz Place (formerly Ipsco Place, previously Regina Exhibition Park), the venue for the annual Queen City Ex (formerly Buffalo Days Exhibition) summer agricultural fair every August; and * the Canadian Western Agribition, a winter agricultural show and marketplace every November. The former large-scale Children's Day Parade and Travellers' Day Parade during Fair Week in the summer, which were substantially supported by the Masons and Shriners, has become the fair parade as such service clubs have lost vitality; the Regina Exhibition's travelling midway divides its time among other western Canadian and US cities. A Santa Claus parade is now mounted during the lead-up to Christmas. ### Sports The Saskatchewan Roughriders of the Canadian Football League play their home games at Mosaic Stadium in Regina. Formed in 1910 as the Regina Rugby Club and renamed the Regina Roughriders in 1924 and the Saskatchewan Roughriders in 1946, the "Riders" are a community-owned team with a loyal fan support base; every game in the 2008 season was sold out; out-of-town season ticket holders often travel 300–400 km (190–250 mi) or more to attend home games. The team has won the Grey Cup on four occasions, in 1966, 1989, 2007 and 2013. Other sports teams in Regina include the Regina Pats of the Western Hockey League, the Regina Thunder of the Canadian Junior Football League, the Regina Riot of the Western Women's Canadian Football League (WWCFL), the Prairie Fire of the Rugby Canada Super League, the Regina Red Sox of the Western Major Baseball League, and the University of Regina's Regina Cougars/Regina Rams of the CIS. Regina is also where all Water Polo players from Saskatchewan centralize, Regina's team being Water Polo Armada. Regina's curling teams have distinguished the city for many decades. Richardson Crescent commemorates the Richardson curling team of the 1950s. In recent years Olympic Gold medal winner Sandra Schmirler and her rink occasioned vast civic pride; the Sandra Schmirler Leisure Centre in east Regina commemorates her. North-east of the city lies Kings Park Speedway, a ⅓-mile paved oval used for stock car racing since the late 1960s. Regina hosted the Western Canada Summer Games in 1975, and again in 1987, as well as being the host city for the 2005 Canada Summer Games. Demographics ------------ Historical populations| Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1901 | 2,249 | —     | | 1911 | 30,213 | +1243.4% | | 1921 | 34,432 | +14.0% | | 1931 | 53,209 | +54.5% | | 1941 | 57,389 | +7.9% | | 1951 | 71,319 | +24.3% | | 1961 | 112,141 | +57.2% | | 1971 | 139,469 | +24.4% | | 1981 | 162,613 | +16.6% | | 1991 | 179,178 | +10.2% | | 1996 | 180,404 | +0.7% | | 2001 | 178,225 | −1.2% | | 2006 | 179,246 | +0.6% | | 2011 | 193,100 | +7.7% | | 2016 | 215,106 | +11.4% | | 2021 | 226,404 | +5.3% | In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Regina had a population of 226,404 living in 92,129 of its 99,134 total private dwellings, a change of 5.3% from its 2016 population of 215,106. With a land area of 178.81 km2 (69.04 sq mi), it had a population density of 1,266.2/km2 (3,279.4/sq mi) in 2021. At the census metropolitan area (CMA) level in the 2021 census, the Regina CMA had a population of 249,217 living in 100,211 of its 108,120 total private dwellings, a change of 5.3% from its 2016 population of 236,695. With a land area of 4,323.66 km2 (1,669.37 sq mi), it had a population density of 57.6/km2 (149.3/sq mi) in 2021. The 2021 census reported that immigrants (individuals born outside Canada) comprise 45,210 persons or 20.3% of the total population of Regina. Of the total immigrant population, the top countries of origin were Philippines (9,840 persons or 21.8%), India (7,385 persons or 16.3%), China (2,905 persons or 6.4%), Pakistan (2,640 persons or 5.8%), Nigeria (2,235 persons or 4.9%), Vietnam (1,410 persons or 3.1%), United Kingdom (1,380 persons or 3.1%), Bangladesh (1,240 persons or 2.7%), United States of America (1,155 persons or 2.6%), and Ukraine (885 persons or 2.0%). ### Ethnicity In absolute numbers of Aboriginal population, Regina ranked seventh among CMAs in Canada with an "Aboriginal-identity population of 15,685 (8.3% of the total city population), of which 9,200 were First Nations, 5,990 Métis, and 495 other Aboriginal." Panethnic groups in the City of Regina (2001−2021)| Panethnicgroup | 2021 | 2016 | 2011 | 2006 | 2001 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Pop. | % | Pop. | % | Pop. | % | Pop. | % | Pop. | % | | European | 142,440 | 63.85% | 150,110 | 70.88% | 149,225 | 78.65% | 147,955 | 83.63% | 150,515 | 85.71% | | Indigenous | 23,290 | 10.44% | 20,925 | 9.88% | 18,750 | 9.88% | 16,535 | 9.35% | 15,295 | 8.71% | | South Asian | 19,200 | 8.61% | 12,330 | 5.82% | 4,885 | 2.57% | 1,945 | 1.1% | 1,665 | 0.95% | | Southeast Asian | 15,525 | 6.96% | 11,060 | 5.22% | 6,635 | 3.5% | 2,445 | 1.38% | 2,175 | 1.24% | | African | 9,820 | 4.4% | 6,330 | 2.99% | 3,065 | 1.62% | 2,125 | 1.2% | 1,555 | 0.89% | | East Asian | 6,760 | 3.03% | 6,430 | 3.04% | 4,185 | 2.21% | 3,825 | 2.16% | 2,750 | 1.57% | | Middle Eastern | 2,920 | 1.31% | 2,275 | 1.07% | 1,060 | 0.56% | 700 | 0.4% | 475 | 0.27% | | Latin American | 1,410 | 0.63% | 1,180 | 0.56% | 1,270 | 0.67% | 955 | 0.54% | 770 | 0.44% | | Other/Multiracial | 1,700 | 0.76% | 1,140 | 0.54% | 670 | 0.35% | 425 | 0.24% | 400 | 0.23% | | Total responses | 223,070 | 98.53% | 211,780 | 98.45% | 189,740 | 98.26% | 176,910 | 98.7% | 175,605 | 98.53% | | Total population | 226,404 | 100% | 215,106 | 100% | 193,100 | 100% | 179,246 | 100% | 178,225 | 100% | | Note: Totals greater than 100% due to multiple origin responses | ### Religion According to the 2021 census, religious groups in Regina included: * Christianity (117,905 persons or 52.9%) * Irreligion (79,020 persons or 35.4%) * Islam (10,360 persons or 4.6%) * Hinduism (6,565 persons or 2.9%) * Sikhism (4,305 persons or 1.9%) * Buddhism (1,790 persons or 0.8%) * Indigenous Spirituality (1,210 persons or 0.5%) * Judaism (365 persons or 0.2%) * Other (1,555 persons or 0.7%) According to the 2011 Census, 67.9% of the population identify as Christian, with Catholics (30.4%) making up the largest denomination, followed by United Church (11.3%), Lutheran (7.2%), and other denominations. Others identify as Muslim (1.9%), Buddhist (0.9%), Hindu (0.8%), Sikh (0.5%), with Traditional (Aboriginal) Spirituality (0.5%), and with other religions. 27.1% of the population report no religious affiliation. Economy ------- Regina, as the capital of Saskatchewan, is the headquarters of a number of Saskatchewan Government organizations, including the Saskatchewan Legislative Building, provincial government ministries, and agencies, boards, and commissions. Also, Crown Investments Corporation, and a number of the Crown Corporations it holds, including SaskEnergy, Sask Gaming, SGI, SaskPower, and SaskTel, are based in Regina. The Innovation Place Research Park immediately adjacent to the University of Regina campus hosts several science and technology companies which conduct research activities in conjunction with University departments. Oil and natural gas, potash, kaolin, sodium sulphite and bentonite contribute a great part of Regina and area's economy. The completion of the train link between eastern Canada and the then-District of Assiniboia in 1885, the development of the high-yielding and early-maturing Marquis strain of wheat and the opening of new grain markets in the United Kingdom established the first impetus for economic development and substantial population settlement. The farm and agricultural component is still a significant part of the economy – the Saskatchewan Wheat Pool (now Viterra Inc.,), "the world's largest grain-handling co-operative" has its headquarters in Regina — but it is no longer the major driver; provincially it has slipped to eighth overall, well behind the natural resources sectors. Modern transport has obviated the development of a significant manufacturing sector and local petroleum refining facilities: the General Motors assembly plant north on Winnipeg Street, built in 1927 – when Saskatchewan's agricultural economy was booming and briefly made it the third province of Canada after Ontario and Quebec in both population (at just under one million people, roughly the same population as today) and GDP – ceased production during the depression of the 1930s. It was resumed by the federal crown during World War II and housed Regina Wartime Industries Ltd., where 1,000 people were engaged in armaments manufacture. It was not returned to private automotive manufacture after the war and became derelict. EVRAZ is a leading world producer of steel plate and pipe. Its Regina operations were founded as **Prairie Pipe Manufacturing Company Ltd.** on July 13, 1956, a steel pipe plant designed to build small-diameter pipe to serve the Saskatchewan market. The government-owned Saskatchewan Power Corporation, in the process of expanding Saskatchewan’s commercial and residential delivery of natural gas, agreed to purchase its tubular requirements from Prairie Pipe. To supply Prairie Pipe with its own steel supply, a new enterprise named **Interprovincial Steel Corporation** was founded in 1957, and built a small steel mill on property adjacent to Prairie Pipe. In 1959, Prairie Pipe purchased all the assets of Interprovincial Steel Corporation because the latter ran into financial difficulties. As a result of this merger, the company became known as **Interprovincial Steel and Pipe Corporation**, or **IPSCO Inc.** for short. As of July 2007, it was a wholly owned subsidiary of the Swedish steel company SSAB. On June 12, 2008, Evraz completed its acquisition of IPSCO Inc. from SSAB for approximately US$2.9 billion. Regina has had the presence of oil refineries in the city. The Co-op Refinery Complex maintains an 103,000 bbl/d (16,400 m3/d) refinery and, together with the Province, an upgrading operation for heavy crude oil. Imperial Oil (the Canadian subsidiary of Standard Oil, now ExxonMobil), maintained a refinery on Winnipeg Street in Regina for many years. This refinery shut down in 1975. In the 1990s, a couple of organizations relocated their headquarters to Regina. Farm Credit Canada, a Federal Government Crown Corporation, relocated its headquarters to Regina from Ottawa in 1992. Crown Life, a significant Canadian and international insurance company, transferred its national head office from Toronto to Regina in 1993 but was acquired by Canada Life in 1998 and the corporate head office returned to Toronto, though with assurances that the company would retain a strong presence in Regina. On 19 May 2009 it was announced that Viterra (formerly Saskatchewan Wheat Pool, becoming Viterra after acquisition of Agricore United), the largest grain handler in Canada, would acquire ABB Grain of Adelaide, South Australia in September 2009. The Head Office would be relocated to Regina, with the worldwide malting headquarters remaining in Adelaide. The two companies together are responsible for 37 percent of the world's exports of wheat, canola and barley. The Mosaic Company has an office in Regina. This office serves as the headquarters for the company's Potash Business Unit. Education --------- ### Primary and secondary schooling The Regina Public School Board currently operates 45 elementary schools and 9 high schools with approximately 21,000 students enrolled throughout the city. The publicly funded Regina Catholic Schools Separate School Board operates 25 elementary schools and 4 high schools, and has a current enrollment of approximately 10,000 students. Public and separate schools are amply equipped with state-of-the-art science labs, gymnasia, drama and arts facilities: already by the 1960s, Regina high schools had television studios, swimming pools, ice rinks and drama facilities. Francophone public schools are operated by the Conseil des écoles fransaskoises. A small number of parents choose to opt out of the public and separate school systems for home-schooling under the guidance of the Regina Public School Board. Luther College (affiliated with the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada) is a historical, independent high school; the Regina Huda School offers Islamic education; Harvest City Christian Academy is a private school (occupying the former Sister McGuigan High School site); and the Regina Christian School (in the former Campion College premises) operates as an Associate school of the Regina Public School Division. Historically there were eminent private schools long since closed: Regina College, now the University of Regina but originally a private high school of the Methodist Church of Canada (since 1925 the United Church); the Anglican St Chad's School; the Roman Catholic Campion College, Sacred Heart Academy and Marian High School. ### University of Regina In the years prior to the establishment of the University of Saskatchewan, there was continued debate as to which Saskatchewan city would be awarded the provincial university: ultimately Saskatoon won out over Regina and in immediate reaction the Methodist Church of Canada established Regina College in 1911. Regina College was initially a denominational high school and junior college affiliated with the University of Saskatchewan – the later-established Campion and Luther Colleges, operated by the Roman Catholic Jesuit Order and Lutheran Church respectively, operated on the same basis. The Church of England concurrently established St Chad's College, an Anglican theological training facility, and the Qu'Appelle Diocesan School on the Anglican diocesan property immediately to the east of Regina College on College Avenue. All were quasi-tertiary institutions. Ultimately, the financially hard-pressed United Church of Canada (the successor to the Methodist Church), which in any case had ideological difficulties with the concept of fee-paying private schooling given its longstanding espousal of universal free education from the time of its early father Egerton Ryerson, could no longer maintain Regina College during the Great Depression of the 1930s, and Regina College was disaffiliated from the Church and surrendered to the University of Saskatchewan; it became the Regina Campus of the University of Saskatchewan in 1961. After a protracted contretemps over the siting of several faculties in Saskatoon which had been promised to the Regina campus, Regina Campus sought and obtained a separate charter as the University of Regina in 1974. Campion College and Luther College now have federated college status in the University of Regina, as does the First Nations University of Canada; The United Church's Regina College has entirely consolidated with the University of Saskatchewan and identified with St Andrew's College there: despite the considerable historical involvement by the Methodist, Presbyterian and Anglican churches in antecedent institutions of the University of Regina. The Regina Research Park is located immediately adjacent to the main campus and many of its initiatives in information technology, petroleum and environmental sciences are conducted in conjunction with university departments. A member in the research park is Canada's Petroleum Technology Research facility, a world leader in oil recovery and geological storage of CO2. ### Saskatchewan Polytechnic The Regina campus of this province-wide polytechnic institute is adjacent to the University of Regina. It occupies the former Plains Health Centre, previously a third hospital in Regina which in the course of rationalizing health services in Saskatchewan was in due course closed. It offers certificates, diplomas, and applied degrees in trade, skilled labour, and professional fields. ### RCMP Academy, Depot Division The Royal Canadian Mounted Police Academy, "Depot" Division, is on the western perimeter of the city. As capital of the North-West Territories, Regina was the headquarters of the Royal North-West Mounted Police (the RCMP's predecessor) before "the Force" became a national body with its headquarters in Ottawa in 1920. The city takes great pride in this national institution which is a major visitor attraction and a continuing link with Regina's past as the headquarters of the Force, together with longstanding substantial enrollment by trainees from across Canada, obtaining entertainment and recreation citywide. It offers sunset ceremonies and parade in the summertime. The national RCMP music and "Depot" Division chapel (the oldest building still standing in the city) are major visitor attractions in Regina. The first phase of a RCMP Heritage Centre successor to the longstanding museum opened in May 2007. Infrastructure -------------- Domestic water was originally obtained from Wascana Lake and later the Boggy Creek reservoir north of the city and supplemented by wells, however by the 1940s this was proving inadequate to meet the city's water supply needs. Today, drinking water is supplied from Buffalo Pound Lake in the Qu'Appelle Valley, an artificial reservoir on the Qu'Appelle River, since 1967 with water diverted into it from Lake Diefenbaker behind the Gardiner Dam on the South Saskatchewan River. Electricity is provided by SaskPower, a provincial Crown corporation which maintains a province-wide grid with power generated from coal-fired base load, natural gas-fired, hydroelectric and wind power facilities. Medical services are provided through three city hospitals, Regina General, Pasqua (formerly Grey Nuns), and Wascana Rehabilitation Centre and by private medical practitioners, who, like hospitals, remit their bills to the public universal medical insurer, the Saskatchewan Medicare system. ### Policing The Regina Police Service is the primary police service for the city of Regina and holds both Municipal and Provincial Jurisdiction. It was formed in 1892. It employs 347 sworn officers and 139 unsworn employees. The current chief of police is Evan Bray. The following services also hold jurisdiction in the city and are in partnership: Royal Canadian Mounted Police, Canadian National Railway Police Service and the Canadian Pacific Railway Police Service. #### Crime Despite having fallen in recent years, Regina's crime rate remains among the highest in Canada. Regina's overall police-reported crime rate was second highest in the country in 2012. Also, the relative severity of crimes in Regina is quite high and the city continues to top the national Crime Severity Index. Regina's crime rate declined 10% from 2011 to 2012. Regina also has one of the highest rates of intravenous drug use in Canada. | Crime in Regina, SK by Neighbourhood (2013) | | --- | | Neighbourhood | Population (2011) | Robberies | Rate | Homicides | Rate | Sexual Assaults | Rate | Burglaries (break and enter) | Rate | | North Central | 10150 | 77 | 758.6 | 3 | 29.6 | 21 | 206.9 | 255 | 2512.3 | | Centre Square/Market Square | 3880 | 24 | 618.6 | 1 | 25.8 | 6 | 154.6 | 32 | 824.7 | | Eastview/Warehouse | 1885 | 5 | 265.3 | 2 | 106.1 | 4 | 212.2 | 122 | 6472.1 | | Core Group (Heritage Park, Downtown) | 6145 | 16 | 260.4 | 1 | 16.3 | 12 | 195.3 | 63 | 1025.2 | | Cathedral | 6505 | 15 | 230.6 | 1 | 15.4 | 7 | 107.6 | 62 | 953.1 | | Al Ritchie | 7810 | 9 | 115.2 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 102.4 | 77 | 985.9 | | Gladmer Park/Wascana Park | 1870 | 2 | 107 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 160.4 | 10 | 534.8 | | Hillsdale | 5725 | 6 | 104.8 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 21 | 366.8 | | North East | 7340 | 7 | 95.4 | 1 | 13.6 | 3 | 40.9 | 61 | 831.1 | | Albert Park | 12530 | 8 | 63.8 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 31.9 | 57 | 454.9 | | Dieppe | 1630 | 1 | 61.3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 18 | 1104.3 | | Uplands | 5325 | 3 | 56.3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 56.3 | 20 | 375.6 | | Lakeview | 7720 | 4 | 51.8 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 38.9 | 101 | 1308.3 | | Twin Lakes | 5850 | 3 | 51.3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 31 | 529.9 | | Dewdney East | 17195 | 8 | 46.5 | 0 | 0 | 12 | 69.8 | 56 | 325.7 | | Coronation Park | 6855 | 3 | 43.8 | 1 | 14.6 | 7 | 102.1 | 45 | 656.5 | | Regent Park | 2805 | 1 | 35.7 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 107 | 21 | 748.7 | | Rosemont/Mount Royal | 8600 | 3 | 34.9 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 23.3 | 68 | 790.7 | | Normanview West | 2940 | 1 | 34 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 17 | 578.2 | | Walsh Acres | 11750 | 2 | 17 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 34 | 289.4 | | Whitmore Park | 6450 | 1 | 15.5 | 0 | | 0 | 0 | 10 | 155 | | Prairie View | 7015 | 1 | 14.3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 55 | 784 | | Arcola East: Gardiner Park, University Park | 24000 | 2 | 8.3 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 16.7 | 73 | 304.2 | | Sherwood Estates | 6450 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 15.5 | 16 | 248.1 | | Normanview | 4135 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 193.5 | | Argyle Park | 3795 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 21 | 553.4 | | Boothill | 2615 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 38.2 | 20 | 764.8 | | McNab | 915 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 7 | 765 | | Lakeridge | 6200 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | Transportation -------------- ### Public transportation The city's public transit agency, Regina Transit, operates a fleet of 110 buses, on 17 routes, and 4 express routes. The service runs 7 days a week with access to the city centre from most areas of the city. Regina formerly had an extensive streetcar (tramway) network but now has no streetcars, trains or subways. A massive fire at the streetcar barns, on 23 January 1949, destroyed much of the rolling stock of streetcars and trolley buses and helped to propel Regina's diesel bus revolution in 1951, although until well into the 1970s the streetcar rails remained in the centre of many major streets, ready to be returned to use should city transit policy change. Because of the 1949 fire, original Regina streetcar rolling stock was rare, though through later years a few disused streetcars remained in evidence – a streetcar with takeaway food, for example, on the site of the Regina Theatre at 12th Avenue and Hamilton Street, until the Hudson's Bay Company acquired the site and built its 60s-through-90s department store there. Major roads in the city include Ring Road, a high speed connection between Regina's east and northwest that loops around the city's east side. The west side of the loop is formed by a south-north route, Lewvan Drive, which becomes Pasqua Street in the city’s north end. This route connects the Trans-Canada highway and Highway 11. Also, the Regina Bypass encircles the city farther out. ### Inter-city transportation By road, Regina can be reached by several highways including the Trans-Canada Highway from the west and east sides and four provincial highways (6, 11, 33, 46) from other directions. By air, Regina International Airport serves Regina and area. As of January 2023, non-stop scheduled flights go to and from Calgary, Edmonton, Toronto, Vancouver, and Winnipeg. There are seasonal flights to and from Montreal (summer), Las Vegas, Orlando, Phoenix, and destinations in Mexico and the Caribbean (winter). The airport is situated on the west side of the city and is the oldest established commercial airport in Canada. The current, continually expanded, 1960 terminal replaces the original 1940 Art Deco terminal; it has recently undergone further major upgrades and expansions to allow it to handle increases in traffic for the next several years. Private aircraft is facilitated at the Regina Flying Club and Western Air hangars near the Regina International Airport. By bus, Rider Express, whose Regina office and stop are located at 1517 11th Avenue, provides direct inter-city bus service from Regina to centres along the Trans-Canada Highway and Highway 11. The Saskatchewan Transportation Company (STC), a Saskatchewan Crown Corporation, provided bus service in the province until it was shut down in 2017. Greyhound Canada discontinued service in Saskatchewan and Western Canada in 2018. The five decades-old bus depot on Hamilton Street immediately south of the Hotel Saskatchewan was replaced in 2008 by one at 1717 Saskatchewan Drive (corner of Saskatchewan Drive and Broad Street). This building has been converted into the new Regina Police Service headquarters as of 2019. By rail, inter-city passenger train service has not operated in Regina since 1990. In the past, passenger trains constituted the principal mode of transportation among Western Canadian cities. The last Via Rail train left Regina on January 16, 1990. Regina’s Union Station in the city’s downtown became Casino Regina. Media ----- The daily newspaper for the city is *The Leader-Post*, first published in 1883 and currently owned by Postmedia Network. The *Regina Sun* was published on weekends by *The Leader-Post* and distributed free of charge until 2015. *Prairie Dog* was established in 1993 and is a free alternative newspaper and blog produced by a Saskatchewan worker co-operative. *L'eau vive* is a weekly newspaper publishing in French and serving all of Saskatchewan's francophone community. The thirteen radio stations broadcasting from the city include CKRM 620, CJME News/Talk 980, FM 90.3 CJLR-FM-4 MBC Radio First Nations community radio Missinipi Broadcasting Corporation, FM 91.3 CJTR-FM 91.3 CJTR community radio, FM 97.7 CBKF-FM Première Chaîne news/talk (CBC, French), and FM 102.5 CBKR-FM CBC Radio One news/talk (CBC). There are four private and public television channels broadcasting from Regina: CKCK-TV (CTV), CBKT (CBC), CFRE-TV (Global), and CBKFT (SRC). Educational channel City Saskatchewan (formerly the Saskatchewan Communications Network) and a community channel owned by Regina's cable provider Access Communications are also available on cable. Friendship and sister city relations ------------------------------------ The City of Regina maintains trade development programs, cultural, and educational partnerships in a twinning agreement with Bucharest, Romania and Jinan, Shandong, China, and a friendship agreement with Fujioka, Gunma, Japan. | City | Country | Date | | --- | --- | --- | | Bucharest | Romania | 2011 | | Jinan | China | 1987 | | Fujioka | Japan | 2019 | Notable people -------------- See also -------- * HMCS *Regina* * List of mayors of Regina, Saskatchewan Bibliography ------------ * "Germantown" 11th Avenue East. Regina's Heritage Tours, City of Regina, 1994. * Argan, William (2000). *Cornerstones 2: An Artist's History of the City of Regina*. Regina: Centax Books. * Argan, William (1995). *Cornerstones: An Artist's History of the City of Regina*. Regina: Centax Books. * Barnhart, Gordon (2002). *Building for the Future: A Photo Journal of Saskatchewan's Legislative Building*. Canadian Plains Research Center. ISBN 0-88977-145-6. * Brennan, J. William (1989). *Regina, an illustrated history*. Toronto: James Lorimer & Co. * Brennan, William J., ed. (1978). *Regina Before Yesterday: A Visual History 1882 to 1945*. City of Regina. * '*Castles of the North: Canada's Grand Hotels*. Toronto: Lynx Images Inc. 2001. * Chapel Royal Canadian Mounted Police (1990). *Training Academy* (brochure). Regina, Saskatchewan. * Drake, Earl G. (1955). *Regina, the Queen City*. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart. * Hughes, Bob (2004). *The Big Dig: the Miracle of Wascana Centre*. Regina: Centax Books. * Neal, May (1953). *Regina, Queen City of the Plains: 50 Years of Progress*. Regina: Western \* Printers. * *Regina Court House Official Opening* (brochure). 1961. * *Regina Leader-Post* * Riddell, W. A. (1962). *The Origin and Development of Wascana Centre*. Regina. * The Morning Leader (Newspaper)

Regina, Saskatchewan

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regina,_Saskatchewan

The **economy of India** has transitioned from a mixed planned economy to a mixed middle-income developing social market economy with notable state participation in strategic sectors and indicative planning. It is the world's fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP and the third-largest by purchasing power parity (PPP). According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), on a per capita income basis, India ranked 139th by GDP (nominal) and 127th by GDP (PPP). From independence in 1947 until 1991, successive governments followed Soviet style planned economy and promoted protectionist economic policies, with extensive state intervention and economic regulation. This is characterised as dirigism, in the form of the Licence Raj. The end of the Cold War and an acute balance of payments crisis in 1991 led to the adoption of a broad economic liberalisation in India and indicative planning. Since the start of the 21st century, annual average GDP growth has been 6% to 7%. The economy of the Indian subcontinent was the largest in the world for most of recorded history up until the onset of colonialism in early 19th century. India account for 7.2% of global economy in 2022 in PPP terms, and around 3.4% in nominal terms in 2022. India still has informal domestic economies; COVID-19 reversed both economic growth and poverty reduction; credit access weaknesses contributed to lower private consumption and inflation; and new social and infrastructure equity efforts. Economic growth slowed down in 2017 due to the shocks of "demonetisation" in 2016 and the introduction of the Goods and Services Tax in 2017. Nearly 70% of India's GDP is driven by domestic consumption. The country remains the world's sixth-largest consumer market. Apart from private consumption, India's GDP is also fueled by government spending, investments, and exports. In 2022, India was the world's 6th-largest importer and the 9th-largest exporter. India has been a member of the World Trade Organization since 1 January 1995. It ranks 63rd on the Ease of doing business index and 68th on the Global Competitiveness Report. Due to extreme rupee/dollar rate fluctuations India's nominal GDP too fluctuates significantly. With 476 million workers, the Indian labour force is the world's second-largest. India has one of the world's highest number of billionaires and extreme income inequality. Because of several exemptions, barely 2% of Indians pay income taxes. During the 2008 global financial crisis, the economy faced a mild slowdown. India endorsed Keynesian policy and initiated stimulus measures (both fiscal and monetary) to boost growth and generate demand. In subsequent years, economic growth revived. According to the World Bank, to achieve sustainable economic development, India must focus on public sector reform, infrastructure, agricultural and rural development, removal of land and labour regulations, financial inclusion, spur private investment and exports, education, and public health. There are about 432mn middle-class Indians, the income group between 5 lakhs and 20 lakhs is considered a middle class. In 2022, India's ten largest trading partners were United States, China, United Arab Emirates (UAE), Saudi Arabia, Russia, Germany, Hong Kong, Indonesia, South Korea, and Malaysia. In 2021–22, the foreign direct investment (FDI) in India was $82 billion. The leading sectors for FDI inflows were the service sector, the computer industry, and the telecom industry. India has free trade agreements with several nations and blocs, including ASEAN, SAFTA, Mercosur, South Korea, Japan, Australia, UAE, and several others which are in effect or under negotiating stage. The service sector makes up more than 50% of GDP and remains the fastest growing sector, while the industrial sector and the agricultural sector employs a majority of the labor force. The Bombay Stock Exchange and National Stock Exchange are some of the world's largest stock exchanges by market capitalisation. India is the world's sixth-largest manufacturer, representing 2.6% of global manufacturing output. Nearly 65% of India's population is rural, and contributes about 50% of India's GDP. It has the world's fifth-largest foreign-exchange reserves worth $561 billion. India has a high public debt with 83% of GDP, while its fiscal deficit stood at 6.4% of GDP. India faces high unemployment, rising income inequality, and a drop in aggregate demand. India's gross domestic savings rate stood at 29.3% of GDP in 2022. In recent years, independent economists and financial institutions have accused the government of manipulating various economic data, especially GDP growth. India's overall social spending as a share of GDP in 2021–22 will be 8.6%, which is much lower than the average for OECD nations. History ------- The spice trade between India and Roman Empire was the main catalyst for the Age of Discovery.Tharisapalli plates granted to Saint Thomas Christians by South Indian Chera ruler Sthanu Ravi Varma testify that merchant guilds and trade corporations played a very significant role in the economy and social life during the Kulasekhara period of Kerala, India.Atashgah is a temple built by Indian traders before 1745, west of the Caspian Sea. The inscription shown, is a Sanskrit invocation of Lord Shiva. For a continuous duration of nearly 1700 years from the year 1 CE, India was the top-most economy, constituting 35 to 40% of the world GDP. The combination of protectionist, import-substitution, Fabian socialism, and social democratic-inspired policies governed India for sometime after the end of British rule. The economy was then characterised as Dirigism, It had extensive regulation, protectionism, public ownership of large monopolies, pervasive corruption and slow growth. Since 1991, continuing economic liberalisation has moved the country towards a market-based economy. By 2008, India had established itself as one of the world's faster-growing economies. ### Ancient and medieval eras #### Indus Valley Civilisation The citizens of the Indus Valley civilisation, a permanent settlement that flourished between 2800 BCE and 1800 BCE, practised agriculture, domesticated animals, used uniform weights and measures, made tools and weapons, and traded with other cities. Evidence of well-planned streets, a drainage system, and water supply reveals their knowledge of urban planning, which included the first-known urban sanitation systems and the existence of a form of municipal government. #### West Coast Maritime trade was carried out extensively between South India and Southeast and West Asia from early times until around the fourteenth century CE. Both the Malabar and Coromandel Coasts were the sites of important trading centres from as early as the first century BCE, used for import and export as well as transit points between the Mediterranean region and southeast Asia. Over time, traders organised themselves into associations which received state patronage. Historians Tapan Raychaudhuri and Irfan Habib claim this state patronage for overseas trade came to an end by the thirteenth century CE, when it was largely taken over by the local Parsi, Jewish, Syrian Christian, and Muslim communities, initially on the Malabar and subsequently on the Coromandel coast. #### Silk Route Other scholars suggest trading from India to West Asia and Eastern Europe was active between the 14th and 18th centuries. During this period, Indian traders settled in Surakhani, a suburb of greater Baku, Azerbaijan. These traders built a Hindu temple, which suggests commerce was active and prosperous for Indians by the 17th century. Further north, the Saurashtra and Bengal coasts played an important role in maritime trade, and the Gangetic plains and the Indus valley housed several centres of river-borne commerce. Most overland trade was carried out via the Khyber Pass connecting the Punjab region with Afghanistan and onward to the Middle East and Central Asia. Although many kingdoms and rulers issued coins, barter was prevalent. Villages paid a portion of their agricultural produce as revenue to the rulers, while their craftsmen received a part of the crops at harvest time for their services. Silver coin of the Maurya Empire, 3rd century BCESilver coin of the Gupta dynasty, 5th century CE ### Mughal era/ Rajput era/ Maratha era (1526–1820) The Indian economy was largest and most prosperous throughout the world history and will continue to be under the Mughal Empire, up until the 18th century. Sean Harkin estimates China and India may have accounted for 60 to 70 percent of world GDP in the 17th century. The Mughal economy functioned on an elaborate system of coined currency, land revenue and trade. Gold, silver and copper coins were issued by the royal mints which functioned on the basis of free coinage. The political stability and uniform revenue policy resulting from a centralized administration under the Mughals, coupled with a well-developed internal trade network, ensured that India–before the arrival of the British–was to a large extent economically unified, despite having a traditional agrarian economy characterised by a predominance of subsistence agriculture. Agricultural production increased under Mughal agrarian reforms, with Indian agriculture being advanced compared to Europe at the time, such as the widespread use of the seed drill among Indian peasants before its adoption in European agriculture, and possibly higher per-capita agricultural output and standards of consumption then 17 century Europe. The Mughal Empire had a thriving industrial manufacturing economy, with India producing about 25% of the world's industrial output up until 1750, making it the most important manufacturing center in international trade. Manufactured goods and cash crops from the Mughal Empire were sold throughout the world. Key industries included textiles, shipbuilding, and steel, and processed exports included cotton textiles, yarns, thread, silk, jute products, metalware, and foods such as sugar, oils and butter. Cities and towns boomed under the Mughal Empire, which had a relatively high degree of urbanization for its time, with 15% of its population living in urban centres, higher than the percentage of the urban population in contemporary Europe at the time and higher than that of British India in the 19th century. In early modern Europe, there was significant demand for products from Mughal India, particularly cotton textiles, as well as goods such as spices, peppers, indigo, silks, and saltpeter (for use in munitions). European fashion, for example, became increasingly dependent on Mughal Indian textiles and silks. From the late 17th century to the early 18th century, Mughal India accounted for 95% of British imports from Asia, and the Bengal Subah province alone accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia. In contrast, there was very little demand for European goods in Mughal India, which was largely self-sufficient. Indian goods, especially those from Bengal, were also exported in large quantities to other Asian markets, such as Indonesia and Japan. At the time, Mughal Bengal was the most important center of cotton textile production. In the early 18th century the Mughal Empire declined, as it lost western, central and parts of south and north India to the Maratha Empire, which integrated and continued to administer those regions. The decline of the Mughal Empire led to decreased agricultural productivity, which in turn negatively affected the textile industry. The subcontinent's dominant economic power in the post-Mughal era was the Bengal Subah in the east., which continued to maintain thriving textile industries and relatively high real wages. However, the former was devastated by the Maratha invasions of Bengal and then British colonization in the mid-18th century. After the loss at the Third Battle of Panipat, the Maratha Empire disintegrated into several confederate states, and the resulting political instability and armed conflict severely affected economic life in several parts of the country – although this was mitigated by localised prosperity in the new provincial kingdoms. By the late eighteenth century, the British East India Company had entered the Indian political theatre and established its dominance over other European powers. This marked a determinative shift in India's trade, and a less-powerful effect on the rest of the economy. ### British era (1793–1947) > There is no doubt that our grievances against the British Empire had a sound basis. As the painstaking statistical work of the Cambridge historian Angus Maddison has shown, India's share of world income collapsed from 22.6% in 1700, almost equal to Europe's share of 23.3% at that time, to as low as 3.8% in 1952. Indeed, at the beginning of the 20th century, "the brightest jewel in the British Crown" was the poorest country in the world in terms of per capita income. > > — Manmohan Singh From the beginning of the 19th century, the British East India Company's gradual expansion and consolidation of power brought a major change in taxation and agricultural policies, which tended to promote commercialisation of agriculture with a focus on trade, resulting in decreased production of food crops, mass impoverishment and destitution of farmers, and in the short term, led to numerous famines. The economic policies of the British Raj caused a severe decline in the handicrafts and handloom sectors, due to reduced demand and dipping employment. After the removal of international restrictions by the Charter of 1813, Indian trade expanded substantially with steady growth. The result was a significant transfer of capital from India to England, which, due to the colonial policies of the British, led to a massive drain of revenue rather than any systematic effort at modernisation of the domestic economy. Under British rule, India's share of the world economy declined from 24.4% in 1700 down to 4.2% in 1950. India's GDP (PPP) per capita was stagnant during the Mughal Empire and began to decline prior to the onset of British rule. India's share of global industrial output declined from 25% in 1750 down to 2% in 1900. At the same time, United Kingdom's share of the world economy rose from 2.9% in 1700 up to 9% in 1870. The British East India Company, following their conquest of Bengal in 1757, had forced open the large Indian market to British goods, which could be sold in India without tariffs or duties, compared to local Indian producers who were heavily taxed, while in Britain protectionist policies such as bans and high tariffs were implemented to restrict Indian textiles from being sold there, whereas raw cotton was imported from India without tariffs to British factories which manufactured textiles from Indian cotton and sold them back to the Indian market. British economic policies gave them a monopoly over India's large market and cotton resources. India served as both a significant supplier of raw goods to British manufacturers and a large captive market for British manufactured goods. British territorial expansion in India throughout the 19th century created an institutional environment that, on paper, guaranteed property rights among the colonisers, encouraged free trade, and created a single currency with fixed exchange rates, standardised weights and measures and capital markets within the company-held territories. It also established a system of railways and telegraphs, a civil service that aimed to be free from political interference, a common-law, and an adversarial legal system. This coincided with major changes in the world economy – industrialisation, and significant growth in production and trade. However, at the end of colonial rule, India inherited an economy that was one of the poorest in the developing world, with industrial development stalled, agriculture unable to feed a rapidly growing population, a largely illiterate and unskilled labour force, and extremely inadequate infrastructure. The 1872 census revealed that 91.3% of the population of the region constituting present-day India resided in villages. This was a decline from the earlier Mughal era, when 85% of the population resided in villages and 15% in urban centers under Akbar's reign in 1600. Urbanisation generally remained sluggish in British India until the 1920s, due to the lack of industrialisation and absence of adequate transportation. Subsequently, the policy of discriminating protection (where certain important industries were given financial protection by the state), coupled with the Second World War, saw the development and dispersal of industries, encouraging rural-urban migration, and in particular, the large port cities of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras grew rapidly. Despite this, only one-sixth of India's population lived in cities by 1951. The effect of British rule on India's economy is a controversial topic. Leaders of the Indian independence movement and economic historians have blamed colonial rule for India's poor economic performance following independence and argued that the wealth required for Britain's industrial development was derived from wealth taken from India. At the same time, right-wing historians have countered that India's poor economic performance was due to various sectors being in a state of growth and decline due to changes brought in by colonialism and a world that was moving towards industrialisation and economic integration. Several economic historians have argued that real wage decline occurred in the early 19th century, or possibly beginning in the very late 18th century, largely as a result of British imperialism. According to Prasannan Parthasarathi and Sashi Sivramkrishna, the grain wages of Indian weavers were likely comparable to that of their British counterparts and their average income was around five times the subsistence level, which was comparable to advanced parts of Europe. However they concluded that due to the scarcity of data, it was hard to draw definitive conclusions and that more research was required. It has also been argued that India went through a period of deindustrialization in the latter half of the 18th century as an indirect outcome of the collapse of the Mughal Empire. ### Pre-liberalisation period (1947–1991) Indian economic policy after independence was influenced by the colonial experience, which was seen as exploitative by Indian leaders exposed to British social democracy and the planned economy of the Soviet Union. Domestic policy tended towards protectionism, with a strong emphasis on import substitution industrialisation, economic interventionism, a large government-run public sector, business regulation, and central planning, while trade and foreign investment policies were relatively liberal. Five-Year Plans of India resembled central planning in the Soviet Union. Steel, mining, machine tools, telecommunications, insurance, and power plants, among other industries, were effectively nationalised in the mid-1950s. The Indian economy of this period is characterised as Dirigism. > Never talk to me about profit, Jeh, it is a dirty word. > > — Nehru, India's Fabian Socialism-inspired first prime minister to industrialist J. R. D. Tata, when Tata suggested state-owned companies should be profitable Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of India, along with the statistician Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis, formulated and oversaw economic policy during the initial years of the country's independence. They expected favourable outcomes from their strategy, involving the rapid development of heavy industry by both public and private sectors, and based on direct and indirect state intervention, rather than the more extreme Soviet-style central command system. The policy of concentrating simultaneously on capital- and technology-intensive heavy industry and subsidising manual, low-skill cottage industries was criticised by economist Milton Friedman, who thought it would waste capital and labour, and retard the development of small manufacturers. > I cannot decide how much to borrow, what shares to issue, at what price, what wages and bonus to pay, and what dividend to give. I even need the government's permission for the salary I pay to a senior executive. > > — J. R. D. Tata, on the Indian regulatory system, 1969 Since 1965, the use of high-yielding varieties of seeds, increased fertilisers and improved irrigation facilities collectively contributed to the Green Revolution in India, which improved the condition of agriculture by increasing crop productivity, improving crop patterns and strengthening forward and backward linkages between agriculture and industry. However, it has also been criticised as an unsustainable effort, resulting in the growth of capitalistic farming, ignoring institutional reforms and widening income disparities. In 1984, Rajiv Gandhi promised economic liberalization, he made V. P. Singh the finance minister, who tried to reduce tax evasion and tax receipts rose due to this crackdown although taxes were lowered. This process lost its momentum during the later tenure of Mr. Gandhi as his government was marred by scandals. ### Post-liberalisation period (since 1991) P. V. Narasimha RaoP. V. Narasimha RaoManmohan SinghManmohan SinghEconomic liberalisation in India was initiated in 1991 by Prime Minister P. V. Narasimha Rao and his then-Finance Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh. The collapse of the Soviet Union, which was India's major trading partner, and the Gulf War, which caused a spike in oil prices, resulted in a major balance-of-payments crisis for India, which found itself facing the prospect of defaulting on its loans. India asked for a $1.8 billion bailout loan from the International Monetary Fund (IMF), which in return demanded de-regulation. In response, the Narasimha Rao government, including Finance Minister Manmohan Singh, initiated economic reforms in 1991. The reforms did away with the Licence Raj, reduced tariffs and interest rates and ended many public monopolies, allowing automatic approval of foreign direct investment in many sectors. Since then, the overall thrust of liberalisation has remained the same, although no government has tried to take on powerful lobbies such as trade unions and farmers, on contentious issues such as reforming labour laws and reducing agricultural subsidies. By the turn of the 21st century, India had progressed towards a free-market economy, with a substantial reduction in state control of the economy and increased financial liberalisation. This has been accompanied by increases in life expectancy, literacy rates, and food security, although urban residents have benefited more than rural residents. From 2010, India has risen from ninth-largest to the fifth-largest economies in the world by nominal GDP in 2019 by surpassing UK, France, Italy and Brazil. India started recovery in 2013–14 when the GDP growth rate accelerated to 6.4% from the previous year's 5.5%. The acceleration continued through 2014–15 and 2015–16 with growth rates of 7.5% and 8.0% respectively. For the first time since 1990, India grew faster than China which registered 6.9% growth in 2015.[*needs update*] However the growth rate subsequently decelerated, to 7.1% and 6.6% in 2016–17 and 2017–18 respectively, partly because of the disruptive effects of 2016 Indian banknote demonetisation and the Goods and Services Tax (India). India is ranked 63rd out of 190 countries in the World Bank's 2020 ease of doing business index, up 14 points from the last year's 100 and up 37 points in just two years. In terms of dealing with construction permits and enforcing contracts, it is ranked among the 10 worst in the world, while it has a relatively favourable ranking when it comes to protecting minority investors or getting credit. The strong efforts taken by the Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP) to boost ease of doing business rankings at the state level is said to affect the overall rankings of India. ### COVID-19 pandemic and aftermath (2020–present) During the COVID-19 pandemic, numerous rating agencies downgraded India's GDP predictions for FY21 to negative figures, signalling a recession in India, the most severe since 1979. The Indian Economy contracted by 6.6 percent which was lower than the estimated 7.3 percent decline. In 2022, the ratings agency Fitch Ratings upgraded India's outlook to stable similar to S&P Global Ratings and Moody's Investors Service's outlooks. In the first quarter of financial year 2022–2023, the Indian economy grew by 13.5%. Data ---- The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2022 (with IMF staff estimates in 2022–2027). Inflation below 5% is in green. The annual unemployment rate is extracted from the World Bank, although the International Monetary Fund finds them unreliable. | Year | GDP(in Bil. US$PPP) | GDP per capita(in US$ PPP) | GDP(in Bil. US$nominal) | GDP per capita(in US$ nominal) | GDP growth(real) | Inflation rate(in Percent) | Unemployment(in Percent) | Government debt(in % of GDP) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1980 | 371.9 | 532.0 | 189.4 | 271.0 | Increase5.3% | Negative increase11.3% | n/a | n/a | | 1981 | Increase431.5 | Increase603.2 | Increase196.5 | Increase274.7 | Increase6.0% | Negative increase12.7% | n/a | n/a | | 1982 | Increase474.1 | Increase647.5 | Increase203.5 | Increase278.0 | Increase3.5% | Negative increase7.7% | n/a | n/a | | 1983 | Increase528.6 | Increase705.3 | Increase222.0 | Increase296.3 | Increase7.3% | Negative increase12.6% | n/a | n/a | | 1984 | Increase568.6 | Increase741.4 | Decrease215.6 | Decrease281.1 | Increase3.8% | Negative increase6.5% | n/a | n/a | | 1985 | Increase617.4 | Increase787.1 | Increase237.6 | Increase302.9 | Increase5.3% | Negative increase6.3% | n/a | n/a | | 1986 | Increase659.9 | Increase822.8 | Increase252.8 | Increase315.2 | Increase4.8% | Negative increase8.9% | n/a | n/a | | 1987 | Increase703.0 | Increase857.7 | Increase283.8 | Increase346.2 | Increase4.0% | Negative increase9.1% | n/a | n/a | | 1988 | Increase797.9 | Increase952.7 | Increase299.6 | Increase357.8 | Increase9.6% | Negative increase7.2% | n/a | n/a | | 1989 | Increase878.5 | Increase1,027.0 | Increase301.2 | Decrease352.2 | Increase5.9% | Increase4.6% | n/a | n/a | | 1990 | Increase961.8 | Increase1,101.3 | Increase326.6 | Increase374.0 | Increase5.5% | Negative increase11.2% | n/a | n/a | | 1991 | Increase1,004.8 | Increase1,127.4 | Decrease274.8 | Decrease308.4 | Increase1.1% | Negative increase13.5% | 5.6% | 75.3% | | 1992 | Increase1,084.1 | Increase1,192.2 | Increase293.3 | Increase322.5 | Increase5.5% | Negative increase9.9% | Negative increase5.7% | Negative increase77.4% | | 1993 | Increase1,162.5 | Increase1,253.5 | Decrease284.2 | Decrease306.4 | Increase4.8% | Negative increase7.3% | Steady5.7% | Positive decrease77.0% | | 1994 | Increase1,266.4 | Increase1,339.2 | Increase333.0 | Increase352.2 | Increase6.7% | Negative increase10.3% | Steady5.7% | Positive decrease73.5% | | 1995 | Increase1,390.8 | Increase1,442.9 | Increase366.6 | Increase380.3 | Increase7.6% | Negative increase10.0% | Negative increase5.8% | Positive decrease69.7% | | 1996 | Increase1,523.2 | Increase1,550.6 | Increase399.8 | Increase407.0 | Increase7.6% | Negative increase9.4% | Positive decrease5.7% | Positive decrease66.0% | | 1997 | Increase1,612.3 | Increase1,610.8 | Increase423.2 | Increase422.8 | Increase4.1% | Negative increase6.8% | Positive decrease5.6% | Negative increase67.8% | | 1998 | Increase1,731.2 | Increase1,698.1 | Increase428.8 | Decrease420.6 | Increase6.2% | Negative increase13.1% | Negative increase5.7% | Negative increase68.1% | | 1999 | Increase1,904.2 | Increase1,834.4 | Increase466.9 | Increase449.8 | Increase8.5% | Negative increase5.7% | Steady5.7% | Negative increase70.0% | | 2000 | Increase2,024.7 | Increase1,916.3 | Increase476.6 | Increase451.1 | Increase4.0% | Increase3.8% | Positive decrease5.6% | Negative increase73.6% | | 2001 | Increase2,172.7 | Increase2,021.1 | Increase494.0 | Increase459.5 | Increase4.9% | Increase4.3% | Steady5.6% | Negative increase78.7% | | 2002 | Increase2,292.8 | Increase2,097.1 | Increase524.0 | Increase479.2 | Increase3.9% | Increase4.0% | Positive decrease5.5% | Negative increase82.9% | | 2003 | Increase2,523.8 | Increase2,270.6 | Increase618.4 | Increase556.3 | Increase7.9% | Increase3.9% | Negative increase5.6% | Negative increase84.4% | | 2004 | Increase2,795.0 | Increase2,474.2 | Increase721.6 | Increase638.8 | Increase7.8% | Increase3.8% | Steady5.6% | Positive decrease83.4% | | 2005 | Increase3,150.3 | Increase2,745.1 | Increase834.2 | Increase726.9 | Increase9.3% | Increase4.4% | Steady5.6% | Positive decrease81.0% | | 2006 | Increase3,548.3 | Increase3,044.5 | Increase949.1 | Increase814.4 | Increase9.3% | Negative increase6.7% | Steady5.6% | Positive decrease77.2% | | 2007 | Increase4,001.4 | Increase3,381.8 | Increase1,238.7 | Increase1,046.9 | Increase9.8% | Negative increase6.2% | Steady5.6% | Positive decrease74.1% | | 2008 | Increase4,236.8 | Increase3,528.7 | Decrease1,224.1 | Decrease1,019.5 | Increase3.9% | Negative increase9.1% | Positive decrease5.4% | Positive decrease72.8% | | 2009 | Increase4,625.5 | Increase3,798.5 | Increase1,365.4 | Increase1,121.2 | Increase8.5% | Negative increase12.3% | Negative increase5.5% | Positive decrease71.5% | | 2010 | Increase5,161.4 | Increase4,181.7 | Increase1,708.5 | Increase1,384.2 | Increase10.3% | Negative increase10.5% | Steady5.5% | Positive decrease66.4% | | 2011 | Increase5,618.4 | Increase4,493.7 | Increase1,823.1 | Increase1,458.1 | Increase6.6% | Negative increase9.5% | Positive decrease5.4% | Negative increase68.6% | | 2012 | Increase6,153.2 | Increase4,861.2 | Increase1,827.6 | Decrease1,443.9 | Increase5.5% | Negative increase10.0% | Steady5.4% | Positive decrease68.0% | | 2013 | Increase6,477.5 | Increase5,057.2 | Increase1,856.7 | Increase1,449.6 | Increase6.4% | Negative increase9.4% | Steady5.4% | Positive decrease67.7% | | 2014 | Increase6,781.0 | Increase5,233.9 | Increase2,039.1 | Increase1,573.9 | Increase7.4% | Negative increase5.8% | Steady5.4% | Positive decrease67.1% | | 2015 | Increase7,159.8 | Increase5,464.9 | Increase2,103.6 | Increase1,605.6 | Increase8.0% | Increase4.9% | Steady5.4% | Negative increase69.0% | | 2016 | Increase7,735.0 | Increase5,839.9 | Increase2,294.8 | Increase1,732.6 | Increase8.3% | Increase4.5% | Steady5.4% | Positive decrease68.9% | | 2017 | Increase8,276.9 | Increase6,112.1 | Increase2,702.9 | Increase1,958.0 | Increase6.8% | Increase3.6% | Steady5.4% | Negative increase69.7% | | 2018 | Increase9,023.0 | Increase6,590.9 | Increase2,702.9 | Increase1,974.4 | Increase6.5% | Increase3.4% | Positive decrease5.3% | Negative increase70.4% | | 2019 | Increase9,540.4 | Increase6,897.8 | Increase2,835.6 | Increase2,050.2 | Increase3.9% | Increase4.8% | Positive decrease5.3% | Negative increase75.0% | | 2020 | Decrease9,101.3 | Decrease6,517.8 | Decrease2,671.6 | Decrease1,913.2 | Decrease-5.8% | Negative increase6.1% | Negative increase8.0% | Negative increase88.5% | | 2021 | Increase10,370.8 | Increase7,355.4 | Increase3,150.3 | Increase2,234.3 | Increase9.1% | Negative increase5.5% | Positive decrease6.0% | Positive decrease84.7% | | 2022 | Increase11,855.4 | Increase8,329.3 | Increase3,386.4 | Increase2,379.2 | Increase6.8% | Negative increase6.7% | n/a | Positive decrease83.1% | | 2023 | Increase13,033.4 | Increase9,073.0 | Increase3,736.9 | Increase2,601.4 | Increase5.9% | Negative increase4.9% | n/a | Negative increase83.2% | | 2024 | Increase14,165.5 | Increase9,773.0 | Increase4,062.2 | Increase2,802.5 | Increase6.3% | Increase4.4% | n/a | Negative increase83.7% | | 2025 | Increase15,330.6 | Increase10,484.8 | Increase4,547.2 | Increase3,146.8 | Increase6.9% | Increase4.1% | n/a | Positive decrease83.8% | | 2026 | Increase16,563.8 | Increase11,232.6 | Increase4,765.5 | Increase3,231.7 | Increase6.1% | Increase4.1% | n/a | Positive decrease83.8% | | 2027 | Increase17,877.0 | Increase12,024.0 | Increase5,153.0 | Increase3,465.9 | Increase6.0% | Increase4.0% | n/a | Positive decrease83.7% | Sectors ------- Sector-wise break up of contributions to GDP, 2020-21   Agriculture (16.38%)  Industry (29.35%)  Service (54.27%) Historically, India has classified and tracked its economy and GDP in three sectors: agriculture, industry, and services. Agriculture includes crops, horticulture, milk and animal husbandry, aquaculture, fishing, sericulture, aviculture, forestry, and related activities. Industry includes various manufacturing sub-sectors. India's definition of services sector includes its construction, retail, software, IT, communications, hospitality, infrastructure operations, education, healthcare, banking and insurance, and many other economic activities. ### Agriculture Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry, logging and fishing accounted for 17% of the GDP, the sector employed 49% of its total workforce in 2014. Agriculture accounted for 23% of GDP, and employed 59% of the country's total workforce in 2016. India ranks second globally in food and agricultural production, while agricultural exports were $35.09 billion. As the Indian economy has diversified and grown, agriculture's contribution to GDP has steadily declined from 1951 to 2011, yet it is still the country's largest employment source and a significant piece of its overall socio-economic development. Crop-yield-per-unit-area of all crops has grown since 1950, due to the special emphasis placed on agriculture in the five-year plans and steady improvements in irrigation, technology, application of modern agricultural practices and provision of agricultural credit and subsidies since the Green Revolution in India. However, international comparisons reveal the average yield in India is generally 30% to 50% of the highest average yield in the world. The states of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar, West Bengal, Gujarat and Maharashtra are key contributors to Indian agriculture. The state of Punjab led India's Green Revolution and earned the distinction of being the country's bread basket.Amul Dairy Plant at Anand, Gujarat, was a highly successful co-operative started during Operation Flood in the 1970s. India receives an average annual rainfall of 1,208 millimetres (47.6 in) and a total annual precipitation of 4,000 billion cubic metres, with the total utilisable water resources, including surface and groundwater, amounting to 1,123 billion cubic metres. 546,820 square kilometres (211,130 sq mi) of the land area, or about 39% of the total cultivated area, is irrigated. India's inland water resources and marine resources provide employment to nearly 6 million people in the fisheries sector. In 2010, India had the world's sixth-largest fishing industry. India is the largest producer of milk, jute and pulses, and has the world's second-largest cattle population with 170 million animals in 2011. It is the second-largest producer of rice, wheat, sugarcane, cotton and groundnuts, as well as the second-largest fruit and vegetable producer, accounting for 10.9% and 8.6% of the world fruit and vegetable production, respectively. India is also the second-largest producer and the largest consumer of silk, producing 77,000 tonnes (76,000 long tons; 85,000 short tons) in 2005. India is the largest exporter of cashew kernels and cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL). Foreign exchange earned by the country through the export of cashew kernels during 2011–12 reached ₹43.9 billion (equivalent to ₹70 billion or US$880 million in 2020) based on statistics from the Cashew Export Promotion Council of India (CEPCI). 131,000 tonnes (129,000 long tons; 144,000 short tons) of kernels were exported during 2011–12. There are about 600 cashew processing units in Kollam, Kerala. India's foodgrain production remained stagnant at approximately 252 megatonnes (248 million long tons; 278 million short tons) during both the 2015–16 and 2014–15 crop years (July–June). India exports several agriculture products, such as Basmati rice, wheat, cereals, spices, fresh fruits, dry fruits, buffalo beef meat, cotton, tea, coffee and other cash crops particularly to the Middle East, Southeast and East Asian countries. About 10 percent of its export earnings come from this trade. At around 1,530,000 square kilometres (590,000 sq mi), India has the second-largest amount of arable land, after US, with 52% of total land under cultivation. Although the total land area of the country is only slightly more than one-third of China or US, India's arable land is marginally smaller than that of US, and marginally larger than that of China. However, agricultural output lags far behind its potential. The low productivity in India is a result of several factors. According to the World Bank, India's large agricultural subsidies are distorting what farmers grow and hampering productivity-enhancing investment. Over-regulation of agriculture has increased costs, price risks and uncertainty, and governmental intervention in labour, land, and credit are hurting the market. Infrastructure such as rural roads, electricity, ports, food storage, retail markets and services remain inadequate. The average size of land holdings is very small, with 70% of holdings being less than one hectare (2.5 acres) in size. Irrigation facilities are inadequate, as revealed by the fact that only 46% of the total cultivable land was irrigated as of 2016,[update] resulting in farmers still being dependent on rainfall, specifically the monsoon season, which is often inconsistent and unevenly distributed across the country. In an effort to bring an additional 20,000,000 hectares (49,000,000 acres) of land under irrigation, various schemes have been attempted, including the Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP) which was provided ₹800 billion (equivalent to ₹980 billion or US$12 billion in 2020) in the Union Budget. Farming incomes are also hampered by lack of food storage and distribution infrastructure; a third of India's agricultural production is lost from spoilage. ### Manufacturing and industry Industry accounts for 26% of GDP and employs 22% of the total workforce. According to the World Bank, India's industrial manufacturing GDP output in 2015 was 6th largest in the world on current US dollar basis ($559 billion), and 9th largest on inflation-adjusted constant 2005 US dollar basis ($197.1 billion). The industrial sector underwent significant changes due to the 1991 economic reforms, which removed import restrictions, brought in foreign competition, led to the privatisation of certain government-owned public-sector industries, liberalised the foreign direct investment (FDI) regime, improved infrastructure and led to an expansion in the production of fast-moving consumer goods. Post-liberalisation, the Indian private sector was faced with increasing domestic and foreign competition, including the threat of cheaper Chinese imports. It has since handled the change by squeezing costs, revamping management, and relying on cheap labour and new technology. However, this has also reduced employment generation, even among smaller manufacturers who previously relied on labour-intensive processes. Manufacturing and tech industries are geographically located in industrial regions in India, It is also the world's second-largest coal producer, the second-largest cement producer, the second-largest steel producer, and the third-largest electricity producer. #### Defence sector With strength of over 1.3 million active personnel, Indian Army is the third-largest military force and the largest volunteer army. Defence expenditure was pegged at US$70.12 billion for fiscal year 2022–23 and, increased 9.8% than previous fiscal year. India is the world's second largest arms importer; between 2016 and 2020, it accounted for 9.5% of the total global arms imports. India exported military hardware worth ₹159.2 billion (US$2.0 billion) in the financial year 2022-23, the highest ever and a notable tenfold increase since 2016-17. #### Electricity sector Primary energy consumption of India is the third-largest after China and US with 5.3% global share in the year 2015. Coal and crude oil together account for 85% of the primary energy consumption of India. India's oil reserves meet 25% of the country's domestic oil demand. As of April 2015,[update] India's total proven crude oil reserves are 763.476 megatonnes (751.418 million long tons; 841.588 million short tons), while gas reserves stood at 1,490 billion cubic metres (53 trillion cubic feet). Oil and natural gas fields are located offshore at Bombay High, Krishna Godavari Basin and the Cauvery Delta, and onshore mainly in the states of Assam, Gujarat and Rajasthan. India is the fourth-largest consumer of oil and net oil imports were nearly ₹8.2 trillion (US$100 billion) in 2014–15, which had an adverse effect on the country's current account deficit. The petroleum industry in India mostly consists of public sector companies such as Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC), Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited (HPCL), Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited (BPCL) and Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL). There are some major private Indian companies in the oil sector such as Reliance Industries Limited (RIL) which operates the world's largest oil refining complex. India became the world's third-largest producer of electricity in 2013 with a 4.8% global share in electricity generation, surpassing Japan and Russia. By the end of calendar year 2015, India had an electricity surplus with many power stations idling for want of demand. The utility electricity sector had an installed capacity of 303 GW as of May 2016[update] of which thermal power contributed 69.8%, hydroelectricity 15.2%, other sources of renewable energy 13.0%, and nuclear power 2.1%. India meets most of its domestic electricity demand through its 106 gigatonnes (104 billion long tons; 117 billion short tons) of proven coal reserves. India is also rich in certain alternative sources of energy with significant future potential such as solar, wind and biofuels (jatropha, sugarcane). India's dwindling uranium reserves stagnated the growth of nuclear energy in the country for many years. Recent discoveries in the Tummalapalle belt may be among the top 20 natural uranium reserves worldwide,[*needs update*] and an estimated reserve of 846,477 tonnes (833,108 long tons; 933,081 short tons) of thorium – about 25% of world's reserves – are expected to fuel the country's ambitious nuclear energy program in the long-run. The Indo-US nuclear deal has also paved the way for India to import uranium from other countries. #### Transport sector The railway sector in India aims to contribute about 1.5% to the country's GDP by building infrastructure to support 45% of the modal freight share of the economy.With a workforce of 1.31 million people, the IR is also one of the country’s largest employers. the railways is a major contributor to jobs, GDP, and mobility. Indian Railways has targeted to manufacture 475 new Vande Bharat trainsets for next 4 years as a part of it's modernization plan.Indian Railway's CORE aims to electrify all of its broad gauge network by 31 March 2024.The entire electrified mainline rail network in India uses 25 kV AC; DC is used only for metros.According to CleanTechnica, India currently has 83% of total train tracks fully electrified. Under the eleventh Five Year Plan of India (2007–12), the Ministry of Railways started constructing a new Dedicated Freight Corridor (DFC) in two long routes, namely the Eastern and Western freight corridors.The two routes cover a total length of 3,260 kilometres (2,030 mi), with the *Eastern Dedicated Freight Corridor* stretching from Ludhiana in Punjab to Dankuni in West Bengal and the *Western Dedicated Freight Corridor* from Jawaharlal Nehru Port in Mumbai (Maharashtra) to Dadri in Uttar Pradesh. The DFC will generate around 42,000 jobs and provide long term employment to many people in public sector and private sector. India is developing modern mass rapid transit systems to meet present and future urban requirements. A modern metro rail system is already in place in the cities of Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore, Kolkata, Hyderabad, Kochi, Gurgaon, Jaipur, Noida, Pune, Nagpur, Kanpur, Ahmedabad and Lucknow. Similar mass transit systems are intended for Agra, Bhopal, Bhubaneswar , Chandigarh, Indore, Gwalior, Prayagraj, Varanasi, Patna, Ranchi, Thane and Navi Mumbai. India is also developing modern RRTS system to replace the old MRTS system which will provide connectivity in Delhi Metropolitan Area and Mumbai Metropolitan Region which will serve the suburbs of these big cities at 80-100kms of distance from city center. Land prices in tier-II cities such as Lucknow, Patna, Jaipur, Ahmedabad, Pune, Kochi, and Coimbatore have gone up by almost 8-10 percent following the introduction of a metro corridor in these cities, an assessment by JLL has said. #### Engineering Engineering is the largest sub-sector of India's industrial sector, by GDP, and the third-largest by exports. It includes transport equipment, machine tools, capital goods, transformers, switchgear, furnaces, and cast and forged parts for turbines, automobiles, and railways. The industry employs about 4 million workers. On a value-added basis, India's engineering subsector exported $67 billion worth of engineering goods in the 2013–14 fiscal year, and served part of the domestic demand for engineering goods. The Indian automobile industry is the world's fourth-largest by production. The engineering industry of India includes its growing car, trainsets, rail wagons, motorcycle and scooters industry, and productivity machinery such as steel equipment, nuclear equipment, shovel, dump trucks, tractors. India manufactured and assembled about 18 million passenger and utility vehicles in 2011, of which 2.3 million were exported.Indian Railways has made a new record of manufacturing 10,000 coaches for both domestic and export purposes. India is the largest producer and the largest market for tractors, accounting for 29% of global tractor production in 2013. India is the 12th-largest producer and 7th-largest consumer of machine tools. The automotive manufacturing industry contributed $79 billion (4% of GDP) and employed 6.76 million people (2% of the workforce) in 2016. #### Gems and jewellery India is one of the largest centres for polishing diamonds and gems and manufacturing jewellery; it is also one of the two largest consumers of gold. After crude oil and petroleum products, the export and import of gold, precious metals, precious stones, gems and jewellery accounts for the largest portion of India's global trade. The industry contributes about 7% of India's GDP, employs hundreds of thousands, and is a major source of its foreign-exchange earnings. The gems and jewellery industry created $60 billion in economic output on value-added basis in 2017, and is projected to grow to $110 billion by 2022. The gems and jewellery industry has been economically active in India for several thousand years. Until the 18th century, India was the only major reliable source of diamonds. Now, South Africa and Australia are the major sources of diamonds and precious metals, but along with Antwerp, New York City, and Ramat Gan, Indian cities such as Surat and Mumbai are the hubs of world's jewellery polishing, cutting, precision finishing, supply and trade. Unlike other centres, the gems and jewellery industry in India is primarily artisan-driven; the sector is manual, highly fragmented, and almost entirely served by family-owned operations. The particular strength of this sub-sector is in precision cutting, polishing and processing small diamonds (below one carat). India is also a hub for processing of larger diamonds, pearls, and other precious stones. Statistically, 11 out of 12 diamonds set in any jewellery in the world are cut and polished in India. #### Infrastructure India's infrastructure and transport sector contributes about 5% of its GDP. India has a road network of over 5,472,144 kilometres (3,400,233 mi) as of 31 March 2015,[update] the second-largest road network in the world only behind United States. At 1.66 km of roads per square kilometre of land (2.68 miles per square mile), the quantitative density of India's road network is higher than that of Japan (0.91) and United States (0.67), and far higher than that of China (0.46), Brazil (0.18) or Russia (0.08). Qualitatively, India's roads are a mix of modern highways and narrow, unpaved roads, and are being improved. As of 31 March 2015,[update] 87.05% of Indian roads were paved. India has the lowest kilometre-lane road density per 100,000 people among G-27 countries, leading to traffic congestion. It is upgrading its infrastructure. As of May 2014,[update] India had completed over 22,600 kilometres (14,000 mi) of 4- or 6-lane highways, connecting most of its major manufacturing, commercial and cultural centres. India's road infrastructure carries 60% of freight and 87% of passenger traffic. India has a coastline of 7,500 kilometres (4,700 mi) with 13 major ports and 60 operational non-major ports, which together handle 95% of the country's external trade by volume and 70% by value (most of the remainder handled by air). Kandla Port, New Kandla is the largest public port established in early 1960's, while Mundra is the largest private sea port. The airport infrastructure of India includes 125 airports, of which 66 airports are licensed to handle both passengers and cargo. #### Petroleum products and chemicals Petroleum products and chemicals are a major contributor to India's industrial GDP, and together they contribute over 34% of its export earnings. India hosts many oil refinery and petrochemical operations developed with help of Soviet technology such as Barauni Refinery and Gujarat Refinery , it also includes the world's largest refinery complex in Jamnagar that processes 1.24 million barrels of crude per day. By volume, the Indian chemical industry was the third-largest producer in Asia, and contributed 5% of the country's GDP. India is one of the five-largest producers of agrochemicals, polymers and plastics, dyes and various organic and inorganic chemicals. Despite being a large producer and exporter, India is a net importer of chemicals due to domestic demands. India's chemical industry is extremely diversified and estimated at $178 billion. The chemical industry contributed $163 billion to the economy in FY18 and is expected to reach $300–400 billion by 2025. The industry employed 17.33 million people (4% of the workforce) in 2016. #### Pharmaceuticals The Indian pharmaceutical industry has grown in recent years to become a major manufacturer of health care products for the world. India holds a 20% market share in the global supply of generics by volume. The Indian pharmaceutical sector also supplies over 62% of the global demand for various vaccines. India's pharmaceutical exports stood at $17.27 billion in 2017–18 and are expected to reach $20 billion by 2020. The industry grew from $6 billion in 2005 to $36.7 billion in 2016, a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 17.46%. It is expected to grow at a CAGR of 15.92% to reach $55 billion in 2020. India is expected to become the sixth-largest pharmaceutical market in the world by 2020. India is the world's largest manufacturer of generic drugs, and its pharmaceutical sector fulfills over 50% of the global demand for vaccines. It is one of the fastest-growing industrial sub-sectors and a significant contributor to India's export earnings. The state of Gujarat has become a hub for the manufacture and export of pharmaceuticals and active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs). #### Textile The textile and apparel market in India was estimated to be $108.5 billion in 2015. It is expected to reach a size of $226 billion by 2023. The industry employees over 35 million people. By value, the textile industry accounts for 7% of India's industrial, 2% of GDP and 15% of the country's export earnings. India exported $39.2 billion worth of textiles in the 2017–18 fiscal year. The Indian textiles industry is estimated at $100 billion and contributes 13% of industrial output and 2.3% of India's GDP while employs over 45 million people directly. India's textile industry has transformed in recent years from a declining sector to a rapidly developing one. After freeing the industry in 2004–2005 from a number of limitations, primarily financial, the government permitted massive investment inflows, both domestic and foreign. From 2004 to 2008, total investment into the textile sector increased by $27 billion. Ludhiana produces 90% of woollens in India and is known as the Manchester of India. Tirupur has gained universal recognition as the leading source of hosiery, knitted garments, casual wear, and sportswear. Expanding textile centres such as Ichalkaranji enjoy one of the highest per-capita incomes in the country. India's cotton farms, fibre and textile industry provides employment to 45 million people in India, including some child labour (1%). The sector is estimated to employ around 400,000 children under the age of 18. #### Pulp and paper The pulp and paper industry in India is one of the major producers of paper in the world and has adopted new manufacturing technology. The paper market in India was estimated to be worth ₹600 billion (US$7.5 billion) in 2017–18 recording a CAGR of 6–7%. Domestic demand for paper almost doubled from around 9 megatonnes (8.9 million long tons; 9.9 million short tons) in the 2007–08 fiscal to over 17 megatonnes (17 million long tons; 19 million short tons) in 2017–18. The per capita consumption of paper in India is around 13–14 kg annually, lower than the global average of 57 kg. #### Mining Mining contributed $63 billion (3% of GDP) and employed 20.14 million people (5% of the workforce) in 2016. India's mining industry was the fourth-largest producer of minerals in the world by volume, and eighth-largest producer by value in 2009. In 2013, it mined and processed 89 minerals, of which four were fuel, three were atomic energy minerals, and 80 non-fuel. The government-owned public sector accounted for 68% of mineral production by volume in 2011–12. India has the world's fourth-largest natural resources, with the mining sector contributing 11% of the country's industrial GDP and 2.5% of total GDP. Nearly 50% of India's mining industry, by output value, is concentrated in eight states: Odisha, Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka. Another 25% of the output by value comes from offshore oil and gas resources. India operated about 3,000 mines in 2010, half of which were coal, limestone and iron ore. On output-value basis, India was one of the five largest producers of mica, chromite, coal, lignite, iron ore, bauxite, barite, zinc and manganese; while being one of the ten largest global producers of many other minerals. India was the fourth-largest producer of steel in 2013, and the seventh-largest producer of aluminium. India's mineral resources are vast. However, its mining industry has declined – contributing 2.3% of its GDP in 2010 compared to 3% in 2000, and employed 2.9 million people – a decreasing percentage of its total labour. India is a net importer of many minerals including coal. India's mining sector decline is because of complex permit, regulatory and administrative procedures, inadequate infrastructure, shortage of capital resources, and slow adoption of environmentally sustainable technologies. #### Iron and steel India surpassed Japan as the second largest steel producer in January 2019. As per worldsteel, India's crude steel production in 2018 was at 106.5 tonnes (104.8 long tons; 117.4 short tons), 4.9% increase from 101.5 tonnes (99.9 long tons; 111.9 short tons) in 2017, which means that India overtook Japan as the world's second largest steel production country. India plans to build 12 new steel plants with a capacity of 60 megatonnes (59 million long tons; 66 million short tons) per year. Indian Ministry of Steel instructed government owned steel plants to increase capacity by at least 80%, to 45 megatonnes (44 million long tons; 50 million short tons) per year by 2030. The current capacity is 25 megatonnes (25 million long tons; 28 million short tons) per year. #### Construction The construction industry contributed $288 billion (13% of GDP) and employed 60.42 million people (14% of the workforce) in 2016. The construction and real estate sector ranks third among the 14 major sectors in terms of direct, indirect, and induced effects in all sectors of the economy. ### Services The services sector has the largest share of India's GDP, accounting for 57% in 2012, up from 15% in 1950. It is the seventh-largest services sector by nominal GDP, and third largest when purchasing power is taken into account. The services sector provides employment to 27% of the workforce. Information technology and business process outsourcing are among the fastest-growing sectors, having a cumulative growth rate of revenue 33.6% between fiscal years 1997–98 and 2002–03, and contributing to 25% of the country's total exports in 2007–08.[*needs update*] #### Aviation India is the fourth-largest civil aviation market in the world recording an air traffic of 158 million passengers in 2017. The market is estimated to have 800 aircraft by 2020, which would account for 4.3% of global volumes, and is expected to record annual passenger traffic of 520 million by 2037. IATA estimated that aviation contributed $30 billion to India's GDP in 2017, and supported 7.5 million jobs – 390,000 directly, 570,000 in the value chain, and 6.2 million through tourism. Civil aviation in India traces its beginnings to 18 February 1911, when Henri Pequet, a French aviator, carried 6,500 pieces of mail on a Humber biplane from Allahabad (present-day Prayagraj) to Naini. Later on 15 October 1932, J.R.D. Tata flew a consignment of mail from Karachi to Juhu Airport. His airline later became Air India and was the first Asian airline to cross the Atlantic Ocean as well as first Asian airline to fly jets. ##### Nationalisation In March 1953, the Indian Parliament passed the Air Corporations Act to streamline and nationalise the then existing privately owned eight domestic airlines into Indian Airlines for domestic services and the Tata group-owned Air India for international services. The International Airports Authority of India (IAAI) was constituted in 1972 while the National Airports Authority was constituted in 1986. The Bureau of Civil Aviation Security was established in 1987 following the crash of Air India Flight 182. ##### De-regulation The government de-regularised the civil aviation sector in 1991 when the government allowed private airlines to operate charter and non-scheduled services under the 'Air Taxi' Scheme until 1994, when the Air Corporation Act was repealed and private airlines could now operate scheduled services. Private airlines including Jet Airways, Air Sahara, Modiluft, Damania Airways and NEPC Airlines commenced domestic operations during this period. The aviation industry experienced a rapid transformation following deregulation. Several low-cost carriers entered the Indian market in 2004–05. Major new entrants included Air Deccan, Air Sahara, Kingfisher Airlines, SpiceJet, GoAir, Paramount Airways and IndiGo. Kingfisher Airlines became the first Indian air carrier on 15 June 2005 to order Airbus A380 aircraft worth US$3 billion. However, Indian aviation would struggle due to an economic slowdown and rising fuel and operation costs. This led to consolidation, buyouts and discontinuations. In 2007, Air Sahara and Air Deccan were acquired by Jet Airways and Kingfisher Airlines respectively. Paramount Airways ceased operations in 2010 and Kingfisher shut down in 2012. Etihad Airways agreed to acquire a 24% stake in Jet Airways in 2013. AirAsia India, a low-cost carrier operating as a joint venture between Air Asia and Tata Sons launched in 2014. As of 2013[update]–14, only IndiGo and GoAir were generating profits.[*needs update*] The average domestic passenger air fare dropped by 70% between 2005 and 2017, after adjusting for inflation. #### Banking and financial services The financial services industry contributed $809 billion (37% of GDP) and employed 14.17 million people (3% of the workforce) in 2016, and the banking sector contributed $407 billion (19% of GDP) and employed 5.5 million people (1% of the workforce) in 2016. The Indian money market is classified into the organised sector, comprising private, public and foreign-owned commercial banks and cooperative banks, together known as 'scheduled banks'; and the unorganised sector, which includes individual or family-owned indigenous bankers or money lenders and non-banking financial companies. The unorganised sector and microcredit are preferred over traditional banks in rural and sub-urban areas, especially for non-productive purposes such as short-term loans for ceremonies. Prime Minister Indira Gandhi nationalised 14 banks in 1969, followed by six others in 1980, and made it mandatory for banks to provide 40% of their net credit to priority sectors including agriculture, small-scale industry, retail trade and small business, to ensure that the banks fulfilled their social and developmental goals. Since then, the number of bank branches has increased from 8,260 in 1969 to 72,170 in 2007 and the population covered by a branch decreased from 63,800 to 15,000 during the same period. The total bank deposits increased from ₹59.1 billion (equivalent to ₹2.4 trillion or US$30 billion in 2020) in 1970–71 to ₹38.31 trillion (equivalent to ₹82 trillion or US$1.0 trillion in 2020) in 2008–09. Despite an increase of rural branches – from 1,860 or 22% of the total in 1969 to 30,590 or 42% in 2007 – only 32,270 of 500,000 villages are served by a scheduled bank. India's gross domestic savings in 2006–07 as a percentage of GDP stood at a high 32.8%. More than half of personal savings are invested in physical assets such as land, houses, cattle, and gold. The government-owned public-sector banks hold over 75% of total assets of the banking industry, with the private and foreign banks holding 18.2% and 6.5% respectively. Since liberalisation, the government has approved significant banking reforms. While some of these relate to nationalised banks – such as reforms encouraging mergers, reducing government interference and increasing profitability and competitiveness – other reforms have opened the banking and insurance sectors to private and foreign companies. #### Financial technology According to the report of The National Association of Software and Services Companies (NASSCOM), India has a presence of around 400 companies in the fintech space, with an investment of about $420 million in 2015. The NASSCOM report also estimated the fintech software and services market to grow 1.7 times by 2020, making it worth $8 billion. The Indian fintech landscape is segmented as follows – 34% in payment processing, followed by 32% in banking and 12% in the trading, public and private markets. #### Information technology The information technology (IT) industry in India consists of two major components: IT Services and business process outsourcing (BPO). The sector has increased its contribution to India's GDP from 1.2% in 1998 to 7.5% in 2012. According to NASSCOM, the sector aggregated revenues of US$147 billion in 2015, where export revenue stood at US$99 billion and domestic at US$48 billion, growing by over 13%. The Indian IT industry is a major exporter of IT services with $227 billion in revenue and employs over 5 million people. The growth in the IT sector is attributed to increased specialisation, and an availability of a large pool of low-cost, highly skilled, fluent English-speaking workers – matched by increased demand from foreign consumers interested in India's service exports, or looking to outsource their operations. The share of the Indian IT industry in the country's GDP increased from 4.8% in 2005–06 to 7% in 2008. In 2009, seven Indian firms were listed among the top 15 technology outsourcing companies in the world. The business process outsourcing services in the outsourcing industry in India caters mainly to Western operations of multinational corporations. As of 2012,[update] around 2.8 million people work in the outsourcing sector. Annual revenues are around $11 billion, around 1% of GDP. Around 2.5 million people graduate in India every year. Wages are rising by 10–15 percent as a result of skill shortages. #### Insurance India became the tenth-largest insurance market in the world in 2013, rising from 15th in 2011. At a total market size of US$66.4 billion in 2013, it remains small compared to world's major economies, and the Indian insurance market accounted for just 2% of the world's insurance business in 2017. India's life and non-life insurance industry collected ₹6.1 trillion (US$76 billion) in total gross insurance premiums in 2018. Life insurance accounts for 75.41% of the insurance market and the rest is general insurance. Of the 52 insurance companies in India, 24 are active in life-insurance business. Specialised insurers Export Credit Guarantee Corporation and Agriculture Insurance Company (AIC) offer credit guarantee and crop insurance. It has introduced several innovative products such as weather insurance and insurance related to specific crops. The premium underwritten by the non-life insurers during 2010–11 was ₹425 billion (equivalent to ₹740 billion or US$9.3 billion in 2020) against ₹346 billion (equivalent to ₹660 billion or US$8.3 billion in 2020) in 2009–10. The growth was satisfactory,[*according to whom?*] particularly given across-the-broad cuts in the tariff rates. The private insurers underwrote premiums of ₹174 billion (equivalent to ₹300 billion or US$3.8 billion in 2020) against ₹140 billion (equivalent to ₹270 billion or US$3.3 billion in 2020) in 2009–10. The Indian insurance business had been under-developed with low levels of insurance penetration. #### Retail The retail industry, excluding wholesale, contributed $793 billion (10% of GDP) and employed 35 million people (8% of the workforce) in 2020. The industry is the second largest employer in India, after agriculture. The Indian retail market is estimated to be US$600 billion and one of the top-five retail markets in the world by economic value. India has one of the fastest-growing retail markets in the world, and is projected to reach $1.3 trillion by 2020. India has retail market worth $1.17 trillion, which contributes over 10% of India's GDP. It also has one of the world's fastest growing e-commerce markets. The e-commerce retail market in India was valued at $32.7 billion in 2018, and is expected to reach $71.9 billion by 2022. India's retail industry mostly consists of local mom-and-pop stores, owner-staffed shops and street vendors. Retail supermarkets are expanding, with a market share of 4% in 2008. In 2012, the government permitted 51% FDI in multi-brand retail and 100% FDI in single-brand retail. However, a lack of back-end warehouse infrastructure and state-level permits and red tape continue to limit growth of organised retail. Compliance with over thirty regulations such as "signboard licences" and "anti-hoarding measures" must be made before a store can open for business. There are taxes for moving goods from state to state, and even within states. According to *The Wall Street Journal*, the lack of infrastructure and efficient retail networks cause a third of India's agriculture produce to be lost from spoilage. #### Tourism The World Travel & Tourism Council calculated that tourism generated ₹15.24 trillion (US$190 billion) or 9.4% of the nation's GDP in 2017 and supported 41.622 million jobs, 8% of its total employment. The sector is predicted to grow at an annual rate of 6.9% to ₹32.05 trillion (US$400 billion) by 2028 (9.9% of GDP). Over 10 million foreign tourists arrived in India in 2017 compared to 8.89 million in 2016, recording a growth of 15.6%. The tourism industry contributes about 9.2% of India's GDP and employs over 42 million people. India earned $21.07 billion in foreign exchange from tourism receipts in 2015. International tourism to India has seen a steady growth from 2.37 million arrivals in 1997 to 8.03 million arrivals in 2015. Bangladesh is the largest source of international tourists to India, while European Union nations and Japan are other major sources of international tourists. Less than 10% of international tourists visit the Taj Mahal, with the majority visiting other cultural, thematic and holiday circuits. Over 12 million Indian citizens take international trips each year for tourism, while domestic tourism within India adds about 740 million Indian travellers. India has a fast-growing medical tourism sector of its health care economy, offering low-cost health services and long-term care. In October 2015, the medical tourism sector was estimated to be worth US$3 billion. It is projected to grow to $7–8 billion by 2020. In 2014, 184,298 foreign patients traveled to India to seek medical treatment. #### Media and entertainment industry An ASSOCHAM-PwC joint study projected that the Indian media and entertainment industry would grow from a size of $30.364 billion in 2017 to $52.683 billion by 2022, recording a CAGR of 11.7%. The study also predicted that television, cinema and over-the-top services would account for nearly half of the overall industry growth during the period. #### Healthcare India's healthcare sector is expected to grow at a CAGR of 29% between 2015 and 2020, to reach US$280 billion, buoyed by rising incomes, greater health awareness, increased precedence of lifestyle diseases, and improved access to health insurance. The ayurveda industry in India recorded a market size of $4.4 billion in 2018. The Confederation of Indian Industry estimates that the industry will grow at a CAGR 16% until 2025. Nearly 75% of the market comprises over-the-counter personal care and beauty products, while ayurvedic well-being or ayurvedic tourism services accounted for 15% of the market. #### Logistics The logistics industry in India was worth over $160 billion in 2016, and grew at a CAGR of 7.8% in the previous five-year period. The industry employs about 22 million people. It is expected to reach of a size of $215 billion by 2020. India was ranked 35th out of 160 countries in the World Bank's 2016 Logistics Performance Index. #### Printing #### Telecommunications The telecommunication sector generated ₹2.20 trillion (US$28 billion) in revenue in 2014–15, accounting for 1.94% of total GDP. India is the second-largest market in the world by number of telephone users (both fixed and mobile phones) with 1.053 billion subscribers as of 31 August 2016.[update] It has one of the lowest call-tariffs in the world, due to fierce competition among telecom operators. India has the world's third-largest Internet user-base. As of 31 March 2016,[update] there were 342.65 million Internet subscribers in the country. India's telecommunication industry is the world's second largest by the number of mobile phone, smartphone, and internet users. It is the world's 24th-largest oil producer and the third-largest oil consumer. Industry estimates indicate that there are over 554 million TV consumers in India as of 2012.[update] India is the largest direct-to-home (DTH) television market in the world by number of subscribers. As of May 2016,[update] there were 84.80 million DTH subscribers in the country. Security markets ---------------- The development of Indian security markets began with the launch of the Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE) in July 1875 and the Ahmedabad Stock Exchange in 1894. Since then, 22 other exchanges have traded in Indian cities. In 2014, India's stock exchange market became the 10th largest in the world by market capitalisation, just above those of South Korea and Australia. India's two major stock exchanges, BSE and the National Stock Exchange of India, had a market capitalisation of US$1.71 trillion and US$1.68 trillion as of February 2015,[update] according to the World Federation of Exchanges, which grew to $3.36 trillion and $3.31 trillion respectively by September 2021. The initial public offering (IPO) market in India has been small compared to NYSE and NASDAQ, raising US$300 million in 2013 and US$1.4 billion in 2012. Ernst & Young stated that the low IPO activity reflects market conditions, slow government approval processes, and complex regulations. Before 2013, Indian companies were not allowed to list their securities internationally without first completing an IPO in India. In 2013, these security laws were reformed and Indian companies can now choose where they want to list first: overseas, domestically, or both concurrently. Further, security laws have been revised to ease overseas listings of already-listed companies, to increase liquidity for private equity and international investors in Indian companies. Foreign trade and investment ---------------------------- ### Foreign trade India's exports (top) and imports (bottom), by value, in 2013–14 #### India's foreign trade by year | Year | Exports (in USD billion) | Imports (in USD billion) | Trade Deficit (in USD billion) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 2021 | 420 | 612 | -192 | | 2020 | 314.31 | 467.19 | -158.88 | | 2019 | 330.07 | 514.07 | -184 | | 2018 | 303.52 | 465.58 | -162.05 | | 2017 | 275.8 | 384.3 | -108.5 | | 2016 | 262.3 | 381 | -118.7 | | 2015 | 310.3 | 447.9 | -137.6 | | 2014 | 318.2 | 462.9 | -144.7 | | 2013 | 313.2 | 467.5 | -154.3 | | 2012 | 298.4 | 500.4 | -202.0 | | 2011 | 299.4 | 461.4 | -162.0 | | 2010 | 201.1 | 327.0 | -125.9 | | 2009 | 168.2 | 274.3 | -106.1 | | 2008 | 176.4 | 305.5 | -129.1 | | 2007 | 112.0 | 100.9 | 11.1 | | 2006 | 76.23 | 113.1 | -36.87 | | 2005 | 69.18 | 89.33 | -20.15 | | 2004 | 57.24 | 74.15 | -16.91 | | 2003 | 48.3 | 61.6 | -13.3 | | 2002 | 44.5 | 53.8 | -9.3 | | 2001 | 42.5 | 54.5 | -12.0 | | 2000 | 43.1 | 60.8 | -17.7 | | 1999 | 36.3 | 50.2 | -13.9 | Until the liberalisation of 1991, India was largely and intentionally isolated from world markets, to protect its economy and to achieve self-reliance. Foreign trade was subject to import tariffs, export taxes and quantitative restrictions, while foreign direct investment (FDI) was restricted by upper-limit equity participation, restrictions on technology transfer, export obligations and government approvals; these approvals were needed for nearly 60% of new FDI in the industrial sector. The restrictions ensured that FDI averaged only around $200 million annually between 1985 and 1991; a large percentage of the capital flows consisted of foreign aid, commercial borrowing and deposits of non-resident Indians. India's exports were stagnant for the first 15 years after independence, due to general neglect of trade policy by the government of that period; imports in the same period, with early industrialisation, consisted predominantly of machinery, raw materials and consumer goods. Since liberalisation, the value of India's international trade has increased sharply, with the contribution of total trade in goods and services to the GDP rising from 16% in 1990–91 to 47% in 2009–10. Foreign trade accounted for 48.8% of India's GDP in 2015. Globally, India accounts for 1.44% of exports and 2.12% of imports for merchandise trade and 3.34% of exports and 3.31% of imports for commercial services trade. India's major trading partners are the European Union, China, United States and United Arab Emirates. In 2006–07, major export commodities included engineering goods, petroleum products, chemicals and pharmaceuticals, gems and jewellery, textiles and garments, agricultural products, iron ore and other minerals. Major import commodities included crude oil and related products, machinery, electronic goods, gold and silver. In November 2010, exports increased 22.3% year-on-year to ₹851 billion (equivalent to ₹1.6 trillion or US$20 billion in 2020), while imports were up 7.5% at ₹1.25 trillion (equivalent to ₹2.4 trillion or US$30 billion in 2020). The trade deficit for the same month dropped from ₹469 billion (equivalent to ₹1.0 trillion or US$13 billion in 2020) in 2009 to ₹401 billion (equivalent to ₹760 billion or US$9.6 billion in 2020) in 2010. India is a founding-member of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and its successor, the WTO. While participating actively in its general council meetings, India has been crucial in voicing the concerns of the developing world. For instance, India has continued its opposition to the inclusion of labour, environmental issues and other non-tariff barriers to trade in WTO policies. India secured 43rd place in competitiveness index. ### Balance of payments Since independence, India's balance of payments on its current account has been negative. Since economic liberalisation in the 1990s, precipitated by a balance-of-payment crisis, India's exports rose consistently, covering 80.3% of its imports in 2002–03, up from 66.2% in 1990–91. However, the global economic slump followed by a general deceleration in world trade saw the exports as a percentage of imports drop to 61.4% in 2008–09. India's growing oil import bill is seen as the main driver behind the large current account deficit, which rose to $118.7 billion, or 11.11% of GDP, in 2008–09. Between January and October 2010, India imported $82.1 billion worth of crude oil. The Indian economy has run a trade deficit every year from 2002 to 2012, with a merchandise trade deficit of US$189 billion in 2011–12. Its trade with China has the largest deficit, about $31 billion in 2013. India's reliance on external assistance and concessional debt has decreased since liberalisation of the economy, and the debt service ratio decreased from 35.3% in 1990–91 to 4.4% in 2008–09. In India, external commercial borrowings (ECBs), or commercial loans from non-resident lenders, are being permitted by the government for providing an additional source of funds to Indian corporates. The Ministry of Finance monitors and regulates them through ECB policy guidelines issued by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) under the Foreign Exchange Management Act of 1999. India's foreign exchange reserves have steadily risen from $5.8 billion in March 1991 to ₹38,832.21 billion (US$540 billion) in July 2020. In 2012, United Kingdom announced an end to all financial aid to India, citing the growth and robustness of Indian economy. India's current account deficit reached an all-time high in 2013. India has historically funded its current account deficit through borrowings by companies in the overseas markets or remittances by non-resident Indians and portfolio inflows. From April 2016 to January 2017, RBI data showed that, for the first time since 1991, India was funding its deficit through foreign direct investment inflows. *The Economic Times* noted that the development was "a sign of rising confidence among long-term investors in Prime Minister Narendra Modi's ability to strengthen the country's economic foundation for sustained growth". ### Foreign direct investment **Share of top five investing countries in FDI inflows (2000–2010)**| Rank | Country | Inflows (million US$) | Inflows (%) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Mauritius | 50,164 | 42.00 | | 2 | Singapore | 11,275 | 9.00 | | 3 | US | 8,914 | 7.00 | | 4 | UK | 6,158 | 5.00 | | 5 | Netherlands | 4,968 | 4.00 | As the third-largest economy in the world in PPP terms, India has attracted foreign direct investment (FDI). During the year 2011, FDI inflow into India stood at $36.5 billion, 51.1% higher than the 2010 figure of $24.15 billion. India has strengths in telecommunication, information technology and other significant areas such as auto components, chemicals, apparels, pharmaceuticals, and jewellery. Despite a surge in foreign investments, rigid FDI policies were a significant hindrance. Over time, India has adopted a number of FDI reforms. India has a large pool of skilled managerial and technical expertise. The size of the middle-class population stands at 300 million and represents a growing consumer market. India liberalised its FDI policy in 2005, allowing up to a 100% FDI stake in ventures. Industrial policy reforms have substantially reduced industrial licensing requirements, removed restrictions on expansion and facilitated easy access to foreign technology and investment. The upward growth curve of the real-estate sector owes some credit to a booming economy and liberalised FDI regime. In March 2005, the government amended the rules to allow 100% FDI in the construction sector, including built-up infrastructure and construction development projects comprising housing, commercial premises, hospitals, educational institutions, recreational facilities, and city- and regional-level infrastructure. Between 2012 and 2014, India extended these reforms to defence, telecom, oil, retail, aviation, and other sectors. From 2000 to 2010, the country attracted $178 billion as FDI. The inordinately high investment from Mauritius is due to routing of international funds through the country given significant tax advantages – double taxation is avoided due to a tax treaty between India and Mauritius, and Mauritius is a capital gains tax haven, effectively creating a zero-taxation FDI channel. FDI accounted for 2.1% of India's GDP in 2015. As the government has eased 87 foreign investment direct rules across 21 sectors in the last three years, FDI inflows hit $60.1 billion between 2016 and 2017 in India. #### Outflows Since 2000, Indian companies have expanded overseas, investing FDI and creating jobs outside India. From 2006 to 2010, FDI by Indian companies outside India amounted to 1.34 per cent of its GDP. Indian companies have deployed FDI and started operations in United States, Europe and Africa. The Indian company Tata is United Kingdom's largest manufacturer and private-sector employer. ### Remittances In 2015, a total of US$68.91 billion was made in remittances to India from other countries, and a total of US$8.476 billion was made in remittances by foreign workers in India to their home countries. UAE, US, and Saudi Arabia were the top sources of remittances to India, while Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Nepal were the top recipients of remittances from India. Remittances to India accounted for 3.32% of the country's GDP in 2015. ### Mergers and acquisitions Between 1985 and 2018 20,846 deals have been announced in, into (inbound) and out of (outbound) India. This cumulates to a value of US$618 billion. In terms of value, 2010 has been the most active year with deals worth almost 60 bil. USD. Most deals have been conducted in 2007 (1,510). Here is a list of the top 10 deals with Indian companies participating: | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **Acquiror Name** | **Acquiror Mid Industry** | **Acquiror Nation** | **Target Name** | **Target Mid Industry** | **Target Nation** | **Value of Transaction ($mil)** | | Petrol Complex Pte Ltd | Oil & Gas | Singapore | Essar Oil Ltd | Oil & Gas | India | 12,907.25 | | Vodafone Grp Plc | Wireless | United Kingdom | Hutchison Essar Ltd | Telecommunications Services | India | 12,748.00 | | Vodafone Grp PLC-Vodafone Asts | Wireless | India | Idea Cellular Ltd-Mobile Bus | Wireless | India | 11,627.32 | | Bharti Airtel Ltd | Wireless | India | MTN Group Ltd | Wireless | South Africa | 11,387.52 | | Bharti Airtel Ltd | Wireless | India | Zain Africa BV | Wireless | Nigeria | 10,700.00 | | BP PLC | Oil & Gas | United Kingdom | Reliance Industries Ltd-21 Oil | Oil & Gas | India | 9,000.00 | | MTN Group Ltd | Wireless | South Africa | Bharti Airtel Ltd | Wireless | India | 8,775.09 | | Shareholders | Other Financials | India | Reliance Inds Ltd-Telecom Bus | Telecommunications Services | India | 8,063.01 | | Oil & Natural Gas Corp Ltd | Oil & Gas | India | Hindustan Petro Corp Ltd | Petrochemicals | India | 5,784.20 | | Reliance Commun Ventures Ltd | Telecommunications Services | India | Reliance Infocomm Ltd | Telecommunications Services | India | 5,577.18 | Currency -------- **• EXCHANGE RATES** | Year | INR₹ per US$(*annual average*) | INR₹ per Pound(£)(*annual average*) | | --- | --- | --- | | 1947 | 3.31 | 13.33 | | 1950 | 4.76 | — | | 1967 | 7.50 | 17.76 | | 1975 | 9.4058 | — | | 1980 | 7.88 | — | | 1985 | 12.364 | — | | 1987 | — | 21.18 | | 1990 | 17.4992 | 31.07 | | 1995 | 32.4198 | 51.17 | | 2000 | 44.9401 | 67.99 | | 2005 | 44.1000 | 80.15 | | 2010 | 45.7393 | 70.65 | | 2015 | 64.05 | 98.0101 | | 2016 | 67.09 | 90.72 | | 2017 | 64.14 | 87.56 | | 2018 | 69.71 | 98.51 | | 2019 | 70.394 | 95.06 | | 2020 | 72.97 | 100.05 | | | 2021 | 74.98 | 101.56 | | The Indian rupee (₹) is the only legal tender in India, and is also accepted as legal tender in neighbouring Nepal and Bhutan, both of which peg their currency to that of the Indian rupee. The rupee previously was divided into 100 paise, which no longer exist. The highest-denomination banknote is the ₹2,000 note until 30th September, 2023 after which it will be scrapped and ₹500 note will become the highest denomination; the lowest-denomination coin in circulation is the ₹1 coin.In 2017, demonetisation was announced in which ₹500 and ₹1000 notes were withdrawn and new ₹500 notes were issued. India's monetary system is managed by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), the country's central bank. Established on 1 April 1935 and nationalised in 1949, the RBI serves as the nation's monetary authority, regulator and supervisor of the monetary system, banker to the government, custodian of foreign exchange reserves, and as an issuer of currency. It is governed by a central board of directors, headed by a governor who is appointed by the Government of India. The benchmark interest rates are set by the Monetary Policy Committee. The rupee was linked to the British pound from 1927 to 1946, and then to US dollar until 1975 through a fixed exchange rate. It was devalued in September 1975 and the system of fixed par rate was replaced with a basket of four major international currencies: the British pound, US dollar, the Japanese yen and the Deutsche Mark. In 1991, after the collapse of its largest trading partner, the Soviet Union, India faced the major foreign exchange crisis and the rupee was devalued by around 19% in two stages on 1 and 2 July. In 1992, a Liberalized Exchange Rate Mechanism (LERMS) was introduced. Under LERMS, exporters had to surrender 40 percent of their foreign exchange earnings to the RBI at the RBI-determined exchange rate; the remaining 60% could be converted at the market-determined exchange rate. In 1994, the rupee was convertible on the current account, with some capital controls. After the sharp devaluation in 1991 and transition to current account convertibility in 1994, the value of the rupee has been largely determined by market forces. The rupee has been fairly stable during the decade 2000–2010. In October 2018, rupee touched an all-time low 74.90 to US dollar. Income and consumption ---------------------- India's gross national income per capita had experienced high growth rates since 2002. It tripled from ₹19,040 in 2002–03 to ₹53,331 in 2010–11, averaging 13.7% growth each of these eight years, with peak growth of 15.6% in 2010–11 and, growth in the inflation-adjusted per-capita income of the nation slowed to 5.6% in 2010–11, down from 6.4% in the previous year. These consumption levels are on an individual basis. The average family income in India was $6,671 per household in 2011. According to 2011 census data, India has about 330 million houses and 247 million households. The household size in India has dropped in recent years, the 2011 census reporting 50% of households have four or fewer members, with an average of 4.8 members per household including surviving grandparents. These households produced a GDP of about $1.7 trillion. Consumption patterns note: approximately 67% of households use firewood, crop residue, or cow-dung cakes for cooking purposes; 53% do not have sanitation or drainage facilities on premises; 83% have water supply within their premises or 100 metres (330 ft) from their house in urban areas and 500 metres (1,600 ft) from the house in rural areas; 67% of the households have access to electricity; 63% of households have landline or mobile telephone service; 43% have a television; 26% have either a two- or four-wheel motor vehicle. Compared to 2001, these income and consumption trends represent moderate to significant improvements. One report in 2010 claimed that high-income households outnumber low-income households. New World Wealth publishes reports tracking the total wealth of countries, which is measured as the private wealth held by all residents of a country. According to New World Wealth, India's total wealth increased from $3,165 billion in 2007 to $8,230 billion in 2017, a growth rate of 160%. India's total wealth decreased by 1% from $8.23 trillion in 2017 to $8.148 trillion in 2018, making it the sixth wealthiest nation in the world. There are 20,730 multimillionaires (7th largest in the world) and 118 billionaires in India (3rd largest in the world). With 327,100 high net-worth individuals (HNWI), India is home to the 9th highest number of HNWIs in the world. Mumbai is the wealthiest Indian city and the 12th wealthiest in the world, with a total net worth of $941 billion in 2018. Twenty-eight billionaires reside in the city, ranked ninth worldwide. As of December 2016,[update] the next wealthiest cities in India were Delhi ($450 billion), Bengaluru ($320 billion), Hyderabad ($310 billion), Kolkata ($290 billion), Chennai ($200 billion), and Gurugram ($110 billion). The *Global Wealth Migration Review* *2019* report, published by New World Wealth, found that 5,000 HNWI's emigrated from India in 2018, or about 2% of all HNWIs in the country. Australia, Canada, and United States were among the top destination countries. The report also projected that private wealth in India would grow by around 180% to reach $22,814 billion by 2028. ### Poverty In May 2014, the World Bank reviewed and proposed revisions to its poverty calculation methodology of 2005 and purchasing-power-parity basis for measuring poverty. According to the revised methodology, the world had 872.3 million people below the new poverty line, of which 179.6 million lived in India. With 17.5% of the total world's population, India had a 20.6% share of the world's poorest in 2013. According to a 2005–2006 survey, India had about 61 million children under the age of 5 who were chronically malnourished. A 2011 UNICEF report stated that between 1990 and 2010, India achieved a 45 percent reduction in mortality rates under the age of 5, and now ranks 46th of 188 countries on this metric. Since the early 1960s, successive governments have implemented various schemes to alleviate poverty, under central planning, that have met with partial success. In 2005, the government enacted the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), guaranteeing 100 days of minimum wage employment to every rural household in all the districts of India. In 2011, it was widely criticised and beset with controversy for corrupt officials, deficit financing as the source of funds, poor quality of infrastructure built under the programme, and unintended destructive effects. Other studies suggest that the programme has helped reduce rural poverty in some cases. Yet other studies report that India's economic growth has been the driver of sustainable employment and poverty reduction, though a sizeable population remains in poverty. India lifted 271 million people out of poverty between 2006 and 2016, recording the fastest reductions in the multidimensional poverty index values during the period with strong improvements in areas such as assets, cooking fuel, sanitation, and nutrition. On the 2019 Global Hunger Index India ranked 102nd (out of 117 countries), being categorized as 'serious' in severity. Employment ---------- Agricultural and allied sectors accounted for about 52% of the total workforce in 2009–10. While agriculture employment has fallen over time in percentage of labour employed, services which include construction and infrastructure have seen a steady growth accounting for 20.3% of employment in 2012–13. Of the total workforce, 7% is in the organised sector, two-thirds of which are in the government-controlled public sector. About 51.2% of the workforce in India is self-employed. According to a 2005–06 survey, there is a gender gap in employment and salaries. In rural areas, both men and women are primarily self-employed, mostly in agriculture. In urban areas, salaried work was the largest source of employment for both men and women in 2006. ### Unemployment Unemployment in India is characterised by chronic (disguised) unemployment. Government schemes that target eradication of both poverty and unemployment – which in recent decades has sent millions of poor and unskilled people into urban areas in search of livelihoods – attempt to solve the problem by providing financial assistance for starting businesses, honing skills, setting up public sector enterprises, reservations in governments, etc. The decline in organised employment, due to the decreased role of the public sector after liberalisation, has further underlined the need for focusing on better education and created political pressure for further reforms. India's labour regulations are heavy, even by developing country standards, and analysts have urged the government to abolish or modify them to make the environment more conducive for employment generation. The 11th five-year plan has also identified the need for a congenial environment to be created for employment generation, by reducing the number of permissions and other bureaucratic clearances required. Inequalities and inadequacies in the education system have been identified as an obstacle, which prevents the benefits of increased employment opportunities from reaching all sectors of society. ### Child labour Child labour is a complex problem that is rooted in poverty. Since the 1990s, the government has implemented a variety of programs to eliminate child labour. These have included setting up schools, launching free school lunch programs, creating special investigation cells, etc. Author Sonalde Desai stated that recent studies on child labour in India have found some pockets of industries in which children are employed, but overall, relatively few Indian children are employed. Child labour below the age of 10 is now rare. In the 10–14 age group, the latest surveys find only 2% of children working for wage, while another 9% work within their home or rural farms assisting their parents in times of high work demand such as sowing and harvesting of crops. ### Diaspora employment India has the largest diaspora around the world, an estimated 16 million people, many of whom work overseas and remit funds back to their families. The Middle East region is the largest source of employment for expat Indians. The crude oil production and infrastructure industry of Saudi Arabia employs over 2 million expat Indians. Cities such as Dubai and Abu Dhabi in United Arab Emirates have employed another 2 million Indians during the construction boom in recent decades. In 2009–10, remittances from Indian migrants overseas stood at ₹2.5 trillion (equivalent to ₹4.8 trillion or US$60 billion in 2020), the highest in the world, but their share in FDI remained low at around 1%. ### Trade unions In India, the Trade Union movement is generally divided on political lines. According to provisional statistics from the Ministry of Labour, trade unions had a combined membership of 24,601,589 in 2002. As of 2008, there are 12 Central Trade Union Organisations (CTUO) recognized by the Ministry of Labour. The forming of these unions was a big deal in India. It led to a big push for more regulatory laws which gave workers a lot more power. AITUC is the oldest trade union in India. It is a left supported organization. A trade union with nearly 2,000,000 members is the Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA) which protects the rights of Indian women working in the informal economy. In addition to the protection of rights, SEWA educates, mobilizes, finances, and exalts their members' trades. Multiple other organizations represent workers. These organizations are formed upon different political groups. These different groups allow different groups of people with different political views to join a Union. Economic issues --------------- ### Corruption Corruption has been a pervasive problem in India. A 2005 study by Transparency International (TI) found that more than half of those surveyed had first-hand experience of paying a bribe or peddling influence to get a job done in a public office in the previous year. A follow-up study in 2008 found this rate to be 40 percent. In 2011, TI ranked India at 95th place amongst 183 countries in perceived levels of public sector corruption. By 2016, India saw a reduction in corruption, and its ranking improved to 79th place. In 1996, red tape, bureaucracy, and the Licence Raj were suggested as a cause for the institutionalised corruption and inefficiency. More recent reports suggest the causes of corruption include excessive regulations and approval requirements, mandated spending programs, monopoly of certain goods and service providers by government-controlled institutions, bureaucracy with discretionary powers, and lack of transparent laws and processes. Computerisation of services, various central and state vigilance commissions, and the 2005 Right to Information Act – which requires government officials to furnish information requested by citizens or face punitive action – have considerably reduced corruption and opened avenues to redress grievances. In 2011, the Indian government concluded that most spending fails to reach its intended recipients, as the large and inefficient bureaucracy consumes budgets. India's absence rates are among the worst in the world; one study found that 25% of public sector teachers and 40% of government-owned public-sector medical workers could not be found at the workplace. Similarly, many issues are facing Indian scientists, with demands for transparency, a meritocratic system, and an overhaul of the bureaucratic agencies that oversee science and technology. India has an underground economy, with a 2006 report alleging that India topped the worldwide list for black money with almost $1,456 billion stashed in Swiss banks. This would amount to 13 times the country's total external debt. These allegations have been denied by the Swiss Banking Association. James Nason, the Head of International Communications for the Swiss Banking Association, suggested "The (black money) figures were rapidly picked up in the Indian media and in Indian opposition circles, and circulated as gospel truth. However, this story was a complete fabrication. The Swiss Bankers Association never published such a report. Anyone claiming to have such figures (for India) should be forced to identify their source and explain the methodology used to produce them." A Step was taken by Prime Minister Modi, on 8 November 2016, involved the demonetization of all 500 and 1000 rupee bank notes (replaced by new 500 and 2000 rupee notes) to return black money into the economy followed by criticism that the measure was deemed ineffective by economists and negatively affected the poorest people of India. This demonetisation together with the introduction of The goods and services tax(GST) is believed to be responsible for the slowdown in growth. ### Education India has made progress in increasing the primary education attendance rate and expanding literacy to approximately three-fourths of the population. India's literacy rate had grown from 52.2% in 1991 to 74.04% in 2011. The right to education at the elementary level has been made one of the fundamental rights under the Eighty-Sixth Amendment of 2002, and legislation has been enacted to further the objective of providing free education to all children. However, the literacy rate of 74% is lower than the worldwide average, and the country suffers from a high drop-out rate. Literacy rates and educational opportunities vary by region, gender, urban and rural areas, and among different social groups. ### Economic disparities > Poverty rates in India's poorest states are three to four times higher than those in the more advanced states. While India's average annual per capita income was $1,410 in 2011 – placing it among the poorest of the world's middle-income countries – it was just $436 in Uttar Pradesh (which has more people than Brazil) and only $294 in Bihar, one of India's poorest states. > > — World Bank: India Country Overview 2013 A critical problem facing India's economy is the sharp and growing regional variations among India's different states and territories in terms of poverty, availability of infrastructure, and socio-economic development. Six low-income states – Assam, Chhattisgarh, Nagaland, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, and Uttar Pradesh – are home to more than one-third of India's population. Severe disparities exist among states in terms of income, literacy rates, life expectancy, and living conditions. The five-year plans, especially in the pre-liberalisation era, attempted to reduce regional disparities by encouraging industrial development in the interior regions and distributing industries across states. The results have been discouraging as these measures increased inefficiency and hampered effective industrial growth. The more advanced states have been better placed to benefit from liberalisation, with well-developed infrastructure and an educated and skilled workforce, which attract the manufacturing and service sectors. Governments of less-advanced states have tried to reduce disparities by offering tax holidays and cheap land and focused on sectors like tourism, which can develop faster than other sectors. India's income Gini coefficient is 33.9, according to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), indicating overall income distribution to be more uniform than East Asia, Latin America, and Africa. The *Global Wealth Migration Review* *2019* report, published by New World Wealth, estimated that 48% of India's total wealth was held by high-net-worth individuals. There is a continuing debate on whether India's economic expansion has been pro-poor or anti-poor. Studies suggest that economic growth has been pro-poor and has reduced poverty in India. ### Climate change India has the world's highest social cost of carbon. A report by the London-based global think tank Overseas Development Institute found that India may lose anywhere around 3–10% of its GDP annually by 2100 and its poverty rate may rise by 3.5% in 2040 due to climate change. Debt ---- ### External Debt   >10% Annual Change   >20% Annual Change   >30% Annual Change | India External Debt - Historical Data | | --- | | Year | Current US $ | Annual % Change | | 2021 | $612,865,853,448 | 8.46% | | 2020 | $565,052,687,177 | 0.75% | | 2019 | $560,870,595,481 | 7.65% | | 2018 | $521,030,333,410 | 1.87% | | 2017 | $511,472,593,374 | 12.29% | | 2016 | $455,502,090,499 | -4.87% | | 2015 | $478,825,585,025 | 4.66% | | 2014 | $457,507,409,077 | 7.08% | | 2013 | $427,245,079,806 | 8.83% | | 2012 | $392,576,050,360 | 17.40% | | 2011 | $334,399,298,473 | 15.14% | | 2010 | $290,427,544,563 | 13.31% | | 2009 | $256,312,241,333 | 12.86% | | 2008 | $227,111,768,435 | 11.30% | | 2007 | $204,057,539,300 | 27.92% | | 2006 | $159,525,518,911 | 31.63% | | 2005 | $121,195,478,445 | -1.98% | | 2004 | $123,644,485,822 | 4.00% | | 2003 | $118,884,622,370 | 12.43% | | 2002 | $105,741,601,402 | 6.27% | | 2001 | $99,500,093,586 | -1.61% | | 2000 | $101,131,491,180 | 1.35% | | 1999 | $99,779,510,346 | 1.47% | | 1998 | $98,333,648,295 | 4.54% | | 1997 | $94,059,291,709 | 0.10% | | 1996 | $93,966,076,366 | 0.17% | | 1995 | $93,808,975,940 | -4.18% | | 1994 | $97,898,626,999 | 7.19% | | 1993 | $91,330,328,768 | 4.05% | | 1992 | $87,775,440,182 | 3.44% | | 1991 | $84,852,336,186 | 1.65% | | 1990 | $83,471,522,909 | 13.23% | | 1989 | $73,721,064,976 | 24.34% | | 1988 | $59,288,500,301 | 10.98% | | 1987 | $53,424,896,489 | 18.96% | | 1986 | $44,909,442,697 | 15.35% | | 1985 | $38,934,813,159 | 18.83% | | 1984 | $32,763,961,315 | 6.90% | | 1983 | $30,649,492,455 | 13.76% | | 1982 | $26,942,860,601 | 19.85% | | 1981 | $22,480,074,709 | 8.48% | | 1980 | $20,723,360,696 | 13.92% | | 1979 | $18,190,384,895 | 10.11% | | 1978 | $16,520,249,175 | 7.17% | | 1977 | $15,414,657,570 | 5.68% | | 1976 | $14,586,390,286 | 5.20% | | 1975 | $13,865,614,019 | 9.20% | | 1974 | $12,696,953,186 | 15.79% | | 1973 | $10,965,917,520 | 9.34% | | 1972 | $10,029,268,977 | 7.51% | | 1971 | $9,328,742,282 | 10.73% | | 1970 | $8,425,121,119 | 10.73% | See also -------- * Economic Advisory Council * Economic development in India * List of megaprojects in India * Make in India – a government program to encourage manufacturing in India * NITI Aayog * Startup India * Taxation in medieval India **Events:** * Great Recession * World oil market chronology from 2003 * Demonetization * Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in India **Lists:** * List of companies of India * List of largest companies in India * List of the largest trading partners of India * List of megaprojects in India * Trade unions in India * Natural resources of India Further reading --------------- Books * Datt, Ruddar; Sundharam, K.P.M. (2009). *Indian Economy*. New Delhi: S. Chand Group. p. 976. ISBN 978-81-219-0298-4. * Drèze, John; Sen, Amartya (1996). *India: Economic Development and Social Opportunity*. Oxford University Press. p. 292. ISBN 978-0-19-564082-3. * Kumar, Dharma (2005). *The Cambridge Economic History of India, Volume II : c. 1757–2003*. New Delhi: Orient Longman. p. 1115. ISBN 978-81-250-2710-2. * Nehru, Jawaharlal (1946). *The Discovery of India*. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-303103-1. * Panagariya, Arvind (2008). *India: The Emerging Giant*. Oxford University Press. p. 514. ISBN 978-0-19-531503-5. * Raychaudhuri, Tapan; Habib, Irfan (2004). *The Cambridge Economic History of India, Volume I : c. 1200 – c. 1750*. New Delhi: Orient Longman. p. 543. ISBN 978-81-250-2709-6. * Roy, Tirthankar (2006). *The Economic History of India 1857–1947*. Oxford University Press. p. 385. ISBN 978-0-19-568430-8. * Alamgir, Jalal (2008). *India's Open-Economy Policy*. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-77684-4. * Bharadwaj, Krishna (1991). "Regional differentiation in India". In Sathyamurthy, T.V (ed.). *Industry & agriculture in India since independence*. Oxford University Press. pp. 189–199. ISBN 0-19-564394-1. * Malone, David M., C. Raja Mohan, and Srinath Raghavan, eds. *The Oxford handbook of Indian foreign policy* (2015) excerpt pp 609–649. Papers and reports * Bahl, R., Heredia-Ortiz, E., Martinez-Vazquez, J., & Rider, M. (2005). *India: Fiscal Condition of the States, International Experience, and Options for Reform: Volume 1* (No. paper05141). International Center for Public Policy, Andrew Young School of Policy Studies, Georgia State University. * "Economic reforms in India: Task force report" (PDF). University of Chicago. p. 32. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 February 2009. * "Economic Survey 2009–10". Ministry of Finance, Government of India. p. 294. Archived from the original on 5 December 2010. Retrieved 22 November 2010. 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Economy of India

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_India

**Capoeira** (Portuguese pronunciation: [kapuˈe(j)ɾɐ]) is an Afro-Brazilian martial art that combines elements of dance, acrobatics, music and spirituality. Born of the melting pot of enslaved Africans, Indigenous Brazilians and Portuguese influences at the beginning of the 16th century, capoeira is a constantly evolving art form. It is known for its acrobatic and complex maneuvers, often involving hands on the ground and inverted kicks. It emphasizes flowing movements rather than fixed stances; the *ginga*, a rocking step, is usually the focal point of the technique. Although debated, the most widely accepted origin of the word *capoeira* comes from the Tupi words *ka'a* ("forest") *paũ* ("round"), referring to the areas of low vegetation in the Brazilian interior where fugitive slaves would hide. A practitioner of the art is called a **capoeirista** (Portuguese pronunciation: [kapue(j)ˈɾistɐ]). Though often said to be a martial art disguised as a dance, capoeira served not only as a form of self defense, but also as a way to maintain spirituality and culture. Shortly after the abolition of slavery in Brazil in 1888, capoeira was declared illegal in 1890. However, in the early 1930s, Mestre Bimba created a form of capoeira that held back on its spiritual elements and incorporated elements of jiu jitsu, gymnastics and sports. In doing so, the government viewed capoeira as a socially acceptable sport. In the late 1970s, trailblazers such as Mestre Acordeon started bringing capoeira to the US and Europe, helping the art become internationally recognized and practiced. On 26 November 2014, capoeira was granted a special protected status as intangible cultural heritage by UNESCO. History ------- ### Origins In the 16th century Portugal had claimed one of the largest territories of the colonial empires, but lacked people to colonize it, especially workers. In the Brazilian colony, the Portuguese, like many European colonists, chose to use slavery to build their economy. In its first century, the main economic activity in the colony was the production and processing of sugar cane. Portuguese colonists created large sugarcane farms called "engenhos", literally "engines" (of economic activity), which depended on the labor of slaves. Slaves, living in inhumane conditions, were forced to work hard and often suffered physical punishment for small infractions. Although slaves often outnumbered colonists, rebellions were rare because of the lack of weapons, harsh colonial law, disagreement between slaves coming from different African cultures, and lack of knowledge about the new land and its surroundings. Capoeira originated as a product of the Angolan tradition of "Engolo" but became applied as a method of survival that was known to slaves. It was a tool with which an escaped slave, completely unequipped, could survive in the hostile, unknown land and face the hunt of the *capitães-do-mato*, the armed and mounted colonial agents who were charged with finding and capturing escapees. As Brazil became more urbanised in the 17th and 18th centuries, the nature of capoeira stayed largely the same. However, the nature of slavery differed from that in the United States. Since many slaves worked in the cities and were most of the time outside the master's supervision, they would be tasked with finding work to do (in the form of any manual labour) and in return, they would pay the master a share of the money they made. It is here where capoeira was common as it created opportunities for slaves to practice during and after work. Though tolerated until the 1800s, this quickly became criminalised due to its association with being African, as well as a threat to the current ruling regime. ### Quilombos Soon several groups of enslaved persons who liberated themselves gathered and established settlements, known as quilombos, in remote and hard-to-reach places. Some quilombos would soon increase in size, attracting more fugitive slaves, Brazilian natives and even Europeans escaping the law or Christian extremism. Some quilombos would grow to an enormous size, becoming a real independent multi-ethnic state. Everyday life in a quilombo offered freedom and the opportunity to revive traditional cultures away from colonial oppression. In this kind of multi-ethnic community, constantly threatened by Portuguese colonial troops, capoeira evolved from a survival tool to a martial art focused on war. The biggest quilombo, the Quilombo dos Palmares, consisted of many villages which lasted more than a century, resisting at least 24 small attacks and 18 colonial invasions. Portuguese soldiers sometimes said that it took more than one dragoon to capture a quilombo warrior since they would defend themselves with a *strangely moving fighting technique*. The provincial governor declared "it is harder to defeat a quilombo than the Dutch invaders." ### Urbanization In 1808, the prince and future king Dom João VI, along with the Portuguese court, escaped to Brazil from the invasion of Portugal by Napoleon's troops. Formerly exploited only for its natural resources and commodity crops, the colony finally began to develop as a nation. The Portuguese monopoly effectively came to an end when Brazilian ports opened for trade with friendly foreign nations. Those cities grew in importance and Brazilians got permission to manufacture common products once required to be imported from Portugal, such as glass. Registries of capoeira practices existed since the 18th century in Rio de Janeiro, Salvador and Recife. Due to city growth, more enlaved people were brought to cities and the increase in social life in the cities made capoeira more prominent and allowed it to be taught and practiced among more people. Because capoeira was often used against the colonial guard, the colonial government in Rio tried to suppress the martial art, and established severe physical punishments to its practice, including hunting down practitioners and killing them openly. Ample data from police records from the 1800s shows that many slaves and free colored people were detained for practicing capoeira: > "From 288 slaves that entered the Calabouço jail during the years 1857 and 1858, 80 (31%) were arrested for capoeira, and only 28 (10.7%) for running away. Out of 4,303 arrests in Rio police jail in 1862, 404 detainees—nearly 10%—had been arrested for capoeira." > > ### End of slavery and prohibition of capoeira By the end of the 19th century, slavery was on the verge of departing the Brazilian Empire. Reasons included growing quilombo militia raids in plantations that still used slaves, the refusal of the Brazilian army to deal with escapees and the growth of Brazilian abolitionist movements. The Empire tried to soften the problems with laws to restrict slavery, but finally Brazil would recognize the end of the institution on 13 May 1888, with a law called *Lei Áurea* (Golden Law), sanctioned by imperial parliament and signed by Princess Isabel. However, free former slaves now felt abandoned. Most of them had nowhere to live, no jobs and were despised by Brazilian society, which usually viewed them as lazy workers. Also, new immigration from Europe and Asia left most former slaves with no employment. Soon capoeiristas started to use their skills in unconventional ways. Criminals and warlords used capoeiristas as bodyguards and assassins. Groups of capoeiristas, known as *maltas*, raided Rio de Janeiro. The two main *maltas* were the *Nagoas*, composed of Africans, and the *Guaiamuns*, composed of native blacks, people of mixed race, poor whites, and Portuguese immigrants. The *Nagoas* and *Guaiamuns* were used, respectively, as a hitforce by the Conservative and Liberal party. In 1890, the recently proclaimed Brazilian Republic decreed the prohibition of capoeira in the whole country. Social conditions were chaotic in the Brazilian capital, and police reports identified capoeira as an advantage in fighting. After the prohibition, any citizen caught practicing capoeira, in a fight or for any other reason, would be arrested, tortured and often mutilated by the police. Cultural practices, such as the *roda de capoeira*, were conducted in remote places with sentries to warn of approaching police. ### Systematization of the art By the 1920s, capoeira repression had declined, and some physical educators and martial artists started to incorporate capoeira as either a fighting style or a gymnastic method. Professor Mario Aleixo was the first in showing a capoeira "revised, made bigger and better", which he mixed with judo, wrestling, jogo do pau and other arts to create what he called "Defesa Pessoal" ("Personal Defense"). In 1928, Anibal "Zuma" Burlamaqui published the first capoeira manual, *Ginástica nacional, Capoeiragem metodizada e regrada*, where he also introduced boxing-like rules for capoeira competition. It was greatly influential, being even taught at academies. Inezil Penha Marinho published a similar book. Felix Peligrini founded a capoeira school in the 1920s, intending to practice it scientifically, while Mestre Sinhozinho from Rio de Janeiro went further in 1930, creating a training method that divested capoeira from all its music and traditions in the process of making it a complete martial art. While those efforts helped to keep capoeira alive, they also had the consequence that the pure, non-adulterated form of capoeira became increasingly rare. At the same time, Mestre Bimba from Salvador, a traditional capoeirista with both legal and illegal fights in his records, met with his future student Cisnando Lima, a martial arts aficionado who had trained judo under Takeo Yano. Both thought traditional capoeira was losing its martial roots due to the use of its playful side to entertain tourists, so Bimba began developing the first systematic training method for capoeira, and in 1932 founded the first official capoeira school. Advised by Cisnando, Bimba called his style *Luta Regional Baiana* ("regional fight from Bahia"), because capoeira was still illegal in name. At the time, capoeira was also known as "capoeiragem", with a practitioner being known as a "capoeira", as reported in local newspapers. Gradually, the art dropped the term to be known as "capoeira" with a practitioner being called a "capoeirista". In 1937, Bimba founded the school *Centro de Cultura Física e Luta Regional*, with permission from Salvador's Secretary of Education (*Secretaria da Educação, Saúde e Assistência de Salvador*). His work was very well received, and he taught capoeira to the cultural elite of the city. By 1940, capoeira finally lost its criminal connotation and was legalized. Bimba's Regional style overshadowed traditional capoeiristas, who were still distrusted by society. This began to change in 1941 with the founding of *Centro Esportivo de Capoeira Angola* (CECA) by Mestre Pastinha. Located in the Salvador neighborhood of Pelourinho, this school attracted many traditional capoeiristas. With CECA's prominence, the traditional style came to be called *Capoeira Angola*. The name derived from *brincar de angola* ("playing Angola"), a term used in the 19th century in some places. But it was also adopted by other masters, including some who did not follow Pastinha's style. Though there was some degree of tolerance, capoeira from the beginning of the 20th century began to become a more sanitised form of dance with less martial application. This was due to the reasons mentioned above but also due to the military coup in the 1930s to 1945, as well as the military regime from 1964 to 1985. In both cases, capoeira was still seen by authorities as a dangerous pastime which was punishable; however, during the Military Regime it was tolerated as an activity for University students (which by this time is the form of capoeira that is recognised today). ### Today Capoeira is an active exporter of Brazilian culture all over the world. In the 1970s, capoeira *mestres* began to emigrate and teach it in other countries. Present in many countries on every continent, every year capoeira attracts thousands of foreign students and tourists to Brazil. Foreign capoeiristas work hard to learn Portuguese to better understand and become part of the art. Renowned capoeira *mestres* often teach abroad and establish their own schools. Capoeira presentations, normally theatrical, acrobatic and with little martiality, are common sights around the world. In 2014 the Capoeira Circle was added to UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity, the convention recognised that the "capoeira circle is a place where knowledge and skills are learned by observation and imitation" and that it "promotes social integration and the memory of resistance to historical oppression". * Capoeira at the Marcha da Consciência Negrain São Paulo, Brazil, 2009Capoeira at the Marcha da Consciência Negra in São Paulo, Brazil, 2009 * Practicing capoeira in Yoyogi Park, Japan * A capoeira demonstration at theHelsinki Samba Carnaval in FinlandA capoeira demonstration at the Helsinki Samba Carnaval in Finland Techniques ---------- Capoeira is a fast and versatile martial art that is historically focused on fighting when outnumbered or at a technological disadvantage. The style emphasizes using the lower body to kick, sweep and take down their aggressors, using the upper body to assist those movements and occasionally attack as well. It features a series of complex positions and body postures that are meant to get chained in an uninterrupted flow, to strike, dodge and move without breaking motion, conferring the style with a characteristic unpredictability and versatility. The *ginga* (literally: rocking back and forth; to swing) is the fundamental movement in capoeira, important both for attack and defense purposes. It has two main objectives. One is to keep the capoeirista in a state of constant motion, preventing them from being a still and easy target. The other, using also fakes and feints, is to mislead, fool or trick the opponent, leaving them open for an attack or a counter-attack. The attacks in the capoeira should be done when opportunity arises, and though they can be preceded by feints or pokes, they must be precise and decisive, like a direct kick to the head, face or a vital body part, or a strong takedown. Most capoeira attacks are made with the legs, like direct or swirling kicks, rasteiras (leg sweeps), tesouras or knee strikes. Elbow strikes, punches and other forms of takedowns complete the main list. The head strike is a very important counter-attack move. The defense is based on the principle of non-resistance, meaning avoiding an attack using evasive moves instead of blocking it. Avoids are called *esquivas*, which depend on the direction of the attack and intention of the defender, and can be done standing or with a hand leaning on the floor. A block should only be made when the *esquiva* is completely non-viable. This fighting strategy allows quick and unpredictable counterattacks, the ability to focus on more than one adversary and to face empty-handed an armed adversary. A series of rolls and acrobatics (like the cartwheels called aú or the transitional position called negativa) allows the capoeirista to quickly overcome a takedown or a loss of balance, and to position themselves around the aggressor to lay up for an attack. It is this combination of attacks, defense and mobility that gives capoeira its perceived "fluidity" and choreography-like style. Weapons ------- Through most of its history in Brazil, capoeira commonly featured weapons and weapon training, given its street fighting nature. Capoeiristas usually carried knives and bladed weapons with them, and the berimbau could be used to conceal those inside, or even to turn itself into a weapon by attaching a blade to its tip. The knife or razor was used in street *rodas* and/or against openly hostile opponents, and would be drawn quickly to stab or slash. Other hiding places for the weapons included hats and umbrellas. Mestre Bimba included in his teachings a *curso de especialização* or "specialization course", in which the pupils would be taught defenses against knives and guns, as well as the usage of knife, straight razor, scythe, club, *chanfolo* (double-edged dagger), *facão* (facón or machete) and *tira-teima* (cane sword). Upon graduating, pupils were given a red scarf which marked their specialty. This course was scarcely used, and was ceased after some time. A more common custom practised by Bimba and his students, however, was furtively handing a weapon to a player before a *jogo* for them to use it to attack their opponent on Bimba's sign, with the other player's duty being to disarm them. This weapon training is almost completely absent in current capoeira teachings, but some groups still practice the use of razors for ceremonial usage in the *rodas*. As a game --------- Playing capoeira is both a game and a method of practicing the application of capoeira movements in simulated combat. It can be played anywhere, but it's usually done in a *roda*. During the game most capoeira moves are used, but capoeiristas usually avoid using punches or elbow strikes unless it's a very aggressive game. The game usually does not focus on knocking down or destroying the opponent, rather it emphasizes skill. Capoeiristas often prefer to rely on a takedown like a *rasteira*, then allowing the opponent to recover and get back into the game. It is also very common to slow down a kick inches before hitting the target, so a capoeirista can enforce superiority without the need of injuring the opponent. If an opponent clearly cannot dodge an attack, there is no reason to complete it. However, between two high-skilled capoeiristas, the game can get much more aggressive and dangerous. Capoeiristas tend to avoid showing this kind of game in presentations or to the general public. ### Roda The *roda* (pronounced [ˈʁodɐ]) is a circle formed by capoeiristas and capoeira musical instruments, where every participant sings the typical songs and claps their hands following the music. Two *capoeiristas* enter the *roda* and play the game according to the style required by the musical rhythm. The game finishes when one of the musicians holding a berimbau determines it, when one of the *capoeiristas* decides to leave or call the end of the game, or when another capoeirista interrupts the game to start playing, either with one of the current players or with another *capoeirista*. In a *roda* every cultural aspect of capoeira is present, not only the martial side. Aerial acrobatics are common in a presentation *roda*, while not seen as often in a more serious one. Takedowns, on the other hand, are common in a serious *roda* but rarely seen in presentations. #### Batizado The batizado (lit. baptism) is a ceremonial *roda* where new students will get recognized as capoeiristas and earn their first graduation. Also more experienced students may go up in rank, depending on their skills and capoeira culture. In Mestre Bimba's Capoeira Regional, batizado was the first time a new student would play capoeira following the sound of the berimbau. Students enter the *roda* against a high-ranked capoeirista (such as a teacher or master) and normally the game ends with the student being taken down. In some cases the more experienced capoeirista can judge the takedown unnecessary. Following the batizado the new graduation, generally in the form of a cord, is given. #### Apelido Traditionally, the batizado is the moment when the new practitioner gets or formalizes their *apelido* (nickname). This tradition was created back when capoeira practice was considered a crime. To avoid having problems with the law, capoeiristas would present themselves in the capoeira community only by their nicknames. So if capoeiristas are captured by the police, they would be unable to identify their fellow capoeiristas, even when tortured. ### Chamada *Chamada* means 'call' and can happen at any time during a *roda* where the rhythm *angola* is being played. It happens when one player, usually the more advanced one, calls their opponent to a dance-like ritual. The opponent then approaches the caller and meets them to walk side by side. After it both resume normal play. While it may seem like a break time or a dance, the *chamada* is actually both a trap and a test, as the caller is just watching to see if the opponent will let his guard down so she can perform a takedown or a strike. It is a critical situation, because both players are vulnerable due to the close proximity and potential for a surprise attack. It's also a tool for experienced practitioners and masters of the art to test a student's awareness and demonstrate when the student left herself open to attack. The use of the *chamada* can result in a highly developed sense of awareness and helps practitioners learn the subtleties of anticipating another person's hidden intentions. The *chamada* can be very simple, consisting solely of the basic elements, or the ritual can be quite elaborate including a competitive dialogue of trickery, or even theatric embellishments. ### Volta ao mundo **Volta ao mundo** means *around the world*. The *volta ao mundo* takes place after an exchange of movements has reached a conclusion, or after there has been a disruption in the harmony of the game. In either of these situations, one player will begin walking around the perimeter of the circle counter-clockwise, and the other player will join the *volta ao mundo* in the opposite part of the roda, before returning to the normal game. ### Malandragem and mandinga *Malandragem* is a word that comes from *malandro*, which means a person who possesses cunning as well as *malícia* (malice). This, however, is misleading as the meaning of *malícia* in capoeira is the capacity to understand someone's intentions. *Malícia* means making use of this understanding to misdirect someone as to your next move. In the spirit of capoeira, this is done good-naturedly, contrary to what the word may suggest. Men who used street smarts to make a living were called *malandros*. In capoeira, *malandragem* is the ability to quickly understand an opponent's aggressive intentions, and during a fight or a game, fool, trick and deceive him. Similarly capoeiristas use the concept of *mandinga*. Mandinga can be translated "magic" or "spell", but in capoeira a *mandingueiro* is a clever fighter, able to trick the opponent. Mandinga is a tricky and strategic quality of the game, and even a certain esthetic, where the game is expressive and at times theatrical, particularly in the Angola style. The roots of the term *mandingueiro* would be a person who had the magic ability to avoid harm due to protection from the Orixás. Alternately Mandinga is a way of saying Mandinka (as in the Mandinka Nation) who are known as "musical hunters". Which directly ties into the term "vadiação". Vadiação is the musical wanderer (with flute in hand), traveler, vagabond. Music ----- Music is integral to capoeira. It sets the tempo and style of game that is to be played within the roda. Typically the music is formed by instruments and singing. Rhythms (toques), controlled by a typical instrument called berimbau, differ from very slow to very fast, depending on the style of the roda. ### Instruments Capoeira instruments are disposed in a row called bateria. It is traditionally formed by three berimbaus, two pandeiros, three atabaques, one agogô and one ganzá, but this format may vary depending on the capoeira group's traditions or the roda style. The berimbau is the leading instrument, determining the tempo and style of the music and game played. Two low-pitch berimbaus (called berra-boi and médio) form the base and a high-pitch berimbau (called viola) makes variations and improvisations. The other instruments must follow the berimbau's rhythm, free to vary and improvise a little, depending upon the capoeira group's musical style. As the capoeiristas change their playing style significantly following the toque of the berimbau, which sets the game's speed, style and aggressiveness, it is truly the music that drives a capoeira game. ### Songs Many of the songs are sung in a call and response format while others are in the form of a narrative. Capoeiristas sing about a wide variety of subjects. Some songs are about history or stories of famous capoeiristas. Other songs attempt to inspire players to play better. Some songs are about what is going on within the roda. Sometimes the songs are about life or love lost. Others have lighthearted and playful lyrics. There are four basic kinds of songs in capoeira, the *Ladaínha*, *Chula*, *Corrido* and *Quadra*. The **Ladaínha** is a narrative solo sung only at the beginning of a roda, often by a *mestre* (master) or most respected capoeirista present. The solo is followed by a *louvação*, a call and response pattern that usually thanks God and one's master, among other things. Each call is usually repeated word-for-word by the responders. The **Chula** is a song where the singer part is much bigger than the chorus response, usually eight singer verses for one chorus response, but the proportion may vary. The **Corrido** is a song where the singer part and the chorus response are equal, normally two verses by two responses. Finally, the **Quadra** is a song where the same verse is repeated four times, either three singer verses followed by one chorus response, or one verse and one response. Capoeira songs can talk about virtually anything, being it about a historical fact, a famous capoeirista, trivial life facts, hidden messages for players, anything. Improvisation is very important also, while singing a song the main singer can change the music's lyrics, telling something that's happening in or outside the roda. Styles ------ Determining styles in capoeira is difficult, since there was never a unity in the original capoeira, or a teaching method before the decade of 1920. However, a division between two styles and a sub-style is widely accepted. ### Capoeira Angola *Capoeira de Angola* refers to every *capoeira* that maintains traditions from before the creation of the *regional* style. Existing in many parts of Brazil since colonial times, most notably in the cities of Rio de Janeiro, Salvador and Recife, it's impossible to tell where and when Capoeira Angola began taking its present form. The name *Angola* starts as early as the beginning of slavery in Brazil, when Africans, taken to Luanda to be shipped to the Americas, were called in Brazil "black people from Angola", regardless of their nationality. In some places of Brazil people would refer to capoeira as "playing Angola" and, according to Mestre Noronha, the capoeira school *Centro de Capoeira Angola Conceição da Praia*, created in Bahia, already used the name *Capoeira Angola* illegally in the beginning of the 1920 decade. The name *Angola* was finally immortalized by Mestre Pastinha at 23 February 1941, when he opened the *Centro Esportivo de capoeira Angola* (CECA). Pastinha preferred the ludic aspects of the game rather than the martial side, and was much respected by recognized capoeira masters. Soon many other masters would adopt the name *Angola*, even those who would not follow Pastinha's style. The ideal of *Capoeira Angola* is to maintain capoeira as close to its roots as possible. Characterized by being strategic, with sneaking movements executed standing or near the floor depending on the situation to face, it values the traditions of *malícia*, *malandragem* and unpredictability of the original capoeira. Typical music *bateria* formation in a *roda* of *Capoeira Angola* is three *berimbaus*, two *pandeiros*, one *atabaque*, one *agogô* and one *ganzuá*. ### Capoeira Regional Capoeira Regional began to take form in the 1920s, when Mestre Bimba met his future student, José Cisnando Lima. Both believed that capoeira was losing its martial side and concluded there was a need to re-strengthen and structure it. Bimba created his *sequências de ensino* (teaching combinations) and created capoeira's first teaching method. Advised by Cisnando, Bimba decided to call his style *Luta Regional Baiana*, as capoeira was still illegal at that time. The base of capoeira regional is the original capoeira without many of the aspects that were impractical in a real fight, with less subterfuge and more objectivity. Training focuses mainly on attack, dodging and counter-attack, giving high importance to precision and discipline. Bimba also added a few moves from other arts, notably the *batuque*, an old street fight game invented by his father. Use of jumps or aerial acrobatics stay to a minimum, since one of its foundations is always keeping at least one hand or foot firmly attached to the ground. *Capoeira Regional* also introduced the first ranking method in capoeira. *Regional* had three levels: *calouro* (freshman), *formado* (graduated) and *formado especializado* (specialist). After 1964, when a student completed a course, a special celebration ceremony occurred, ending with the teacher tying a silk scarf around the capoeirista's neck. The traditions of *roda* and capoeira game were kept, being used to put into use what was learned during training. The disposition of musical instruments, however, was changed, being made by a single berimbau and two pandeiros. The *Luta Regional Baiana* soon became popular, finally changing capoeira's bad image. Mestre Bimba made many presentations of his new style, but the best known was the one made at 1953 to Brazilian president Getúlio Vargas, where the president would say: "*A Capoeira é o único esporte verdadeiramente nacional*" (Capoeira is the only truly national sport). ### Capoeira Contemporânea In the 1970s a mixed style began to take form, with practitioners taking the aspects they considered more important from both Regional and Angola. Notably more acrobatic, this sub-style is seen by some as the natural evolution of capoeira, by others as adulteration or even misinterpretation of capoeira. Nowadays the label Contemporânea applies to any capoeira group who don't follow Regional or Angola styles, even the ones who mix capoeira with other martial arts. Some notable groups whose style cannot be described as either Angola or Regional but rather "a style of their own", include Senzala de Santos, Cordão de Ouro and Abada. In the case of Cordão de Ouro, the style may be described as "Miudinho", a low and fast-paced game, while in Senzala de Santos the style may described simply as "Senzala de Santos", an elegant, playful combination of Angola and Regional. Capoeira Abada may be described as a more aggressive, less dance-influenced style of capoeira. Ranks ----- Because of its origin, capoeira never had unity or a general agreement. Ranking or graduating system follows the same path, as there never existed a ranking system accepted by most of the masters. That means graduation style varies depending on the group's traditions. The most common modern system uses colored ropes, called *corda* or *cordão*, tied around the waist. Some masters use different systems, or even no system at all. In a substantial number of groups (mainly of the Angola school) there is no visible ranking system. There can still be several ranks: student, treinel, professor, contra-mestre and mestre, but often no cordas (belts). There are many entities (leagues, federations and association) with their own graduation system. The most usual is the system of the *Confederação Brasileira de Capoeira* (Brazilian Capoeira Confederation), which adopts ropes using the colors of the Brazilian flag, green, yellow, blue and white. However, the *Confederação Brasileira de Capoeira* is not widely accepted as the capoeira's main representative. ### Brazilian Capoeira Confederation system Source: #### Children's system (3 to 14 years) * 1st stage: *Iniciante* (Beginner) - No color * 2nd stage: *Batizado* (Baptized) - Green/Light Grey * 3rd stage: *Graduado* (Graduated) - Yellow/Light Grey * 4th stage: *Adaptado* (Adept) - Blue/Light Grey * 5th stage: *Intermediário* (Intermediary) - Green/YellowLight Grey * 6th stage: *Avançado* (Advanced) - Green/Blue/Light Grey * 7th stage: *Estagiário* (Trainee) - Yellow/Green/Blue/Light Grey #### Adult system (above 15) * 8th stage: *Iniciante* (Beginner) - No color * 9th stage: *Batizado* (Baptized) - Green * 10th stage: *Graduado* (Graduated) - Yellow * 11th stage: *Adaptado* (Adept) - Blue * 12th stage: *Intermediário* (Intermediary) - Green * 13th stage: *Avançado* (Advanced) - Green/Blue * 14th stage: *Estagiário* (Trainee) - Yellow/Blue #### Instructors' system * 15th stage: *Formado* (Graduated) - Yellow/Green/Blue * 16th stage: *Monitor* (Monitor) - White/Green * 17th stage: *Instrutor* (Instructor) - White/Yellow * 18th stage: *Contramestre* (Foreman) - White/Blue * 19th stage: *Mestre* (Master) - White Related activities ------------------ Even though those activities are strongly associated with capoeira, they have different meanings and origins. ### Samba de roda Performed by many capoeira groups, samba de roda is a traditional Brazilian dance and musical form that has been associated with capoeira for many decades. The orchestra is composed by *pandeiro*, *atabaque*, *berimbau-viola* (high pitch berimbau), chocalho, accompanied by singing and clapping. *Samba de roda* is considered one of the primitive forms of modern Samba. ### Maculelê Originally the *Maculelê* is believed to have been an indigenous armed fighting style, using two sticks or a machete. Nowadays it's a folkloric dance practiced with heavy Brazilian percussion. Many capoeira groups include *Maculelê* in their presentations. ### Puxada de rede *Puxada de Rede* is a Brazilian folkloric theatrical play, seen in many capoeira performances. It is based on a traditional Brazilian legend involving the loss of a fisherman in a seafaring accident. Sports development ------------------ Capoeira is currently being used as a tool in sports development (the use of sport to create positive social change) to promote psychosocial wellbeing in various youth projects around the world. Capoeira4Refugees is a UK-based NGO working with youth in conflict zones in the Middle East. Capoeira for Peace is a project based in the Democratic Republic of Congo. The Nukanti Foundation works with street children in Colombia. Capoeira Maculelê has social projects promoting cultural arts for wellness in Colombia, Angola, Brazil, Argentina, USA among others. MMA --- Many Brazilian mixed martial arts fighters have a capoeira background, either training often or having tried it before. Some of them include Anderson Silva, who is a yellow belt, trained in capoeira at a young age, then again when he was a UFC fighter; Thiago Santos, an active UFC middleweight contender who trained in capoeira for 8 years; Former UFC Heavyweight Champion Júnior dos Santos, who trained in capoeira as a child and incorporates its kicking techniques and movement into his stand up; Marcus "Lelo" Aurélio, who is famous for knocking a fighter out with a Meia-lua de Compasso kick, and UFC veterans José Aldo and Andre Gusmão also use capoeira as their base. Notable practitioners --------------------- * Mestre Bimba * Conor McGregor * Mestre Pastinha * Mestre Sinhozinho * Mestre João Grande * Mestre João Pereira dos Santos * Mestre Norival Moreira de Oliveira * Mestre Cobra Mansa * Junior dos Santos * Wesley Snipes * Mark Dacascos * Anderson Silva * Lateef Crowder dos Santos * Jose Aldo See also -------- * Juego de maní * Capoeira in popular culture * Engolo Further reading --------------- * Almeida, Bira "Mestre Acordeon" (1986). *Capoeira: A Brazilian Art Form*. Berkeley: North Atlantic Books. ISBN 978-0-938190-30-1. * Downey, Greg (2005). *Learning Capoeira: Lessons in cunning from an Brazilian art*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195176988. * Mason, Paul H. (2013). "Intracultural and Intercultural Dynamics of Capoeira" (PDF). *Global Ethnographic*. **1**: 1–8. * Merrell, Floyd (2005). *Capoeira and Candomblé: Conformity and Resistance in Brazil*. Princeton: Markus Wiener. ISBN 978-1-55876-349-4. * Stephens, Neil; Delamont, Sara (2006). "Balancing the *Berimbau* Embodied Ethnographic Understanding". *Qualitative Inquiry*. **12** (2): 316–339. doi:10.1177/1077800405284370. S2CID 143105472.

Capoeira

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capoeira

**London** (/ˈlʌndən/ ()) is the capital and largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a 50-mile (80 km) estuary down to the North Sea, and has been a major settlement for two millennia. The City of London, its ancient core and financial centre, was founded by the Romans as *Londinium* and retains its medieval boundaries. The City of Westminster, to the west of the City of London, has for centuries hosted the national government and parliament. Since the 19th century, the name "London" has also referred to the metropolis around this core, historically split between the counties of Middlesex, Essex, Surrey, Kent, and Hertfordshire, which since 1965 has largely comprised Greater London, which is governed by 33 local authorities and the Greater London Authority. As one of the world's major global cities, London exerts a strong influence on its arts, entertainment, fashion, commerce and finance, education, health care, media, science and technology, tourism, and transport and communications. Its GDP (€801.66 billion in 2017) makes it the largest urban economy in Europe, and it is one of the major financial centres in the world. With Europe's largest concentration of higher education institutions, it is home to some of the highest-ranked academic institutions in the world—Imperial College London in natural and applied sciences, the London School of Economics in social sciences, and the comprehensive University College London. London is the most visited city in Europe and has the busiest city airport system in the world. The London Underground is the oldest rapid transit system in the world. London's diverse cultures encompass over 300 languages. The mid-2018 population of Greater London of about 9 million made it Europe's third-most populous city, accounting for 13.4% of the population of the United Kingdom and over 16% of the population of England. The Greater London Built-up Area is the fourth-most populous in Europe with about 9.8 million inhabitants at the 2011 census. The London metropolitan area is the third-most populous in Europe with about 14 million inhabitants in 2016, granting London the status of a megacity. London has four World Heritage Sites: the Tower of London; Kew Gardens; the combined Palace of Westminster, Westminster Abbey, and St Margaret's Church; and also the historic settlement in Greenwich, where the Royal Observatory, Greenwich defines the prime meridian (0° longitude) and Greenwich Mean Time. Other landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Paul's Cathedral, Tower Bridge, and Trafalgar Square. London has many museums, galleries, libraries and cultural venues, including the British Museum, National Gallery, Natural History Museum, Tate Modern, British Library, and numerous West End theatres. Important sporting events held in London include the FA Cup Final (held annually at Wembley Stadium), Wimbledon Tennis Championships and the London Marathon. In 2012, London became the first city to host three Summer Olympic Games. Toponymy -------- *London* is an ancient name, already attested in the first century AD, usually in the Latinised form *Londinium*; for example, handwritten Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70–80 include the word *Londinio* ('in London'). Over the years, the name has attracted many mythically based explanations. The earliest attested appears in Geoffrey of Monmouth's *Historia Regum Britanniae*, written around 1136. Modern scientific analyses of the name must account for the origins of the different forms found in early sources: Latin (usually *Londinium*), Old English (usually *Lunden*), and Welsh (usually *Llundein*), with reference to the known developments over time of sounds in those different languages. It is agreed that the name came into these languages from Common Brythonic; recent work tends to reconstruct the lost Celtic form of the name as \**Londonjon* or something similar. This was adapted into Latin as *Londinium* and borrowed into Old English. The toponymy of the Common Brythonic form is debated. Prominent was Richard Coates' 1998 argument that it derived from pre-Celtic Old European \**(p)lowonida*, meaning "river too wide to ford". Coates suggested this was a name given to the part of the River Thames that flows through London, from which the settlement gained the Celtic form of its name, \**Lowonidonjon*. However, most work has accepted a plain Celtic origin. Recent studies favour an explanation of a Celtic derivative of a Proto-Indo-European root \**lendh-* ('sink, cause to sink'), combined with the Celtic suffix \**-injo-* or \**-onjo-* (used to form place-names). Peter Schrijver has specifically suggested that the name originally meant "place that floods (periodically, tidally)". Until 1889, the name "London" applied officially only to the City of London, but since then it has also referred to the County of London and to Greater London. In writing, "London" is occasionally contracted to "LDN". Such usage originated in SMS language and often appears in a social media user profile, suffixing an alias or handle. History ------- ### Prehistory In 1993, remains of a Bronze Age bridge were found on the south foreshore upstream from Vauxhall Bridge. This either crossed the Thames or reached a now-lost island in it. Two of the timbers were radiocarbon dated to 1750–1285 BCE. In 2010, foundations of a large timber structure, dated to 4800–4500 BCE, were found on the Thames's south foreshore downstream from Vauxhall Bridge. The function of the mesolithic structure is unclear. Both structures are on the south bank of the Thames, where the now-underground River Effra flows into the Thames. ### Roman London Despite the evidence of scattered Brythonic settlements in the area, the first major settlement was founded by the Romans around 47 AD, about four years after their invasion of 43 AD. This only lasted until about 61 AD, when the Iceni tribe led by Queen Boudica stormed it and burnt it to the ground. The next planned incarnation of Londinium prospered, superseding Colchester as the principal city of the Roman province of Britannia in 100. At its height in the 2nd century, Roman London had a population of about 60,000. ### Anglo-Saxon and Viking-period London With the early 5th-century collapse of Roman rule, the walled city of Londinium was effectively abandoned, although Roman civilisation continued around St Martin-in-the-Fields until about 450. From about 500, an Anglo-Saxon settlement known as Lundenwic developed slightly west of the old Roman city. By about 680 the city had become a major port again, but there is little evidence of large-scale production. From the 820s repeated Viking assaults brought decline. Three are recorded; those in 851 and 886 succeeded, while the last, in 994, was rebuffed. The Vikings applied Danelaw over much of eastern and northern England, its boundary running roughly from London to Chester as an area of political and geographical control imposed by the Viking incursions formally agreed by the Danish warlord, Guthrum and the West Saxon king Alfred the Great in 886. The *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle* records that Alfred "refounded" London in 886. Archaeological research shows this involved abandonment of Lundenwic and a revival of life and trade within the old Roman walls. London then grew slowly until a dramatic increase in about 950. By the 11th century, London was clearly the largest town in England. Westminster Abbey, rebuilt in Romanesque style by King Edward the Confessor, was one of the grandest churches in Europe. Winchester had been the capital of Anglo-Saxon England, but from this time London became the main forum for foreign traders and the base for defence in time of war. In the view of Frank Stenton: "It had the resources, and it was rapidly developing the dignity and the political self-consciousness appropriate to a national capital." ### Middle Ages After winning the Battle of Hastings, William, Duke of Normandy was crowned King of England in newly completed Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day 1066. William built the Tower of London, the first of many such in England rebuilt in stone in the south-eastern corner of the city, to intimidate the inhabitants. In 1097, William II began building Westminster Hall, close by the abbey of the same name. It became the basis of a new Palace of Westminster. In the 12th century, the institutions of central government, which had hitherto followed the royal English court around the country, grew in size and sophistication and became increasingly fixed, for most purposes at Westminster, although the royal treasury, having been moved from Winchester, came to rest in the Tower. While the City of Westminster developed into a true governmental capital, its distinct neighbour, the City of London, remained England's largest city and principal commercial centre and flourished under its own unique administration, the Corporation of London. In 1100, its population was some 18,000; by 1300 it had grown to nearly 100,000. Disaster struck in the form of the Black Death in the mid-14th century, when London lost nearly a third of its population. London was the focus of the Peasants' Revolt in 1381. London was also a centre of England's Jewish population before their expulsion by Edward I in 1290. Violence against Jews occurred in 1190, when it was rumoured that the new king had ordered their massacre after they had presented themselves at his coronation. In 1264 during the Second Barons' War, Simon de Montfort's rebels killed 500 Jews while attempting to seize records of debts. ### Early modern During the Tudor period the Reformation produced a gradual shift to Protestantism. Much of London property passed from church to private ownership, which accelerated trade and business in the city. In 1475, the Hanseatic League set up a main trading base (*kontor*) of England in London, called the *Stalhof* or *Steelyard*. It remained until 1853, when the Hanseatic cities of Lübeck, Bremen and Hamburg sold the property to South Eastern Railway. Woollen cloth was shipped undyed and undressed from 14th/15th century London to the nearby shores of the Low Countries, where it was considered indispensable. Yet English maritime enterprise hardly reached beyond the seas of north-west Europe. The commercial route to Italy and the Mediterranean was normally through Antwerp and over the Alps; any ships passing through the Strait of Gibraltar to or from England were likely to be Italian or Ragusan. The reopening of the Netherlands to English shipping in January 1565 spurred a burst of commercial activity. The Royal Exchange was founded. Mercantilism grew and monopoly traders such as the East India Company were founded as trade expanded to the New World. London became the main North Sea port, with migrants arriving from England and abroad. The population rose from about 50,000 in 1530 to about 225,000 in 1605. In the 16th century, William Shakespeare and his contemporaries lived in London during English Renaissance theatre. Shakespeare's Globe Theatre was constructed in 1599 in Southwark. Stage performances came to a halt in London when Puritan authorities shut down the theatres in the 1640s and 1650s. The ban on theatre was lifted during the Restoration in 1660, and London's oldest operating theatre, Drury Lane, opened in 1663 in what is now the West End theatre district. By the end of the Tudor period in 1603, London was still compact. There was an assassination attempt on James I in Westminster, in the Gunpowder Plot of 5 November 1605. In 1637, the government of Charles I attempted to reform administration in the London area. This called for the Corporation of the city to extend its jurisdiction and administration over expanding areas around the city. Fearing an attempt by the Crown to diminish the Liberties of London, coupled with a lack of interest in administering these additional areas or concern by city guilds of having to share power, caused the Corporation's "The Great Refusal", a decision which largely continues to account for the unique governmental status of the City. In the English Civil War the majority of Londoners supported the Parliamentary cause. After an initial advance by the Royalists in 1642, culminating in the battles of Brentford and Turnham Green, London was surrounded by a defensive perimeter wall known as the Lines of Communication. The lines were built by up to 20,000 people, and were completed in under two months. The fortifications failed their only test when the New Model Army entered London in 1647, and they were levelled by Parliament the same year. London was plagued by disease in the early 17th century, culminating in the Great Plague of 1665–1666, which killed up to 100,000 people, or a fifth of the population. The Great Fire of London broke out in 1666 in Pudding Lane in the city and quickly swept through the wooden buildings. Rebuilding took over ten years and was supervised by polymath Robert Hooke as surveyor for the City of London. In 1708 Christopher Wren's masterpiece, St Paul's Cathedral, was completed. During the Georgian era, new districts such as Mayfair were formed in the west; new bridges over the Thames encouraged development in South London. In the east, the Port of London expanded downstream. London's development as an international financial centre matured for much of the 18th century. In 1762, George III acquired Buckingham House, which was enlarged over the next 75 years. During the 18th century, London was said to be dogged by crime, and the Bow Street Runners were established in 1750 as a professional police force. Epidemics during the 1720s and 30s saw most children born in the city die before reaching their fifth birthday. Coffee-houses became a popular place to debate ideas, as growing literacy and development of the printing press made news widely available, with Fleet Street becoming the centre of the British press. The invasion of Amsterdam by Napoleonic armies led many financiers to relocate to London and the first London international issue was arranged in 1817. Around the same time, the Royal Navy became the world's leading war fleet, acting as a major deterrent to potential economic adversaries. The repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846 was specifically aimed at weakening Dutch economic power. London then overtook Amsterdam as the leading international financial centre. According to Samuel Johnson: > You find no man, at all intellectual, who is willing to leave London. No, Sir, when a man is tired of London, he is tired of life; for there is in London all that life can afford. > > — Samuel Johnson, 1777 ### Late modern and contemporary With the onset of the Industrial Revolution in Britain, an unprecedented growth in urbanisation took place, and the number of High Streets (the primary street for retail in Britain) rapidly grew. London was the world's largest city from about 1831 to 1925, with a population density of 802 per acre (325 per hectare). In addition to the growing number of stores selling goods such as Harding, Howell & Co. on Pall Mall—a contender for the first department store—the streets had scores of street sellers loudly advertising their goods and services. London's overcrowded conditions led to cholera epidemics, claiming 14,000 lives in 1848, and 6,000 in 1866. Rising traffic congestion led to the creation of the world's first local urban rail network. The Metropolitan Board of Works oversaw infrastructure expansion in the capital and some surrounding counties; it was abolished in 1889 when the London County Council was created out of county areas surrounding the capital. From the early years of the 20th century onwards, teashops were found on High Streets across London and the rest of Britain, with Lyons, who opened the first of their chain of teashops in Piccadilly in 1894, leading the way. The tearooms, such as the Criterion in Piccadilly, became a popular meeting place for women from the suffrage movement. The city was the target of many attacks during the suffragette bombing and arson campaign, between 1912 and 1914, which saw historic landmarks such as Westminster Abbey and St Paul's Cathedral bombed. British volunteer recruits in London, August 1914, during World War IA bombed-out London street during the Blitz, World War II London was bombed by the Germans in the First World War, and during the Second World War, the Blitz and other bombings by the German *Luftwaffe* killed over 30,000 Londoners, destroying large tracts of housing and other buildings across the city. The tomb of the Unknown Warrior, an unidentified member of the British armed forces killed during the First World War, was buried in Westminster Abbey on 11 November 1920. The Cenotaph, located in Whitehall, was unveiled on the same day, and is the focal point for the National Service of Remembrance held annually on Remembrance Sunday, the closest Sunday to 11 November. The 1948 Summer Olympics were held at the original Wembley Stadium, while London was still recovering from the war. From the 1940s, London became home to many immigrants, primarily from Commonwealth countries such as Jamaica, India, Bangladesh and Pakistan, making London one of the most diverse cities in the world. In 1951, the Festival of Britain was held on the South Bank. The Great Smog of 1952 led to the Clean Air Act 1956, which ended the "pea soup fogs" for which London had been notorious, and had earned it the nickname the "Big Smoke". Starting mainly in the mid-1960s, London became a centre for worldwide youth culture, exemplified by the Swinging London sub-culture associated with the King's Road, Chelsea and Carnaby Street. The role of trendsetter revived in the punk era. In 1965 London's political boundaries were expanded in response to the growth of the urban area and a new Greater London Council was created. During The Troubles in Northern Ireland, London was hit from 1973 by bomb attacks by the Provisional Irish Republican Army. These attacks lasted for two decades, starting with the Old Bailey bombing. Racial inequality was highlighted by the 1981 Brixton riot. Greater London's population declined in the decades after the Second World War, from an estimated peak of 8.6 million in 1939 to around 6.8 million in the 1980s. The principal ports for London moved downstream to Felixstowe and Tilbury, with the London Docklands area becoming a focus for regeneration, including the Canary Wharf development. This was born out of London's increasing role as an international financial centre in the 1980s. Located about 2 miles (3.2 km) east of central London, the Thames Barrier was completed in the 1980s to protect London against tidal surges from the North Sea. The Greater London Council was abolished in 1986, leaving London with no central administration until 2000 and the creation of the Greater London Authority. To mark the 21st century, the Millennium Dome, London Eye and Millennium Bridge were constructed. On 6 July 2005 London was awarded the 2012 Summer Olympics, as the first city to stage the Olympic Games three times. On 7 July 2005, three London Underground trains and a double-decker bus were bombed in a series of terrorist attacks. In 2008, *Time* named London alongside New York City and Hong Kong as Nylonkong, hailing them as the world's three most influential global cities. In January 2015, Greater London's population was estimated to be 8.63 million, its highest since 1939. During the Brexit referendum in 2016, the UK as a whole decided to leave the European Union, but most London constituencies voted for remaining. Administration -------------- ### Local government The administration of London is formed of two tiers: a citywide, strategic tier and a local tier. Citywide administration is coordinated by the Greater London Authority (GLA), while local administration is carried out by 33 smaller authorities. The GLA consists of two elected components: the mayor of London, who has executive powers, and the London Assembly, which scrutinises the mayor's decisions and can accept or reject the mayor's budget proposals each year. The GLA has responsibility for the majority of London's transport system through its functional arm Transport for London (TfL), it is responsible for overseeing the city's police and fire services, and also for setting a strategic vision for London on a range of issues. The headquarters of the GLA is City Hall, Newham. The mayor since 2016 has been Sadiq Khan, the first Muslim mayor of a major Western capital. The mayor's statutory planning strategy is published as the London Plan, which was most recently revised in 2011. The local authorities are the councils of the 32 London boroughs and the City of London Corporation. They are responsible for most local services, such as local planning, schools, libraries, leisure and recreation, social services, local roads and refuse collection. Certain functions, such as waste management, are provided through joint arrangements. In 2009–2010 the combined revenue expenditure by London councils and the GLA amounted to just over £22 billion (£14.7 billion for the boroughs and £7.4 billion for the GLA). The London Fire Brigade is the statutory fire and rescue service for Greater London, run by the London Fire and Emergency Planning Authority. It is the third largest fire service in the world. National Health Service ambulance services are provided by the London Ambulance Service (LAS) NHS Trust, the largest free-at-the-point-of-use emergency ambulance service in the world. The London Air Ambulance charity operates in conjunction with the LAS where required. Her Majesty's Coastguard and the Royal National Lifeboat Institution operate on the River Thames, which is under the jurisdiction of the Port of London Authority from Teddington Lock to the sea. ### National government London is the seat of the Government of the United Kingdom. Many government departments, as well as the prime minister's residence at 10 Downing Street, are based close to the Palace of Westminster, particularly along Whitehall. There are 73 members of Parliament (MPs) from London, elected from local parliamentary constituencies in the national Parliament. As of December 2019[update], 49 are from the Labour Party, 21 are Conservatives, and three are Liberal Democrats. The ministerial post of minister for London was created in 1994. Since February 2020, Paul Scully is the minister for London. ### Policing and crime Policing in Greater London, with the exception of the City of London, is provided by the Metropolitan Police ("The Met"), overseen by the mayor through the Mayor's Office for Policing and Crime (MOPAC). The Met is also referred to as Scotland Yard after the location of its original headquarters in a road called Great Scotland Yard in Whitehall. The City of London has its own police force – the City of London Police. First worn by Met police officers in 1863, the custodian helmet has been called a "cultural icon" and a "symbol of British law enforcement". Introduced by the Met in 1929, the blue police telephone box (basis for the TARDIS in *Doctor Who*) was once a common sight throughout London and regional cities in the UK. Police forces in London and the rest of the UK typically use the battenburg pattern (resembling a Battenberg cake) of yellow and blue retroreflective chequer-squares for their vehicles. The British Transport Police are responsible for police services on National Rail, London Underground, Docklands Light Railway and Tramlink services. The Ministry of Defence Police is a special police force in London, which does not generally become involved with policing the general public. The UK’s domestic counter-intelligence service (MI5) is headquartered in Thames House in the south western part of central London on the north bank of the River Thames, and the foreign intelligence service (MI6) is headquartered less than half a mile (800 m) south in the SIS Building on the south bank of the Thames. Crime rates vary widely across different areas of London. Crime figures are made available nationally at Local Authority and Ward level. In 2015, there were 118 homicides, a 25.5% increase over 2014. The Metropolitan Police have made detailed crime figures, broken down by category at borough and ward level, available on their website since 2000. Recorded crime has been rising in London, notably violent crime and murder by stabbing and other means have risen. There were 50 murders from the start of 2018 to mid April 2018. Funding cuts to police in London are likely to have contributed to this, though other factors are also involved. However, the murder rate in London is much lower than other major cities around the world. Geography --------- ### Scope London, also known as Greater London, is one of nine regions of England and the top subdivision covering most of the city's metropolis. The City of London at its core once comprised the whole settlement, but as its urban area grew, the Corporation of London resisted attempts to amalgamate the City with its suburbs, causing "London" to be defined several ways. Forty per cent of Greater London is covered by the London post town, in which 'LONDON' forms part of postal addresses. The London telephone area code (020) covers a larger area, similar in size to Greater London, although some outer districts are excluded and some just outside included. The Greater London boundary has been aligned to the M25 motorway in places. Further urban expansion is now prevented by the Metropolitan Green Belt, although the built-up area extends beyond the boundary in places, producing a separately defined Greater London Urban Area. Beyond this is the vast London commuter belt. Greater London is split for some purposes into Inner London and Outer London, and by the River Thames into North and South, with an informal central London area. The coordinates of the nominal centre of London, traditionally the original Eleanor Cross at Charing Cross near the junction of Trafalgar Square and Whitehall, are about 51°30′26″N 00°07′39″W / 51.50722°N 0.12750°W / 51.50722; -0.12750. Based on the centre of gravity of its map, the geographical centre of London is in the London Borough of Lambeth, 0.1 miles (150 m) to the north-east of Lambeth North tube station. ### Status Within London, both the City of London and the City of Westminster have city status and both the City of London and the remainder of Greater London are counties for the purposes of lieutenancies. The area of Greater London includes areas that are part of the historic counties of Middlesex, Kent, Surrey, Essex and Hertfordshire. London's status as the capital of England, and later the United Kingdom, has never been granted or confirmed by statute or in written form. Its status as a capital was established by constitutional convention, which means its status as *de facto* capital is a part of the UK's uncodified constitution. The capital of England was moved to London from Winchester as the Palace of Westminster developed in the 12th and 13th centuries to become the permanent location of the royal court, and thus the political capital of the nation. More recently, Greater London has been defined as a region of England and in this context is known as *London*. ### Topography Greater London encompasses a total area of 611 square miles (1,583 km2) an area which had a population of 7,172,036 in 2001 and a population density of 11,760 inhabitants per square mile (4,542/km2). The extended area known as the London Metropolitan Region or the London Metropolitan Agglomeration, comprises a total area of 3,236 square miles (8,382 km2) has a population of 13,709,000 and a population density of 3,900 inhabitants per square mile (1,510/km2). Modern London stands on the Thames, its primary geographical feature, a navigable river which crosses the city from the south-west to the east. The Thames Valley is a flood plain surrounded by gently rolling hills including Parliament Hill, Addington Hills, and Primrose Hill. Historically London grew up at the lowest bridging point on the Thames. The Thames was once a much broader, shallower river with extensive marshlands; at high tide, its shores reached five times their present width. Since the Victorian era the Thames has been extensively embanked, and many of its London tributaries now flow underground. The Thames is a tidal river, and London is vulnerable to flooding. The threat has increased over time because of a slow but continuous rise in high water level caused by climate change and by the slow 'tilting' of the British Isles (up in Scotland and Northern Ireland and down in southern parts of England, Wales and Ireland) as a result of post-glacial rebound. In 1974 a decade of work began on the construction of the Thames Barrier across the Thames at Woolwich to deal with this threat. While the barrier is expected to function as designed until roughly 2070, concepts for its future enlargement or redesign are already being discussed. London has had a small number of earthquakes over the years, notably those of 1750 which macroseismic information indicates had their epicentres directly under the city. In 2018, two active faults were discovered running parallel to each other, directly under the centre of the city. Furthermore, the city has been damaged at least twice (with fatalities) in the earthquakes of 1382 and 1580. Those earthquakes had their epicentres under the English Channel. London's building code is being redrawn so that every new structure must be able to withstand an earthquake of at least 6.5 on the Richter scale. ### Climate London has a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen: *Cfb*). Rainfall records have been kept in the city since at least 1697, when records began at Kew. At Kew, the most rainfall in one month is 7.4 inches (189 mm) in November 1755 and the least is 0 inches (0 mm) in both December 1788 and July 1800. Mile End also had 0 inches (0 mm) in April 1893. The wettest year on record is 1903, with a total fall of 38.1 inches (969 mm) and the driest is 1921, with a total fall of 12.1 inches (308 mm). The average annual precipitation amounts to about 600 mm, which is half the annual rainfall of New York City, but also lower than Rome, Lisbon, and Sydney, Australia. Despite its relatively low annual precipitation, London still receives 109.6 rainy days on the 1.0 mm threshold annually. However, London is vulnerable to climate change in the United Kingdom, and there is increasing concern among hydrological experts that London households may run out of water before 2050. Temperature extremes in London range from 40.2 °C (104.4 °F) at Heathrow on 19 July 2022 down to −17.4 °C (0.7 °F) at Northolt on 13 December 1981. Records for atmospheric pressure have been kept at London since 1692. The highest pressure ever reported is 1,049.8 millibars (31.00 inHg) on 20 January 2020. Summers are generally warm, sometimes hot. London's average July high is 23.5 °C (74.3 °F). On average each year, London experiences 31 days above 25 °C (77.0 °F) and 4.2 days above 30.0 °C (86.0 °F). During the 2003 European heat wave, prolonged heat led to hundreds of heat-related deaths. There was also a previous spell of 15 consecutive days above 32.2 °C (90.0 °F) in England in 1976 which also caused many heat related deaths. A previous temperature of 37.8 °C (100.0 °F) in August 1911 at the Greenwich station was later disregarded as non-standard. Droughts can also, occasionally, be a problem, especially in summer, most recently in summer 2018, and with much drier than average conditions prevailing from May to December. However, the most consecutive days without rain was 73 days in the spring of 1893. Winters are generally cool with little temperature variation. Heavy snow is rare but snow usually falls at least once each winter. Spring and autumn can be pleasant. As a large city, London has a considerable urban heat island effect, making the centre of London at times 5 °C (9 °F) warmer than the suburbs and outskirts. This can be seen below when comparing London Heathrow, 15 miles (24 km) west of London, with the London Weather Centre. | | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 17.2(63.0) | 21.2(70.2) | 24.5(76.1) | 29.4(84.9) | 32.8(91.0) | 35.6(96.1) | 40.2(104.4) | 38.1(100.6) | 35.0(95.0) | 29.5(85.1) | 21.1(70.0) | 17.4(63.3) | 40.2(104.4) | | Average high °C (°F) | 8.4(47.1) | 9.0(48.2) | 11.7(53.1) | 15.0(59.0) | 18.4(65.1) | 21.6(70.9) | 23.9(75.0) | 23.4(74.1) | 20.2(68.4) | 15.8(60.4) | 11.5(52.7) | 8.8(47.8) | 15.7(60.3) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 5.6(42.1) | 5.8(42.4) | 7.9(46.2) | 10.5(50.9) | 13.7(56.7) | 16.8(62.2) | 19.0(66.2) | 18.7(65.7) | 15.9(60.6) | 12.3(54.1) | 8.4(47.1) | 5.9(42.6) | 11.7(53.1) | | Average low °C (°F) | 2.7(36.9) | 2.7(36.9) | 4.1(39.4) | 6.0(42.8) | 9.1(48.4) | 12.0(53.6) | 14.2(57.6) | 14.1(57.4) | 11.6(52.9) | 8.8(47.8) | 5.3(41.5) | 3.1(37.6) | 7.8(46.0) | | Record low °C (°F) | −16.1(3.0) | −13.9(7.0) | −8.9(16.0) | −5.6(21.9) | −3.1(26.4) | −0.6(30.9) | 3.9(39.0) | 2.1(35.8) | 1.4(34.5) | −5.5(22.1) | −7.1(19.2) | −17.4(0.7) | −17.4(0.7) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 58.8(2.31) | 45.0(1.77) | 38.8(1.53) | 42.3(1.67) | 45.9(1.81) | 47.3(1.86) | 45.8(1.80) | 52.8(2.08) | 49.6(1.95) | 65.1(2.56) | 66.6(2.62) | 57.1(2.25) | 615.0(24.21) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 11.5 | 9.5 | 8.5 | 8.8 | 8.0 | 8.3 | 7.9 | 8.4 | 7.9 | 10.8 | 11.2 | 10.8 | 111.7 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 80 | 77 | 70 | 65 | 67 | 65 | 65 | 69 | 73 | 78 | 81 | 81 | 73 | | Average dew point °C (°F) | 3(37) | 2(36) | 2(36) | 4(39) | 7(45) | 10(50) | 12(54) | 12(54) | 10(50) | 9(48) | 6(43) | 3(37) | 7(44) | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 61.1 | 78.8 | 124.5 | 176.7 | 207.5 | 208.4 | 217.8 | 202.1 | 157.1 | 115.2 | 70.7 | 55.0 | 1,674.8 | | Percent possible sunshine | 23 | 28 | 31 | 40 | 41 | 41 | 42 | 45 | 40 | 35 | 27 | 21 | 35 | | Average ultraviolet index | 1 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 3 | | Source 1: Met Office Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute | | Source 2: Weather Atlas (percent sunshine and UV Index) CEDA Archive TORRO Time and Date See Climate of London for additional climate information. | 1. ↑ Averages are taken from Heathrow, and extremes are taken from stations across London. | | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 16.8(62.2) | 19.7(67.5) | 23.3(73.9) | 25.3(77.5) | 29.0(84.2) | 34.5(94.1) | 35.3(95.5) | 37.5(99.5) | 30.2(86.4) | 26.1(79.0) | 18.9(66.0) | 16.4(61.5) | 37.5(99.5) | | Average high °C (°F) | 8.5(47.3) | 9.2(48.6) | 12.1(53.8) | 15.4(59.7) | 18.6(65.5) | 21.4(70.5) | 23.8(74.8) | 23.3(73.9) | 20.3(68.5) | 15.8(60.4) | 11.6(52.9) | 8.9(48.0) | 15.8(60.4) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 5.9(42.6) | 6.2(43.2) | 8.4(47.1) | 10.7(51.3) | 13.8(56.8) | 16.7(62.1) | 18.8(65.8) | 18.7(65.7) | 15.9(60.6) | 12.4(54.3) | 8.8(47.8) | 6.3(43.3) | 11.9(53.4) | | Average low °C (°F) | 3.4(38.1) | 3.2(37.8) | 4.7(40.5) | 6.0(42.8) | 9.1(48.4) | 12.0(53.6) | 13.9(57.0) | 14.1(57.4) | 11.6(52.9) | 9.0(48.2) | 6.1(43.0) | 3.8(38.8) | 8.1(46.6) | | Record low °C (°F) | −12.7(9.1) | −9.4(15.1) | −6.7(19.9) | −4.8(23.4) | −1.0(30.2) | 1.1(34.0) | 5.0(41.0) | 5.3(41.5) | 1.1(34.0) | −2.1(28.2) | −8.0(17.6) | −10.5(13.1) | −12.7(9.1) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 43.9(1.73) | 39.9(1.57) | 36.5(1.44) | 38.6(1.52) | 44.0(1.73) | 49.3(1.94) | 36.3(1.43) | 53.0(2.09) | 52.4(2.06) | 58.3(2.30) | 59.9(2.36) | 50.7(2.00) | 562.9(22.16) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 10.5 | 9.2 | 7.9 | 8.1 | 7.9 | 7.8 | 7.1 | 8.2 | 7.9 | 10.3 | 10.6 | 10.2 | 105.6 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 44.4 | 66.1 | 109.7 | 152.9 | 198.7 | 198.6 | 209.2 | 198.0 | 140.6 | 99.7 | 58.5 | 50.1 | 1,526.4 | | Source 1: Met Office | | Source 2: Starlings Roost Weather | ### Areas Places within London's vast urban area are identified using area names, such as Mayfair, Southwark, Wembley, and Whitechapel. These are either informal designations, reflect the names of villages that have been absorbed by sprawl, or are superseded administrative units such as parishes or former boroughs. Such names have remained in use through tradition, each referring to a local area with its own distinctive character, but without official boundaries. Since 1965, Greater London has been divided into 32 London boroughs in addition to the ancient City of London. The City of London is the main financial district, and Canary Wharf has recently developed into a new financial and commercial hub in the Docklands to the east. The West End is London's main entertainment and shopping district, attracting tourists. West London includes expensive residential areas where properties can sell for tens of millions of pounds. The average price for properties in Kensington and Chelsea is over £2 million with a similarly high outlay in most of central London. The East End is the area closest to the original Port of London, known for its high immigrant population, as well as for being one of the poorest areas in London. The surrounding East London area saw much of London's early industrial development; now, brownfield sites throughout the area are being redeveloped as part of the Thames Gateway including the London Riverside and Lower Lea Valley, which was developed into the Olympic Park for the 2012 Olympics and Paralympics. ### Architecture London's buildings are too diverse to be characterised by any particular architectural style, partly because of their varying ages. Many grand houses and public buildings, such as the National Gallery, are constructed from Portland stone. Some areas of the city, particularly those just west of the centre, are characterised by white stucco or whitewashed buildings. Few structures in central London pre-date the Great Fire of 1666, these being a few trace Roman remains, the Tower of London and a few scattered Tudor survivors in the city. Further out is, for example, the Tudor-period Hampton Court Palace, England's oldest surviving Tudor palace, built by Cardinal Thomas Wolsey in about 1515. Part of the varied architectural heritage are the 17th-century churches by Christopher Wren, neoclassical financial institutions such as the Royal Exchange and the Bank of England, to the early 20th century Old Bailey courthouse and the 1960s Barbican Estate. The 1939 Battersea Power Station by the river in the south-west is a local landmark, while some railway termini are excellent examples of Victorian architecture, most notably St. Pancras and Paddington. The density of London varies, with high employment density in the central area and Canary Wharf, high residential densities in inner London, and lower densities in Outer London. The Monument in the City of London provides views of the surrounding area while commemorating the Great Fire of London, which originated nearby. Marble Arch and Wellington Arch, at the north and south ends of Park Lane, respectively, have royal connections, as do the Albert Memorial and Royal Albert Hall in Kensington. Nelson's Column (built to commemorate Admiral Horatio Nelson) is a nationally recognised monument in Trafalgar Square, one of the focal points of central London. Older buildings are mainly brick built, most commonly the yellow London stock brick or a warm orange-red variety, often decorated with carvings and white plaster mouldings. In the dense areas, most of the concentration is via medium- and high-rise buildings. London's skyscrapers, such as 30 St Mary Axe, Tower 42, the Broadgate Tower and One Canada Square, are mostly in the two financial districts, the City of London and Canary Wharf. High-rise development is restricted at certain sites if it would obstruct protected views of St Paul's Cathedral and other historic buildings. This protective policy, known as 'St Paul's Heights', has been in operation by the City of London since 1937. Nevertheless, there are a number of tall skyscrapers in central London (see Tall buildings in London), including the 95-storey Shard London Bridge, the tallest building in the United Kingdom and Western Europe. Other notable modern buildings include The Scalpel, originally a nickname coined by the *Financial Times* due to its distinctive angular design but subsequently designated as its official name, 20 Fenchurch Street, dubbed "The Walkie-Talkie" because of its distinctive shape that resembles a two-way radio handset, the former City Hall in Southwark with its distinctive oval shape, the Art Deco BBC Broadcasting House plus the Postmodernist British Library in Somers Town/Kings Cross and No 1 Poultry by James Stirling. The BT Tower (owned by the BT Group, a telecommunications company whose origins go back to 1846) stands at 620 feet (189 m) and has a 360 degree coloured LED screen near the top—making it a conspicuous presence on the London skyline—which displays news events to the public below every day, including breaking news such as "It’s a girl" in pink background on the birth of Princess Charlotte in 2015. What was formerly the Millennium Dome, by the Thames to the east of Canary Wharf, is now an entertainment venue called the O2 Arena. The Houses of Parliament and Elizabeth Tower (Big Ben) on the right foreground, the London Eye on the left foreground and The Shard with Canary Wharf in the background; seen in September 2014 ### Natural history The London Natural History Society suggests that London is "one of the World's Greenest Cities" with more than 40 per cent green space or open water. They indicate that 2000 species of flowering plant have been found growing there and that the tidal Thames supports 120 species of fish. They also state that over 60 species of bird nest in central London and that their members have recorded 47 species of butterfly, 1173 moths and more than 270 kinds of spider around London. London's wetland areas support nationally important populations of many water birds. London has 38 Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs), two national nature reserves and 76 local nature reserves. Amphibians are common in the capital, including smooth newts living by the Tate Modern, and common frogs, common toads, palmate newts and great crested newts. On the other hand, native reptiles such as slowworms, common lizards, barred grass snakes and adders, are mostly only seen in Outer London. Among other inhabitants of London are 10,000 red foxes, so that there are now 16 foxes for every square mile (6 per square kilometre) of London. These urban foxes are noticeably bolder than their country cousins, sharing the pavement with pedestrians and raising cubs in people's backyards. Foxes have even sneaked into the Houses of Parliament, where one was found asleep on a filing cabinet. Another broke into the grounds of Buckingham Palace, reportedly killing some of Queen Elizabeth II's prized pink flamingos. Generally, however, foxes and city folk appear to get along. A survey in 2001 by the London-based Mammal Society found that 80 per cent of 3,779 respondents who volunteered to keep a diary of garden mammal visits liked having them around. This sample cannot be taken to represent Londoners as a whole. Other mammals found in Greater London are hedgehog, brown rat, mice, rabbit, shrew, vole, and grey squirrel. In wilder areas of Outer London, such as Epping Forest, a wide variety of mammals are found, including European hare, badger, field, bank and water vole, wood mouse, yellow-necked mouse, mole, shrew, and weasel, in addition to red fox, grey squirrel and hedgehog. A dead otter was found at The Highway, in Wapping, about a mile from the Tower Bridge, which would suggest that they have begun to move back after being absent a hundred years from the city. Ten of England's eighteen species of bats have been recorded in Epping Forest: soprano, Nathusius' and common pipistrelles, common noctule, serotine, barbastelle, Daubenton's, brown long-eared, Natterer's and Leisler's. Among the strange sights in London have been a whale in the Thames, while the BBC Two programme *Natural World: Unnatural History of London* shows feral pigeons using the London Underground to get around the city, a seal that takes fish from fishmongers outside Billingsgate Fish Market, and foxes that will "sit" if given sausages. Herds of red and fallow deer also roam freely within much of Richmond and Bushy Park. A cull takes place each November and February to ensure numbers can be sustained. Epping Forest is also known for its fallow deer, which can frequently be seen in herds to the north of the Forest. A rare population of melanistic, black fallow deer is also maintained at the Deer Sanctuary near Theydon Bois. Muntjac deer, which escaped from deer parks at the turn of the 20th century, are also found in the forest. While Londoners are accustomed to wildlife such as birds and foxes sharing the city, more recently urban deer have started becoming a regular feature, and whole herds of fallow deer come into residential areas at night to take advantage of London's green spaces. Demography ---------- 2021 Census - Population of London by country of birth| Country of Birth | Population | Percent | | --- | --- | --- | |  United Kingdom | 5,223,986 | 59.4 | | Non-United Kingdom | 3,575,739 | 40.6 | | |  India | 322,644 | 3.7 | |  Romania | 175,991 | 2.0 | |  Poland | 149,397 | 1.7 | |  Bangladesh | 138,895 | 1.6 | |  Pakistan | 129,774 | 1.5 | |  Italy | 126,059 | 1.4 | |  Nigeria | 117,145 | 1.3 | |  Ireland | 96,566 | 1.1 | |  Sri Lanka | 80,379 | 0.9 | |  France | 77,715 | 0.9 | | Others | 2,161,174 | 24.6 | | Total | 8,799,725 | 100.0 | The 2021 census recorded that 3,575,739 people or 40.6% of London's population were foreign-born making it the city with the second largest immigrant population after New York City, in terms of absolute numbers. About 69% of children born in London in 2015 had at least one parent who was born abroad. The table to the right shows the most common countries of birth of London residents. Note that some of the German-born population, in 18th position, are British citizens from birth born to parents serving in the British Armed Forces in Germany. Increasing industrialisation swelled London's population throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, and for some time in the late 19th and early 20th centuries it was the most populous city in the world. It peaked at 8,615,245 in 1939, just before the outbreak of the Second World War, but had declined to 7,192,091 by the 2001 Census. However, the population then grew by just over a million between the 2001 and 2011 Censuses, to reach 8,173,941 in the latter. However, London's continuous urban area extends beyond Greater London and numbered 9,787,426 people in 2011, while its wider metropolitan area had a population of 12–14 million, depending on the definition used. According to Eurostat, London is the second most populous metropolitan area in Europe. A net 726,000 immigrants arrived there in the period 1991–2001. The region covers 610 square miles (1,579 km2), giving a population density of 13,410 inhabitants per square mile (5,177/km2) more than ten times that of any other British region. In population terms, London is the 19th largest city and the 18th largest metropolitan region. ### Age structure and median age Children younger than 14 constituted 20.6% of the population in Outer London in 2018, and 18% in Inner London. The 15–24 age group was 11.1% in Outer and 10.2% in Inner London, those aged 25–44 years 30.6% in Outer London and 39.7% in Inner London, those aged 45–64 years 24% and 20.7% in Outer and Inner London respectively. Those aged 65 and over are 13.6% in Outer London, but only 9.3% in Inner London. The median age of London's residents in 2018 was 36.5, which was younger than the UK median of 40.3. ### Ethnic groups Maps of Greater London showing percentage distribution of selected ethnic groups according to the 2021 CensusWhiteWhite (53.8%)AsianAsian (20.8%)BlackBlack (13.5%) According to the Office for National Statistics, based on 2011 Census estimates, 59.8 per cent of the 8,173,941 inhabitants of London were White, with 44.9% White British, 2.2% White Irish, 0.1% gypsy/Irish traveller and 12.1% classified as Other White. Meanwhile, 20.9% of Londoners were of Asian or mixed-Asian descent, with 19.7% being of full Asian descents and 1.2% being of mixed-Asian heritage. Indians accounted for 6.6% of the population, followed by Pakistanis and Bangladeshis at 2.7% each. Chinese people accounted for 1.5%, and Arabs for 1.3%. A further 4.9% were classified as "Other Asian". 15.6% of London's population were of Black or mixed-Black descent. 13.3% were of full Black descent, with persons of mixed-Black heritage comprising 2.3%. Black Africans accounted for 7.0% of London's population; 4.2% identified as Black Caribbean, and 2.1% as "Other Black". 5.0% were of mixed race. The history of African presence in London extends back to the Roman period. As of 2007, one fifth of primary school across London were from ethnic minorities. Altogether at the 2011 census, of London's 1,624,768 population aged 0 to 15, 46.4% were White, 19.8% Asian, 19% Black, 10.8% Mixed and 4% another ethnic group. In January 2005, a survey of London's ethnic and religious diversity claimed that more than 300 languages were spoken in London and more than 50 non-indigenous communities had populations of more than 10,000. Figures from the Office for National Statistics show that in 2021[update], London's foreign-born population was 3,346,000 (35%), up from 1,630,000 in 1997. The 2011 census showed that 36.7% of Greater London's population were born outside the UK. Some of the German-born population were likely to be British nationals born to parents serving in the British Armed Forces in Germany. Estimates by the Office for National Statistics indicate that the five largest foreign-born groups living in London in the period July 2009 to June 2010 were born in India, Poland, the Republic of Ireland, Bangladesh and Nigeria. In the 2021 census 40.6% of London residents were foreign-born. The ethnic demographics of the 2021 census were reported as 53.8% White, with White British reported at 36.8%, Asian or Asian British at 20.8%, Black or Black British , 13.5%, mixed 5.7% and other at 6.3%. ### Religion According to the 2011 Census, the largest religious groupings were Christians (48.4%), followed by those of no religion (20.7%), Muslims (12.4%), no response (8.5%), Hindus (5.0%), Jews (1.8%), Sikhs (1.5%), Buddhists (1.0%) and other (0.6%). London has traditionally been Christian, and has a large number of churches, particularly in the City of London. The well-known St Paul's Cathedral in the City and Southwark Cathedral south of the river are Anglican administrative centres, while the Archbishop of Canterbury, principal bishop of the Church of England and worldwide Anglican Communion, has his main residence at Lambeth Palace in the London Borough of Lambeth. St Paul's Cathedral, the seat of the Bishop of LondonThe BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir London is the second-largest Hindu temple in England and Europe. Important national and royal ceremonies are shared between St Paul's and Westminster Abbey. The Abbey is not to be confused with nearby Westminster Cathedral, the largest Roman Catholic cathedral in England and Wales. Despite the prevalence of Anglican churches, observance is low within the denomination. Anglican Church attendance continues a long, steady decline, according to Church of England statistics. Notable mosques include the East London Mosque in Tower Hamlets, which is allowed to give the Islamic call to prayer through loudspeakers, the London Central Mosque on the edge of Regent's Park and the Baitul Futuh of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. After the oil boom, increasing numbers of wealthy Middle-Eastern Arab Muslims based themselves around Mayfair, Kensington and Knightsbridge in West London. There are large Bengali Muslim communities in the eastern boroughs of Tower Hamlets and Newham. Large Hindu communities are found in the north-western boroughs of Harrow and Brent, the latter hosting what was until 2006 Europe's largest Hindu temple, Neasden Temple. London is also home to 44 Hindu temples, including the BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir London. There are Sikh communities in East and West London, particularly in Southall, home to one of the largest Sikh populations and the largest Sikh temple outside India. The majority of British Jews live in London, with notable Jewish communities in Stamford Hill, Stanmore, Golders Green, Finchley, Hampstead, Hendon and Edgware, all in North London. Bevis Marks Synagogue in the City of London is affiliated to London's historic Sephardic Jewish community. It is the only synagogue in Europe to have held regular services continually for over 300 years. Stanmore and Canons Park Synagogue has the largest membership of any Orthodox synagogue in Europe, overtaking Ilford synagogue (also in London) in 1998. The London Jewish Forum was set up in 2006 in response to the growing significance of devolved London Government. ### Accents Cockney is an accent heard across London, mainly spoken by working-class and lower-middle class Londoners. It is mainly attributed to the East End and wider East London, having originated there in the 18th century, although it has been suggested that the Cockney style of speech is much older. Some features of Cockney include, *Th*-fronting (pronouncing "th" as "f"), example, "some fings in life are bad" (heard in opening of "Always Look on the Bright Side of Life" in Monty Python's *Life of Brian*), "th" inside a word is pronounced with a "v" (brother becomes bruvva), *H*-dropping, example 'Ampshire for Hampshire (as Eliza Doolittle said in *My Fair Lady*), and, like most English accents, a Cockney accent drops the "r" after a vowel, for example, "car" is pronounced "cah". John Camden Hotten, in his *Slang Dictionary* of 1859, makes reference to Cockney "use of a peculiar slang language" (Cockney rhyming slang) when describing the costermongers of the East End. Examples include: using the word "treacle" to mean sweetheart (rhymes with Treacle tart), and "porkies" to mean lies (rhymes with Pork pies). Since the start of the 21st century the Cockney dialect is less common in parts of the East End itself, with modern strongholds including other parts of London and suburbs in the home counties. Estuary English is an intermediate accent between Cockney and Received Pronunciation. It is widely spoken by people of all classes in London and south-eastern England, associated with the River Thames and its estuary. Multicultural London English (MLE) is a multiethnolect becoming increasingly common in multicultural areas amongst young, working-class people from diverse backgrounds. It is a fusion of an array of ethnic accents, in particular Afro-Caribbean and South Asian, with a significant Cockney influence. Received Pronunciation (RP) is the accent traditionally regarded as the standard for British English. It has no specific geographical correlate, although it is also traditionally defined as the standard speech used in London and south-eastern England. It is mainly spoken by upper-class and upper-middle class Londoners. Economy ------- London's gross regional product in 2019 was £503 billion, around a quarter of UK GDP. London has five major business districts: the city, Westminster, Canary Wharf, Camden & Islington and Lambeth & Southwark. One way to get an idea of their relative importance is to look at relative amounts of office space: Greater London had 27 million m2 of office space in 2001, and the City contains the most space, with 8 million m2 of office space. London has some of the highest real estate prices in the world. London is the world's most expensive office market according to world property journal (2015) report. As of 2015[update] the residential property in London is worth $2.2 trillion – the same value as that of Brazil's annual GDP. The city has the highest property prices of any European city according to the Office for National Statistics and the European Office of Statistics. On average the price per square metre in central London is €24,252 (April 2014). This is higher than the property prices in other G8 European capital cities; Berlin €3,306, Rome €6,188 and Paris €11,229. ### The City of London London's finance industry is based in the City of London and Canary Wharf, the two major business districts in London. London is one of the pre-eminent financial centres of the world as the most important location for international finance. London took over as a major financial centre shortly after 1795 when the Dutch Republic collapsed before the Napoleonic armies. For many bankers established in Amsterdam (e.g. Hope, Baring), this was only time to move to London. Also, London's market-centred system (as opposed to the bank-centred one in Amsterdam) grew more dominant in the 18th century. The London financial elite was strengthened by a strong Jewish community from all over Europe capable of mastering the most sophisticated financial tools of the time. This unique concentration of talents accelerated the transition from the Commercial Revolution to the Industrial Revolution. Writing about capitalism and the utility of diversity in his book on English society, French philosopher Voltaire expounded upon why England at that time was more prosperous in comparison to the country's less religiously tolerant European neighbours: > Take a view of the Royal Exchange in London, a place more venerable than many courts of justice, where the representatives of all nations meet for the benefit of mankind. There the Jew, the Mahometan [Muslim], and the Christian transact together, as though they all professed the same religion, and give the name of infidel to none but bankrupts. There the Presbyterian confides in the Anabaptist, and the Churchman depends on the Quaker's word. If one religion only were allowed in England, the Government would very possibly become arbitrary; if there were but two, the people would cut one another's throats; but as there are such a multitude, they all live happy and in peace. > > — Voltaire in *Letters on the English*, 1733. By the mid-19th century, London was the leading financial centre, and at the end of the century over half the world's trade was financed in British currency. Still, as of 2016[update] London tops the world rankings on the Global Financial Centres Index (GFCI), and it ranked second in A.T. Kearney's 2018 Global Cities Index. London's largest industry is finance, and its financial exports make it a large contributor to the UK's balance of payments. Around 325,000 people were employed in financial services in London until mid-2007. London has over 480 overseas banks, more than any other city in the world. It is also the world's biggest currency trading centre, accounting for some 37 per cent of the $5.1 trillion average daily volume, according to the BIS. Over 85 per cent (3.2 million) of the employed population of greater London works in the services industries. Because of its prominent global role, London's economy had been affected by the financial crisis of 2007–2008. However, by 2010 the city had recovered, put in place new regulatory powers, proceeded to regain lost ground and re-established London's economic dominance. Along with professional services headquarters, the City of London is home to the Bank of England, London Stock Exchange, and Lloyd's of London insurance market. Over half the UK's top 100 listed companies (the FTSE 100) and over 100 of Europe's 500 largest companies have their headquarters in central London. Over 70 per cent of the FTSE 100 are within London's metropolitan area, and 75 per cent of Fortune 500 companies have offices in London. In a 1992 report commissioned by the London Stock Exchange, Sir Adrian Cadbury, chairman of his family's confectionery company Cadbury, produced the Cadbury Report, a code of best practice which served as a basis for reform of corporate governance around the world. ### Media and technology Media companies are concentrated in London, and the media distribution industry is London's second most competitive sector. The BBC, the world's oldest national broadcaster, is a significant employer, while other broadcasters also have headquarters around the city. Many national newspapers, including *The Times*, founded in 1785, are edited in London; the term Fleet Street (where most national newspapers operated) remains a metonym for the British national press. London is a major retail centre and in 2010 had the highest non-food retail sales of any city in the world, with a total spend of around £64.2 billion. The Port of London is the second largest in the UK, handling 45 million tonnes of cargo each year. A growing number of technology companies are based in London, notably in East London Tech City, also known as Silicon Roundabout. In 2014 the city was among the first to receive a geoTLD. In February 2014 London was ranked as the European City of the Future in the 2014/15 list by *fDi Intelligence*. Computer science pioneer Alan Turing hails from Maida Vale, west London. A museum in Bletchley Park, where Turing was based during World War II, is in Bletchley, 40 miles (64 km) north of central London, as is The National Museum of Computing. The gas and electricity distribution networks that manage and operate the towers, cables and pressure systems that deliver energy to consumers across the city are managed by National Grid plc, SGN and UK Power Networks. ### Tourism The British MuseumThe National Gallery London is one of the leading tourist destinations in the world and in 2015 was ranked as the most visited city in the world with over 65 million visits. It is also the top city in the world by visitor cross-border spending, estimated at US$20.23 billion in 2015. Tourism is one of London's prime industries, employing 700,000 full-time workers in 2016, and contributes £36 billion a year to the economy. The city accounts for 54% of all inbound visitor spending in the UK. As of 2016[update] London was the world top city destination as ranked by TripAdvisor users. In 2015 the top most-visited attractions in the UK were all in London. The top 10 most visited attractions were: (with visits per venue) 1. British Museum: 6,820,686 2. National Gallery: 5,908,254 3. Natural History Museum (South Kensington): 5,284,023 4. Southbank Centre: 5,102,883 5. Tate Modern: 4,712,581 6. Victoria and Albert Museum (South Kensington): 3,432,325 7. Science Museum: 3,356,212 8. Somerset House: 3,235,104 9. Tower of London: 2,785,249 10. National Portrait Gallery: 2,145,486 The number of hotel rooms in London in 2015 stood at 138,769, and is expected to grow over the years. Transport --------- Transport is one of the four main areas of policy administered by the Mayor of London, but the mayor's financial control does not extend to the longer-distance rail network that enters London. In 2007 the Mayor of London assumed responsibility for some local lines, which now form the London Overground network, adding to the existing responsibility for the London Underground, trams and buses. The public transport network is administered by Transport for London (TfL). The lines that formed the London Underground, as well as trams and buses, became part of an integrated transport system in 1933 when the London Passenger Transport Board or *London Transport* was created. Transport for London is now the statutory corporation responsible for most aspects of the transport system in Greater London, and is run by a board and a commissioner appointed by the Mayor of London. ### Aviation London is a major international air transport hub with the busiest city airspace in the world. Eight airports use the word *London* in their name, but most traffic passes through six of these. Additionally, various other airports also serve London, catering primarily to general aviation flights. * Heathrow Airport, in Hillingdon, West London, was for many years the busiest airport in the world for international traffic, and is the major hub of the nation's flag carrier, British Airways. In March 2008 its fifth terminal was opened. In 2014, Dubai gained from Heathrow the leading position in terms of international passenger traffic. * Gatwick Airport, south of London in West Sussex, handles flights to more destinations than any other UK airport and is the main base of easyJet, the UK's largest airline by number of passengers. * Stansted Airport, north-east of London in Essex, has flights that serve the greatest number of European destinations of any UK airport and is the main base of Ryanair, the world's largest international airline by number of international passengers. * Luton Airport, to the north of London in Bedfordshire, is used by several budget airlines (especially easyJet and Wizz Air) for short-haul flights. * London City Airport, the most central airport and the one with the shortest runway, in Newham, East London, is focused on business travellers, with a mixture of full-service short-haul scheduled flights and considerable business jet traffic. * Southend Airport, east of London in Essex, is a smaller, regional airport that caters for short-haul flights on a limited, though growing, number of airlines. In 2017, international passengers made up over 95% of the total at Southend, the highest proportion of any London airport. ### Rail #### Underground and DLR Opened in 1863, the London Underground, commonly referred to as the Tube or just the Underground, is the oldest and third longest metro system in the world. The system serves 272 stations, and was formed from several private companies, including the world's first underground electric line, the City and South London Railway, which opened in 1890. Over four million journeys are made every day on the Underground network, over 1 billion each year. An investment programme is attempting to reduce congestion and improve reliability, including £6.5 billion (€7.7 billion) spent before the 2012 Summer Olympics. The Docklands Light Railway (DLR), which opened in 1987, is a second, more local metro system using smaller and lighter tram-type vehicles that serve the Docklands, Greenwich and Lewisham. #### Suburban There are 368 railway stations in the London Travelcard Zones on an extensive above-ground suburban railway network. South London, particularly, has a high concentration of railways as it has fewer Underground lines. Most rail lines terminate around the centre of London, running into eighteen terminal stations, with the exception of the Thameslink trains connecting Bedford in the north and Brighton in the south via Luton and Gatwick airports. London has Britain's busiest station by number of passengers—Waterloo, with over 184 million people using the interchange station complex (which includes Waterloo East station) each year. Clapham Junction is one of Europe's busiest rail interchanges. With the need for more rail capacity in London, the Elizabeth Line (also known as Crossrail) opened in May 2022. It is a new railway line running east to west through London and into the Home Counties with a branch to Heathrow Airport. It was Europe's biggest construction project, with a £15 billion projected cost. #### Inter-city and international London is the centre of the National Rail network, with 70 per cent of rail journeys starting or ending in London. King's Cross station and Euston station, which are both in London, are the starting points of the East Coast Main Line and the West Coast Main Line – the two main railway lines in Britain. Like suburban rail services, regional and inter-city trains depart from several termini around the city centre, directly linking London with most of Great Britain's major cities and towns. *The Flying Scotsman* is an express passenger train service that has operated between the capital of England (London) and the capital of Scotland (Edinburgh) since 1862; the world famous steam locomotive named after this service, *Flying Scotsman*, was the first locomotive to reach the officially authenticated speed of 100 miles per hour (161 km/h) on 30 November 1934. Some international railway services to Continental Europe were operated during the 20th century as boat trains, such as the *Admiraal de Ruijter* to Amsterdam and the *Night Ferry* to Paris and Brussels. The opening of the Channel Tunnel in 1994 connected London directly to the continental rail network, allowing Eurostar services to begin. Since 2007, high-speed trains link St. Pancras International with Lille, Calais, Paris, Disneyland Paris, Brussels, Amsterdam and other European tourist destinations via the High Speed 1 rail link and the Channel Tunnel. The first high-speed domestic trains started in June 2009 linking Kent to London. There are plans for a second high speed line linking London to the Midlands, North West England, and Yorkshire. #### Freight Although rail freight levels are far down compared to their height, significant quantities of cargo are also carried into and out of London by rail; chiefly building materials and landfill waste. As a major hub of the British railway network, London's tracks also carry large amounts of freight for the other regions, such as container freight from the Channel Tunnel and English Channel ports, and nuclear waste for reprocessing at Sellafield. ### Buses, coaches and trams London's bus network runs 24 hours a day with about 9,300 vehicles, over 675 bus routes and about 19,000 bus stops. In 2019 the network had over 2 billion commuter trips per year. Since 2010 an average of £1.2 billion is taken in revenue each year. London has one of the largest wheelchair-accessible networks in the world and from the third quarter of 2007, became more accessible to hearing and visually impaired passengers as audio-visual announcements were introduced. London's coach hub is Victoria Coach Station, an Art Deco building opened in 1932. The coach station was initially run by a group of coach companies under the name of London Coastal Coaches; however, in 1970 the service and station were included in the nationalisation of the country's coach services, becoming part of the National Bus Company. In 1988, the coach station was purchased by London Transport which then became Transport for London. Victoria Coach Station has over 14 million passengers a year and provides services across the UK and continental Europe. London has a modern tram network, known as Tramlink, centred on Croydon in South London. The network has 39 stops and four routes, and carried 28 million people in 2013. Since June 2008, Transport for London has completely owned and operated Tramlink. ### Cable car London's first and to date only cable car is the London Cable Car, which opened in June 2012. The cable car crosses the Thames and links Greenwich Peninsula with the Royal Docks in the east of the city. It is integrated with London's Oyster Card ticketing system, although the Emirates Air Line fares are not included in the Oyster daily capping. It cost £60 million to build and can carry up to 2,500 passengers per hour in each direction at peak times. Similar to the London Cycle Hire Scheme bike hire scheme, the cable car was sponsored in a 10-year deal by the airline Emirates. ### Cycling In the Greater London Area, around 670,000 people use a bike every day, meaning around 7% of the total population of around 8.8 million use a bike on an average day. This relatively low percentage of bicycle users may be due to the poor investments for cycling in London of about £110 million per year, equating to around £12 per person, which can be compared to £22 in the Netherlands. Cycling has become an increasingly popular way to get around London. The launch of a bicycle hire scheme in July 2010 was successful and generally well received. ### Port and river boats The Port of London, once the largest in the world, is now only the second-largest in the United Kingdom, handling 45 million tonnes of cargo each year as of 2009. Most of this cargo passes through the Port of Tilbury, outside the boundary of Greater London. London has river boat services on the Thames known as Thames Clippers, which offer both commuter and tourist boat services. At major piers including Canary Wharf, London Bridge City, Battersea Power Station and London Eye (Waterloo), services depart at least every 20 minutes during commuter times. The Woolwich Ferry, with 2.5 million passengers every year, is a frequent service linking the North and South Circular Roads. ### Roads Although the majority of journeys in central London are made by public transport, car travel is common in the suburbs. The inner ring road (around the city centre), the North and South Circular roads (just within the suburbs), and the outer orbital motorway (the M25, just outside the built-up area in most places) encircle the city and are intersected by a number of busy radial routes—but very few motorways penetrate into inner London. A plan for a comprehensive network of motorways throughout the city (the Ringways Plan) was prepared in the 1960s but was mostly cancelled in the early 1970s. The M25 is the second-longest ring-road motorway in Europe at 117 miles (188 km) long. The A1 and M1 connect London to Leeds, and Newcastle and Edinburgh. The Austin Motor Company began making hackney carriages (London taxis) in 1929, and models include Austin FX3 from 1948, Austin FX4 from 1958, with more recent models TXII and TX4 manufactured by London Taxis International. The BBC states, "ubiquitous black cabs and red double-decker buses all have long and tangled stories that are deeply embedded in London's traditions". London is notorious for its traffic congestion; in 2009, the average speed of a car in the rush hour was recorded at 10.6 mph (17.1 km/h). In 2003, a congestion charge was introduced to reduce traffic volumes in the city centre. With a few exceptions, motorists are required to pay to drive within a defined zone encompassing much of central London. Motorists who are residents of the defined zone can buy a greatly reduced season pass. The London government initially expected the Congestion Charge Zone to increase daily peak period Underground and bus users, reduce road traffic, increase traffic speeds, and reduce queues; however, the increase in private for hire vehicles has affected these expectations. Over the course of several years, the average number of cars entering the centre of London on a weekday was reduced from 195,000 to 125,000 cars – a 35-per-cent reduction of vehicles driven per day. Education --------- ### Tertiary education London is a major global centre of higher education teaching and research and has the largest concentration of higher education institutes in Europe. According to the QS World University Rankings 2015/16, London has the greatest concentration of top class universities in the world and its international student population of around 110,000 is larger than any other city in the world. A 2014 PricewaterhouseCoopers report termed London the global capital of higher education. A number of world-leading education institutions are based in London. In the 2022 *QS World University Rankings*, Imperial College London is ranked No. 6 in the world, University College London (UCL) is ranked 8th, and King's College London (KCL) is ranked 37th. All are regularly ranked highly, with Imperial College being the UK's leading university in the Research Excellence Framework ranking 2021. The London School of Economics has been described as the world's leading social science institution for both teaching and research. The London Business School is considered one of the world's leading business schools and in 2015 its MBA programme was ranked second-best in the world by the *Financial Times*. The city is also home to three of the world's top ten performing arts schools (as ranked by the 2020 QS World University Rankings): the Royal College of Music (ranking 2nd in the world), the Royal Academy of Music (ranking 4th) and the Guildhall School of Music and Drama (ranking 6th). With students in London and around 48,000 in University of London Worldwide, the federal University of London is the largest contact teaching university in the UK. It includes five multi-faculty universities – City, King's College London, Queen Mary, Royal Holloway and UCL – and a number of smaller and more specialised institutions including Birkbeck, the Courtauld Institute of Art, Goldsmiths, the London Business School, the London School of Economics, the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, the Royal Academy of Music, the Central School of Speech and Drama, the Royal Veterinary College and the School of Oriental and African Studies. Members of the University of London have their own admissions procedures, and most award their own degrees. A number of universities in London are outside the University of London system, including Brunel University, Imperial College London, Kingston University, London Metropolitan University, University of East London, University of West London, University of Westminster, London South Bank University, Middlesex University, and University of the Arts London (the largest university of art, design, fashion, communication and the performing arts in Europe). In addition, there are three international universities in London – Regent's University London, Richmond, The American International University in London and Schiller International University. London is home to five major medical schools – Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry (part of Queen Mary), King's College London School of Medicine (the largest medical school in Europe), Imperial College School of Medicine, UCL Medical School and St George's, University of London – and has many affiliated teaching hospitals. It is also a major centre for biomedical research, and three of the UK's eight academic health science centres are based in the city – Imperial College Healthcare, King's Health Partners and UCL Partners (the largest such centre in Europe). Additionally, many biomedical and biotechnology spin out companies from these research institutions are based around the city, most prominently in White City. Founded by pioneering nurse Florence Nightingale at St Thomas' Hospital in 1860, the first nursing school is now part of King's College London. It was at King's in 1952 where a team led by Rosalind Franklin captured *Photo 51*, the critical evidence in identifying the structure of DNA. There are a number of business schools in London, including the London School of Business and Finance, Cass Business School (part of City University London), Hult International Business School, ESCP Europe, European Business School London, Imperial College Business School, the London Business School and the UCL School of Management. London is also home to many specialist arts education institutions, including the Central School of Ballet, London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art (LAMDA; president Benedict Cumberbatch), London College of Contemporary Arts (LCCA), London Contemporary Dance School, National Centre for Circus Arts, Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA; president Sir Kenneth Branagh), Rambert School of Ballet and Contemporary Dance, the Royal College of Art, Sylvia Young Theatre School and Trinity Laban. The BRIT School in the London borough of Croydon provides training for the performing arts and the technologies that make performance possible, with actor Tom Holland among their alumni. ### Primary and secondary education The majority of primary and secondary schools and further-education colleges in London are controlled by the London boroughs or otherwise state-funded; leading examples include Ashbourne College, Bethnal Green Academy, Brampton Manor Academy, City and Islington College, City of Westminster College, David Game College, Ealing, Hammersmith and West London College, Leyton Sixth Form College, London Academy of Excellence, Tower Hamlets College, and Newham Collegiate Sixth Form Centre. There are also a number of private schools and colleges in London, some old and famous, such as City of London School, Harrow, St Paul's School, Haberdashers' Aske's Boys' School, University College School, The John Lyon School, Highgate School and Westminster School. ### Royal Observatory, Greenwich and learned societies Founded in 1675, the Royal Observatory in Greenwich was established to address the problem of calculating longitude for navigational purposes. John Harrison's pioneering chronometer, known as H4 from 1759, revolutionized naval (and later aerial) navigation, and is among the artefacts exhibited at the observatory's museum. The pioneering work at Greenwich in solving longitude—featured in astronomer royal Nevil Maskelyne's *Nautical Almanac* which made the Greenwich meridian the universal reference point—helped lead to the international adoption of Greenwich as the prime meridian (0° longitude) in 1884. Important scientific learned societies based in London include the Royal Society—the UK's national academy of sciences and the oldest national scientific institution in the world—founded in 1660, and the Royal Institution, founded in 1799; the basement of the latter is where Michael Faraday first demonstrated electric motion in 1821. Since 1825, the Royal Institution Christmas Lectures have presented scientific subjects to a general audience, and speakers have included aerospace engineer Frank Whittle, naturalist David Attenborough and evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins. Culture ------- ### Leisure and entertainment Leisure is a major part of the London economy. A 2003 report attributed a quarter of the entire UK leisure economy to London at 25.6 events per 1000 people. The city is one of the four fashion capitals of the world, and, according to official statistics, is the world's third-busiest film production centre, presents more live comedy than any other city, and has the biggest theatre audience of any city in the world. Within the City of Westminster in London, the entertainment district of the West End has its focus around Leicester Square, where London and world film premieres are held, and Piccadilly Circus, with its giant electronic advertisements. London's theatre district is here, as are many cinemas, bars, clubs, and restaurants, including the city's Chinatown district (in Soho), and just to the east is Covent Garden, an area housing speciality shops. The city is the home of Andrew Lloyd Webber, whose musicals have dominated West End theatre since the late 20th century. Agatha Christie's *The Mousetrap*, the world's longest-running play, has been performed in the West End since 1952. The Laurence Olivier Awards–named after Laurence Olivier–are given annually by the Society of London Theatre. The Royal Ballet, English National Ballet, Royal Opera, and English National Opera are based in London and perform at the Royal Opera House, the London Coliseum, Sadler's Wells Theatre, and the Royal Albert Hall, as well as touring the country. Islington's 1 mile (1.6 km) long Upper Street, extending northwards from Angel, has more bars and restaurants than any other street in the UK. Europe's busiest shopping area is Oxford Street, a shopping street nearly 1 mile (1.6 km) long, making it the longest shopping street in the UK. It is home to vast numbers of retailers and department stores, including Selfridges flagship store. Knightsbridge, home to the equally renowned Harrods department store, lies to the south-west. Opened in 1760 with its flagship store on Regent Street since 1881, Hamleys is the oldest toy store in the world. Madame Tussauds wax museum opened in Baker Street in 1835. London is home to designers John Galliano, Stella McCartney, Manolo Blahnik, and Jimmy Choo, among others; its renowned art and fashion schools make it one of the four international centres of fashion. Mary Quant designed the miniskirt in her King's Road boutique in Swinging Sixties London. London offers a great variety of cuisine as a result of its ethnically diverse population. Gastronomic centres include the Bangladeshi restaurants of Brick Lane and the Chinese restaurants of Chinatown. There are Chinese takeaways throughout London, as are Indian restaurants which provide Indian and Anglo-Indian cuisine. Around 1860, the first fish and chips shop in London was opened by Joseph Malin, a Jewish immigrant, in Bow. The full English breakfast dates from the Victorian era, and many cafe's in London serve a full English throughout the day. London has five 3-Michelin star restaurants, including Restaurant Gordon Ramsay in Chelsea. Many hotels in London provide a traditional afternoon tea service, such as the Oscar Wilde Lounge at the Hotel Café Royal in Piccadilly, and a themed tea service is also available, for example an *Alice in Wonderland* themed afternoon tea served at the Egerton House Hotel, and *Charlie and the Chocolate Factory* themed afternoon tea at One Aldwych in Covent Garden. The nation's most popular biscuit to dunk in tea, chocolate digestives have been manufactured by McVitie's at their Harlesden factory in north-west London since 1925. There is a variety of annual events, beginning with the relatively new New Year's Day Parade, a fireworks display at the London Eye; the world's second largest street party, the Notting Hill Carnival, is held on the late August Bank Holiday each year. Traditional parades include November's Lord Mayor's Show, a centuries-old event celebrating the annual appointment of a new Lord Mayor of the City of London with a procession along the streets of the city, and June's Trooping the Colour, a formal military pageant performed by regiments of the Commonwealth and British armies to celebrate the Queen's Official Birthday. The Boishakhi Mela is a Bengali New Year festival celebrated by the British Bangladeshi community. It is the largest open-air Asian festival in Europe. After the Notting Hill Carnival, it is the second-largest street festival in the United Kingdom attracting over 80,000 visitors from across the country. First held in 1862, the RHS Chelsea Flower Show (run by the Royal Horticultural Society) takes place over five days in May every year. ### LGBT scene The first gay bar in London in the modern sense was The Cave of the Golden Calf, established as a night club in an underground location at 9 Heddon Street, just off Regent Street, in 1912 and became a haunt for the wealthy, aristocratic and bohemian. While London has been an LGBT tourism destination, after homosexuality was decriminalised in England in 1967 gay bar culture became more visible, and from the early 1970s Soho (and in particular Old Compton Street) became the centre of the London LGBT community. G-A-Y, previously based at the Astoria, and now Heaven, is a long-running night club. Wider British cultural movements have also influenced LGBT culture: for example, the emergence of glam rock in the UK in the early 1970s, via Marc Bolan and David Bowie, saw a generation of teenagers begin playing with the idea of androgyny, and the West End musical *The Rocky Horror Show*, which debuted in London in 1973, is also widely said to have been an influence on countercultural and sexual liberation movements. The Blitz Kids (which included Boy George) frequented the Tuesday club-night at Blitz in Covent Garden, helping launch the New Romantic subcultural movement in the late 1970s. Today, the annual London Pride Parade and the London Lesbian and Gay Film Festival are held in the city. ### Literature, film and television London has been the setting for many works of literature. The pilgrims in Geoffrey Chaucer's late 14th-century *Canterbury Tales* set out for Canterbury from London—specifically, from the Tabard inn, Southwark. William Shakespeare spent a large part of his life living and working in London; his contemporary Ben Jonson was also based there, and some of his work, most notably his play *The Alchemist*, was set in the city. *A Journal of the Plague Year* (1722) by Daniel Defoe is a fictionalisation of the events of the 1665 Great Plague. The literary centres of London have traditionally been hilly Hampstead and (since the early 20th century) Bloomsbury. Writers closely associated with the city are the diarist Samuel Pepys, noted for his eyewitness account of the Great Fire; Charles Dickens, whose representation of a foggy, snowy, grimy London of street sweepers and pickpockets has been a major influence on people's vision of early Victorian London; and Virginia Woolf, regarded as one of the foremost modernist literary figures of the 20th century. Later important depictions of London from the 19th and early 20th centuries are Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes stories. Robert Louis Stevenson mixed in London literary circles, and in 1886 he wrote the *Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde*, a gothic novella set in Victorian London which follows a doctor with a split personality. In 1898, H. G. Wells' sci-fi novel *The War of the Worlds* sees London (and the south of England) invaded by Martians. Also of significance is Letitia Elizabeth Landon's *Calendar of the London Seasons* (1834). Modern writers pervasively influenced by the city include Peter Ackroyd, author of a "biography" of London, and Iain Sinclair, who writes in the genre of psychogeography. In the 1940s, George Orwell wrote essays in the *London Evening Standard*, most notably "A Nice Cup of Tea", which concerned the nation's methods on making tea, and "The Moon Under Water", which provided a detailed description of his ideal pub. On Christmas Eve 1925, Winnie-the-Pooh debuted in London's *Evening News*, with the character based on a stuffed toy A. A. Milne bought for his son Christopher Robin in Harrods. In 1958, author Michael Bond created Paddington Bear, a refugee found in London Paddington station by the Brown family who adopt him. A screen adaptation, *Paddington* (2014), features the calypso song "London is the Place for Me". London has played a significant role in the film industry. Major studios within or bordering London include Pinewood, Elstree, Ealing, Shepperton, Twickenham, and Leavesden, with the *James Bond* and *Harry Potter* series among many notable films produced here. Working Title Films has its headquarters in London. A post-production community is centred in Soho, and London houses six of the world's largest visual effects companies, such as Framestore. The Imaginarium, a digital performance-capture studio, was founded by Andy Serkis. London has been the setting for films including *Oliver Twist* (1948), *Scrooge* (1951), *Peter Pan* (1953), *The 101 Dalmatians* (1961), *My Fair Lady* (1964), *Mary Poppins* (1964), *Blowup* (1966), *A Clockwork Orange* (1971), *The Long Good Friday* (1980), *The Great Mouse Detective* (1986), *Notting Hill* (1999), *Love Actually* (2003), *V for Vendetta* (2005), *Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street* (2008) and *The King's Speech* (2010). Notable actors and filmmakers from London include; Charlie Chaplin, Alfred Hitchcock, Michael Caine, Julie Andrews, Peter Sellers, David Lean, Julie Christie, Gary Oldman, Emma Thompson, Guy Ritchie, Christopher Nolan, Alan Rickman, Jude Law, Helena Bonham Carter, Idris Elba, Tom Hardy, Daniel Radcliffe, Keira Knightley, Daniel Kaluuya and Daniel Day-Lewis. Ealing comedies have featured Alec Guinness, Hammer Horrors have starred Christopher Lee, while Richard Curtis's rom-coms have featured Hugh Grant. The largest cinema chain in the country, Odeon Cinemas was founded in London in 1928 by Oscar Deutsch. The British Academy Film Awards (BAFTAs) have been held in London since 1949, with the BAFTA Fellowship the Academy's highest accolade. Founded in 1957, the BFI London Film Festival takes place over two weeks every October. London is a major centre for television production, with studios including Television Centre, ITV Studios, Sky Campus and Fountain Studios; the latter hosted the original talent shows, *Pop Idol*, *The X Factor*, and *Britain's Got Talent*, before each format was exported around the world. Formerly a franchise of ITV, Thames Television featured comedians such as Benny Hill and Rowan Atkinson (*Mr. Bean* was first screened by Thames), while Talkback produced *Da Ali G Show* which featured Sacha Baron Cohen as Ali G, a faux-streetwise gangster from Staines, west of London. Many television shows have been set in London, including the popular television soap opera *EastEnders*, broadcast by the BBC since 1985. ### Museums, art galleries and libraries London is home to many museums, galleries, and other institutions, many of which are free of admission charges and are major tourist attractions as well as playing a research role. The first of these to be established was the British Museum in Bloomsbury, in 1753. Originally containing antiquities, natural history specimens, and the national library, the museum now has 7 million artefacts from around the globe. In 1824, the National Gallery was founded to house the British national collection of Western paintings; this now occupies a prominent position in Trafalgar Square. The British Library is the second largest library in the world, and the national library of the United Kingdom. There are many other research libraries, including the Wellcome Library and Dana Centre, as well as university libraries, including the British Library of Political and Economic Science at LSE, the Central Library at Imperial, the Maughan Library at King's, and the Senate House Libraries at the University of London. In the latter half of the 19th century the locale of South Kensington was developed as "Albertopolis", a cultural and scientific quarter. Three major national museums are there: the Victoria and Albert Museum (for the applied arts), the Natural History Museum, and the Science Museum. The National Portrait Gallery was founded in 1856 to house depictions of figures from British history; its holdings now comprise the world's most extensive collection of portraits. The national gallery of British art is at Tate Britain, originally established as an annexe of the National Gallery in 1897. The Tate Gallery, as it was formerly known, also became a major centre for modern art. In 2000, this collection moved to Tate Modern, a new gallery housed in the former Bankside Power Station which is accessed by pedestrians north of the Thames via the Millennium Bridge. ### Music London is one of the major classical and popular music capitals of the world and hosts major music corporations, such as Universal Music Group International and Warner Music Group, and countless bands, musicians and industry professionals. The city is also home to many orchestras and concert halls, such as the Barbican Arts Centre (principal base of the London Symphony Orchestra and the London Symphony Chorus), the Southbank Centre (London Philharmonic Orchestra and the Philharmonia Orchestra), Cadogan Hall (Royal Philharmonic Orchestra) and the Royal Albert Hall (The Proms). The Proms, an eight-week summer season of daily orchestral classical music first held in 1895, ends with the Last Night of the Proms (works by Edward Elgar, Henry Wood, Thomas Arne and Hubert Parry feature at the climax). London's two main opera houses are the Royal Opera House and the London Coliseum (home to the English National Opera). The UK's largest pipe organ is at the Royal Albert Hall. Other significant instruments are in cathedrals and major churches—the church bells of St Clement Danes feature in the 1744 nursery rhyme "Oranges and Lemons", and the lyrics journey through churches and bells of 18th century London. Several conservatoires are within the city: Royal Academy of Music, Royal College of Music, Guildhall School of Music and Drama and Trinity Laban. The record label EMI was formed in the city in 1931, and an early employee for the company, Alan Blumlein, created stereo sound that year. London has numerous venues for rock and pop concerts, including the world's busiest indoor venue, the O2 Arena, and Wembley Arena, as well as many mid-sized venues, such as Brixton Academy, the Hammersmith Apollo and the Shepherd's Bush Empire. Several music festivals, including the Wireless Festival, Lovebox and Hyde Park's British Summer Time, are held in London. The city is home to the original Hard Rock Cafe and the Abbey Road Studios, where The Beatles recorded many of their hits. In the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, musicians and groups like Elton John, Pink Floyd, David Bowie, The Rolling Stones, The Kinks, Queen, Eric Clapton, The Who, Cliff Richard, Led Zeppelin, Iron Maiden, Deep Purple, T. Rex, The Police, Elvis Costello, Dire Straits, Cat Stevens, Fleetwood Mac, The Cure, Madness, Culture Club, Dusty Springfield, Phil Collins, Rod Stewart, Status Quo and Sade, derived their sound from the streets and rhythms of London. London was instrumental in the development of punk music, with figures such as the Sex Pistols, The Clash and fashion designer Vivienne Westwood all based in the city. Other artists to emerge from the London music scene include George Michael, Kate Bush, Seal, Siouxsie and the Banshees, Bush, the Spice Girls, Jamiroquai, Blur, The Prodigy, Gorillaz, Mumford & Sons, Coldplay, Amy Winehouse, Adele, Sam Smith, Ed Sheeran, Ellie Goulding, Dua Lipa and Florence and the Machine. Artists from London played a prominent role in the development of synth-pop, including Gary Numan, Depeche Mode, the Pet Shop Boys and Eurythmics; the latter's "Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This)" was recorded in the attic of their north London home, heralding a trend for home recording methods. Artists from London with a Caribbean influence include Hot Chocolate, Billy Ocean, Soul II Soul and Eddy Grant, with the latter fusing reggae, soul and samba with rock and pop. London is also a centre for urban music. In particular the genres UK garage, drum and bass, dubstep and grime evolved in the city from the foreign genres of house, hip hop, and reggae, alongside local drum and bass. Music station BBC Radio 1Xtra was set up to support the rise of local urban contemporary music both in London and in the rest of the United Kingdom. The British Phonographic Industry's annual popular music awards, the Brit Awards, are held in London, usually in February. Recreation ---------- ### Parks and open spaces A 2013 report by the City of London Corporation said that London is the "greenest city" in Europe with 35,000 acres (14,164 hectares) of public parks, woodlands and gardens. The largest parks in the central area of London are three of the eight Royal Parks, namely Hyde Park and its neighbour Kensington Gardens in the west, and Regent's Park to the north. Hyde Park in particular is popular for sports and sometimes hosts open-air concerts. Regent's Park contains London Zoo, the world's oldest scientific zoo, and is near Madame Tussauds Wax Museum. Primrose Hill, immediately to the north of Regent's Park, at 256 feet (78 m) is a popular spot from which to view the city skyline. Close to Hyde Park are smaller Royal Parks, Green Park and St. James's Park. A number of large parks lie outside the city centre, including Hampstead Heath and the remaining Royal Parks of Greenwich Park to the southeast, and Bushy Park and Richmond Park (the largest) to the southwest. Hampton Court Park is also a royal park, but, because it contains a palace, it is administered by the Historic Royal Palaces, unlike the eight Royal Parks. Close to Richmond Park is Kew Gardens, which has the world's largest collection of living plants. In 2003, the gardens were put on the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. There are also parks administered by London's borough Councils, including Victoria Park in the East End and Battersea Park in the centre. Some more informal, semi-natural open spaces also exist, including the 720 acre (320 hectare) Hampstead Heath of North London, and Epping Forest, which covers 6,118 acres (2,476 hectares) in the east. Both are controlled by the City of London Corporation. Hampstead Heath incorporates Kenwood House, a former stately home and a popular location in the summer months when classical musical concerts are held by the lake, attracting thousands of people every weekend to enjoy the music, scenery and fireworks. Epping Forest is a popular venue for various outdoor activities, including mountain biking, walking, horse riding, golf, angling, and orienteering. ### Walking Walking is a popular recreational activity in London. Areas that provide for walks include Wimbledon Common, Epping Forest, Hampton Court Park, Hampstead Heath, the eight Royal Parks, canals and disused railway tracks. Access to canals and rivers has improved recently, including the creation of the Thames Path, some 28 miles (45 km) of which is within Greater London, and The Wandle Trail; this runs 12 miles (19 km) through South London along the River Wandle, a tributary of the River Thames. Other long-distance paths, linking green spaces, have also been created, including the Capital Ring, the Green Chain Walk, London Outer Orbital Path ("Loop"), Jubilee Walkway, Lea Valley Walk, and the Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Walk. Sport ----- Wembley Stadium, home of the England men and women's football team and the FA Cup Final, has a seating capacity of 90,000. It is the UK's biggest stadium.Centre Court at Wimbledon. Held every June and July, Wimbledon is the oldest tennis tournament in the world, and the only major played on grass.Twickenham, home of the England national rugby union team, has a capacity of 82,000 seats. London has hosted the Summer Olympics three times: in 1908, 1948, and 2012, making it the first city to host the modern Games three times. The city was also the host of the British Empire Games in 1934. In 2017, London hosted the World Championships in Athletics for the first time. London's most popular sport is football, and it has seven clubs in the Premier League in the 2022–23 season: Arsenal, Brentford, Chelsea, Crystal Palace, Fulham, Tottenham Hotspur, and West Ham United. Other professional men's teams in London are AFC Wimbledon, Barnet, Bromley, Charlton Athletic, Dagenham & Redbridge, Leyton Orient, Millwall, Queens Park Rangers and Sutton United. Four London-based teams are in the Women's Super League: Arsenal, Chelsea, Tottenham and West Ham United. From 1924, the original Wembley Stadium was the home of the English national football team. It hosted the 1966 FIFA World Cup Final, with England defeating West Germany, and served as the venue for the FA Cup Final as well as rugby league's Challenge Cup final. The new Wembley Stadium serves the same purposes and has a capacity of 90,000. The women's team defeated Germany at Wembley to win Euro 2022. Three Premiership Rugby union teams are based in Greater London: Harlequins, London Irish and Saracens. Ealing Trailfinders, London Sottish and Richmond play in the RFU Championship; other rugby union clubs in the city include Scottish, Rosslyn Park F.C., Westcombe Park R.F.C. and Blackheath F.C. Twickenham Stadium in south-west London hosts home matches for the England national rugby union team and has a capacity of 82,000 now that the new south stand has been completed. While rugby league is more popular in the north of England, there are two professional rugby league clubs in London – the London Broncos in the second-tier RFL Championship, who play at the Trailfinders Sports Ground in West Ealing, and the third-tier League 1 team, the London Skolars from Wood Green, Haringey. One of London's best-known annual sports competitions is the Wimbledon Tennis Championships, held at the All England Club in the south-western suburb of Wimbledon since 1877. Played in late June to early July, it is the oldest tennis tournament in the world and widely considered the most prestigious. Founded in London in 1881, Slazenger has provided tennis balls for Wimbledon since 1902, the oldest sponsorship in sport. London has two Test cricket grounds, Lord's (home of Middlesex C.C.C.) in St John's Wood and the Oval (home of Surrey C.C.C.) in Kennington. Lord's has hosted four finals of the Cricket World Cup and is known as the *Home of Cricket*. Alexandra Palace in north London hosts the PDC World Darts Championship and the Masters snooker tournament. Other key annual events are the mass-participation London Marathon, in which some 35,000 runners attempt a 26.2-mile (42.2 km) course around the city, and the University Boat Race (contested between Oxford and Cambridge) on the Thames from Putney to Mortlake. Notable people -------------- See also -------- * Outline of England * Outline of London 1. ↑ London is not a city in the usual UK sense of having city status granted by the Crown. 2. ↑ See also: Independent city § National capitals 3. ↑ The Greater London Authority consists of the Mayor of London and the London Assembly. The London Mayor is distinguished from the Lord Mayor of London, who heads the City of London Corporation running the City of London. 4. ↑ According to the European Statistical Agency (Eurostat), London had the largest Larger Urban Zone in the EU. Eurostat uses the sum of the populations of the contiguous urban core and the surrounding commuting zone as its definition. 5. ↑ According to the *Collins English Dictionary* definition of 'the seat of government', London is not the capital of England, as England does not have its own government. According to the *Oxford English Reference Dictionary* definition of 'the most important town' and many other authorities. 6. ↑ Imperial College London was a constituent college of the University of London between 1908 and 2007. Degrees during this time were awarded by the federal university; however, the college now issues its own degrees.

London

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London

A **bone fracture** (abbreviated **FRX** or **Fx**, **Fx**, or **#**) is a medical condition in which there is a partial or complete break in the continuity of any bone in the body. In more severe cases, the bone may be broken into several fragments, known as a *comminuted fracture*. A bone fracture may be the result of high force impact or stress, or a minimal trauma injury as a result of certain medical conditions that weaken the bones, such as osteoporosis, osteopenia, bone cancer, or osteogenesis imperfecta, where the fracture is then properly termed a pathologic fracture. Signs and symptoms ------------------ Although bone tissue contains no pain receptors, a bone fracture is painful for several reasons: * Breaking in the continuity of the periosteum, with or without similar discontinuity in endosteum, as both contain multiple pain receptors. * Edema and hematoma of nearby soft tissues caused by ruptured bone marrow evokes pressure pain. * Involuntary muscle spasms trying to hold bone fragments in place. Damage to adjacent structures such as nerves, muscles or blood vessels, spinal cord, and nerve roots (for spine fractures), or cranial contents (for skull fractures) may cause other specific signs and symptoms. ### Complications Some fractures may lead to serious complications including a condition known as compartment syndrome. If not treated, eventually, compartment syndrome may require amputation of the affected limb. Other complications may include non-union, where the fractured bone fails to heal or mal-union, where the fractured bone heals in a deformed manner. One form of malunion is the malrotation of a bone, which is especially common after femoral and tibial fractures. Complications of fractures may be classified into three broad groups, depending upon their time of occurrence. These are as follows – 1. *Immediate* complications – occurs at the time of the fracture. 2. *Early* complications – occurring in the initial few days after the fracture. 3. *Late* complications – occurring a long time after the fracture. | Immediate | Early | Late | | --- | --- | --- | | ***Systemic**** Hypovolaemic shock | ***Systemic**** Hypovolemic shock * ARDS – Acute respiratory distress syndrome * Fat embolism syndrome * Deep vein thrombosis * Pulmonary Embolism syndrome * Aseptic traumatic fever * Sepsis (in open fracture ) * Crush syndrome | ***Imperfect union of the fracture**** Delayed union * Non-union * Malunion * Cross union | | ***Local**** Injury to major vessels * Injury to muscles and tendons * Injury to joints * Injury to viscera | ***Local**** Infection * Compartment syndrome | ***Others**** Avascular necrosis * Shortening * Joint stiffness * Sudeck's dystrophy * Osteomyelitis * Ischaemic contracture * Myositis ossificans * Osteoarthritis | Pathophysiology --------------- The natural process of healing a fracture starts when the injured bone and surrounding tissues bleed, forming a fracture hematoma. The blood coagulates to form a blood clot situated between the broken fragments. Within a few days, blood vessels grow into the jelly-like matrix of the blood clot. The new blood vessels bring phagocytes to the area, which gradually removes the non-viable material. The blood vessels also bring fibroblasts in the walls of the vessels and these multiply and produce collagen fibres. In this way, the blood clot is replaced by a matrix of collagen. Collagen's rubbery consistency allows bone fragments to move only a small amount unless severe or persistent force is applied. At this stage, some of the fibroblasts begin to lay down bone matrix in the form of collagen monomers. These monomers spontaneously assemble to form the bone matrix, for which bone crystals (calcium hydroxyapatite) are deposited in amongst, in the form of insoluble crystals. This mineralization of the collagen matrix stiffens it and transforms it into bone. In fact, bone *is* a mineralized collagen matrix; if the mineral is dissolved out of bone, it becomes rubbery. Healing bone callus on average is sufficiently mineralized to show up on X-ray within 6 weeks in adults and less in children. This initial "woven" bone does not have the strong mechanical properties of mature bone. By a process of remodelling, the woven bone is replaced by mature "lamellar" bone. The whole process may take up to 18 months, but in adults, the strength of the healing bone is usually 80% of normal by 3 months after the injury. Several factors may help or hinder the bone healing process. For example, tobacco smoking hinders the process of bone healing, and adequate nutrition (including calcium intake) will help the bone healing process. Weight-bearing stress on bone, after the bone has healed sufficiently to bear the weight, also builds bone strength. Although there are theoretical concerns about NSAIDs slowing the rate of healing, there is not enough evidence to warrant withholding the use of this type analgesic in simple fractures. ### Effects of smoking Smokers generally have lower bone density than non-smokers, so they have a much higher risk of fractures. There is also evidence that smoking delays bone healing. Diagnosis --------- A bone fracture may be diagnosed based on the history given and the physical examination performed. Radiographic imaging often is performed to confirm the diagnosis. Under certain circumstances, radiographic examination of the nearby joints is indicated in order to exclude dislocations and fracture-dislocations. In situations where projectional radiography alone is insufficient, Computed Tomography (CT) or Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) may be indicated. ### Classification In orthopedic medicine, fractures are classified in various ways. Historically they are named after the physician who first described the fracture conditions, however, there are more systematic classifications as well. They may be divided into stable versus unstable depending on the likelihood that they may shift further. #### Mechanism * Traumatic fracture – a fracture due to sustained trauma. e.g., fractures caused by a fall, road traffic accident, fight, etc. * Pathologic fracture – a fracture through a bone that has been made weak by some underlying disease is called pathological fracture. e.g., a fracture through a bone weakened by metastasis. Osteoporosis is the most common cause of pathological fracture. * Periprosthetic fracture – a fracture at the point of mechanical weakness at the end of an implant. #### Soft-tissue involvement * Closed/simple fractures are those in which the overlying skin is intact * Open/compound fractures involve wounds that communicate with the fracture, or where fracture hematoma is exposed, and may thus expose bone to contamination. Open injuries carry a higher risk of infection. Reports indicate an incidence of infection after internal fixation of closed fracture of 1-2%, rising to 30% in open fractures. + Clean fracture + Contaminated fracture #### Displacement * Non-displaced * Displaced + Translated, or *ad latus*, with sideways displacement. + Angulated + Rotated + Shortened, a reduction in overall bone length when displaced fracture fragments overlap #### Fracture pattern * Linear fracture – a fracture that is parallel to the bone's long axis * Transverse fracture – a fracture that is at a right angle to the bone's long axis * Oblique fracture – a fracture that is diagonal to a bone's long axis (more than 30°) * Spiral fracture – a fracture where at least one part of the bone has been twisted * Compression fracture/wedge fracture – usually occurs in the vertebrae, for example when the front portion of a vertebra in the spine collapses due to osteoporosis (a medical condition which causes bones to become brittle and susceptible to fracture, with or without trauma) * Impacted fracture – a fracture caused when bone fragments are driven into each other * Avulsion fracture – a fracture where a fragment of bone is separated from the main mass #### Fragments * Incomplete fracture – a fracture in which the bone fragments are still partially joined, in such cases, there is a crack in the osseous tissue that does not completely traverse the width of the bone. * Complete fracture – a fracture in which bone fragments separate completely. * Comminuted fracture – a fracture in which the bone has broken into several pieces. #### Anatomical location An anatomical classification may begin with specifying the involved body part, such as the head or arm, followed by more specific localization. Fractures that have additional definition criteria than merely localization often may be classified as subtypes of fractures, such as a Holstein-Lewis fracture being a subtype of a humerus fracture. Most typical examples in an orthopaedic classification given in the previous section cannot be classified appropriately into any specific part of an anatomical classification, however, as they may apply to multiple anatomical fracture sites. * Skull fracture + Basilar skull fracture + Blowout fracture – a fracture of the walls or floor of the orbit + Mandibular fracture + Nasal fracture + Le Fort fracture of skull – facial fractures involving the maxillary bone and surrounding structures in a usually bilateral and either horizontal, pyramidal, or transverse way. * Spinal fracture + Cervical fracture - Fracture of *C1*, including Jefferson fracture - Fracture of *C2*, including Hangman's fracture - Flexion teardrop fracture – a fracture of the anteroinferior aspect of a cervical vertebral + Clay-shoveler fracture – fracture through the spinous process of a vertebra occurring at any of the lower cervical or upper thoracic vertebrae + Burst fracture – in which a vertebra breaks from a high-energy axial load + Compression fracture – a collapse of a vertebra, often in the form of wedge fractures due to larger compression anteriorly + Chance fracture – compression injury to the anterior portion of a vertebral body with concomitant distraction injury to posterior elements + Holdsworth fracture – an unstable fracture dislocation of the thoraco lumbar junction of the spine * Rib fracture * Sternal fracture * Shoulder fracture + Clavicle fracture + Scapular fracture * Arm fracture + Humerus fracture (fracture of upper arm) - Supracondylar fracture - Holstein-Lewis fracture – a fracture of the distal third of the humerus resulting in entrapment of the radial nerve + Forearm fracture - Ulnar fracture * Monteggia fracture – a fracture of the proximal third of the ulna with the dislocation of the head of the radius * Hume fracture – a fracture of the olecranon with an associated anterior dislocation of the radial head - Radius fracture * Essex-Lopresti fracture – a fracture of the radial head with concomitant dislocation of the distal radio-ulnar joint with disruption of the interosseous membrane * Distal radius fracture + Galeazzi fracture – a fracture of the radius with dislocation of the distal radioulnar joint + Colles' fracture – a distal fracture of the radius with dorsal (posterior) displacement of the wrist and hand + Smith's fracture – a distal fracture of the radius with volar (ventral) displacement of the wrist and hand + Barton's fracture – an intra-articular fracture of the distal radius with dislocation of the radiocarpal joint * Hand fracture + Scaphoid fracture + Rolando fracture – a comminuted intra-articular fracture through the base of the first metacarpal bone + Bennett's fracture – a fracture of the base of the first metacarpal bone which extends into the carpometacarpal (CMC) joint + Boxer's fracture – a fracture at the neck of a metacarpal * Broken finger – a fracture of the carpal phalanges * Pelvic fracture + Fracture of the hip bone + Duverney fracture – an isolated pelvic fracture involving only the iliac wing * Femoral fracture + Hip fracture (anatomically a fracture of the femur bone and not the hip bone) * Patella fracture * Crus fracture + Tibia fracture - Pilon fracture - Tibial plateau fracture - Bumper fracture – a fracture of the lateral tibial plateau caused by a forced valgus applied to the knee - Segond fracture – an avulsion fracture of the lateral tibial condyle - Gosselin fracture – a fractures of the tibial plafond into anterior and posterior fragments - Toddler's fracture – an undisplaced and spiral fracture of the distal third to distal half of the tibia + Fibular fracture - Maisonneuve fracture – a spiral fracture of the proximal third of the fibula associated with a tear of the distal tibiofibular syndesmosis and the interosseous membrane - Le Fort fracture of ankle – a vertical fracture of the antero-medial part of the distal fibula with avulsion of the anterior tibiofibular ligament - Bosworth fracture – a fracture with an associated fixed posterior dislocation of the distal fibular fragment that becomes trapped behind the posterior tibial tubercle; the injury is caused by severe external rotation of the ankle + Combined tibia and fibula fracture - Trimalleolar fracture – involving the lateral malleolus, medial malleolus, and the distal posterior aspect of the tibia - Bimalleolar fracture – involving the lateral malleolus and the medial malleolus - Pott's fracture * Foot fracture + Lisfranc fracture – in which one or all of the metatarsals are displaced from the tarsus + Jones fracture – a fracture of the proximal end of the fifth metatarsal + March fracture – a fracture of the distal third of one of the metatarsals occurring because of recurrent stress + Cuneiform fracture – a fracture of one of the three cuneiform bones typically due to direct blow, axial load, or avulsion + Calcaneal fracture – a fracture of the calcaneus (heel bone) * Broken toe – a fracture of the pedal phalanges ### OTA/AO classification The Orthopaedic Trauma Association Committee for Coding and Classification published its classification system in 1996, adopting a similar system to the 1987 AO Foundation system. In 2007, they extended their system, unifying the two systems regarding wrist, hand, foot, and ankle fractures. ### Classifications named after people A number of classifications are named after the person (eponymous) who developed it. * "Denis classification" for spinal fractures * "Frykman classification" for forearm fractures (fractures of radius and ulna) * "Gustilo open fracture classification" * "Letournel and Judet Classification" for Acetabular fractures * "Neer classification" for humerus fractures * Seinsheimer classification, Evans-Jensen classification, Pipkin classification, and Garden classification for hip fractures Prevention ---------- Both high- and low-force trauma can cause bone fracture injuries. Preventive efforts to reduce motor vehicle crashes, the most common cause of high-force trauma, include reducing distractions while driving. Common distractions are driving under the influence and texting or calling while driving, both of which lead to an approximate 6-fold increase in crashes. Wearing a seatbelt can also reduce the likelihood of injury in a collision. 30 km/h or 20 mph speed limits (as opposed to the more common intracity 50 km/h / 30 mph) also drastically reduce the risk of accident, serious injury and even death in crashes between motor vehicles and humans. Vision Zero aims to reduce traffic deaths to zero through better traffic design and other measures and to drastically reduce traffic injuries which would prevent many bone fractures. A common cause of low-force trauma is an at-home fall. When considering preventative efforts, the National Institute of Health (NIH) examines ways to reduce the likelihood of falling, the force of the fall, and bone fragility. To prevent at-home falls they suggest keeping cords out of high-traffic areas where someone could trip, installing handrails and keeping stairways well-lit, and installing an assistive bar near the bathtub in the washroom for support. To reduce the impact of a fall the NIH recommends to try falling straight down on your buttocks or onto your hands. Some sports have a relatively high risk of bone fractures as a common sports injury. Preventive measures depend to some extent on the specific sport, but learning proper technique, wearing protective gear and having a realistic estimation of one's own capabilities and limitations can all help reduce the risk of bone fracture. In contact sports rules have been put in place to protect athlete health, such as the prohibition of unnecessary roughness in American football. Taking calcium and vitamin D supplements can help strengthen your bones. Vitamin D supplements combined with additional calcium marginally reduces the risk of hip fractures and other types of fracture in older adults; however, vitamin D supplementation alone did not reduce the risk of fractures. Patterns -------- | Photo | Type | Description | Causes | Effects | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | Linear fracture | Parallel to the bone's long axis | | | | | Transverse fracture | At a right angle to the bone's long axis | May occur when the bone is bent,and snaps in the middle. | | | | Oblique fracture | Diagonal to a bone's long axis (more than 30°) | | | | | Spiral fracture or torsion fracture | At least one part of the bone has been twisted (image shows an arm-wrestler) | Torsion on the bone | May rotate, and must be reduced to heal properly | | | Compression fracture/wedge fracture | Usually occurs in the vertebrae, for example when the front portion of a vertebra in the spine collapses due to osteoporosis (a medical condition which causes bones to become brittle and susceptible to fracture, with or without trauma) | | | | | Impacted fracture | Bone fragments are driven into each other | | | | | Avulsion fracture | A fragment of bone is separated from the main mass (image shows a Busch fracture) | | | | | Comminuted fracture | The bone is shattered | often from crushing injuries | | Treatment --------- Treatment of bone fractures are broadly classified as surgical or conservative, the latter basically referring to any non-surgical procedure, such as pain management, immobilization or other non-surgical stabilization. A similar classification is *open* versus *closed treatment*, in which *open treatment* refers to any treatment in which the fracture site is opened surgically, regardless of whether the fracture is an open or closed fracture. ### Pain management In arm fractures in children, ibuprofen has been found to be as effective as a combination of paracetamol and codeine. In the EMS setting it might be applicable to administer 1mg/kg of iv ketamine to achieve a dissociated state. ### Immobilization Since bone healing is a natural process that will occur most often, fracture treatment aims to ensure the best possible *function* of the injured part after healing. Bone fractures typically are treated by restoring the fractured pieces of bone to their natural positions (if necessary), and maintaining those positions while the bone heals. Often, aligning the bone, called reduction, in a good position and verifying the improved alignment with an X-ray is all that is needed. This process is extremely painful without anaesthesia, about as painful as breaking the bone itself. To this end, a fractured limb usually is immobilized with a plaster or fibreglass cast or splint that holds the bones in position and immobilizes the joints above and below the fracture. When the initial post-fracture oedema or swelling goes down, the fracture may be placed in a removable brace or orthosis. If being treated with surgery, surgical nails, screws, plates, and wires are used to hold the fractured bone together more directly. Alternatively, fractured bones may be treated by the Ilizarov method which is a form of an external fixator. Occasionally smaller bones, such as phalanges of the toes and fingers, may be treated without the cast, by buddy wrapping them, which serves a similar function to making a cast. A device called a Suzuki frame may be used in cases of deep, complex intra-articular digit fractures. By allowing only limited movement, immobilization helps preserve anatomical alignment while enabling callus formation, toward the target of achieving union. Splinting results in the same outcome as casting in children who have a distal radius fracture with little shifting. ### Surgery Surgical methods of treating fractures have their own risks and benefits, but usually, surgery is performed only if conservative treatment has failed, is very likely to fail, or is likely to result in a poor functional outcome. With some fractures such as hip fractures (usually caused by osteoporosis), surgery is offered routinely because non-operative treatment results in prolonged immobilisation, which commonly results in complications including chest infections, pressure sores, deconditioning, deep vein thrombosis (DVT), and pulmonary embolism, which are more dangerous than surgery. When a joint surface is damaged by a fracture, surgery is also commonly recommended to make an accurate anatomical reduction and restore the smoothness of the joint. Infection is especially dangerous in bones, due to the recrudescent nature of bone infections. Bone tissue is predominantly extracellular matrix, rather than living cells, and the few blood vessels needed to support this low metabolism are only able to bring a limited number of immune cells to an injury to fight infection. For this reason, open fractures and osteotomies call for very careful antiseptic procedures and prophylactic use of antibiotics. Occasionally, bone grafting is used to treat a fracture. Sometimes bones are reinforced with metal. These implants must be designed and installed with care. *Stress shielding* occurs when plates or screws carry too large of a portion of the bone's load, causing atrophy. This problem is reduced, but not eliminated, by the use of low-modulus materials, including titanium and its alloys. The heat generated by the friction of installing hardware can accumulate easily and damage bone tissue, reducing the strength of the connections. If dissimilar metals are installed in contact with one another (i.e., a titanium plate with cobalt-chromium alloy or stainless steel screws), galvanic corrosion will result. The metal ions produced can damage the bone locally and may cause systemic effects as well. ### Other Bone stimulation with either electromagnetic or ultrasound waves may be suggested as an alternative to surgery to reduce the healing time for non-union fractures. The proposed mechanism of action is by stimulating osteoblasts and other proteins that form bones using these modalities. The evidence supporting the use of ultrasound and shockwave therapy for improving unions is very weak and it is likely that these approaches do not make a clinically significant difference for a delayed union or non-union. Children -------- In children, whose bones are still developing, there are risks of either a growth plate injury or a greenstick fracture. * A greenstick fracture occurs due to mechanical failure on the tension side. That is since the bone is not so brittle as it would be in an adult, it does not completely fracture, but rather exhibits bowing without complete disruption of the bone's cortex in the surface opposite the applied force. * Growth plate injuries, as in Salter-Harris fractures, require careful treatment and accurate reduction to make sure that the bone continues to grow normally. * Plastic deformation of the bone, in which the bone permanently bends, but does not break, also is possible in children. These injuries may require an osteotomy (bone cut) to realign the bone if it is fixed and cannot be realigned by closed methods. * Certain fractures mainly occur in children, including fracture of the clavicle and supracondylar fracture of the humerus. See also -------- * Stress fracture * Distraction osteogenesis * Rickets * Catagmatic * H. Winnett Orr, U.S. Army surgeon who developed Orthopedic plaster casts

Bone fracture

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone_fracture

A **ballistic missile** is a type of missile that uses projectile motion to deliver warheads on a target. These weapons are powered only during relatively brief periods—most of the flight is unpowered. Short-range ballistic missiles stay within the Earth's atmosphere, while intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) are launched on a sub-orbital flight. These weapons are in a distinct category from cruise missiles, which are aerodynamically guided in powered flight. Unlike cruise missiles, which are restricted to the atmosphere, it is advantageous for ballistic missiles to avoid the denser parts of the atmosphere and they may travel above the atmosphere into outer space. History ------- The earliest form of ballistic missile dates from the 13th century with its use derived from the history of rockets. In the 14th century, the Ming Chinese navy used an early form of a ballistic missile weapon called the Huolongchushui in naval battles against enemy ships. One modern pioneer ballistic missile was the A-4, commonly known as the V-2 developed by Nazi Germany in the 1930s and 1940s under the direction of Wernher von Braun. The first successful launch of a V-2 was on October 3, 1942, and it began operation on September 6, 1944, against Paris, followed by an attack on London two days later. By the end of World War II in Europe in May 1945, more than 3,000 V-2s had been launched. The R-7 Semyorka was the first intercontinental ballistic missile. Flight ------ An intercontinental ballistic missile trajectory consists of three parts: the powered flight portion; the free-flight portion, which constitutes most of the flight time; and the re-entry phase, where the missile re-enters the Earth's atmosphere. The flight phases for shorter-range ballistic missiles are essentially the first two phases of the ICBM, as some ballistic categories do not leave the atmosphere. Ballistic missiles can be launched from fixed sites or mobile launchers, including vehicles (e.g., transporter erector launchers), aircraft, ships, and submarines. The powered flight portion can last from a few tenths of seconds to several minutes and can consist of multiple rocket stages. When the fuel is exhausted, no more thrust is provided and the missile enters free flight. In order to cover large distances, ballistic missiles are usually launched into a high sub-orbital spaceflight; for intercontinental missiles, the highest altitude (apogee) reached during free-flight is about 4,500 kilometers (2,800 mi). The re-entry stage begins at an altitude where atmospheric drag plays a significant part in missile trajectory, and lasts until missile impact. Re-entry vehicles re-enter the Earth's atmosphere at very high velocities, on the order of 6–8 kilometers per second (22,000–29,000 km/h; 13,000–18,000 mph) at ICBM ranges. Types ----- Ballistic missiles vary widely in range and use, and are often divided into categories based on range. Various schemes are used by different countries to categorize the ranges of ballistic missiles: * Air-launched ballistic missile (ALBM) * Tactical ballistic missile: Range between about 150 to 300 kilometres (93 to 186 mi) * Theatre ballistic missile (TBM): Range between 300 to 3,500 kilometres (190 to 2,170 mi) + Short-range ballistic missile (SRBM): Range between 300 to 1,000 kilometres (190 to 620 mi) + Medium-range ballistic missile (MRBM): Range between 1,000 to 3,500 kilometres (620 to 2,170 mi) * Intermediate-range ballistic missile (IRBM) or long-range ballistic missile (LRBM): Range between 3,500 to 5,500 kilometres (2,200 to 3,400 mi) * Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM): Range greater than 5,500 kilometres (3,400 mi) * Submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM): Launched from ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs) Most current designs have intercontinental range with a notable exception of Indian operational SLBM Sagarika and K-4 as well as North Korea's currently operationally deployed KN-11 which might not have intercontinental range. A comparable missile would be the decommissioned China's JL-1 SLBM with a range of less than 2,500 km. Tactical short- and medium-range missiles are often collectively referred to as tactical and theatre ballistic missiles, respectively. Long- and medium-range ballistic missiles are generally designed to deliver nuclear weapons because their payload is too limited for conventional explosives to be cost-effective in comparison to conventional bomber aircraft (though the U.S. is evaluating the idea of a conventionally armed ICBM for near-instant global air strike capability, despite the high costs). Quasi-ballistic missiles ------------------------ A quasi-ballistic missile (also called a semi-ballistic missile) is a category of missile that has a low trajectory and/or is largely ballistic but can perform maneuvers in flight or make unexpected changes in direction and range. They include anti-ship ballistic missiles. At a lower trajectory than a ballistic missile, a quasi-ballistic missile can maintain higher speed, thus allowing its target less time to react to the attack, at the cost of reduced range. The Russian Iskander is a quasi-ballistic missile. The Russian Iskander-M cruises at hypersonic speed of 2,100–2,600 m/s (Mach 6–7) at a height of 50 km. The Iskander-M weighs 4,615 kg, carries a warhead of 710–800 kg, has a range of 480 km and achieves a CEP of 5–7 meters. During flight it can maneuver at different altitudes and trajectories to evade anti-ballistic missiles. ### List of quasi-ballistic missiles  India * KN-23 * Shaurya (active) * Pralay (under development)  Soviet Union\ Russia * Iskander (active) Hypersonic ballistic missile ---------------------------- Many ballistic missiles reach hypersonic speeds (i.e. Mach 5 and above) when they re-enter the atmosphere from space. However, in common military terminology, the term "hypersonic ballistic missile" is generally only given to those that can be maneuvered before hitting their target and don't follow a simple ballistic trajectory. Throw-weight ------------ Throw-weight is a measure of the effective weight of ballistic missile payloads. It is measured in kilograms or tonnes. Throw-weight equals the total weight of a missile's warheads, reentry vehicles, self-contained dispensing mechanisms, penetration aids, and missile guidance systems: generally all components except for the launch rocket booster and launch fuel. Throw-weight may refer to any type of warhead, but in normal modern usage, it refers almost exclusively to nuclear or thermonuclear payloads. It was once also a consideration in the design of naval ships and the number and size of their guns. Throw-weight was used as a criterion in classifying different types of missiles during Strategic Arms Limitation Talks between the Soviet Union and the United States. The term became politically controversial during debates over the arms control accord, as critics of the treaty alleged that Soviet missiles were able to carry larger payloads and so enabled the Soviets to maintain higher throw-weight than an American force with a roughly comparable number of lower-payload missiles. The missiles with the world's heaviest payloads are the Russian SS-18 and Chinese CSS-4 and as of 2017[update], Russia was developing a new heavy-lift, liquid-propellant ICBM called the Sarmat. ### Depressed trajectory Throw-weight is normally calculated using an optimal ballistic trajectory from one point on the surface of the Earth to another. An optimal trajectory maximizes the total payload (throw-weight) using the available impulse of the missile. By reducing the payload weight, different trajectories can be selected, which can either increase the nominal range or decrease the total time in flight. A depressed trajectory is non-optimal, as a lower and flatter trajectory takes less time between launch and impact but has a lower throw-weight. The primary reasons to choose a depressed trajectory are to evade anti-ballistic missile systems by reducing the time available to shoot down the attacking vehicle (especially during the vulnerable burn-phase against space-based ABM systems) or a nuclear first-strike scenario. An alternate, non-military purpose for a depressed trajectory is in conjunction with the spaceplane concept with use of air-breathing engines, which requires the ballistic missile to remain low enough inside the atmosphere for air-breathing engines to function. Combat use ---------- The following ballistic missiles have been used in combat: * 9K720 Iskander * Ababil-100 * Al-Samoud 2 * DF-12 * Fateh-110 * LORA * MGM-140 ATACMS * OTR-21 Tochka * Qaher-1/2M * Scud types * V-2 * Zolfaghar See also -------- * Ballistic missile flight phases * Missile (guided) * MIRV * NATO reporting name (has lists of various Soviet missiles) * Surface-to-surface missile * Weapons of mass destruction * List of currently active missiles of the United States military * List of ICBMs * List of missiles * List of missiles by nation * List of NATO reporting names for ballistic missile submarines Further reading --------------- * Futter, Andrew (2013). *Ballistic Missile Defence and US National Security Policy: Normalisation and Acceptance after the Cold War*. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-81732-5. * Neufeld, Jacob (1990). *The Development of Ballistic Missiles in the United States Air Force, 1945–1960*. Office of Air Force History, U.S. Air Force. ISBN 0-912799-62-5. * Swaine, Michael D.; Swanger, Rachel M.; Kawakami, Takashi (2001). *Japan and Ballistic Missile Defense*. Rand. ISBN 0-8330-3020-5.

Ballistic missile

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballistic_missile

A **steam engine** is a heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid. The steam engine uses the force produced by steam pressure to push a piston back and forth inside a cylinder. This pushing force can be transformed, by a connecting rod and crank, into rotational force for work. The term "steam engine" is generally applied only to reciprocating engines as just described, not to the steam turbine. Steam engines are external combustion engines, where the working fluid is separated from the combustion products. The ideal thermodynamic cycle used to analyze this process is called the Rankine cycle. In general usage, the term *steam engine* can refer to either complete steam plants (including boilers etc.), such as railway steam locomotives and portable engines, or may refer to the piston or turbine machinery alone, as in the beam engine and stationary steam engine. Although steam-driven devices were known as early as the aeolipile in the first century AD, with a few other uses recorded in the 16th century, in 1606 Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont patented his invention of the first steam-powered water pump for draining mines. Thomas Savery is considered the inventor of the first commercially used steam powered device, a steam pump that used steam pressure operating directly on the water. The first commercially successful engine that could transmit continuous power to a machine was developed in 1712 by Thomas Newcomen. James Watt made a critical improvement in 1764, by removing spent steam to a separate vessel for condensation, greatly improving the amount of work obtained per unit of fuel consumed. By the 19th century, stationary steam engines powered the factories of the Industrial Revolution. Steam engines replaced sails for ships on paddle steamers, and steam locomotives operated on the railways. Reciprocating piston type steam engines were the dominant source of power until the early 20th century, when advances in the design of electric motors and internal combustion engines resulted in the gradual replacement of steam engines in commercial usage. Steam turbines replaced reciprocating engines in power generation, due to lower cost, higher operating speed, and higher efficiency. History ------- ### Early experiments One recorded rudimentary steam-powered "engine" was the aeolipile described by Hero of Alexandria, a Greek mathematician and engineer in Roman Egypt in the first century AD. In the following centuries, the few steam-powered "engines" known were, like the aeolipile, essentially experimental devices used by inventors to demonstrate the properties of steam. A rudimentary steam turbine device was described by Taqi al-Din in Ottoman Egypt in 1551 and by Giovanni Branca in Italy in 1629. The Spanish inventor Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont received patents in 1606 for 50 steam-powered inventions, including a water pump for draining inundated mines. Denis Papin, a Huguenot, did some useful work on the steam digester in 1679, and first used a piston to raise weights in 1690. ### Pumping engines The first commercial steam-powered device was a water pump, developed in 1698 by Thomas Savery. It used condensing steam to create a vacuum which raised water from below and then used steam pressure to raise it higher. Small engines were effective though larger models were problematic. They had a very limited lift height and were prone to boiler explosions. Savery's engine was used in mines, pumping stations and supplying water to water wheels powering textile machinery. Savery's engine was of low cost. Bento de Moura Portugal introduced an improvement of Savery's construction "to render it capable of working itself", as described by John Smeaton in the Philosophical Transactions published in 1751. It continued to be manufactured until the late 18th century. At least one engine was still known to be operating in 1820. ### Piston steam engines The first commercially successful engine that could transmit continuous power to a machine was the atmospheric engine, invented by Thomas Newcomen around 1712. It improved on Savery's steam pump, using a piston as proposed by Papin. Newcomen's engine was relatively inefficient, and mostly used for pumping water. It worked by creating a partial vacuum by condensing steam under a piston within a cylinder. It was employed for draining mine workings at depths originally impractical using traditional means, and for providing reusable water for driving waterwheels at factories sited away from a suitable "head". Water that passed over the wheel was pumped up into a storage reservoir above the wheel. In 1780 James Pickard patented the use of a flywheel and crankshaft to provide rotative motion from an improved Newcomen engine. In 1720, Jacob Leupold described a two-cylinder high-pressure steam engine. The invention was published in his major work "Theatri Machinarum Hydraulicarum". The engine used two heavy pistons to provide motion to a water pump. Each piston was raised by the steam pressure and returned to its original position by gravity. The two pistons shared a common four-way rotary valve connected directly to a steam boiler. The next major step occurred when James Watt developed (1763–1775) an improved version of Newcomen's engine, with a separate condenser. Boulton and Watt's early engines used half as much coal as John Smeaton's improved version of Newcomen's. Newcomen's and Watt's early engines were "atmospheric". They were powered by air pressure pushing a piston into the partial vacuum generated by condensing steam, instead of the pressure of expanding steam. The engine cylinders had to be large because the only usable force acting on them was atmospheric pressure. Watt developed his engine further, modifying it to provide a rotary motion suitable for driving machinery. This enabled factories to be sited away from rivers, and accelerated the pace of the Industrial Revolution. ### High-pressure engines The meaning of high pressure, together with an actual value above ambient, depends on the era in which the term was used. For early use of the term Van Reimsdijk refers to steam being at a sufficiently high pressure that it could be exhausted to atmosphere without reliance on a vacuum to enable it to perform useful work. Ewing 1894, p. 22 states that Watt's condensing engines were known, at the time, as low pressure compared to high pressure, non-condensing engines of the same period. Watt's patent prevented others from making high pressure and compound engines. Shortly after Watt's patent expired in 1800, Richard Trevithick and, separately, Oliver Evans in 1801 introduced engines using high-pressure steam; Trevithick obtained his high-pressure engine patent in 1802, and Evans had made several working models before then. These were much more powerful for a given cylinder size than previous engines and could be made small enough for transport applications. Thereafter, technological developments and improvements in manufacturing techniques (partly brought about by the adoption of the steam engine as a power source) resulted in the design of more efficient engines that could be smaller, faster, or more powerful, depending on the intended application. The Cornish engine was developed by Trevithick and others in the 1810s. It was a compound cycle engine that used high-pressure steam expansively, then condensed the low-pressure steam, making it relatively efficient. The Cornish engine had irregular motion and torque through the cycle, limiting it mainly to pumping. Cornish engines were used in mines and for water supply until the late 19th century. ### Horizontal stationary engine Early builders of stationary steam engines considered that horizontal cylinders would be subject to excessive wear. Their engines were therefore arranged with the piston axis in vertical position. In time the horizontal arrangement became more popular, allowing compact, but powerful engines to be fitted in smaller spaces. The acme of the horizontal engine was the Corliss steam engine, patented in 1849, which was a four-valve counter flow engine with separate steam admission and exhaust valves and automatic variable steam cutoff. When Corliss was given the Rumford Medal, the committee said that "no one invention since Watt's time has so enhanced the efficiency of the steam engine". In addition to using 30% less steam, it provided more uniform speed due to variable steam cut off, making it well suited to manufacturing, especially cotton spinning. ### Road vehicles The first experimental road-going steam-powered vehicles were built in the late 18th century, but it was not until after Richard Trevithick had developed the use of high-pressure steam, around 1800, that mobile steam engines became a practical proposition. The first half of the 19th century saw great progress in steam vehicle design, and by the 1850s it was becoming viable to produce them on a commercial basis. This progress was dampened by legislation which limited or prohibited the use of steam-powered vehicles on roads. Improvements in vehicle technology continued from the 1860s to the 1920s. Steam road vehicles were used for many applications. In the 20th century, the rapid development of internal combustion engine technology led to the demise of the steam engine as a source of propulsion of vehicles on a commercial basis, with relatively few remaining in use beyond the Second World War. Many of these vehicles were acquired by enthusiasts for preservation, and numerous examples are still in existence. In the 1960s, the air pollution problems in California gave rise to a brief period of interest in developing and studying steam-powered vehicles as a possible means of reducing the pollution. Apart from interest by steam enthusiasts, the occasional replica vehicle, and experimental technology, no steam vehicles are in production at present. ### Marine engines Near the end of the 19th century, compound engines came into widespread use. Compound engines exhausted steam into successively larger cylinders to accommodate the higher volumes at reduced pressures, giving improved efficiency. These stages were called expansions, with double- and triple-expansion engines being common, especially in shipping where efficiency was important to reduce the weight of coal carried. Steam engines remained the dominant source of power until the early 20th century, when advances in the design of the steam turbine, electric motors and internal combustion engines gradually resulted in the replacement of reciprocating (piston) steam engines, with merchant shipping relying increasingly upon diesel engines, and warships on the steam turbine. ### Steam locomotives As the development of steam engines progressed through the 18th century, various attempts were made to apply them to road and railway use. In 1784, William Murdoch, a Scottish inventor, built a model steam road locomotive. An early working model of a steam rail locomotive was designed and constructed by steamboat pioneer John Fitch in the United States probably during the 1780s or 1790s. His steam locomotive used interior bladed wheels [*clarification needed*] guided by rails or tracks. The first full-scale working railway steam locomotive was built by Richard Trevithick in the United Kingdom and, on 21 February 1804, the world's first railway journey took place as Trevithick's unnamed steam locomotive hauled a train along the tramway from the Pen-y-darren ironworks, near Merthyr Tydfil to Abercynon in south Wales. The design incorporated a number of important innovations that included using high-pressure steam which reduced the weight of the engine and increased its efficiency. Trevithick visited the Newcastle area later in 1804 and the colliery railways in north-east England became the leading centre for experimentation and development of steam locomotives. Trevithick continued his own experiments using a trio of locomotives, concluding with the Catch Me Who Can in 1808. Only four years later, the successful twin-cylinder locomotive *Salamanca* by Matthew Murray was used by the edge railed rack and pinion Middleton Railway. In 1825 George Stephenson built the *Locomotion* for the Stockton and Darlington Railway. This was the first public steam railway in the world and then in 1829, he built *The Rocket* which was entered in and won the Rainhill Trials. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway opened in 1830 making exclusive use of steam power for both passenger and freight trains. Steam locomotives continued to be manufactured until the late twentieth century in places such as China and the former East Germany (where the DR Class 52.80 was produced). ### Steam turbines The final major evolution of the steam engine design was the use of steam turbines starting in the late part of the 19th century. Steam turbines are generally more efficient than reciprocating piston type steam engines (for outputs above several hundred horsepower), have fewer moving parts, and provide rotary power directly instead of through a connecting rod system or similar means. Steam turbines virtually replaced reciprocating engines in electricity generating stations early in the 20th century, where their efficiency, higher speed appropriate to generator service, and smooth rotation were advantages. Today most electric power is provided by steam turbines. In the United States, 90% of the electric power is produced in this way using a variety of heat sources. Steam turbines were extensively applied for propulsion of large ships throughout most of the 20th century. ### Present development Although the reciprocating steam engine is no longer in widespread commercial use, various companies are exploring or exploiting the potential of the engine as an alternative to internal combustion engines. Components and accessories of steam engines ------------------------------------------- There are two fundamental components of a steam plant: the boiler or steam generator, and the "motor unit", referred to itself as a "steam engine". Stationary steam engines in fixed buildings may have the boiler and engine in separate buildings some distance apart. For portable or mobile use, such as steam locomotives, the two are mounted together. The widely used reciprocating engine typically consisted of a cast-iron cylinder, piston, connecting rod and beam or a crank and flywheel, and miscellaneous linkages. Steam was alternately supplied and exhausted by one or more valves. Speed control was either automatic, using a governor, or by a manual valve. The cylinder casting contained steam supply and exhaust ports. Engines equipped with a condenser are a separate type than those that exhaust to the atmosphere. Other components are often present; pumps (such as an injector) to supply water to the boiler during operation, condensers to recirculate the water and recover the latent heat of vaporisation, and superheaters to raise the temperature of the steam above its saturated vapour point, and various mechanisms to increase the draft for fireboxes. When coal is used, a chain or screw stoking mechanism and its drive engine or motor may be included to move the fuel from a supply bin (bunker) to the firebox. ### Heat source The heat required for boiling the water and raising the temperature of the steam can be derived from various sources, most commonly from burning combustible materials with an appropriate supply of air in a closed space (e.g., combustion chamber, firebox, furnace). In the case of model or toy steam engines and a few full scale cases, the heat source can be an electric heating element. ### Boilers Boilers are pressure vessels that contain water to be boiled, and features that transfer the heat to the water as effectively as possible. The two most common types are: Water-tube boilerWater is passed through tubes surrounded by hot gas. Fire-tube boilerHot gas is passed through tubes immersed in water, the same water also circulates in a water jacket surrounding the firebox and, in high-output locomotive boilers, also passes through tubes in the firebox itself (thermic syphons and security circulators). Fire-tube boilers were the main type used for early high-pressure steam (typical steam locomotive practice), but they were to a large extent displaced by more economical water tube boilers in the late 19th century for marine propulsion and large stationary applications. Many boilers raise the temperature of the steam after it has left that part of the boiler where it is in contact with the water. Known as superheating it turns 'wet steam' into 'superheated steam'. It avoids the steam condensing in the engine cylinders, and gives a significantly higher efficiency. ### Motor units In a steam engine, a piston or steam turbine or any other similar device for doing mechanical work takes a supply of steam at high pressure and temperature and gives out a supply of steam at lower pressure and temperature, using as much of the difference in steam energy as possible to do mechanical work. These "motor units" are often called 'steam engines' in their own right. Engines using compressed air or other gases differ from steam engines only in details that depend on the nature of the gas although compressed air has been used in steam engines without change. ### Cold sink As with all heat engines, the majority of primary energy must be emitted as waste heat at relatively low temperature. The simplest cold sink is to vent the steam to the environment. This is often used on steam locomotives to avoid the weight and bulk of condensers. Some of the released steam is vented up the chimney so as to increase the draw on the fire, which greatly increases engine power, but reduces efficiency. Sometimes the waste heat from the engine is useful itself, and in those cases, very high overall efficiency can be obtained. Steam engines in stationary power plants use surface condensers as a cold sink. The condensers are cooled by water flow from oceans, rivers, lakes, and often by cooling towers which evaporate water to provide cooling energy removal. The resulting condensed hot water (*condensate*), is then pumped back up to pressure and sent back to the boiler. A dry-type cooling tower is similar to an automobile radiator and is used in locations where water is costly. Waste heat can also be ejected by evaporative (wet) cooling towers, which use a secondary external water circuit that evaporates some of flow to the air. River boats initially used a jet condenser in which cold water from the river is injected into the exhaust steam from the engine. Cooling water and condensate mix. While this was also applied for sea-going vessels, generally after only a few days of operation the boiler would become coated with deposited salt, reducing performance and increasing the risk of a boiler explosion. Starting about 1834, the use of surface condensers on ships eliminated fouling of the boilers, and improved engine efficiency. Evaporated water cannot be used for subsequent purposes (other than rain somewhere), whereas river water can be re-used. In all cases, the steam plant boiler feed water, which must be kept pure, is kept separate from the cooling water or air. ### Water pump Most steam boilers have a means to supply water whilst at pressure, so that they may be run continuously. Utility and industrial boilers commonly use multi-stage centrifugal pumps; however, other types are used. Another means of supplying lower-pressure boiler feed water is an injector, which uses a steam jet usually supplied from the boiler. Injectors became popular in the 1850s but are no longer widely used, except in applications such as steam locomotives. It is the pressurization of the water that circulates through the steam boiler that allows the water to be raised to temperatures well above 100 °C (212 °F) boiling point of water at one atmospheric pressure, and by that means to increase the efficiency of the steam cycle. ### Monitoring and control For safety reasons, nearly all steam engines are equipped with mechanisms to monitor the boiler, such as a pressure gauge and a sight glass to monitor the water level. Many engines, stationary and mobile, are also fitted with a governor to regulate the speed of the engine without the need for human interference. The most useful instrument for analyzing the performance of steam engines is the steam engine indicator. Early versions were in use by 1851, but the most successful indicator was developed for the high speed engine inventor and manufacturer Charles Porter by Charles Richard and exhibited at London Exhibition in 1862. The steam engine indicator traces on paper the pressure in the cylinder throughout the cycle, which can be used to spot various problems and calculate developed horsepower. It was routinely used by engineers, mechanics and insurance inspectors. The engine indicator can also be used on internal combustion engines. See image of indicator diagram below (in *Types of motor units* section). ### Governor The centrifugal governor was adopted by James Watt for use on a steam engine in 1788 after Watt's partner Boulton saw one on the equipment of a flour mill Boulton & Watt were building. The governor could not actually hold a set speed, because it would assume a new constant speed in response to load changes. The governor was able to handle smaller variations such as those caused by fluctuating heat load to the boiler. Also, there was a tendency for oscillation whenever there was a speed change. As a consequence, engines equipped only with this governor were not suitable for operations requiring constant speed, such as cotton spinning. The governor was improved over time and coupled with variable steam cut off, good speed control in response to changes in load was attainable near the end of the 19th century. Engine configuration -------------------- ### Simple engine In a simple engine, or "single expansion engine" the charge of steam passes through the entire expansion process in an individual cylinder, although a simple engine may have one or more individual cylinders. It is then exhausted directly into the atmosphere or into a condenser. As steam expands in passing through a high-pressure engine, its temperature drops because no heat is being added to the system; this is known as adiabatic expansion and results in steam entering the cylinder at high temperature and leaving at lower temperature. This causes a cycle of heating and cooling of the cylinder with every stroke, which is a source of inefficiency. The dominant efficiency loss in reciprocating steam engines is cylinder condensation and re-evaporation. The steam cylinder and adjacent metal parts/ports operate at a temperature about halfway between the steam admission saturation temperature and the saturation temperature corresponding to the exhaust pressure. As high-pressure steam is admitted into the working cylinder, much of the high-temperature steam is condensed as water droplets onto the metal surfaces, significantly reducing the steam available for expansive work. When the expanding steam reaches low pressure (especially during the exhaust stroke), the previously deposited water droplets that had just been formed within the cylinder/ports now boil away (re-evaporation) and this steam does no further work in the cylinder. There are practical limits on the expansion ratio of a steam engine cylinder, as increasing cylinder surface area tends to exacerbate the cylinder condensation and re-evaporation issues. This negates the theoretical advantages associated with a high ratio of expansion in an individual cylinder. ### Compound engines A method to lessen the magnitude of energy loss to a very long cylinder was invented in 1804 by British engineer Arthur Woolf, who patented his *Woolf high-pressure **compound engine*** in 1805. In the compound engine, high-pressure steam from the boiler expands in a **high-pressure (HP) cylinder** and then enters one or more subsequent **lower-pressure (LP) cylinders**. The complete expansion of the steam now occurs across multiple cylinders, with the overall temperature drop within each cylinder reduced considerably. By expanding the steam in steps with smaller temperature range (within each cylinder) the condensation and re-evaporation efficiency issue (described above) is reduced. This reduces the magnitude of cylinder heating and cooling, increasing the efficiency of the engine. By staging the expansion in multiple cylinders, variations of torque can be reduced. To derive equal work from lower-pressure cylinder requires a larger cylinder volume as this steam occupies a greater volume. Therefore, the bore, and in rare cases the stroke, are increased in low-pressure cylinders, resulting in larger cylinders. Double-expansion (usually known as **compound**) engines expanded the steam in two stages. The pairs may be duplicated or the work of the large low-pressure cylinder can be split with one high-pressure cylinder exhausting into one or the other, giving a three-cylinder layout where cylinder and piston diameter are about the same, making the reciprocating masses easier to balance. Two-cylinder compounds can be arranged as: * **Cross compounds**: The cylinders are side by side. * **Tandem compounds**: The cylinders are end to end, driving a common connecting rod * **Angle compounds**: The cylinders are arranged in a V (usually at a 90° angle) and drive a common crank. With two-cylinder compounds used in railway work, the pistons are connected to the cranks as with a two-cylinder simple at 90° out of phase with each other (*quartered*). When the double-expansion group is duplicated, producing a four-cylinder compound, the individual pistons within the group are usually balanced at 180°, the groups being set at 90° to each other. In one case (the first type of Vauclain compound), the pistons worked in the same phase driving a common crosshead and crank, again set at 90° as for a two-cylinder engine. With the three-cylinder compound arrangement, the LP cranks were either set at 90° with the HP one at 135° to the other two, or in some cases, all three cranks were set at 120°. The adoption of compounding was common for industrial units, for road engines and almost universal for marine engines after 1880; it was not universally popular in railway locomotives where it was often perceived as complicated. This is partly due to the harsh railway operating environment and limited space afforded by the loading gauge (particularly in Britain, where compounding was never common and not employed after 1930). However, although never in the majority, it was popular in many other countries. ### Multiple-expansion engines It is a logical extension of the compound engine (described above) to split the expansion into yet more stages to increase efficiency. The result is the **multiple-expansion engine**. Such engines use either three or four expansion stages and are known as *triple-* and *quadruple-expansion engines* respectively. These engines use a series of cylinders of progressively increasing diameter. These cylinders are designed to divide the work into equal shares for each expansion stage. As with the double-expansion engine, if space is at a premium, then two smaller cylinders may be used for the low-pressure stage. Multiple-expansion engines typically had the cylinders arranged inline, but various other formations were used. In the late 19th century, the Yarrow-Schlick-Tweedy balancing "system" was used on some marine triple-expansion engines. Y-S-T engines divided the low-pressure expansion stages between two cylinders, one at each end of the engine. This allowed the crankshaft to be better balanced, resulting in a smoother, faster-responding engine which ran with less vibration. This made the four-cylinder triple-expansion engine popular with large passenger liners (such as the *Olympic* class), but this was ultimately replaced by the virtually vibration-free turbine engine. It is noted, however, that triple-expansion reciprocating steam engines were used to drive the World War II Liberty ships, by far the largest number of identical ships ever built. Over 2700 ships were built, in the United States, from a British original design. The image in this section shows an animation of a triple-expansion engine. The steam travels through the engine from left to right. The valve chest for each of the cylinders is to the left of the corresponding cylinder. Land-based steam engines could exhaust their steam to atmosphere, as feed water was usually readily available. Prior to and during World War I, the expansion engine dominated marine applications, where high vessel speed was not essential. It was, however, superseded by the British invention steam turbine where speed was required, for instance in warships, such as the dreadnought battleships, and ocean liners. HMS *Dreadnought* of 1905 was the first major warship to replace the proven technology of the reciprocating engine with the then-novel steam turbine. Types of motor units -------------------- ### Reciprocating piston In most reciprocating piston engines, the steam reverses its direction of flow at each stroke (counterflow), entering and exhausting from the same end of the cylinder. The complete engine cycle occupies one rotation of the crank and two piston strokes; the cycle also comprises four *events* – admission, expansion, exhaust, compression. These events are controlled by valves often working inside a *steam chest* adjacent to the cylinder; the valves distribute the steam by opening and closing steam *ports* communicating with the cylinder end(s) and are driven by valve gear, of which there are many types. The simplest valve gears give events of fixed length during the engine cycle and often make the engine rotate in only one direction. Many however have a reversing mechanism which additionally can provide means for saving steam as speed and momentum are gained by gradually "shortening the cutoff" or rather, shortening the admission event; this in turn proportionately lengthens the expansion period. However, as one and the same valve usually controls both steam flows, a short cutoff at admission adversely affects the exhaust and compression periods which should ideally always be kept fairly constant; if the exhaust event is too brief, the totality of the exhaust steam cannot evacuate the cylinder, choking it and giving excessive compression (*"kick back"*). In the 1840s and 1850s, there were attempts to overcome this problem by means of various patent valve gears with a separate, variable cutoff expansion valve riding on the back of the main slide valve; the latter usually had fixed or limited cutoff. The combined setup gave a fair approximation of the ideal events, at the expense of increased friction and wear, and the mechanism tended to be complicated. The usual compromise solution has been to provide *lap* by lengthening rubbing surfaces of the valve in such a way as to overlap the port on the admission side, with the effect that the exhaust side remains open for a longer period after cut-off on the admission side has occurred. This expedient has since been generally considered satisfactory for most purposes and makes possible the use of the simpler Stephenson, Joy and Walschaerts motions. Corliss, and later, poppet valve gears had separate admission and exhaust valves driven by trip mechanisms or cams profiled so as to give ideal events; most of these gears never succeeded outside of the stationary marketplace due to various other issues including leakage and more delicate mechanisms. #### Compression Before the exhaust phase is quite complete, the exhaust side of the valve closes, shutting a portion of the exhaust steam inside the cylinder. This determines the compression phase where a cushion of steam is formed against which the piston does work whilst its velocity is rapidly decreasing; it moreover obviates the pressure and temperature shock, which would otherwise be caused by the sudden admission of the high-pressure steam at the beginning of the following cycle. #### Lead in the valve timing The above effects are further enhanced by providing *lead*: as was later discovered with the internal combustion engine, it has been found advantageous since the late 1830s to advance the admission phase, giving the valve *lead* so that admission occurs a little before the end of the exhaust stroke in order to fill the *clearance volume* comprising the ports and the cylinder ends (not part of the piston-swept volume) before the steam begins to exert effort on the piston. ### Uniflow (or unaflow) engine Uniflow engines attempt to remedy the difficulties arising from the usual counterflow cycle where, during each stroke, the port and the cylinder walls will be cooled by the passing exhaust steam, whilst the hotter incoming admission steam will waste some of its energy in restoring the working temperature. The aim of the uniflow is to remedy this defect and improve efficiency by providing an additional port uncovered by the piston at the end of each stroke making the steam flow only in one direction. By this means, the simple-expansion uniflow engine gives efficiency equivalent to that of classic compound systems with the added advantage of superior part-load performance, and comparable efficiency to turbines for smaller engines below one thousand horsepower. However, the thermal expansion gradient uniflow engines produce along the cylinder wall gives practical difficulties.. ### Turbine engines A steam turbine consists of one or more *rotors* (rotating discs) mounted on a drive shaft, alternating with a series of *stators* (static discs) fixed to the turbine casing. The rotors have a propeller-like arrangement of blades at the outer edge. Steam acts upon these blades, producing rotary motion. The stator consists of a similar, but fixed, series of blades that serve to redirect the steam flow onto the next rotor stage. A steam turbine often exhausts into a surface condenser that provides a vacuum. The stages of a steam turbine are typically arranged to extract the maximum potential work from a specific velocity and pressure of steam, giving rise to a series of variably sized high- and low-pressure stages. Turbines are only efficient if they rotate at relatively high speed, therefore they are usually connected to reduction gearing to drive lower speed applications, such as a ship's propeller. In the vast majority of large electric generating stations, turbines are directly connected to generators with no reduction gearing. Typical speeds are 3600 revolutions per minute (RPM) in the United States with 60 Hertz power, and 3000 RPM in Europe and other countries with 50 Hertz electric power systems. In nuclear power applications, the turbines typically run at half these speeds, 1800 RPM and 1500 RPM. A turbine rotor is also only capable of providing power when rotating in one direction. Therefore, a reversing stage or gearbox is usually required where power is required in the opposite direction. Steam turbines provide direct rotational force and therefore do not require a linkage mechanism to convert reciprocating to rotary motion. Thus, they produce smoother rotational forces on the output shaft. This contributes to a lower maintenance requirement and less wear on the machinery they power than a comparable reciprocating engine. The main use for steam turbines is in electricity generation (in the 1990s about 90% of the world's electric production was by use of steam turbines) however the recent widespread application of large gas turbine units and typical combined cycle power plants has resulted in reduction of this percentage to the 80% regime for steam turbines. In electricity production, the high speed of turbine rotation matches well with the speed of modern electric generators, which are typically direct connected to their driving turbines. In marine service, (pioneered on the *Turbinia*), steam turbines with reduction gearing (although the Turbinia has direct turbines to propellers with no reduction gearbox) dominated large ship propulsion throughout the late 20th century, being more efficient (and requiring far less maintenance) than reciprocating steam engines. In recent decades, reciprocating Diesel engines, and gas turbines, have almost entirely supplanted steam propulsion for marine applications. Virtually all nuclear power plants generate electricity by heating water to provide steam that drives a turbine connected to an electrical generator. Nuclear-powered ships and submarines either use a steam turbine directly for main propulsion, with generators providing auxiliary power, or else employ turbo-electric transmission, where the steam drives a turbo generator set with propulsion provided by electric motors. A limited number of steam turbine railroad locomotives were manufactured. Some non-condensing direct-drive locomotives did meet with some success for long haul freight operations in Sweden and for express passenger work in Britain, but were not repeated. Elsewhere, notably in the United States, more advanced designs with electric transmission were built experimentally, but not reproduced. It was found that steam turbines were not ideally suited to the railroad environment and these locomotives failed to oust the classic reciprocating steam unit in the way that modern diesel and electric traction has done. ### Oscillating cylinder steam engines An oscillating cylinder steam engine is a variant of the simple expansion steam engine which does not require valves to direct steam into and out of the cylinder. Instead of valves, the entire cylinder rocks, or oscillates, such that one or more holes in the cylinder line up with holes in a fixed port face or in the pivot mounting (trunnion). These engines are mainly used in toys and models because of their simplicity, but have also been used in full-size working engines, mainly on ships where their compactness is valued. ### Rotary steam engines It is possible to use a mechanism based on a pistonless rotary engine such as the Wankel engine in place of the cylinders and valve gear of a conventional reciprocating steam engine. Many such engines have been designed, from the time of James Watt to the present day, but relatively few were actually built and even fewer went into quantity production; see link at bottom of article for more details. The major problem is the difficulty of sealing the rotors to make them steam-tight in the face of wear and thermal expansion; the resulting leakage made them very inefficient. Lack of expansive working, or any means of control of the cutoff, is also a serious problem with many such designs. By the 1840s, it was clear that the concept had inherent problems and rotary engines were treated with some derision in the technical press. However, the arrival of electricity on the scene, and the obvious advantages of driving a dynamo directly from a high-speed engine, led to something of a revival in interest in the 1880s and 1890s, and a few designs had some limited success.. Of the few designs that were manufactured in quantity, those of the Hult Brothers Rotary Steam Engine Company of Stockholm, Sweden, and the spherical engine of Beauchamp Tower are notable. Tower's engines were used by the Great Eastern Railway to drive lighting dynamos on their locomotives, and by the Admiralty for driving dynamos on board the ships of the Royal Navy. They were eventually replaced in these niche applications by steam turbines. ### Rocket type The aeolipile represents the use of steam by the rocket-reaction principle, although not for direct propulsion. In more modern times there has been limited use of steam for rocketry – particularly for rocket cars. Steam rocketry works by filling a pressure vessel with hot water at high pressure and opening a valve leading to a suitable nozzle. The drop in pressure immediately boils some of the water and the steam leaves through a nozzle, creating a propulsive force. Ferdinand Verbiest's carriage was powered by an aeolipile in 1679. Safety ------ Steam engines possess boilers and other components that are pressure vessels that contain a great deal of potential energy. Steam escapes and boiler explosions (typically BLEVEs) can and have in the past caused great loss of life. While variations in standards may exist in different countries, stringent legal, testing, training, care with manufacture, operation and certification is applied to ensure safety. Failure modes may include: * over-pressurisation of the boiler * insufficient water in the boiler causing overheating and vessel failure * buildup of sediment and scale which cause local hot spots, especially in riverboats using dirty feed water * pressure vessel failure of the boiler due to inadequate construction or maintenance. * escape of steam from pipework/boiler causing scalding Steam engines frequently possess two independent mechanisms for ensuring that the pressure in the boiler does not go too high; one may be adjusted by the user, the second is typically designed as an ultimate fail-safe. Such safety valves traditionally used a simple lever to restrain a plug valve in the top of a boiler. One end of the lever carried a weight or spring that restrained the valve against steam pressure. Early valves could be adjusted by engine drivers, leading to many accidents when a driver fastened the valve down to allow greater steam pressure and more power from the engine. The more recent type of safety valve uses an adjustable spring-loaded valve, which is locked such that operators may not tamper with its adjustment unless a seal is illegally broken. This arrangement is considerably safer. Lead fusible plugs may be present in the crown of the boiler's firebox. If the water level drops, such that the temperature of the firebox crown increases significantly, the lead melts and the steam escapes, warning the operators, who may then manually suppress the fire. Except in the smallest of boilers the steam escape has little effect on dampening the fire. The plugs are also too small in area to lower steam pressure significantly, depressurizing the boiler. If they were any larger, the volume of escaping steam would itself endanger the crew. Steam cycle ----------- The Rankine cycle is the fundamental thermodynamic underpinning of the steam engine. The cycle is an arrangement of components as is typically used for simple power production, and uses the phase change of water (boiling water producing steam, condensing exhaust steam, producing liquid water)) to provide a practical heat/power conversion system. The heat is supplied externally to a closed loop with some of the heat added being converted to work and the waste heat being removed in a condenser. The Rankine cycle is used in virtually all steam power production applications. In the 1990s, Rankine steam cycles generated about 90% of all electric power used throughout the world, including virtually all solar, biomass, coal and nuclear power plants. It is named after William John Macquorn Rankine, a Scottish polymath. The Rankine cycle is sometimes referred to as a practical Carnot cycle because, when an efficient turbine is used, the TS diagram begins to resemble the Carnot cycle. The main difference is that heat addition (in the boiler) and rejection (in the condenser) are isobaric (constant pressure) processes in the Rankine cycle and isothermal (constant temperature) processes in the theoretical Carnot cycle. In this cycle, a pump is used to pressurize the working fluid which is received from the condenser as a liquid not as a gas. Pumping the working fluid in liquid form during the cycle requires a small fraction of the energy to transport it compared to the energy needed to compress the working fluid in gaseous form in a compressor (as in the Carnot cycle). The cycle of a reciprocating steam engine differs from that of turbines because of condensation and re-evaporation occurring in the cylinder or in the steam inlet passages. The working fluid in a Rankine cycle can operate as a closed loop system, where the working fluid is recycled continuously, or may be an "open loop" system, where the exhaust steam is directly released to the atmosphere, and a separate source of water feeding the boiler is supplied. Normally water is the fluid of choice due to its favourable properties, such as non-toxic and unreactive chemistry, abundance, low cost, and its thermodynamic properties. Mercury is the working fluid in the mercury vapor turbine. Low boiling hydrocarbons can be used in a binary cycle. The steam engine contributed much to the development of thermodynamic theory; however, the only applications of scientific theory that influenced the steam engine were the original concepts of harnessing the power of steam and atmospheric pressure and knowledge of properties of heat and steam. The experimental measurements made by Watt on a model steam engine led to the development of the separate condenser. Watt independently discovered latent heat, which was confirmed by the original discoverer Joseph Black, who also advised Watt on experimental procedures. Watt was also aware of the change in the boiling point of water with pressure. Otherwise, the improvements to the engine itself were more mechanical in nature. The thermodynamic concepts of the Rankine cycle did give engineers the understanding needed to calculate efficiency which aided the development of modern high-pressure and -temperature boilers and the steam turbine. Efficiency ---------- The efficiency of an engine cycle can be calculated by dividing the energy output of mechanical work that the engine produces by the energy put into the engine. The historical measure of a steam engine's energy efficiency was its "duty". The concept of duty was first introduced by Watt in order to illustrate how much more efficient his engines were over the earlier Newcomen designs. Duty is the number of foot-pounds of work delivered by burning one bushel (94 pounds) of coal. The best examples of Newcomen designs had a duty of about 7 million, but most were closer to 5 million. Watt's original low-pressure designs were able to deliver duty as high as 25 million, but averaged about 17. This was a three-fold improvement over the average Newcomen design. Early Watt engines equipped with high-pressure steam improved this to 65 million. No heat engine can be more efficient than the Carnot cycle, in which heat is moved from a high-temperature reservoir to one at a low temperature, and the efficiency depends on the temperature difference. For the greatest efficiency, steam engines should be operated at the highest steam temperature possible (superheated steam), and release the waste heat at the lowest temperature possible. The efficiency of a Rankine cycle is usually limited by the working fluid. Without the pressure reaching supercritical levels for the working fluid, the temperature range over which the cycle can operate is small; in steam turbines, turbine entry temperatures are typically 565 °C (the creep limit of stainless steel) and condenser temperatures are around 30 °C. This gives a theoretical Carnot efficiency of about 63% compared with an actual efficiency of 42% for a modern coal-fired power station. This low turbine entry temperature (compared with a gas turbine) is why the Rankine cycle is often used as a bottoming cycle in combined-cycle gas turbine power stations. One principal advantage the Rankine cycle holds over others is that during the compression stage relatively little work is required to drive the pump, the working fluid being in its liquid phase at this point. By condensing the fluid, the work required by the pump consumes only 1% to 3% of the turbine (or reciprocating engine) power and contributes to a much higher efficiency for a real cycle. The benefit of this is lost somewhat due to the lower heat addition temperature. Gas turbines, for instance, have turbine entry temperatures approaching 1500 °C. Nonetheless, the efficiencies of actual large steam cycles and large modern simple cycle gas turbines are fairly well matched. In practice, a reciprocating steam engine cycle exhausting the steam to atmosphere will typically have an efficiency (including the boiler) in the range of 1–10%. However, with the addition of a condenser, Corliss valves, multiple expansion, and high steam pressure/temperature, it may be greatly improved. Historically into the range of 10–20%, and very rarely slightly higher. A modern, large electrical power station (producing several hundred megawatts of electrical output) with steam reheat, economizer etc. will achieve efficiency in the mid 40% range, with the most efficient units approaching 50% thermal efficiency. It is also possible to capture the waste heat using cogeneration in which the waste heat is used for heating a lower boiling point working fluid or as a heat source for district heating via saturated low-pressure steam. * A steam locomotive – a GNR N2 Class No.1744 at Weybourne nr. Sheringham, NorfolkA steam locomotive – a GNR N2 Class No.1744 at Weybourne nr. Sheringham, Norfolk * A steam-powered bicycle by John van de Riet, in DortmundA steam-powered bicycle by John van de Riet, in Dortmund * British horse-drawn fire engine with steam-powered water pumpBritish horse-drawn fire engine with steam-powered water pump See also -------- * Boyle's law * Compound locomotive * Cylinder * Geared steam locomotive * History of steam road vehicles * Lean's Engine Reporter * List of steam fairs * List of steam museums * List of steam technology patents * Live steam * Mechanical stoker * James Rumsey * Salomon de Caus * Steam aircraft * Steam boat * Steam car * Steam crane * Steam power during the Industrial Revolution * Steam shovel * Steam tractor * Steam tricycle * Still engine * Timeline of steam power * Traction engine References ---------- * Brown, Richard (2002). *Society and Economy in Modern Britain 1700-1850*. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-203-40252-8. * Chapelon, André (2000) [1938]. *La locomotive à vapeur* [*The Steam Locomotive*] (in French). Translated by Carpenter, George W. Camden Miniature Steam Services. ISBN 978-0-9536523-0-3. * Ewing, Sir James Alfred (1894). *The Steam-engine and Other Heat-engines*. Cambridge: University Press. * Hills, Richard L. (1989). *Power from Steam: A history of the stationary steam engine*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-34356-5. * Hunter, Louis C. (1985). *A History of Industrial Power in the United States, 1730–1930*. Vol. 2: Steam Power. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia. * Hunter, Louis C.; Bryant, Lynwood (1991). *A History of Industrial Power in the United States, 1730–1930*. Vol. 3: The Transmission of Power. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-08198-6. * Landes, David S. (1969). *The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present*. Cambridge, NY: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. ISBN 978-0-521-09418-4. * McNeil, Ian (1990). *An Encyclopedia of the History of Technology*. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-14792-7. * Nag, P. K. (2002). *Power Plant Engineering*. Tata McGraw-Hill Education. ISBN 978-0-07-043599-5. * Payton, Philip (2004). "Trevithick, Richard (1771–1833)". *Oxford Dictionary of National Biography* (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/27723. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) * Peabody, Cecil Hobart (1893). *Thermodynamics of the Steam-engine and Other Heat-engines*. New York: Wiley & Sons. Further reading --------------- * Crump, Thomas (2007). *A Brief History of the Age of Steam: From the First Engine to the Boats and Railways*. * Marsden, Ben (2004). *Watt's Perfect Engine: Steam and the Age of Invention*. Columbia University Press. * Robinson, Eric H. (March 1974). "The Early Diffusion of Steam Power". *The Journal of Economic History*. **34** (1): 91–107. doi:10.1017/S002205070007964X. JSTOR 2116960. S2CID 153489574. * Rose, Joshua. (1887, reprint 2003) *Modern Steam Engines* * Stuart, Robert (1824). *A Descriptive History of the Steam Engine*. London: J. Knight and H. Lacey. * Thurston, Robert Henry (1878). *A History of the Growth of the Steam-engine*. The International Scientific Series. New York: D. Appleton and Company. OCLC 16507415. * Van Riemsdijk, J.T. (1980) *Pictorial History of Steam Power*. * Charles Algernon Parsons (1911), *The Steam Turbine: The Rede Lecture 1911* (1st ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Wikidata Q19099885(lecture)

Steam engine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_engine

In Greek mythology, **Nyx** (/nɪks/ *NIX*; Ancient Greek: Νύξ *Nýx*, [nýks], "Night") is the goddess and personification of the night. In Hesiod's *Theogony*, she is the offspring of Chaos, and the mother of Aether and Hemera (Day) by Erebus (Darkness). By herself, she produces a brood of children consisting of various personifications of primarily negative forces. Nyx features prominently in Orphic sources, where she is considered to be the mother of Uranus and Gaia, and sometimes the daughter and consort of Phanes. In such accounts, she is variously described as the first being to exist, or as the second ruler of the gods. She is typically portrayed as either a winged goddess with a dark cloud halo or dressed in black surrounded by dark mist. Her Roman equivalent is **Nox** (Night). Genealogy --------- According to Hesiod's *Theogony*, Nyx is the offspring of Chaos, alongside Erebus (Darkness), by whom she becomes the mother of Aether and Hemera (Day). Without the assistance of a father, Nyx produces Moros (Doom, Destiny), Ker (Destruction, Death), Thanatos (Death), Hypnos (Sleep), the Oneiroi (Dreams), Momus (Blame), Oizys (Pain, Distress), the Hesperides, the Moirai (Fates), the Keres, Nemesis (Indignation, Retribution), Apate (Deceit), Philotes (Love), Geras (Old Age), and Eris (Strife). A number of these offspring are similarly described as her children by later authors. Other early sources, however, give differing genealogies. According to one such account, she is the mother of Tartarus by Aether, while in others, she is variously described as the mother of Eros by Aether, or the mother of Aether, Eros, and Metis by Erebus. The poet Bacchylides apparently considered Nyx to be the mother of Hemera by Chronos (Time), and elsewhere mentions Hecate as her daughter. Aeschylus also mentions Nyx as the mother of the Erinyes (Furies), while Euripides apparently considers Lyssa (Madness) to be the daughter of Nyx and Uranus. In Orphic sources, Nyx is frequently mentioned as the mother of Uranus. In one narrative, in which Nyx is the first being to exist, she is considered to be the mother of Uranus and Gaia, possibly without a father. In another account, she is described as both the consort and daughter of Phanes (despite seeming to exist before him), by whom she becomes the mother of Uranus and Gaia. In an account likely derived from an Orphic cosmogony, Nyx gives birth to a "wind-egg", from which Eros emerges. In later sources, she is mentioned as the mother of the Stars (by Uranus?), and, in one account, is described as the daughter of Eros. Nox, the Roman equivalent of Nyx, also features in several genealogies given by Roman authors. According to Cicero, Aether and Dies (Day) were the children of Nox and Erebus, in addition to Amor (Love), Dolus (Guile), Metus (Fear), Labor (Toil), Invidentia (Envy), Fatum (Fate), Senectus (Old Age), Mors (Death), Tenebrae (Darkness), Miseria (Misery), Querella (Lamentation), Gratia (Favour), Fraus (Fraud), Pertinacia (Obstinacy), the Parcae, the Hesperides (Daughters of Hesperus), and the Somnia (Dreams). In the genealogy given by the Roman mythographer Hyginus, Nox is one of the offspring of Chaos and Caligo (Mist), alongside Dies (Day), Erebus (Darkness), and Aether. With Erebus, she produces Fatum (Fate), Senectus (Old Age), Mors (Death), Letum (Destruction), Continentia (Strife), Somnus (Sleep), the Somnia (Dreams), Lysimeles (Thoughtfulness), Epiphron (Hedymeles), Porphyrion, Epaphus, Discordia (Discord), Miseria (Misery), Petulantia (Petulance), Nemesis, Euphrosyne (Cheerfulness), Amicitia (Friendship), Misericordia (Pity), Styx, the Parcae (Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos), and the Hesperides (Aegle, Hesperia, and Erythea). Several other Roman sources mention Nox as the mother of the Furies, with Pluto sometimes given as the father. In a later Greek source, Nyx is described as the mother of Eos (Dawn), who was often identified with her mother Hemera. According to a much later Byzantine author, Nyx is considered to be the mother of the Moirai, apparently by the Titan Cronus. Mythology --------- In the *Theogony*, Nyx is described as living in the same home as her daughter Hemera (which Hesiod locates at the far western end of the Earth). Each day they pass one another at the entrance to the house, with one of them leaving and the other one entering, and throughout the day one passes across the earth while the other stays inside, waiting for their turn to leave. Nyx also features in a story related in Homer's *Iliad*, in which she saves Hypnos from Zeus's anger. When Hera comes to Hypnos to try and persuade him to lull Zeus to sleep, he refuses, reminding her of the last time she asked the same favour of him, when it had allowed her to persecute Hercules without her husband's knowledge. Hypnos relates that once Zeus awoke, he was furious, and would have hurled him into the sea, had he not fled to the protection of Nyx, as Zeus, despite his anger, was "in awe of doing anything to swift Night's displeasure". In several Orphic sources, Nyx is described as the first being to exist, with her existence presumably being eternal, as no description of her origin is given. In a later cosmogony, in which Nyx is not the first deity, and instead the daughter of Phanes, she is considered to be the second ruler of the gods. Her reign is preceded by that of her father Phanes, who passes on his rule by giving her a sceptre which he created himself, handing it on to her willingly; after her own time as ruler, she too passes on the spectre voluntarily, giving it to her son Uranus, who follows her as sovereign. Nyx was apparently considered to be the nurse of the gods in some Orphic sources, and is described as having raised her grandson Cronus, the son of Uranus. She also plays a prophetic role in several narratives, having seemingly received the gift of prophecy from her father Phanes, who gives it to her alongside the sceptre. During the reign of Cronus, Zeus, his son, seeks the advice of Nyx, wanting to know how he can overthrow his father. Nyx instructs him to give Cronus a certain drink of honey, and then to wait for him to fall asleep before binding him; Zeus follows this guidance, resulting in him castrating his father. Zeus also consults Nyx as to how he can solidify his rule, with her instructing him to capture everything which exists in aither (i.e. the entire creation) by suspending a golden chain from the heavens to the earth, containing everything within it. Zeus interprets this as meaning he must consume Phanes, as by doing so he will contain within his stomach the entire creation. Various sources also speak of a certain cave which belongs to Nyx, described as the location from which Phanes creates the universe, and which may also be the place from which Nyx delivers her prophecies to Zeus. Sources ------- ### Early In Hesiod's *Theogony* (c. 730 – 700 BC), which the Greeks considered to be the "standard" account of the origin of the gods, Nyx is described as one of the earliest beings to exist, as the offspring of Chaos alongside Erebus (Darkness). In the first sexual coupling, she and Erebus produce their personified opposites, Aether and Hemera (Day): > From Chaos came forth Erebus and black Night; but of Night were born Aether and Day, whom she conceived and bore from union in love with Erebus. > > Hesiod also makes Nyx, without the aid of a father, the mother of a number of abstract personifications, which are primarily negative in nature. To the Greeks, however, these deities would have represented forces which "exercise[d] a real power in the world". Hesiod locates the home of Nyx at the far western end of the Earth, though it is unclear whether or not he considers it to be beyond Oceanus, the river which encircles the world. In a (somewhat confused) section of the *Theogony*, Hesiod seems to locate the home of Nyx near the entrance to the underworld, and describes it as being "wrapped in dark clouds". He reports that the Titan Atlas, who is holding up the sky, stands outside of the house, and that the homes of two of her children, Hypnos and Thanatos, are situated nearby. ### Late The theme of Nyx's cave or mansion, beyond the ocean (as in Hesiod) or somewhere at the edge of the cosmos (as in later Orphism), may be echoed in the philosophical poem of Parmenides. The classical scholar Walter Burkert has speculated that the house of the goddess to which the philosopher is transported is the palace of Nyx. ### Orphic Nyx, or Night, plays an important role in a number of works attributed to the legendary poet Orpheus, which are referred to as "Orphic"; few of such works are extant, however, with most surviving only in fragments from other authors. Among these fragmentary works are several theogonies, which present accounts of the origin of the gods, as does Hesiod's *Theogony*. Of these works, Night is known to have featured prominently in the so called "Eudemian Theogony", the "Derveni Theogony", and the "Rhapsodic Theogony" (or "Rhapsodies"), and may have possibly also been present in the "Hieronyman Theogony". Night seems to have been considered the first deity in the earliest known Orphic cosmogonies. The oldest Orphic theogony in which Night is known to have appeared is the Eudemian Theogony (fifth century BC), which receives its name from the philosopher Eudemus of Rhodes, a student of Aristotle, who spoke of an Orphic theogony in one of his works; this theogony was later referred to by the Neoplatonist Damascius, in his *De Principiis* (*On First Principles*), who uses Eudemus as his source. The only piece of information known for certain about this theogony is that it started with Night; as Damascius writes: > The theology described in the Peripatetic Eudemus as being that of Orpheus is silent about the entire realm of the intelligible for it is completely inexpressible and unknowable by the method of exposition and narration: it made its start from Night, from whom also Homer begins, although he did not make his genealogy continuous. > > There have been several attempts to reconstruct further details of the Eudemian theogony. Several scholars have proposed that Night, presumably on her own, is described as the mother of Uranus and Gaia, while M. L. West claims that the generations following Night, starting with Gaia and Uranus, can be found described in a genealogy from Plato's *Timaeus*. Aristophanes, in his comedy *The Birds* (414 BC), parodies a cosmogony which has been considered Orphic, in which Night is one of the first beings to come into existence, alongside Chaos, Erebus and Tartarus, and lays a "wind-egg" from which Eros is born: > At the beginning there was only Chaos, Night, dark Erebus, and deep Tartarus. Earth, the air and heaven had no existence. Firstly, blackwinged Night laid a germless egg in the bosom of the infinite deeps of Erebus, and from this, after the revolution of long ages, sprang the graceful Eros with his glittering golden wings, swift as the whirlwinds of the tempest. > > Comparisons with Gaia --------------------- The role which Night plays in the Derveni Theogony has been compared to that which Gaia plays in Hesiod's *Theogony*. It has pointed out that both are described as the mother of Uranus, and occupy a similar position at the beginning of creation, with Gaia being the second being to exist in the *Theogony*. In addition, following the creation of world, rather than becoming rulers themselves, both deities remain present and occasionally offer guidance and assistance to younger generations. The prophecy which Night delivers to Zeus, which causes to him swallow Phanes, has been compared to the prophecy Gaia and Uranus report to Zeus in the *Theogony*, which leads to him swallowing his wife Metis. In the *Theogony*, Zeus is also given to Gaia after his birth, which has been connected to the role Night plays in nurturing the Zeus in his infancy. Cult ---- There was no known temple dedicated to Nyx, but statues are known to have been made of her and a few cult practices of her are mentioned. According to Pausanias, she had an oracle on the acropolis at Megara. Pausanias wrote: > When you have ascended the citadel [of Megara], which even at the present day is called Karia (Caria) from Kar (Car), son of Phoroneus, you see a temple of Dionysos Nyktelios (Nyctelius, Nocturnal), a sanctuary built to Aphrodite Epistrophia (She who turns men to love), an oracle called that of Nyx (Night) and a temple of Zeus Konios (Cronius, Dusty) without a roof. > > More often, Nyx was worshipped in the background of other cults. Thus there was a statue called "Night" in the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus. The Spartans had a cult of Sleep and Death, conceived of as twins. Cult titles composed of compounds of *nyx-* are attested for several deities, most notably Dionysus *Nyktelios* "nocturnal" and Aphrodite *Philopannyx* "who loves the whole night". Roman authors mentioned cult practices and wrote hymns in the honor of their equivalent goddess Nox (Night). Ovid wrote: "May 9 Lemuria Nefastus. You ancient rite will be performed, Nox Lemuria; here will be offerings to the mute dead", and she is also mentioned by Statius: > O Nox . . . Ever shall this house throughout the circling periods of the year hold thee high in honour and in worship; black bulls of chosen beauty shall pay thee sacrifice [black animals were sacrificed to the chthonic gods], O goddess! And Vulcanus' [Hephaistos'] fire shall eat the lustral entrails, where-o'er the new milk streams. > > References ---------- * Aeschylus, *Agamemnon* in *Aeschylus, with an English translation by Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph. D. in two volumes*, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1926. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. * Aeschylus, *Eumenides* in *Oresteia: Agamemnon. Libation-Bearers. Eumenides*, edited and translated by Alan H. Sommerstein, Loeb Classical Library No. 146, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0-674-99628-1. Online version at Harvard University Press. * Almqvist, Olaf, *Chaos, Cosmos and Creation in Early Greek Theogonies: An Ontological Exploration*, London, Bloomsbury Academic, 2022. ISBN 978-1-350-22184-0. * Aristophanes, *Birds* in *The Complete Greek Drama, vol. 2.*, Eugene O'Neill, Jr., New York, Random House, 1938. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. * Athanassakis, Apostolos N., and Benjamin M. Wolkow, *The Orphic Hymns*, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013. ISBN 978-1-4214-0882-8. Internet Archive. Google Books. * Bernabé, Alberto (2004), *Poetae epici Graeci: Testimonia et fragmenta, Pars II: Orphicorum et Orphicis similium testimonia, Fasc 1*, Bibliotheca Teubneriana, Munich and Leipzig, K. G. Saur Verlag, 2004. ISBN 978-3-598-71707-9. Online version at De Gruyter. * Bernabé, Alberto (2018), "'Decoding' a literary text. The commentary of Derveni", in *Trends in Classics*, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 338–366. Online version at De Gruyter. * Bernabé, Alberto, and Ana. I. Jiménez Cristóbal, "Are the "Orphic" gold leaves Orphic?" in *The "Orphic" Gold Tablets and Greek Religion: Further along the path*, edited by Radcliffe G. Edmonds, Cambridge University Press, 2011. ISBN 978-0-521-51831-4. * Betegh, Gábor, *The Derveni Papryrus: Cosmology, Theology and Interpretation*, Cambridge University Press, 2004. ISBN 978-0-521-80108-9. * *Brill’s New Pauly: Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World. Antiquity, Volume 9*, Mini-Obe, editors: Hubert Cancik, Helmuth Schneider, Brill, 2006. ISBN 978-90-04-12272-7. Online version at Brill. * Campbell, David A., *Greek Lyric, Volume IV: Bacchylides, Corinna*, Loeb Classical Library No. 461, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1992. ISBN 978-0-674-99508-6. Online version at Harvard University Press. * Cicero, Marcus Tullius, *De Natura Deorum* in *Cicero: On the Nature of the Gods. Academics*, translated by H. Rackham, Loeb Classical Library No. 268, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, first published 1933, revised 1951. ISBN 978-0-674-99296-2. Online version at Harvard University Press. Internet Archive. * Chrysanthou, Anthi, *Defining Orphism: The Beliefs, the Teletae and the Writings*, De Gruyter, 2020. ISBN 978-3-110-67839-0. Online version at De Gruyter. * Cook, Arthur Bernard (1925b), *Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion, Volume II: Zeus God of the Dark Sky (Thunder and Lightning), Part II: Appendixes and Index*, Cambridge University Press, 1925. Internet Archive. * Edmonds, Radcliffe G., "Deviant Origins: Hesiod's *Theogony* and the Orphica", in *The Oxford Handbook of Hesiod*, pp. 225–42, edited by Alexander C. Loney and Stephen Scully, Oxford University Press, 2018. ISBN 978-0-19-020903-2. * Euripides, *Herakles* in *Suppliant Women. Electra. Heracles*, edited and translated by David Kovacs, Loeb Classical Library No. 9, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1998. ISBN 978-0-674-99566-6. Online version at Harvard University Press. * Fowler, R. L. (2000), *Early Greek Mythography: Volume 1: Text and Introduction*, Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0198147404. * Fowler, R. L. (2013), *Early Greek Mythography: Volume 2: Commentary*, Oxford University Press, 2013. ISBN 978-0-198-14741-1. Google Books. * Gantz, *Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources*, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: ISBN 978-0-8018-5360-9 (Vol. 1), ISBN 978-0-8018-5362-3 (Vol. 2). * Grimal, Pierre, *The Dictionary of Classical Mythology*, Wiley-Blackwell, 1996. ISBN 978-0-631-20102-1. Internet Archive. * Hard, Robin, *The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology: Based on H.J. Rose's "Handbook of Greek Mythology"*, Psychology Press, 2004, ISBN 9780415186360. Google Books. * Hesiod, *Theogony*, in *The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White*, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd., 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Internet Archive. * Hesiod, *Works and Days*, in *Hesiod, Theogony, Works and Days, Testimonia*, edited and translated by Glenn W. Most, Loeb Classical Library No. 57, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2018. ISBN 978-0-674-99720-2. Online version at Harvard University Press. * Homer, *The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes*. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. * Hyginus, Gaius Julius, *Hygini Fabulae*, edited by Herbert Jennings Rose, Leiden, Sijthoff, 1934. Online version at Packhum. * Janko, Richard, *The Iliad: A Commentary. Volume IV: books 13–16*, Cambridge University Press, 1994. ISBN 978-0-521-28174-4. * Keightley, Thomas, *The Mythology of Ancient Greece and Italy*, London, G. Bell and Sons, 1877. Google Books. * Kouremenos, Theokritos, George M. Parássoglou, and Kyriakos Tsantsanoglou, *The Derveni Papyrus*, Firenze, Leo S. Olschki Editore, 2006. ISBN 978-8-82225-567-9. * Lattimore, Richmond, *The Iliad of Homer*, University of Chicago Press, Chicago & London, 1951. ISBN 0-226-46940-9. Internet Archive. * Liddell, Henry George, Robert Scott, *A Greek-English Lexicon*, revised and augmented throughout by Sir Henry Stuart Jones with the assistance of Roderick McKenzie, Clarendon Press Oxford, 1940. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. * Lycophron, *Alexandra* in *Callimachus, Lycophron, Aratus, Hymns and Epigrams. Lycophron: Alexandra. Aratus: Phaenomena*, translated by A. W. Mair and G. R. Mair, Loeb Classical Library No. 129, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1921. ISBN 978-0-674-99143-9. Online version at Harvard University Press. * Meisner, Dwayne A., *Orphic Tradition and the Birth of the Gods*, Oxford University Press, 2018. ISBN 978-0-190-66352-0. Online version at Oxford University Press. Google Books. * Morand, Anne-France, *Études sur les Hymnes Orphiques*, Brill, 2001. ISBN 978-900-4-12030-3. Online version at Brill. * Nonnus, *Dionysiaca, Volume II: Books 16–35*, translated by W. H. D. Rouse, Loeb Classical Library No. 345, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1940. ISBN 978-0-674-99391-4. Online version at Harvard University Press. Internet Archive (1940). * Ovid, *Fasti*, A. J. Boyle, R. D. Woodard (translators); Penguin Classics, 2000. ISBN 978-0140446906. * Ovid, *Metamorphoses, Volume I: Books 1-8*, translated by Frank Justus Miller, revised by G. P. Goold, Loeb Classical Library No. 42, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1977, first published 1916. ISBN 978-0-674-99046-3. Online version at Harvard University Press. * Page, Denys Lionel, Sir, *Poetae Melici Graeci*, Oxford University Press, 1962. ISBN 978-0-198-14333-8. * Parada, Carlos, *Genealogical Guide to Greek Mythology*, Jonsered, Paul Åströms Förlag, 1993. ISBN 978-91-7081-062-6. * Pausanias, *Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes*, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd., 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. * Plato, *Timaeus* in *Timaeus. Critias. Cleitophon. Menexenus. Epistles*, translated by R. G. Bury, Loeb Classical Library No. 234, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1929. ISBN 978-0-674-99257-3. Online version at Harvard University Press. * Pucci, Pietro, *The Iliad – the Poem of Zeus*, De Gruyter, 2018. ISBN 978-3-110-60137-4. Online version at De Gruyter. * Seneca, *Hercules* in *Tragedies, Volume I: Hercules. Trojan Women. Phoenician Women. Medea. Phaedra*, edited and translated by John G. Fitch, Loeb Classical Library No. 61, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2018. ISBN 978-0-674-99717-2. Online version at Harvard University Press. * Smith, Scott R., and Stephen M. Trzaskoma, *Apollodorus'* Library *and Hyginus'* Fabulae*: Two Handbooks of Greek Mythology*, Hackett Publishing, Indianapolis/Cambridge, 2007. ISBN 978-0-87220-821-6. Google Books. * Quintus Smyrnaeus, *Quintus Smyrnaeus: The Fall of Troy*, translated by A.S. Way, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1913. Internet Archive. * Smith, William, *Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology*, London (1873). Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. * Tripp, Edward, *Crowell's Handbook of Classical Mythology*, Thomas Y. Crowell Co; First edition (June 1970). ISBN 0-690-22608-X. Internet Archive. * Tzetzes, John, *Scolia eis Lycophroon*, edited by Christian Gottfried Müller, Sumtibus F.C.G. Vogelii, 1811. Internet Archive. * Vian, Francis, *Les Argonautiques orphiques*, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2003. ISBN 978-2-25100-389-4. * Virgil, *Aeneid*, edited and translated by Theodore C. Williams, Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1910. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. * West, M. L., *The Orphic Poems*, Clarendon Press Oxford, 1983. ISBN 978-0-19-814854-8.

Nyx

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyx

**Saturn** (Latin: *Sāturnus* [saːˈtʊrnʊs]) was a god in ancient Roman religion, and a character in Roman mythology. He was described as a god of time, generation, dissolution, abundance, wealth, agriculture, periodic renewal and liberation. Saturn's mythological reign was depicted as a Golden Age of abundance and peace. After the Roman conquest of Greece, he was conflated with the Greek Titan Cronus. Saturn's consort was his sister Ops, with whom he fathered Jupiter, Neptune, Pluto, Juno, Ceres and Vesta. Saturn was especially celebrated during the festival of Saturnalia each December, perhaps the most famous of the Roman festivals, a time of feasting, role reversals, free speech, gift-giving and revelry. The Temple of Saturn in the Roman Forum housed the state treasury and archives (*aerarium*) of the Roman Republic and the early Roman Empire. The planet Saturn and the day of the week Saturday are both named after and were associated with him. Mythology --------- The Roman land preserved the remembrance of a very remote time during which Saturn and Janus reigned on the site of the city before its foundation: the Capitol was called *mons Saturnius*. The Romans identified Saturn with the Greek Cronus, whose myths were adapted for Latin literature and Roman art. In particular, Cronus's role in the genealogy of the Greek gods was transferred to Saturn. As early as Andronicus (3rd century BC), Jupiter was called the son of Saturn. Saturn had two mistresses who represented different aspects of the god. The name of his wife, Ops, the Roman equivalent of Greek *Rhea*, means "wealth, abundance, resources." The association with Ops is considered a later development, however, as this goddess was originally paired with Consus. Earlier was Saturn's association with Lua ("destruction, dissolution, loosening"), a goddess who received the bloodied weapons of enemies destroyed in war. Under Saturn's rule, humans enjoyed the spontaneous bounty of the earth without labour in the "Golden Age" described by Hesiod and Ovid. He became known as the god of time. Etymology and epithets ---------------------- > > By Saturn they seek to represent that power which maintains the cyclic course of times and seasons. This is the sense that the Greek name of that god bears, for he is called Cronus, which is the same as Chronos or Time. Saturn for his part got his name because he was "sated" with years; the story that he regularly devoured his own children is explained by the fact that time devours the courses of the seasons, and gorges itself "insatiably" on the years that are past. Saturn was enchained by Jupiter to ensure that his circuits did not get out of control, and to constrain him with the bonds of the stars. > > > — Quintus Lucilius Balbus, as quoted by Cicero According to Varro, Saturn's name was derived from *satus*, meaning "sowing". Even though this etymology is problematic from the viewpoint of modern linguistics (for, while historically-motivated vowel length alternations do occur in Latin roots, the long *ā* in *Sāturnus* in particular remains unexplained with this etymology, and also because of the epigraphically attested form *Saeturnus*), nevertheless it does reflect an original feature of the god. Perhaps a more probable etymology connects the name with the Etruscan god *Satre* and placenames such as *Satria*, an ancient town of Latium, and *Saturae palus*, a marsh also in Latium. This root may be related to Latin phytonym *satureia*. (Like *satus*, however, *satureia*, *Saturae palus*, and probably also *Satria*, as indeed the apparently closely related *Satricum*, all also have a short *a* in the first syllable vs. the long *ā* of *Sāturnus*.) Another epithet, variably *Sterculius*, *Stercutus*, and *Sterces*, referred to his agricultural functions; this derives from *stercus*, "dung" or "manure", referring to re‑emergence from death to life. Farming was important to Roman identity, and Saturn was a part of archaic Roman religion and ethnic identity. His name appears in the ancient hymn of the Salian priests, and his temple was the oldest known in the records of the pontiffs. Quintus Lucilius Balbus gives a separate etymology in Cicero's *De Natura Deorum*. In this interpretation, the agricultural aspect of Saturn would be secondary to his primary relation with time and seasons. Since 'Time consumes all things', Balbus asserts that the name *Saturn* comes from the Latin word *satis*; Saturn being an anthropomorphic representation of Time, which is filled, or satiated, by all things or all generations. Since farming is so closely linked to seasons and therefore an understanding of the cyclical passage of time, it follows that agriculture would then be associated with the deity Saturn. Temple ------ The temple of Saturn was located at the base of the Capitoline Hill, according to a tradition recorded by Varro formerly known as *Saturnius Mons*, and a row of columns from the last rebuilding of the temple still stands. The temple was consecrated in 497 BC but the *area Saturni* was built by king Tullus Hostilius as confirmed by archaeological studies conducted by E. Gjerstad. It housed the state treasury (aerarium) throughout Roman history. Festival's time --------------- The position of Saturn's festival in the Roman calendar led to his association with concepts of time, especially the temporal transition of the New Year. In the Greek tradition, Cronus was sometimes conflated with Chronus, "Time," and his devouring of his children taken as an allegory for the passing of generations. The sickle or scythe of Father Time is a remnant of the agricultural implement of Cronus-Saturn, and his aged appearance represents the waning of the old year with the birth of the new, in antiquity sometimes embodied by Aion. In late antiquity, Saturn is syncretized with a number of deities, and begins to be depicted as winged, as is Kairos, "Timing, Right Time". In Roman religion ----------------- ### Theology and worship The figure of Saturn is one of the most complex in Roman religion. Dumézil refrained from discussing Saturn in his work on Roman religion on the grounds of insufficient knowledge. Conversely, however, his follower Dominique Briquel has attempted a thorough interpretation of Saturn utilising Dumézil's three-functional theory of Indo-European religion, taking the ancient testimonies and the works of A. Brelich and G. Piccaluga as his basis. The main difficulty scholars find in studying Saturn is in assessing what is original of his figure and what is due to later hellenising influences. Moreover, some features of the god may be common to Cronus but are nonetheless very ancient and can be considered proper to the Roman god, whereas others are certainly later and arrived after 217 BCE, the year in which the Greek customs of the Kronia were introduced into the Saturnalia. #### Briquel's analysis Among the features which are definitely authentic of the Roman god, Briquel identifies: 1. the time of his festival in the calendar, which corresponds to the date of the consecration of his temple (the Greek Cronia on the other hand took place in June–July); 2. his association with *Lua Mater*, and 3. the location of his cult on the Capitol, which goes back to remote times. These three elements in Briquel's view indicate that Saturn is a sovereign god. The god's strict relationship with the cults of the Capitoline Hill and in particular with Jupiter are highlighted by the legends concerning the refusal of gods Iuventas and Terminus to leave their abode in the shrines on the Capitol when the temple of Jupiter was to be built. These two deities correspond to the helper gods of the sovereign in Vedic religion (Briquel refers to Dhritarashtra and Vidura, the figures of the Mahabharata) and to the Cyclopes and Hecatoncheires in Hesiod. Whereas the helper gods belong to the second divine generation they become active only at the level of the third in each of the three instances of India, Greece and Rome, where they become a sort of continuation of Jupiter.) Dumézil postulated a split of the figure of the sovereign god in Indoeuropean religion, which is embodied by Vedic gods Varuna and Mitra. Of the two, the first one shows the aspect of the magic, uncanny, awe inspiring power of creation and destruction, while the second shows the reassuring aspect of guarantor of the legal order in organised social life. Whereas in Jupiter these double features have coalesced, Briquel sees Saturn as showing the characters of a sovereign god of the Varunian type. His nature becomes evident in his mastership over the annual time of crisis around the winter solstice, epitomised in the power of subverting normal codified social order and its rules, which is apparent in the festival of the Saturnalia, in the mastership of annual fertility and renewal, in the power of annihilation present in his paredra Lua, in the fact that he is the god of a timeless era of abundance and bounty before time, which he reinstates at the time of the yearly crisis of the winter solstice. In Roman and Etruscan reckoning Saturn is a wielder of lightning; no other agricultural god (in the sense of specialized human activity) is one. Hence the mastership he has on agriculture and wealth cannot be that of a god of the third function, i.e. of production, wealth, and pleasure, but it stems from his magical lordship over creation and destruction. Although these features are to be found in Greek god Cronus as well, it appears that those features were proper to Roman Saturn's most ancient aspects, such as his presence on the Capitol and his association with Jupiter, who in the stories of the arrival of the Pelasgians in the land of the Sicels and that of the Argei orders human sacrifices to him. Briquel concludes that Saturn was a sovereign god of a time that the Romans perceived as no longer actual, that of the legendary origins of the world, before civilization. #### Roman cult practices Sacrifices to Saturn were performed according to "Greek rite" (*ritus graecus*), with the head uncovered, in contrast to those of other major Roman deities, which were performed *capite velato*, "with the head covered." Saturn himself, however, was represented as veiled (*involutus*), as for example in a wall painting from Pompeii that shows him holding a sickle and covered with a white veil. This feature is in complete accord with the character of a sovereign god of the Varunian type and is common with German god Odin. Briquel remarks Servius had already seen that the choice of the Greek rite was due to the fact that the god himself is imagined and represented as veiled, thence his sacrifice cannot be carried out by a veiled man: This is an instance of the reversal of the current order of things typical of the nature of the deity as appears in its festival. Plutarch writes his figure is veiled because he is the father of truth. Pliny notes that the cult statue of Saturn was filled with oil; the exact meaning of this is unclear. Its feet were bound with wool, which was removed only during the Saturnalia. The fact that the statue was filled with oil and the feet were bound with wool may relate back to the myth of "The Castration of Uranus". In this myth Rhea gives Cronus a rock to eat in Zeus's stead, thus tricking Cronus. Although mastership of knots is a feature of Greek origin it is also typical of the Varunian sovereign figure, as apparent e.g. in Odin. Once Zeus was victorious over Cronus, he sets this stone up at Delphi and constantly it is anointed with oil and strands of unwoven wool are placed on it. The stone wore a red cloak, and was brought out of the temple to take part in ritual processions and *lectisternia*, banquets at which images of the gods were arranged as guests on couches. All these ceremonial details identify a sovereign figure. #### Cult outside Rome Little evidence exists in Italy for the cult of Saturn outside Rome, but his name resembles that of the Etruscan god Satres. The potential cruelty of Saturn was enhanced by his identification with Cronus, known for devouring his own children. He was thus used in translation when referring to gods from other cultures the Romans perceived as severe; he was equated with the Carthaginian god Baal Hammon, to whom children were sacrificed, and to Yahweh, whose Sabbath was referred to as *Saturni dies*, "Saturn's day," in a poem by Tibullus, who wrote during the reign of Augustus; eventually this gave rise to the word "Saturday" in English. The identification with Ba'al Hammon later gave rise to the African Saturn, a cult that enjoyed great popularity until the 4th century. Besides being a popular cult it also had the character of a mystery religion and required child sacrifices. It is also considered as inclining to monotheism. In the ceremony of initiation the **myste** (initiate) "*intrat sub iugum*" ("enters beneath the yoke"), a ritual that Leglay compares to the Roman *tigillum sororium*. Even though their origin and theology are completely different the Italic and the African god are both sovereign and master over time and death, a fact that has permitted their association. However, the African Saturn is not directly derived from the Italic god, but rather from his Greek counterpart, Cronus. ### Saturnalia Saturn is associated with a major religious festival in the Roman calendar, *Saturnalia*. Saturnalia celebrated the harvest and sowing, and ran from December 17–23. During Saturnalia, the social restrictions of Rome were relaxed. The figure of Saturn, kept during the year with its legs bound in wool, was released from its bindings for the period of the festival. The revelries of Saturnalia were supposed to reflect the conditions of the lost "Golden Age" before the rule of Saturn was overthrown, not all of them desirable, except as a temporary relief from civilized constraint. The Greek equivalent was the Kronia. Macrobius (5th century CE) presents an interpretation of the Saturnalia as a festival of light leading to the winter solstice. The renewal of light and the coming of the new year was celebrated in the later Roman Empire at the *Dies Natalis* of Sol Invictus, the "Birthday of the Unconquerable Sun," on December 25. Roman legend ------------ It was customary for the Romans to represent divine figures as kings of Latium at the time of their legendary origins. Macrobius states explicitly that the Roman legend of Janus and Saturn is an affabulation, as the true meaning of religious beliefs cannot be openly expressed. In the myth Saturn was the original and autochthonous ruler of the Capitolium, which had thus been called the *Mons Saturnius* in older times and on which once stood the town of *Saturnia*.  He was sometimes regarded as the first king of Latium or even the whole of Italy. At the same time, there was a tradition that Saturn had been an immigrant god, received by Janus after he was usurped by his son Jupiter and expelled from Greece. In Versnel's view his contradictions – a foreigner with one of Rome's oldest sanctuaries, and a god of liberation who is kept in fetters most of the year – indicate Saturn's capacity for confounding social distinctions. The Golden Age of Saturn's reign in Roman mythology differed from the Greek tradition. He arrived in Italy "dethroned and fugitive," but brought agriculture and civilization for which he was rewarded by Janus with a share of the kingdom, becoming himself king. As the Augustan poet Virgil described it, "He gathered together the unruly race" of fauns and nymphs "scattered over mountain heights, and gave them laws ... . Under his reign were the golden ages men tell of: in such perfect peace he ruled the nations." He was considered the ancestor of the Latin nation as he fathered Picus, the first king of Latium, who married Janus's daughter Canens and in his turn fathered Faunus. Saturn was also said to have founded the five *Saturnian* towns of Latium: Aletrium (today Alatri), Anagnia (Anagni), Arpinum (Arpino), Atina and Ferentinum (Ferentino, also known as Antinum) all located in the Latin Valley, province of Frosinone. All these towns are surrounded by cyclopean walls; their foundation is traditionally ascribed to the Pelasgians. But Saturn also had a less benevolent aspect, as indicated by the blood shed in his honor during gladiatorial *munera*. His consort in archaic Roman tradition was Lua, sometimes called *Lua Saturni* ("Saturn's Lua") and identified with Lua Mater, "Mother Destruction," a goddess in whose honor the weapons of enemies killed in war were burned, perhaps as expiation. Versnel, however, proposed that *Lua Saturni* should not be identified with *Lua Mater*, but rather refers to "loosening"; she thus represents the liberating function of Saturn. Gladiatorial *munera* --------------------- Saturn's chthonic nature connected him to the underworld and its ruler Dis Pater, the Roman equivalent of Greek Plouton (Pluto in Latin) who was also a god of hidden wealth. In 3rd-century AD sources and later, Saturn is recorded as receiving gladiatorial offerings *(munera)* during or near the Saturnalia. These gladiator combats, ten days in all throughout December, were presented by the quaestors and sponsored with funds from the treasury of Saturn. The practice of gladiatorial *munera* was criticized by Christian apologists as a form of human sacrifice. Although there is no evidence of this practice during the Republican era, the offering of gladiators led to later theorizing that the primeval Saturn had demanded human victims. Macrobius says that Dis Pater was placated with human heads and Saturn with sacrificial victims consisting of men (*virorum victimis*). The figurines that were exchanged as gifts *(sigillaria)* during the Saturnalia may have represented token substitutes. On coins -------- In 104 BCE, the plebeian tribune Lucius Appuleius Saturninus issued a denarius depicting Saturn driving a four-horse chariot *(quadriga)*, a vehicle associated with rulers, triumphing generals, and sun gods. Saturninus was a popularist politician who had proposed reduced-price grain distribution to the poor of Rome. The head of the goddess Roma appears on the obverse. The Saturnian imagery played on the tribune's name and his intent to alter the social hierarchy to his advantage, by basing his political support on the common people (*plebs*) rather than the senatorial elite. See also -------- * Planets in astrology § Saturn * Satre (Etruscan god) * Saturnalia Further reading --------------- * Guirand, Felix (Editor); Aldington, Richard (Translator); Ames, Delano (Translator); & Graves, Robert (Introduction). *New Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology*. ISBN 0-517-00404-6

Saturn (mythology)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn_(mythology)

**Connective tissue** is one of the four primary types of animal tissue, along with epithelial tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue. It develops from the mesenchyme, derived from the mesoderm, the middle embryonic germ layer. Connective tissue is found in between other tissues everywhere in the body, including the nervous system. The three meninges, membranes that envelop the brain and spinal cord, are composed of connective tissue. Most types of connective tissue consists of three main components: elastic and collagen fibers, ground substance, and cells. Blood, and lymph are classed as specialized fluid connective tissues that do not contain fiber. All are immersed in the body water. The cells of connective tissue include fibroblasts, adipocytes, macrophages, mast cells and leucocytes. The term "connective tissue" (in German, *Bindegewebe*) was introduced in 1830 by Johannes Peter Müller. The tissue was already recognized as a distinct class in the 18th century. Types ----- * * Connective tissue can be broadly classified into connective tissue proper, and special connective tissue. ### Connective tissue proper **Connective tissue proper** consists of **loose connective tissue** (including reticular connective tissue and adipose tissue) and **dense connective tissue** (subdivided into dense regular and dense irregular connective tissues.) Loose and dense connective tissue are distinguished by the ratio of ground substance to fibrous tissue. Loose connective tissue has much more ground substance and a relative lack of fibrous tissue, while the reverse is true of dense connective tissue. Dense regular connective tissue, found in structures such as tendons and ligaments, is characterized by collagen fibers arranged in an orderly parallel fashion, giving it tensile strength in one direction. Dense irregular connective tissue provides strength in multiple directions by its dense bundles of fibers arranged in all directions. ### Special connective tissue **Special connective tissue** consists of cartilage, bone, blood and lymph. Other kinds of connective tissues include fibrous, elastic, and lymphoid connective tissues. Fibroareolar tissue is a mix of fibrous and areolar tissue. Fibromuscular tissue is made up of fibrous tissue and muscular tissue. New vascularised connective tissue that forms in the process of wound healing is termed granulation tissue. All of the special connective tissue types have been included as a subset of fascia in the *fascial system*, with blood and lymph classed as *liquid fascia*. Bone and cartilage can be further classified as **supportive** **connective tissue**. Blood and lymph can also be categorized as **fluid connective tissue**, and *liquid fascia*. ### Membranes Membranes can be either of connective tissue or epithelial tissue. Connective tissue membranes include the meninges (the three membranes covering the brain and spinal cord) and synovial membranes that line joint cavities. Mucous membranes and serous membranes are epithelial with an underlying layer of loose connective tissue. Fibrous types ------------- Fiber types found in the extracellular matrix are collagen fibers, elastic fibers, and reticular fibers. Ground substance is a clear, colorless, and viscous fluid containing glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans allowing fixation of Collagen fibers in intercellular spaces. Examples of non-fibrous connective tissue include adipose tissue (fat) and blood. Adipose tissue gives "mechanical cushioning" to the body, among other functions. Although there is no dense collagen network in adipose tissue, groups of adipose cells are kept together by collagen fibers and collagen sheets in order to keep fat tissue under compression in place (for example, the sole of the foot). Both the ground substance and proteins (fibers) create the matrix for connective tissue. Type I collagen is present in many forms of connective tissue, and makes up about 25% of the total protein content of the mammalian body. Types of fibers| Tissue | Purpose | Components | Location | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Collagen fibers | Bind bones and other tissues to each other | Alpha polypeptide chains | tendon, ligament, skin, cornea, cartilage, bone, blood vessels, gut, and intervertebral disc. | | Elastic fibers | Allow organs like arteries and lungs to recoil | Elastic microfibril and elastin | extracellular matrix | | Reticular fibers | Form a scaffolding for other cells | Type III collagen | liver, bone marrow, and lymphatic organs | Function -------- Connective tissue has a wide variety of functions that depend on the types of cells and the different classes of fibers involved. Loose and dense irregular connective tissue, formed mainly by fibroblasts and collagen fibers, have an important role in providing a medium for oxygen and nutrients to diffuse from capillaries to cells, and carbon dioxide and waste substances to diffuse from cells back into circulation. They also allow organs to resist stretching and tearing forces. Dense regular connective tissue, which forms organized structures, is a major functional component of tendons, ligaments and aponeuroses, and is also found in highly specialized organs such as the cornea. Elastic fibers, made from elastin and fibrillin, also provide resistance to stretch forces. They are found in the walls of large blood vessels and in certain ligaments, particularly in the ligamenta flava. In hematopoietic and lymphatic tissues, reticular fibers made by reticular cells provide the stroma—or structural support—for the parenchyma (that is, the bulk of functional substance) of the organ. Mesenchyme is a type of connective tissue found in developing organs of embryos that is capable of differentiation into all types of mature connective tissue. Another type of relatively undifferentiated connective tissue is the **mucous connective tissue** known as Wharton's jelly, found inside the umbilical cord. Various types of specialized tissues and cells are classified under the spectrum of connective tissue, and are as diverse as brown and white adipose tissue, blood, cartilage and bone. Cells of the immune system—such as macrophages, mast cells, plasma cells, and eosinophils—are found scattered in loose connective tissue, providing the ground for starting inflammatory and immune responses upon the detection of antigens. Clinical significance --------------------- There are many types of connective tissue disorders, such as: * Connective tissue neoplasms including sarcomas such as hemangiopericytoma and malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor in nervous tissue. * Congenital diseases include Marfan syndrome and Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome. * Myxomatous degeneration – a pathological weakening of connective tissue. * Mixed connective tissue disease – a disease of the autoimmune system, also undifferentiated connective tissue disease. * Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) – a major autoimmune disease of connective tissue * Scurvy, caused by a deficiency of vitamin C which is necessary for the synthesis of collagen. * Fibromuscular dysplasia is a disease of the blood vessels that leads to an abnormal growth in the arterial wall. See also -------- * Endometrium * Parametrium Notes and references -------------------- 1. ↑ Biga, Lindsay M.; Dawson, Sierra; Harwell, Amy (26 September 2019). "4.1 Types of Tissues". Retrieved 30 July 2022. 2. 1 2 3 4 Biga, Lindsay M.; Dawson, Sierra; Harwell, Amy; Hopkins, Robin; Kaufmann, Joel; LeMaster, Mike; Matern, Philip; Morrison-Graham, Katie; Quick, Devon (2019), "4.3 Connective Tissue Supports and Protects", *Anatomy & Physiology*, OpenStax/Oregon State University, retrieved 16 April 2021 3. ↑ "5.3.4: Fluid Tissues". *Biology LibreTexts*. 21 May 2021. Retrieved 2 August 2022. 4. ↑ Mathews, M. B. (1975). *Connective Tissue, Macromolecular Structure Evolution.* Springer-Verlag, Berlin and New York. link. 5. ↑ Aterman, K. (1981). "Connective tissue: An eclectic historical review with particular reference to the liver". *The Histochemical Journal*. **13** (3): 341–396. doi:10.1007/BF01005055. PMID 7019165. S2CID 22765625. 6. ↑ Shostak, Stanley. "Connective Tissues". Retrieved 9 December 2012. 7. ↑ Carol Mattson Porth; Glenn Matfin (1 October 2010). *Essentials of Pathophysiology: Concepts of Altered Health States*. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 24–. ISBN 978-1582557243. Retrieved 11 May 2011. 8. ↑ Potter, Hugh. "The Connective Tissues". Archived from the original on 31 October 2012. Retrieved 9 December 2012. 9. ↑ Caceci, Thomas. "Connective Tisues". Archived from the original on 6 January 2013. Retrieved 9 December 2012. 10. ↑ King, David. "Histology Intro". Retrieved 9 December 2012. 11. ↑ "Medical Definition of FIBROAREOLAR". *www.merriam-webster.com*. Retrieved 11 October 2018. 12. ↑ "Granulation Tissue Definition". *Memidex*. Archived from the original on 16 November 2018. Retrieved 7 May 2016. 13. 1 2 Bordoni, Bruno; Mahabadi, Navid; Varacallo, Matthew (2022). "Anatomy, Fascia". *StatPearls*. StatPearls Publishing. PMID 29630284. Retrieved 3 August 2022. 14. ↑ Schleip, R; Hedley, G; Yucesoy, CA (October 2019). "Fascial nomenclature: Update on related consensus process". *Clinical Anatomy*. **32** (7): 929–933. doi:10.1002/ca.23423. PMC 6852276. PMID 31183880. 15. ↑ "Supporting Connective Tissue | Human Anatomy and Physiology Lab (BSB 141)". *courses.lumenlearning.com*. Retrieved 16 April 2021. 16. ↑ Karki, Gaurab (23 February 2018). "Fluid or liquid connective tissue: blood and lymph". *Online Biology Notes*. Retrieved 16 April 2021. 17. 1 2 "Membranes | SEER Training". *training.seer.cancer.gov*. Retrieved 3 August 2022. 18. ↑ Ushiki, T (June 2002). "Collagen fibers, reticular fibers and elastic fibers. A comprehensive understanding from a morphological viewpoint". *Archives of Histology and Cytology*. **65** (2): 109–26. doi:10.1679/aohc.65.109. PMID 12164335. 19. ↑ Xu, H.; et al. (2008). "Monitoring Tissue Engineering Using Magnetic Resonance Imaging". *Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering*. **106** (6): 515–527. doi:10.1263/jbb.106.515. PMID 19134545. S2CID 3294995. 20. ↑ Laclaustra, M.; et al. (2007). "Metabolic syndrome pathophysiology: The role of adiposetissue". *Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases*. **17** (2): 125–139. doi:10.1016/j.numecd.2006.10.005. PMC 4426988. PMID 17270403. 21. ↑ Di Lullo; G. A. (2002). "Mapping the Ligand-binding Sites and Disease-associated Mutations on the Most Abundant Protein in the Human, Type I Collagen". *Journal of Biological Chemistry*. **277** (6): 4223–31. doi:10.1074/jbc.M110709200. PMID 11704682. 22. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Ross M, Pawlina W (2011). *Histology: A Text and Atlas* (6th ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 158–97. ISBN 978-0781772006. 23. ↑ Young B, Woodford P, O'Dowd G (2013). *Wheater's Functional Histology: A Text and Colour Atlas* (6th ed.). Elsevier. p. 65. ISBN 978-0702047473.

Connective tissue

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connective_tissue

The **Indian rhinoceros** (***Rhinoceros unicornis***), or **Indian rhino** for short, also known as the **greater one-horned rhinoceros** or **great Indian rhinoceros**, is a rhinoceros species native to the Indian subcontinent. It is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List, as populations are fragmented and restricted to less than 20,000 km2 (7,700 sq mi). Moreover, the extent and quality of the rhino's most important habitat, the alluvial Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands and riverine forest, is considered to be in decline due to human and livestock encroachment. As of August 2018, the global population was estimated to comprise 3,588 individuals, including 2,939 individuals in India and 649 in Nepal. Kaziranga National Park alone had an estimated population of 2,048 rhinos in 2009. Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary in Assam has the highest density of Indian rhinos in the world with 84 individuals in an area of 38.80 km2 (14.98 sq mi) in 2009. Indian rhinos once ranged throughout the entire stretch of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, but excessive hunting and agricultural development reduced its range drastically to 11 sites in northern India and southern Nepal. In the early 1990s, between 1,870 and 1,895 Indian rhinos were estimated to have been alive. Since then, numbers have increased due to conservation measures taken by the government. However, poaching remains a continuous threat, as more than 150 Indian rhinos were killed in Assam by poachers between 2000 and 2006. Nearly 85% of the global Indian rhinoceros population is concentrated in Assam, where Kaziranga National Park contains 70% of rhino population. Etymology --------- The generic name *Rhinoceros* is a combination of the ancient Greek words ῥίς (*ris*) meaning "nose" and κέρας (*keras*) meaning "horn of an animal". The Latin word *ūnicornis* means "one-horned". Taxonomy -------- *Rhinoceros unicornis* was the scientific name used by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 who described a rhinoceros with one horn. As type locality, he indicated Africa and India. The Indian rhinoceros is monotypic. Several specimens were described since the end of the 18th century under different scientific names, which are all considered synonyms of *Rhinoceros unicornis* today: * *R. indicus* by Cuvier, 1817 * *R. asiaticus* by Blumenbach, 1830 * *R. stenocephalus* by Gray, 1867 * *R. jamrachi* by Sclater, 1876 * *R. bengalensis* by Kourist, 1970 Evolution --------- Ancestral rhinoceroses first diverged from other perissodactyls in the Early Eocene. Mitochondrial DNA comparison suggests the ancestors of modern rhinos split from the ancestors of Equidae around 50 million years ago. The extant family, the Rhinocerotidae, first appeared in the Late Eocene in Eurasia, and the ancestors of the extant rhino species dispersed from Asia beginning in the Miocene. Fossils of *R. unicornis* appear in the Middle Pleistocene. In the Pleistocene, the genus *Rhinoceros* ranged throughout South and Southeast Asia, with specimens located on Sri Lanka. Into the Holocene, some rhinoceros lived as far west as Gujarat and Pakistan until as recently as 3,200 years ago. The Indian and Javan rhinoceroses, the only members of the genus *Rhinoceros*, first appear in the fossil record in Asia during the Early Pleistocene. The Indian rhinoceros is known from Early Pleistocene localities in Java, South China, India and Pakistan. Molecular estimates suggest the species may have diverged much earlier, around 11.7 million years ago. Although belonging to the type genus, the Indian and Javan rhinoceroses are not believed to be closely related to other rhino species. Different studies have hypothesised that they may be closely related to the extinct *Gaindatherium* or *Punjabitherium*. A detailed cladistic analysis of the Rhinocerotidae placed *Rhinoceros* and the extinct *Punjabitherium* in a clade with *Dicerorhinus*, the Sumatran rhinoceros. Other studies have suggested the Sumatran rhinoceros is more closely related to the two African species. The Sumatran rhino may have diverged from the other Asian rhinos as long as 15 million years ago. Characteristics --------------- Indian rhinos have a thick grey-brown skin with pinkish skin folds and one horn on their snout. Their upper legs and shoulders are covered in wart-like bumps. They have very little body hair, aside from eyelashes, ear fringes and tail brush. Bulls have huge neck folds. The skull is heavy with a basal length above 60 cm (24 in) and an occiput above 19 cm (7.5 in). The nasal horn is slightly back-curved with a base of about 18.5 cm (7.3 in) by 12 cm (4.7 in) that rapidly narrows until a smooth, even stem part begins about 55 mm (2.2 in) above base. In captive animals, the horn is frequently worn down to a thick knob. The Indian rhino's single horn is present in both bulls and cows, but not on newborn calves. The horn is pure keratin, like human fingernails, and starts to show after about six years. In most adults, the horn reaches a length of about 25 cm (9.8 in), but has been recorded up to 36 cm (14 in) in length and 3.051 kg (6.73 lb) in weight. Among terrestrial land mammals native to Asia, Indian rhinos are second in size only to the Asian elephant. They are also the second-largest living rhinoceros, behind only the white rhinoceros. Bulls have a head and body length of 368–380 cm (12.07–12.47 ft) with a shoulder height of 170–186 cm (5.58–6.10 ft), while cows have a head and body length of 310–340 cm (10.2–11.2 ft) and a shoulder height of 148–173 cm (4.86–5.68 ft). The bull, averaging about 2,070–2,132 kg (4,564–4,700 lb) is heavier than the cow, at an average of about 1,599–1,608 kg (3,525–3,545 lb). The rich presence of blood vessels underneath the tissues in folds gives them the pinkish colour. The folds in the skin increase the surface area and help in regulating the body temperature. The thick skin does not protect against bloodsucking *Tabanus* flies, leeches and ticks. The largest individuals reportedly weighed up to 4,000 kg (8,800 lb). Distribution and habitat ------------------------ Indian rhinos once ranged across the entire northern part of the Indian subcontinent, along the Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra River basins, from Pakistan to the Indian-Myanmar border, including Bangladesh and the southern parts of Nepal and Bhutan. They may have also occurred in Myanmar, southern China and Indochina. They inhabit the alluvial grasslands of the Terai and the Brahmaputra basin. As a result of habitat destruction and climatic changes its range has gradually been reduced so that by the 19th century, it only survived in the Terai grasslands of southern Nepal, northern Uttar Pradesh, northern Bihar, northern West Bengal, and in the Brahmaputra Valley of Assam. The species was present in northern Bihar and Oudh at least until 1770 as indicated in maps produced by Colonel Gentil. On the former abundance of the species, Thomas C. Jerdon wrote in 1867: > This huge rhinoceros is found in the Terai at the foot of the Himalayas, from Bhutan to Nepal. It is more common in the eastern portion of the Terai than the west, and is most abundant in Assam and the Bhutan Dooars. I have heard from sportsmen of its occurrence as far west as Rohilcund, but it is certainly rare there now, and indeed along the greater part of the Nepal Terai; ... Jelpigoree, a small military station near the Teesta River, was a favourite locality whence to hunt the Rhinoceros and it was from that station Captain Fortescue ... got his skulls, which were ... the first that Mr. Blyth had seen of this species, ... > > Today, its range has further shrunk to a few pockets in southern Nepal, northern West Bengal, and the Brahmaputra Valley. Its habitat is surrounded by human-dominated landscapes, so that in many areas, it occurs in cultivated areas, pastures, and secondary forests. In the 1980s, Indian rhinos were frequently seen in the narrow plain area of Manas River and Royal Manas National Park in Bhutan. ### Populations In 2006, the total Indian rhinoceros population was estimated to comprise 2,577 individuals, of which 2,165 lived in India: * 23 individuals in Uttar Pradesh, including 21 in Dudhwa National Park and 2 in Katarniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary * 135 individuals in West Bengal, including 108 in Jaldapara National Park and 27 in Gorumara National Park * 2,007 individuals in Assam, including 1,855 in Kaziranga National Park, 81 in Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary, 68 in Orang National Park and 3 in Manas National Park. By 2014, the population in Assam increased to 2,544 Indian rhinos, an increase of 27% since 2006, although more than 150 individuals were killed by poachers during these years. The population in Kaziranga National Park was estimated at 2,048 individuals in 2009. By 2009, the population in Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary had increased to 84 individuals in an area of 38.80 km2 (14.98 sq mi). In 2015, Nepal had 645 Indian rhinos living in Parsa National Park, Chitwan National Park, Bardia National Park, Shuklaphanta Wildlife Reserve and respective buffer zones in the Terai Arc Landscape as recorded in a survey conducted from 11 April to 2 May 2015. The survey showed that the population of rhinos in Nepal from 2011 to 2015 increased 21% or 111 individuals. The Indian rhino population, which once numbered as low as 100 individuals in the early 1900s, has increased to more than 3,700 in year 2021 as per The International Rhino Foundation (IRF) signature 2021 report, State of the Rhino. Ecology and behaviour --------------------- Bulls are usually solitary. Groups consist of cows with calves, or of up to six subadults. Such groups congregate at wallows and grazing areas. They are foremost active in early mornings, late afternoons and at night, but rest during hot days. They bathe regularly. The folds in their skin trap water and hold it even when they exit wallows. They are excellent swimmers and can run at speeds of up to 55 km/h (34 mph) for short periods. They have excellent senses of hearing and smell, but relatively poor eyesight. Over 10 distinct vocalisations have been recorded. Males have home ranges of around 2 to 8 km2 (0.77 to 3.09 sq mi) that overlap each other. Dominant males tolerate other males passing through their territories except when they are in mating season, when dangerous fights break out. Indian rhinos have few natural enemies, except for tigers, which sometimes kill unguarded calves, but adult rhinos are less vulnerable due to their size. Mynahs and egrets both eat invertebrates from the rhino's skin and around its feet. *Tabanus* flies, a type of horse-fly, are known to bite rhinos. The rhinos are also vulnerable to diseases spread by parasites such as leeches, ticks, and nematodes. Anthrax and the blood-disease sepsis are known to occur. In March 2017, a group of four tigers consisting of an adult male, tigress and two cubs killed a 20-year-old male Indian rhinoceros in Dudhwa Tiger Reserve. ### Diet Indian rhinos are grazers. Their diet consists almost entirely of grasses (such as *Arundo donax*, *Bambusa tulda*, *Cynodon dactylon*, and *Oryza sativa*), but they also eat leaves, twigs and branches of shrubs and trees (such as *Lagerstroemia indica*), flowers, fruits (such as *Ficus religiosa*), and submerged and floating aquatic plants. They feed in the mornings and evenings. They use their semi-prehensile lips to grasp grass stems, bend the stem down, bite off the top, and then eat the grass. They tackle very tall grasses or saplings by walking over the plant, with legs on both sides and using the weight of their bodies to push the end of the plant down to the level of the mouth. Mothers also use this technique to make food edible for their calves. They drink for a minute or two at a time, often imbibing water filled with rhinoceros urine. ### Social life Indian rhinos form a variety of social groupings. Bulls are generally solitary, except for mating and fighting. Cows are largely solitary when they are without calves. Mothers will stay close to their calves for up to four years after their birth, sometimes allowing an older calf to continue to accompany her once a newborn calf arrives. Subadult bulls and cows form consistent groupings, as well. Groups of two or three young bulls often form on the edge of the home ranges of dominant bulls, presumably for protection in numbers. Young cows are slightly less social than the bulls. Indian rhinos also form short-term groupings, particularly at forest wallows during the monsoon season and in grasslands during March and April. Groups of up to 10 rhinos, typically a dominant male with females and calves, gather in wallows. Indian rhinos make a wide variety of vocalisations. At least 10 distinct vocalisations have been identified: snorting, honking, bleating, roaring, squeak-panting, moo-grunting, shrieking, groaning, rumbling and humphing. In addition to noises, the Indian rhino uses olfactory communication. Adult bulls urinate backwards, as far as 3–4 m (9.8–13.1 ft) behind them, often in response to being disturbed by observers. Like all rhinos, the Indian rhinoceros often defecates near other large dung piles. The Indian rhino has pedal scent glands which are used to mark their presence at these rhino latrines. Bulls have been observed walking with their heads to the ground as if sniffing, presumably following the scent of cows. In aggregations, Indian rhinos are often friendly. They will often greet each other by waving or bobbing their heads, mounting flanks, nuzzling noses, or licking. Indian rhinos will playfully spar, run around, and play with twigs in their mouths. Adult bulls are the primary instigators in fights. Fights between dominant bulls are the most common cause of rhino mortality, and bulls are also very aggressive toward cows during courtship. Bulls chase cows over long distances and even attack them face-to-face. Indian rhinos use their horns for fighting, albeit less frequently than African rhinos that largely use the incisors of the lower jaw to inflict wounds. ### Reproduction Captive bulls breed at five years of age, but wild bulls attain dominance much later when they are larger. In one five-year field study, only one Indian rhino estimated to be younger than 15 years mated successfully. Captive cows breed as young as four years of age, but in the wild, they usually start breeding only when six years old, which likely indicates they need to be large enough to avoid being killed by aggressive bulls. Their gestation period is around 15.7 months, and birth interval ranges from 34 to 51 months. In captivity, four Indian rhinos are known to have lived over 40 years, the oldest living to be 47. Threats ------- ### Habitat degradation and floods Habitat degradation caused by human activities and climate change as well as the resulting increase in the floods has caused large death of Indian rhinos and has limited their ranging areas which is shrinking. Serious declines in quality of habitat have occurred in some areas, due to: * severe invasion by alien plants into grasslands affecting some populations; * demonstrated reductions in the extent of grasslands and wetland habitats due to woodland encroachment and silting up of beels (swampy wetlands); * grazing by domestic livestock. ### Lack of site diversity The Indian rhino species is inherently at risk because over 70% of its population occurs at a single site, Kaziranga National Park. Any catastrophic event such as disease, civil disorder, poaching, or habitat loss would have a devastating impact on the Indian rhino's status. However, small population of rhinos may be prone to inbreeding depression. Expansion of other protective areas and introduction of rhinos in more areas is needed. ### Poaching Sport hunting became common in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and was the main cause for the decline of Indian rhinoceros populations. Indian rhinos were hunted relentlessly and persistently. Reports from the mid-19th century claim that some British military officers shot more than 200 rhinos in Assam alone. By 1908, the population in Kaziranga National Park had decreased to around 12 individuals. In the early 1900s, the Indian rhinoceros was almost extinct. At present, poaching for the use of horn in traditional Chinese Medicine is one of the main threats that has led to decreases in several important populations. Poaching for the Indian rhino's horn became the single most important reason for the decline of the Indian rhinoceros after conservation measures were put in place from the beginning of the 20th century, when legal hunting ended. From 1980 to 1993, 692 rhinos were poached in India, including 41 rhinos in India's Laokhowa Wildlife Sanctuary in 1983, almost the entire population of the sanctuary. By the mid-1990s, the Indian rhinoceros had been extirpated in this sanctuary. Between 2000 and 2006, more than 150 rhinos were poached in Assam. Almost 100 rhinos were poached in India between 2013 and 2018. In 1950, in Nepal the Chitwan’s forest and grasslands extended over more than 2,600 km2 (1,000 sq mi) and were home to about 800 rhinos. When poor farmers from the mid-hills moved to the Chitwan Valley in search of arable land, the area was subsequently opened for settlement, and poaching of wildlife became rampant. The Chitwan population has repeatedly been jeopardised by poaching; in 2002 alone, poachers killed 37 animals to saw off and sell their valuable horns. Six methods of killing Indian rhinos have been recorded: * Shooting is by far the most common method used; rhino horn traders hire sharpshooters and often supply them with rifles and ammunition. * Trapping in a pit depends largely on the terrain and availability of grass to cover it; pits are dug out in such a way that a fallen animal has little room to manoeuvre with its head slightly above the pit, so that it is easy to saw off the horn. * Electrocution is used where high voltage powerlines pass through or near a protected area, to which poachers hook a long, insulated rod connected to a wire, which is suspended above a rhino path. * Poisoning by smearing zinc phosphide rat poison or pesticides on salt licks frequented by rhinos is sometimes used. * Spearing has only been recorded in Chitwan National Park. * A noose, which cuts through the rhino's skin, kills it by strangulation. Conservation ------------ Globally, *Rhinoceros unicornis* has been listed in CITES Appendix I since 1975. The Indian and Nepalese governments have taken major steps towards Indian rhinoceros conservation, especially with the help of the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and other non-governmental organisations. In 1910, all rhino hunting in India became prohibited. In 1957, the country's first conservation law ensured the protection of rhinos and their habitat. In 1959, Edward Pritchard Gee undertook a survey of the Chitwan Valley, and recommended the creation of a protected area north of the Rapti River and of a wildlife sanctuary south of the river for a trial period of 10 years. After his subsequent survey of Chitwan in 1963, he recommended extension of the sanctuary to the south. By the end of the 1960s, only 95 rhinos remained in the Chitwan Valley. The dramatic decline of the rhino population and the extent of poaching prompted the government to institute the *Gaida Gasti* – a rhino reconnaissance patrol of 130 armed men and a network of guard posts all over Chitwan. To prevent the extinction of rhinos, the Chitwan National Park was gazetted in December 1970, with borders delineated the following year and established in 1973, initially encompassing an area of 544 km2 (210 sq mi). To ensure the survival of rhinos in case of epidemics, animals were translocated annually from Chitwan to Bardia National Park and Shuklaphanta National Park since 1986. The Indian rhinoceros population living in Chitwan and Parsa National Parks was estimated at 608 mature individuals in 2015. ### Reintroduction to new areas Indian rhinos have been reintroduced to the following new areas where they had previously inhabited but became extinct. These efforts have produced mixed results, mainly Due to lack of proper planning and management, sustained effort, adequate security of the introduced animals. In 1984, five Indian rhinos were relocated to Dudhwa National Park — four from the fields outside the Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary and one from Goalpara. This has born results and the population has increased to 21 rhinos by 2006. In early 1980s, Laokhowa Wildlife Sanctuary in Assam had more than 70 Indian rhinos which were all killed by poachers. In 2016, two Indian rhinos, a mother and her daughter, were reintroduced to the sanctuary from Kaziranga National Park as part of the Indian Rhino Vision 2020 (IRV 2020) program, but both animals died within months due to natural causes. Indian rhinos were once found as far west as the Peshawar Valley during the reign of Mughal Emperor Babur, but are now extinct in Pakistan. After rhinos became "regionally extinct" in Pakistan, two rhinos from Nepal were introduced in 1983 to Lal Suhanra National Park, which have not bred so far. ### In captivity Indian rhinos were initially difficult to breed in captivity. In the second half of the 20th century, zoos became adept at breeding Indian rhinoceros. By 1983, nearly 40 babies had been born in captivity. As of 2012, 33 Indian rhinos were born at Switzerland's Zoo Basel alone, meaning that most captive animals are related to the Basel population. Due to the success of Zoo Basel's breeding program, the International Studbook for the species has been kept there since 1972. Since 1990, the Indian rhino European Endangered Species Programme is also being coordinated there, with the goal of maintaining genetic diversity in the global captive Indian rhinoceros population. The first recorded captive birth of an Indian rhinoceros was in Kathmandu in 1826, but another successful birth did not occur for nearly 100 years. In 1925, a rhino was born in Kolkata. No rhinoceros was successfully bred in Europe until 1956 when first European breeding took place when baby rhino Rudra was born in Zoo Basel on 14 September 1956. In June 2009, an Indian rhino was artificially inseminated using sperm collected four years previously and cryopreserved at the Cincinnati Zoo’s CryoBioBank before being thawed and used. She gave birth to a male calf in October 2010. In June 2014, the first "successful" live-birth from an artificially inseminated rhino took place at the Buffalo Zoo in New York. As in Cincinnati, cryopreserved sperm was used to produce the female calf, Monica. Cultural significance --------------------- The Indian rhinoceros is one of the motifs on the Pashupati seal and many terracotta figurines that were excavated at archaeological sites of the Indus Valley civilisation. A rhinoceros is the vahana of the Hindu goddess Dhavdi. There is a temple dedicated to Maa (Mother) Dhavdi in Dhrangadhra, Gujarat. The Rhinoceros Sutra is an early text in the Buddhist tradition, found in the Gandhāran Buddhist texts and the Pali Canon, as well as a version incorporated into the Sanskrit Mahavastu. It praises the solitary lifestyle and stoicism of the Indian rhinoceros and is associated with the eremitic lifestyle symbolized by the Pratyekabuddha. ### Europe In the 3rd century, Philip the Arab exhibited an Indian rhinoceros in Rome. In 1515, Manuel I of Portugal obtained an Indian rhinoceros as a gift, which he passed on to Pope Leo X, but which died on the way from Lisbon to Rome. Three artistic representations were prepared of this rhinoceros: A woodcut by Hans Burgkmair, a drawing and a woodcut by Albrecht Dürer, all dated 1515. The Rhinoceros was sent as a present from the King of Portugal, Manuel I, to Pope Leo X in 1515, and this rhino died in a shipwreck off the coast of Italy in early 1516, and it was immortalised as *Dürer's Rhinoceros* in the woodcut. In 1577–1588, Abada was a female Indian rhinoceros kept by the Portuguese kings Sebastian I and Henry I from 1577 to 1580 and by Philip II of Spain from about 1580 to 1588. She was the first rhinoceros seen in Europe after *Dürer's Rhinoceros*. In about 1684, the first presumably Indian rhinoceros arrived in England. George Jeffreys, 1st Baron Jeffreys spread the rumour that his chief rival Francis North, 1st Baron Guilford had been seen riding on it. In 1741–1758, *Clara the rhinoceros* (c. 1738 – 14 April 1758) was a female Indian rhinoceros who became famous during 17 years of touring Europe in the mid-18th century. She arrived in Europe in Rotterdam in 1741, becoming the fifth living rhinoceros to be seen in Europe in modern times since Dürer's Rhinoceros in 1515. After tours through towns in the Dutch Republic, the Holy Roman Empire, Switzerland, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, France, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, the Papal States, Bohemia and Denmark, she died in Lambeth, England. In 1739, she was drawn and engraved by two English artists. It was then brought to Amsterdam, where Jan Wandelaar made two engravings that were published in 1747. In the subsequent years, the rhinoceros was exhibited in several European cities. In 1748, Johann Elias Ridinger made an etching of it in Augsburg, and Petrus Camper modelled it in clay in Leiden. In 1749, Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon drew it in Paris. In 1751, Pietro Longhi painted it in Venice. See also -------- * Unicorn, mythological character * *The Soul of the Rhino* Further reading --------------- Martin, E. B. (2010). *From the jungle to Kathmandu : horn and tusk trade*. Kathmandu: Wildlife Watch Group. ISBN 978-99946-820-9-6.

Indian rhinoceros

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_rhinoceros

The **FIFA Club World Cup** is an international men's association football competition organised by the *Fédération Internationale de Football Association* (FIFA), the sport's global governing body. The competition was first contested in 2000 as the **FIFA Club World Championship**. It was not held from 2001 to 2004 due to a combination of factors in the cancelled 2001 tournament, most importantly the collapse of FIFA's marketing partner International Sport and Leisure (ISL), but since 2005 it has been held every year, and has been hosted by Brazil, Japan, the United Arab Emirates, Morocco and Qatar. Views differ as to the cup's prestige: it struggles to attract interest in most of Europe, and is the object of heated debate in South America. The first FIFA Club World Championship took place in Brazil in 2000, during which year it ran in parallel with the Intercontinental Cup, a competition played by the winners of the UEFA Champions League and the Copa Libertadores, with the champions of each tournament both recognised (in 2017) by FIFA as club world champions. In 2005, the Intercontinental Cup was merged with the FIFA Club World Championship, and in 2006, the tournament was renamed as the FIFA Club World Cup. The winner of the Club World Cup receives the FIFA Club World Cup trophy and a FIFA World Champions certificate. The current format of the tournament involves seven teams competing for the title at venues within the host nation over a period of about two weeks; the winners of that year's AFC Champions League (Asia), CAF Champions League (Africa), CONCACAF Champions Cup (North, Central America and Caribbean), CONMEBOL Libertadores (South America), OFC Champions League (Oceania) and UEFA Champions League (Europe), along with the host nation's national champions, participate in a straight knock-out tournament. The host nation's national champions contest a play-off against the Oceania champions, from which the winner joins the champions of Asia, Africa and North America in the quarter-finals. The quarter-final winners go on to face the European and South American champions, who enter at the semi-final stage, for a place in the final. Real Madrid hold the record for most titles, having won the competition on five occasions. Corinthians' inaugural victory remains the best result from a host nation's national league champions. Teams from Spain have won the tournament eight times, the most for any nation. The current world champions are Real Madrid, who defeated Al-Hilal 5–3 in the 2022 final. History ------- ### Origin The first club tournament to be billed as the Football World Championship was held in 1887, in which FA Cup winners Aston Villa beat Scottish Cup winners Hibernian, the winners of the only national competitions at the time. The first time when the champions of two European leagues met was in what was nicknamed the 1895 World Championship, when English champions Sunderland beat Scottish champions Heart of Midlothian 5–3. Ironically, the Sunderland lineup in the 1895 World Championship consisted entirely of Scottish players – Scottish players who moved to England to play professionally in those days were known as the Scotch Professors. The first attempt at creating a global club football tournament, according to FIFA, was in 1909, 21 years before the first FIFA World Cup. The Sir Thomas Lipton Trophy was held in Italy in 1909 and 1911, and contested by English, Italian, German and Swiss clubs. English amateur team West Auckland won on both occasions. The idea that FIFA should organise international club competitions dates from the beginning of the 1950s. In 1951, FIFA President Jules Rimet was asked about FIFA's involvement in *Copa Rio*, the competition created by the Brazilian FA with a view to being a Club World Cup (a "club version" of the FIFA World Cup), and Rimet stated that it was not under FIFA's jurisdiction since it was organised and sponsored by the Brazilian FA. FIFA board officials Stanley Rous and Ottorino Barassi participated personally, albeit not as FIFA assignees, in the organisation of Copa Rio in 1951. Brazilian side Palmeiras beat Italian side Juventus in Maracanã Stadium with over 200 thousand spectators, being considered by many the first Club World Cup Champion. Rous' role was the negotiations with European clubs, whereas Barassi did the same and also helped form the framework of the competition. The Italian press regarded the competition as an "impressive project" that "was greeted so enthusiastically by FIFA officials Stanley Rous and Jules Rimet to the extent of almost giving it an official FIFA stamp." Because of the difficulty the Brazilian FA found in bringing European clubs to the competition, the *O Estado de S. Paulo* newspaper suggested that there should be FIFA involvement in the programming of international club competitions saying that, "ideally, international tournaments, here or abroad, should be played with a schedule set by FIFA". Still in the 1950s, the *Pequeña Copa del Mundo* (Spanish for *Small World Cup*) was a tournament held in Venezuela between 1952 and 1957, with some other club tournaments held in Caracas from 1958 onwards also often referred to by the name of the original 1952–1957 tournament. It was usually played by four participants, half from Europe and half from South America. ### Obstacles to creation > > We want to win the title, not so much for ourselves but to prevent Racing from being champions. > > > —Jock Stein, Celtic Football Club's manager, 1965–1978, commenting before the play-off match of the 1967 Intercontinental Cup known as *The Battle of Montevideo*; *Evening Times*, 3 November 1967. > > The Dutch team AFC Ajax claimed a victory without any problems and this match was no more difficult than a banal encounter at the European Cup. > > > —A Dutch newspaper journalist from Amsterdam, commenting on the quality of the competition and Ajax's opponent after the 1972 Intercontinental Cup; *De Telegraaf*, 30 September 1972. > > The indifference of the fans is the only explanation for our financial failure [at the Intercontinental Cup]. It would be much better if we had gotten a friendly similar to the one we would do in Tel Aviv, on 11 January, for US$255,000. > > > —Dettmar Cramer, Bayern Munich's manager, 1975–1977, commenting on the low relevance, prestige and rewards of the Intercontinental Cup after his team's victory in 1976; *Jornal do Brasil*, 22 December 1976. The *Tournoi de Paris* was a competition initially meant to bring together the top teams from Europe and South America; it was first played in 1957 when Vasco da Gama, the Rio de Janeiro champions, beat European champions Real Madrid 4–3 in the final at the Parc des Princes. The victory was hailed in France and Brazil as a "best of Europe X best of South American" club match as it was Real Madrid's first intercontinental competition as European champions (the Madrid team played the 1956 *Pequeña Copa del Mundo*, but confirmed their participation in the Venezuelan tournament before becoming European champions). In 1958, Real Madrid declined to participate in the Paris competition claiming that the final of the 1957/58 European Cup was just 5 days after the Paris Tournoi. On 8 October 1958, the Brazilian FA President João Havelange announced, at a UEFA meeting he attended as an invitee, the decision to create the Copa Libertadores and the Intercontinental Cup, the latter being a UEFA/CONMEBOL-endorsed "best club of the world" contest between the champion clubs of both confederations. Real Madrid won the first Intercontinental Cup in 1960, and titled themselves *world champions* until FIFA stepped in and objected, citing that the competition did not include any other champions from the other confederations; FIFA stated that they can only claim to be intercontinental champions of a competition played between two continental organisations in which no other continents had the opportunity to participate. FIFA stated that they would prohibit the 1961 edition to be played out unless the organisers regarded the competition as a friendly or a private match between two organisations. The same year the Intercontinental Cup was first played, 1960, FIFA authorised the International Soccer League, created (*along the lines of the 1950s Copa Rio*) with a view to creating a Club World Cup, with ratification from Sir Stanley Rous, who then had become FIFA President. The Intercontinental Cup attracted the interest of other continents. The North and Central America confederation, CONCACAF, was created in 1961 in order to, among other reasons, try to include its clubs in the Copa Libertadores and, by extension, the Intercontinental Cup. However, their entry into both competitions was rejected. Subsequently, the CONCACAF Champions' Cup began in 1962. Due to the brutality of the Argentine and Uruguayan clubs at the Intercontinental Cup, FIFA was asked several times during the late 1960s to assess penalties and regulate the tournament. However, FIFA refused each request. The first of these requests was made in 1967, after a play-off match labelled *The Battle of Montevideo*. The Scottish Football Association, via President Willie Allan, wanted FIFA to recognise the competition in order to enforce football regulation; FIFA responded that it could not regulate a competition it did not organise. Allan's crusade also suffered after CONMEBOL, with the backing of its President Teofilo Salinas and the Argentine Football Association (*Asociación del Fútbol Argentino*; AFA), refused to allow FIFA to have any hand in the competition stating: > *The CSF is the entity in charge of controlling, in South America, the organisation of the tournament between the champions of Europe and [South] America, a competition FIFA considers a friendly. We do not think it's appropriate that FIFA has to meddle in the matter.* > > René Courte, FIFA's General Sub-Secretary, wrote in 1967 an article shortly afterwards stating that FIFA viewed the Intercontinental Cup as a "European-South American friendly match". This was confirmed by FIFA President Sir Stanley Rous. With the Asian and North American club competitions in place in 1967, FIFA opened the idea of supervising the Intercontinental Cup if it included those confederations, with Stanley Rous saying that CONCACAF and the Asian Football Confederation had requested in 1967 participation of their champions in the Intercontinental Cup; the proposal was met with a negative response from UEFA and CONMEBOL. The 1968 and 1969 Intercontinental Cups finished in similarly violent fashion, with Manchester United manager Matt Busby insisting that "the Argentineans should be banned from all competitive football. FIFA should really step in." In 1970, the FIFA Executive Committee proposed the creation of a multicontinental Club World Cup, not limited to Europe and South America but including also the other confederations; the idea did not go forward due to UEFA resistance. In 1973, French newspaper *L'Equipe*, who helped bring about the birth of the European Cup, volunteered to sponsor a Club World Cup contested by the champions of Europe, South America, North America and Africa, the only continental club tournaments in existence at the time; the competition was to potentially take place in Paris between September and October 1974, with an eventual final to be held at the *Parc des Princes*. The extreme negativity of the Europeans prevented this from happening. The same newspaper tried once again in 1975 to create a Club World Cup, in which participants would have been the four semi-finalists of the European Cup, both finalists of the Copa Libertadores, as well as the African and Asian champions; once more, the proposal was to no avail. UEFA, via its president, Artemio Franchi, declined once again and the proposal failed. The idea for a multicontinental, FIFA-endorsed Club World Cup was also endorsed by João Havelange in his campaigning for FIFA presidency in 1974. The Mexican clubs América and Pumas UNAM, and the Mexican Football Association, demanded participation in the Intercontinental Cup (*either as the American-continent representantives in the Intercontinental Cup or as part of a UEFA-CONMEBOL-CONCACAF new Intercontinental Cup*) after winning the 1977/1978 and 1980/1981 editions of the Interamerican Cup against the South American champions; the request was unsuccessful. With the Intercontinental Cup in danger of being dissolved, West Nally, a British marketing company, was hired by UEFA and CONMEBOL to find a viable solution in 1980; Toyota Motor Corporation, via West Nally, took the competition under its wing and rebranded it as the *Toyota Cup*, a one-off match played in Japan. Toyota invested over US$700,000 in the 1980 edition to take place in Tokyo's National Olympic Stadium, with over US$200,000 awarded to each participant. The Toyota Cup, with its new format, was received with scepticism, as the sport was unfamiliar in the Far East. However, the financial incentive was welcomed, as European and South American clubs were suffering financial difficulties. To protect themselves against the possibility of European withdrawals, Toyota, UEFA and every European Cup participant signed annual contracts requiring the eventual winners of the European Cup to participate at the Intercontinental Cup, as a condition UEFA stipulated to the clubs' participation in the European Cup, or risk facing an international lawsuit from UEFA and Toyota. In 1983, the English Football Association tried organising a Club World Cup to be played in 1985 and sponsored by West Nally, only to be denied by UEFA. ### Inauguration (2000–2001) > > Manchester United see this as an opportunity to compete for the ultimate honour of being the very first world club champions. > > > —Martin Edwards, Manchester United's chairman, 1980–2002, commenting on the FIFA Club World Championship; *British Broadcasting Corporation News*, 30 June 1999. The framework of the 2000 FIFA Club World Championship was laid years in advance. According to Sepp Blatter, the idea of the tournament was presented to the executive committee in December 1993 in Las Vegas, United States by Silvio Berlusconi, AC Milan's president. Since every confederation had, by then, a stable, continental championship, FIFA felt it was prudent and relevant to have a Club World Championship tournament. Initially, there were nine candidates to host the competition: China, Brazil, Mexico, Paraguay, Saudi Arabia, Tahiti, Turkey, the United States and Uruguay; of the nine, only Saudi Arabia, Mexico, Brazil and Uruguay confirmed their interest to FIFA. On 7 June 1999, FIFA selected Brazil to host the competition, which was initially scheduled to take place in 1999. Manchester United legend Bobby Charlton, a pillar of England's victorious campaign in the 1966 FIFA World Cup, stated that the Club World Championship provided "a fantastic chance of becoming the first genuine world champions." The competition gave away US$28 million in prize money and its TV rights, worth US$40 million, were sold to 15 broadcasters across five continents. The final draw of the first Club World Championship was done on 14 October 1999 at the Copacabana Palace Hotel in Rio de Janeiro. > > There they were claiming that the English weren't interested in the world championship, yet the BBC sent 60 people to cover the tournament. This shows that it was the most important competition that they have taken part in in their history. They came here thinking they were going to win easily but they didn't count on the strength of Vasco. No Manchester player would get a place in the Vasco team at the moment. The Brazilians are the best players in the world, the Europeans do not even come close. > > > —Eurico Miranda, Vasco da Gama's vice-president, 1986–2000, commenting on the importance given to the tournament by the British news media, the level of European club football as well as Brazil's after his side's 3–1 win over Manchester United; *Independent Online*, 11 January 2000. The inaugural competition was planned to be contested in 1999 by the continental club winners of 1998, the Intercontinental Cup winners and the host nation's national club champions, but it was postponed by one year. When it was rescheduled, the competition had eight new participants from the continental champions of 1999: Brazilian clubs Corinthians and Vasco da Gama, English side Manchester United, Mexican club Necaxa, Moroccan club Raja Casablanca, Spanish side Real Madrid, Saudi club Al-Nassr, and Australian club South Melbourne. The first goal of the competition was scored by Real Madrid's Nicolas Anelka against Al-Nassr; Real Madrid went on to win the match 3–1. The final was an all-Brazilian affair, as well as the only one which saw one side have home advantage. Vasco da Gama could not take advantage of its local support, being beaten by Corinthians 4–3 on penalties after a 0–0 draw in 90 minutes and extra time. The second edition of the competition was planned for Spain in 2001, and would have featured 12 clubs. The draw was performed at A Coruña on 6 March 2001. However, it was cancelled on 18 May, due to a combination of factors, most importantly the collapse of FIFA's marketing partner International Sport and Leisure. The participants of the cancelled edition received US$750,000 each in compensation; the *Real Federación Española de Fútbol* (RFEF) also received US$1 million from FIFA. Another attempt to stage the competition in 2003, in which 17 countries were looking to be the host nation, also failed to happen. FIFA agreed with UEFA, CONMEBOL and Toyota to merge the Intercontinental Cup and Club World Championship into one event. The final Intercontinental Cup, played by representatives clubs of most developed continents in the football world, was in 2004, with a relaunched Club World Championship held in Japan in December 2005. All the winning teams of the Intercontinental Cup were regarded by worldwide mass media and football's community as *de facto* "world champions" until 2017 when FIFA officially (*de jure*) recognised all of them as official club world champions in equal status to the FIFA Club World Cup winners. ### Knock-out tournaments (2005–present) The 2005 version was shorter than the previous World Championship, reducing the problem of scheduling the tournament around the different club seasons across each continent. It contained just the six reigning continental champions, with the CONMEBOL and UEFA representatives receiving byes to the semi-finals. A new trophy was introduced replacing the Intercontinental trophy, the Toyota trophy and the trophy of 2000. The draw for the 2005 edition of the competition took place in Tokyo on 30 July 2005 at The Westin Tokyo. The 2005 edition saw São Paulo pushed to the limit by Saudi side Al-Ittihad to reach the final. In the final, one goal from Mineiro was enough to dispatch English club Liverpool; Mineiro became the first player to score in a Club World Cup final. Internacional defeated defending World and South American champions São Paulo in the 2006 Copa Libertadores Finals in order to qualify for the 2006 tournament. At the semi-finals, Internacional beat Egyptian side Al Ahly in order to meet Barcelona in the final. A late goal from Adriano Gabiru kept the trophy in Brazil. It was in 2007 when Brazilian hegemony was finally broken: AC Milan won a close match against Japan's Urawa Red Diamonds, who were pushed by over 67,000 fans at Yokohama's International Stadium, and won 1–0 to reach the final. In the final, Milan crushed Boca Juniors 4–2, in a match that saw the first player sent off in a Club World Cup final: Milan's Kakha Kaladze from Georgia in the 77th minute. Eleven minutes later, Boca Junior's Pablo Ledesma would join Kaladze as he too was sent off. The following year, Manchester United would emulate Milan by beating their semi-final opponents, Japan's Gamba Osaka, 5–3. They saw off Ecuadorian club LDU Quito 1–0 to become world champions in 2008. United Arab Emirates successfully applied for the right to host the FIFA Club World Cup in 2009 and 2010. Barcelona dethroned World and European champions Manchester United in the 2009 UEFA Champions League Final to qualify for the 2009 Club World Cup. Barcelona beat Mexican club Atlante in the semi-finals 3–1 and met Estudiantes in the final. After a very close encounter which saw the need for extra-time, Lionel Messi scored from a header to snatch victory for Barcelona and complete an unprecedented sextuple. The 2010 edition saw the first non-European and non-South American side to reach the final: TP Mazembe from the Democratic Republic of Congo defeated Brazil's Internacional 2–0 in the semi-final to face Internazionale, who beat South Korean club Seongnam Ilhwa Chunma 3–0 to reach the final. Internazionale went on to beat Mazembe with the same scoreline to complete their quintuple. The FIFA Club World Cup returned to Japan for the 2011 and 2012 edition. In 2011, Barcelona comfortably won their semi-final match 4–0 against Qatari club Al Sadd. In the final, Barcelona would repeat their performance against Santos; this is, to date, the largest winning margin in the final of the competition. Messi also became the first player to score in two different Club World Cup finals. The 2012 edition saw Europe's dominance come to an end as Corinthians, boasting over 30,000 travelling fans which was dubbed the *"Invasão da Fiel"*, travelled to Japan to join Barcelona in being two-time winners of the competition. In the semi-finals, Al-Ahly managed to keep the scoreline close as Corinthians' Paolo Guerrero scored to send the *Timão* into their second final. Guerrero would once again come through for Corinthians as the *Timão* saw off English side Chelsea 1–0 in order to bring the trophy back to Brazil. 2013 and 2014 had the Club World Cup moving to Morocco. The first edition saw a Cinderella run of host team Raja Casablanca, who had to start in the play-off round and became the second African team to reach the final, after defeating Brazil's Atlético Mineiro in the semi-final. Like Mazembe, Raja also lost to the European champion, this time a 2–0 defeat to Bayern Munich. 2014 again had a decision between South America and Europe, and Real Madrid beat San Lorenzo 2–0. The 2015 and 2016 editions once again saw Japan as hosts for the 7th and 8th time respectively in the 12th and 13th editions of the FIFA Club World Cup. The 2015 edition saw a final between River Plate and FC Barcelona. FC Barcelona lifted their third FIFA Club World Cup, with Suarez scoring two goals and Lionel Messi scoring one goal in the Final. One notable thing that occurred in the 2015 tournament was that Sanfrecce Hiroshima made it to third place, the farthest ever achieved by a Japanese club. This record would not last though, as the 2016 edition saw J1 League winners Kashima Antlers making it to the Final (outscoring rivals 7–1), against Real Madrid. A Gaku Shibasaki inspired Kashima attempted to win their first FIFA Club World Cup (a feat never done by any club outside of Europe and South America), but were denied by Real Madrid, who won 4–2 in extra time, thanks to a hat-trick by Cristiano Ronaldo. The UAE returned to host the event in 2017 and 2018. 2017 involved the likes of Real Madrid becoming the first team in Club World Cup history to return to the tournament to defend their title. Real Madrid became the first team to successfully defend their title after defeating Grêmio in the Final, all while eliminating Al Jazira in the Semi-Finals. Al-Ain was the first Emirati team to reach the Club World Cup final, as well as the second Asian team to reach the final in the 2018 edition. Real Madrid defeated Al-Ain 4–1 in the final, to win their fourth title in the competition and to become the first team ever to win it three years in a row and four times in total in the tournament's history. Thus, Real Madrid extended their international titles to seven after winning the 2018 edition (counting their three Intercontinental Cup titles and four Club World Cup titles). On 3 June 2019, FIFA selected Qatar as the host of both the 2019 and 2020 events. Gonzalo Belloso, the Deputy Secretary General and development director of CONMEBOL, previously said that the 2019 and 2020 editions will be held in Japan. The 2019 edition saw Liverpool defeat Flamengo to win the competition for the first time. In the 2020 edition, Bayern Munich beat Tigres UANL 1–0, completing their sextuple. The 2021 tournament was won by Chelsea, who defeated Palmeiras 2–1 after extra time for their first title. ### Planned expansion In late 2016, FIFA President Gianni Infantino suggested an expansion of the Club World Cup to 32 teams beginning in 2019 and the reschedule to June to be more balanced and more attractive to broadcasters and sponsors. In late 2017, FIFA discussed proposals to expand the competition to 24 teams and have it be played every four years by 2021, replacing the FIFA Confederations Cup. The new tournament with 24 teams was supposed to start in 2021 and would have included all UEFA Champions League winners, UEFA Champions League runners-up, UEFA Europa League winners, and Copa Libertadores winners from the four seasons up to and including the year of the event, with the remainder qualifying from the other four confederations. Along with a new UEFA Nations League competition, revenues of $25 billion would be expected during the period from 2021 to 2033. The first tournament would have been played in China; however, the tournament was cancelled due to scheduling issues caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. On 16 December 2022, FIFA announced an expanded tournament that would have 32 teams and start in June 2025. The International Federation of Professional Footballers and World Leagues Forum both immediately criticized the proposal. On 23 June 2023, FIFA confirmed that the United States will host the 2025 tournament as a prelude to the 2026 FIFA World Cup. The 32 teams will be divided into 8 groups of 4 teams with the top 2 teams in each group qualifying to the knockout stage. The FIFA Council also unanimously approved the concept of an annual club competition from 2024, in response to the fact that the FIFA Club World Cup will be held for the last time in its current guise in 2023. Results ------- ### Finals Keys * aet: result/match won after extra time * p: match won after penalty shoot-out | Ed. | Year | Host | First place game | Third place game | Num.teams | Ref. | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Winners | Score | Runners-up | Third place | Score | Fourth place | | 1 | 2000 | Brazil | Brazil **Corinthians** | 0–0 (a.e.t.) (4–3 p) | Brazil Vasco da Gama | Mexico Necaxa | 1–1 (a.e.t.) (4–3 p) | Spain Real Madrid | 8 | | | — | 2001 | Spain | *Tournament cancelled due to financial difficulties* | 12 | | | — | 2002 | — | *Tournament not held* | | | 2003 | | 2004 | | 2 | 2005 | Japan | Brazil **São Paulo** | 1–0 | England Liverpool | Costa Rica Saprissa | 3–2 | Saudi Arabia Al-Ittihad | 6 | | | 3 | 2006 | Japan | Brazil **Internacional** | 1–0 | Spain Barcelona | Egypt Al Ahly | 2–1 | Mexico América | 6 | | | 4 | 2007 | Japan | Italy **Milan** | 4–2 | Argentina Boca Juniors | Japan Urawa Red Diamonds | 2–2 (4–2 p) | Tunisia Étoile du Sahel | 7 | | | 5 | 2008 | Japan | England **Manchester United** | 1–0 | Ecuador LDU Quito | Japan Gamba Osaka | 1–0 | Mexico Pachuca | 7 | | | 6 | 2009 | UAE | Spain **Barcelona** | 2–1 (a.e.t.) | Argentina Estudiantes LP | South Korea Pohang Steelers | 1–1 (4–3 p) | Mexico Atlante | 7 | | | 7 | 2010 | UAE | Italy **Inter Milan** | 3–0 | Democratic Republic of the Congo TP Mazembe | Brazil Internacional | 4–2 | South Korea Seongnam Ilhwa Chunma | 7 | | | 8 | 2011 | Japan | Spain **Barcelona** | 4–0 | Brazil Santos | Qatar Al Sadd | 0–0 (5–3 p) | Japan Kashiwa Reysol | 7 | | | 9 | 2012 | Japan | Brazil **Corinthians** | 1–0 | England Chelsea | Mexico Monterrey | 2–0 | Egypt Al Ahly | 7 | | | 10 | 2013 | Morocco | Germany **Bayern Munich** | 2–0 | Morocco Raja Casablanca | Brazil Atlético Mineiro | 3–2 | China Guangzhou Evergrande | 7 | | | 11 | 2014 | Morocco | Spain **Real Madrid** | 2–0 | Argentina San Lorenzo | New Zealand Auckland City | 1–1 (4–2 p) | Mexico Cruz Azul | 7 | | | 12 | 2015 | Japan | Spain **Barcelona** | 3–0 | Argentina River Plate | Japan Sanfrecce Hiroshima | 2–1 | China Guangzhou Evergrande | 7 | | | 13 | 2016 | Japan | Spain **Real Madrid** | 4–2 (a.e.t.) | Japan Kashima Antlers | Colombia Atlético Nacional | 2–2 (4–3 p) | Mexico América | 7 | | | 14 | 2017 | UAE | Spain **Real Madrid** | 1–0 | Brazil Grêmio | Mexico Pachuca | 4–1 | United Arab Emirates Al-Jazira | 7 | | | 15 | 2018 | UAE | Spain **Real Madrid** | 4–1 | United Arab Emirates Al-Ain | Argentina River Plate | 4–0 | Japan Kashima Antlers | 7 | | | 16 | 2019 | Qatar | England **Liverpool** | 1–0 (a.e.t.) | Brazil Flamengo | Mexico Monterrey | 2–2 (4–3 p) | Saudi Arabia Al-Hilal | 7 | | | 17 | 2020 | Qatar | Germany **Bayern Munich** | 1–0 | Mexico Tigres UANL | Egypt Al Ahly | 0–0 (3–2 p) | Brazil Palmeiras | 6 | | | 18 | 2021 | UAE | England **Chelsea** | 2–1 (a.e.t.) | Brazil Palmeiras | Egypt Al Ahly | 4–0 | Saudi Arabia Al-Hilal | 7 | | | 19 | 2022 | Morocco | Spain **Real Madrid** | 5–3 | Saudi Arabia Al-Hilal | Brazil Flamengo | 4–2 | Egypt Al Ahly | 7 | | | 20 | 2023 | Saudi Arabia | | | | | | | 7 | | | 21 | 2025 | United States | | | | | | | 32 | | Notes 1. ↑ The council of FIFA officially recognizes the winners of the Intercontinental Cup and the FIFA Club World Cup as club world champions. 2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 No extra time was played. 3. ↑ Score was 1–1 after 90 minutes. 4. ↑ Score was 2–2 after 90 minutes. 5. ↑ Score was 0–0 after 90 minutes. 6. ↑ Score was 1–1 after 90 minutes. ### Performances by club Performances in the FIFA Club World Cup by club| Club | Titles | Runners-up | Years won | Years runners-up | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Spain Real Madrid | 5 | 0 | 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2022 | — | | Spain Barcelona | 3 | 1 | 2009, 2011, 2015 | 2006 | | Brazil Corinthians | 2 | 0 | 2000, 2012 | — | | Germany Bayern Munich | 2 | 0 | 2013, 2020 | — | | England Liverpool | 1 | 1 | 2019 | 2005 | | England Chelsea | 1 | 1 | 2021 | 2012 | | Brazil São Paulo | 1 | 0 | 2005 | — | | Brazil Internacional | 1 | 0 | 2006 | — | | Italy Milan | 1 | 0 | 2007 | — | | England Manchester United | 1 | 0 | 2008 | — | | Italy Inter Milan | 1 | 0 | 2010 | — | | Brazil Vasco da Gama | 0 | 1 | — | 2000 | | Argentina Boca Juniors | 0 | 1 | — | 2007 | | Ecuador LDU Quito | 0 | 1 | — | 2008 | | Argentina Estudiantes | 0 | 1 | — | 2009 | | Democratic Republic of the Congo TP Mazembe | 0 | 1 | — | 2010 | | Brazil Santos | 0 | 1 | — | 2011 | | Morocco Raja Casablanca | 0 | 1 | — | 2013 | | Argentina San Lorenzo | 0 | 1 | — | 2014 | | Argentina River Plate | 0 | 1 | — | 2015 | | Japan Kashima Antlers | 0 | 1 | — | 2016 | | Brazil Grêmio | 0 | 1 | — | 2017 | | United Arab Emirates Al-Ain | 0 | 1 | — | 2018 | | Brazil Flamengo | 0 | 1 | — | 2019 | | Mexico Tigres UANL | 0 | 1 | — | 2020 | | Brazil Palmeiras | 0 | 1 | — | 2021 | | Saudi Arabia Al-Hilal | 0 | 1 | — | 2022 | ### Performances by country Performance by nation| Country | Titles | Runners-up | Years won | Years runners-up | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | |  Spain | 8 | 1 | 2009, 2011, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2022 | 2006 | |  Brazil | 4 | 5 | 2000, 2005, 2006, 2012 | 2000, 2011, 2017, 2019, 2021 | |  England | 3 | 2 | 2008, 2019, 2021 | 2005, 2012 | |  Italy | 2 | 0 | 2007, 2010 | — | |  Germany | 2 | 0 | 2013, 2020 | — | |  Argentina | 0 | 4 | — | 2007, 2009, 2014, 2015 | |  Ecuador | 0 | 1 | — | 2008 | |  DR Congo | 0 | 1 | — | 2010 | |  Morocco | 0 | 1 | — | 2013 | |  Japan | 0 | 1 | — | 2016 | |  United Arab Emirates | 0 | 1 | — | 2018 | |  Mexico | 0 | 1 | — | 2020 | |  Saudi Arabia | 0 | 1 | — | 2022 | ### Performances by confederation Africa's best representatives were TP Mazembe from the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Moroccan club Raja Casablanca, which finished second in 2010 and 2013, respectively. Asia's best representatives were Kashima Antlers from Japan, Al-Ain from the United Arab Emirates and Al-Hilal from Saudi Arabia, finishing second in 2016, 2018 and 2022, respectively. North America's best result was Mexican team Tigres UANL, which earned a second-place finish in 2020. These six clubs are the only sides from outside Europe and South America to reach the final. Auckland City from New Zealand earned third place in 2014, the only time to date that an Oceanian team reached the semi-finals of the tournament. | Confederation | Winners | Runners-up | Third place | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | UEFA | 15 | 3 | — | | CONMEBOL | 4 | 10 | 5 | | AFC | — | 3 | 5 | | CAF | — | 2 | 3 | | CONCACAF | — | 1 | 5 | | OFC | — | — | 1 | | Total | 19 | 19 | 19 | Format and rules ---------------- Distribution of clubs in the FIFA Club World Cup| Play-off round | | --- | | * Winners of the OFC Champions League * Host nation's national league champions | | Quarter-final round | | * Winners of the AFC Champions League * Winners of the CONCACAF Champions League * Winners of the CAF Champions League * Winners of the play-off round | | Semi-final round | | * Winners of the Copa Libertadores * Winners of the UEFA Champions League * Two winners of the quarter-final round | | Final | | * Two winners of the semi-final round | As of 2022, most teams qualify to the FIFA Club World Cup by winning their continental competitions, be it the AFC Champions League, CAF Champions League, CONCACAF Champions League, Copa Libertadores, OFC Champions League or UEFA Champions League. Aside from these, the host nation's national league champions qualify as well. The maiden edition of this competition was separated into two rounds. The eight participants were split into two groups of four teams. The winner of each group met in the final while the runners-up played for third place. The competition changed its format during the 2005 relaunch into a single-elimination tournament in which teams play each other in one-off matches, with extra time and penalty shoot-outs used to decide the winner if necessary. It featured six clubs competing over a two-week period. There were three stages: the quarter-final round, the semi-final round and the final. The quarter-final stage pitted the Oceanian Champions League winners, the African Champions League winners, the Asian Champions League winners and the North American Champions League winners against each other. Afterwards, the winners of those games would go on to the semi-finals to play the European Champions League winners and South America's Copa Libertadores winners. The victors of each semi-final would play go on to play in the final. With the introduction of this format, a fifth place match and a spot for the host nation's national league champions were added. There are now four stages: the play-off round, the quarter-final round, the semi-final round and the final. The first stage pits the host nation's national league champions against the Oceanian Champions League winners. The winner of that stage would go on the quarter-finals to join the African Champions League winners, the AFC Champions League winners and the CONCACAF Champions League winners. The winners of those games would go on to the semi-finals to play the UEFA Champions League winners and South America's Copa Libertadores winners. The winners of each semi-final play each other in the final. Starting from 2022, the match for fifth place is no longer played. Trophy ------ The trophy used during the inaugural competition was called the *FIFA Club World Championship* Cup. The original laurel was created by Sawaya & Moroni, an Italian designer company that produces contemporary designs with cultural backgrounds and design concepts. The designing firm is based in Milan. The fully silver-coloured trophy had a weight of 4 kg (8.8 lb) and a height of 37.5 cm (14.8 in). Its base and widest points are 10 cm (3.9 in) long. The trophy had a base of two pedestals which had four rectangular pillars. Two of the four pillars had inscriptions on them; one contained the phrase, "FIFA Club World Championship" imprinted across. The other had the letters "FIFA" inscribed on it. On top, a football based on the 1998 FIFA World Cup ball, the Adidas Tricolore, can be seen. The production costs of the laurel was US$25,000. It was presented for the first time at Sheraton Hotels and Resorts in Rio de Janeiro on 4 January 2000. > > Just as the [FIFA] women's [World Cup] trophy had a distinct feminine note to it, so this new trophy is more masculine. It is also inspired by a classic sense of geometry and architecture, enduring concepts just like the status of a World Champion. > > > William Sawaya, designer of the *FIFA Club World Championship* trophy, commenting on the laurel; Fédération Internationale de Football Association, 3 January 2000. The tournament, in its present format, shares its name with the current trophy, also called the *FIFA Club World Cup* or simply *la Copa*, which is awarded to the FIFA Club World Cup winner. It was unveiled at Tokyo on 30 July 2005 during the draw of that year's edition of the competition. The laurel was designed in 2005 in Birmingham, United Kingdom, at Thomas Fattorini Ltd, by English designer Jane Powell, alongside her assistant Dawn Forbes, at the behest of FIFA. The gold-and-silver-coloured trophy, weighing 5.2 kg (11 lb), has a height of 50 cm (20 in). Its base and widest points are also measured at exactly 20 cm (7.9 in). It is made out of a combination of brass, copper, sterling silver, gilding metal, aluminium, chrome and rhodium. The trophy itself is gold plated. The design, according to FIFA, shows six staggered pillars, representing the six participating teams from the respective six confederations, and one separate metal structure referencing the winner of the competition. They hold up a globe in the shape of a football – a consistent feature in almost all of FIFA's trophies. The golden pedestal has the phrase, "FIFA Club World Cup", imprinted at the bottom. Awards ------ At the end of each Club World Cup, awards are presented to the players and teams for accomplishments other than their final team positions in the tournament. There are currently three awards: * The Golden Ball for the best player, determined by a vote of media members, who is also awarded the Alibaba Cloud Award (the presenting sponsor of the FIFA Club World Cup); the Silver Ball and the Bronze Ball are awarded to the players finishing second and third in the voting respectively. * The Player of the Match (formerly known as the "Man of the Match") for the best performing player in each tournament match. It was first awarded in 2013. * The FIFA Fair Play Trophy for the team with the best fair play record, according to the points system and criteria established by the FIFA Fair Play Committee. The winners of the competition are also entitled to receive the FIFA Champions Badge; it features an image of the trophy, which the reigning champion is entitled to display on its first-team kit only, up until and including, the final of the next championship. The first edition of the badge was presented to Milan, the winners of the 2007 final. All four previous champions were allowed to wear the badge until the 2008 final, where Manchester United gained the sole right to wear the badge by winning the trophy. Each tournament's top three teams receives a set of gold, silver or bronze medals to distribute to their players. Prize money ----------- Prize money (USD)| Winners | $5 million | | Runners-up | $4 million | | Third place | $2.5 million | | Fourth place | $2 million | | Fifth place | $1.5 million | | Sixth place | $1 million | | Seventh place | $0.5 million | The 2000 FIFA Club World Championship was the inaugural edition of this competition; it provided US$28 million in prize money for its participants. The prize money received by the clubs participating was divided into fixed payments based on participation and results. Clubs finishing the tournament from fifth to eighth place received US$2.5 million. The club who would eventually finish in fourth place received US$3 million while the third-place team received US$4 million. The runner-up earned US$5 million while the eventual champions would gain US$6 million. The relaunch of the tournament in 2005 FIFA Club World Championship saw different amounts of prize money given and some changes in the criteria of receiving certain amounts. The total amount of prize money given dropped to US$16 million. The winners received US$5 million and the runners-up US$4 million, with $2.5 million for third place, US$2 million for fourth, US$1.5 million for fifth and US$1 million for sixth. For the 2007 FIFA Club World Cup, a play-off match between the OFC champions and the host-nation champions for entry into the quarter-final stage was introduced in order to increase home interest in the tournament. The reintroduction of the match for fifth place for the 2008 competition also prompted an increase in prize money by US$500,000 to a total of US$16.5 million. Sponsorship ----------- Like the FIFA World Cup, the FIFA Club World Cup is sponsored by a group of multinational corporations. Toyota Motor Corporation, a Japanese multinational automaker headquartered in Toyota, Aichi, was the Presenting Partner of the FIFA Club World Cup until its sponsorship agreement expired at the end of December 2014 and was not renewed. Because Toyota was an automobile manufacturer and the main sponsor of the tournament, Hyundai-Kia's status as a FIFA partner was not active with respect to the Club World Cup prior to 2015. However, the other FIFA partners – Adidas, Coca-Cola and Visa – retained full sponsorship rights. In 2015, Alibaba Group signed an eight-year contract to become the Presenting Partner of the competition. The inaugural competition had six event sponsors: Fujifilm, Hyundai, JVC, McDonald's, Budweiser and MasterCard. Individual clubs may wear jerseys with advertising, even if such sponsors conflict with those of the FIFA Club World Cup. However, only one main sponsor is permitted per jersey in addition to that of the kit manufacturer. Records and statistics ---------------------- Cristiano Ronaldo (pictured in 2015 wearing a Real Madrid kit with the gold FIFA Champions Badge) is the all-time leading goalscorer in the tournament Toni Kroos has won the FIFA Club World Cup six times, which is the record for the most by any player. Cristiano Ronaldo holds the record of being the overall top goalscorer in FIFA Club World Cup history with seven goals. Hussein El Shahat is the player with the most appearances in the competition, with twelve. Real Madrid have won the FIFA Club World Cup a record five times. They also have the most wins (12) and most total goals scored in the competition (40). Auckland City have participated in the most different tournaments (10), while Al Ahly have played the most matches in the competition (22). Official songs -------------- Like most international football tournaments, the FIFA Club World Cup has featured official songs for each tournament since 2005. Unlike most larger tournaments, such as the FIFA World Cup, the songs consist mainly of J-pop, as most of the FIFA Club World Cups were held in Japan. List of FIFA Club World Cup official songs and anthems.| Year | Hosts | Official songs/anthems | Languages(s) | Performer(s) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 2005 |  Japan | "Legendary Meadow" | Japanese | Chemistry | | 2006 | "Top of the World" | Japanese | | 2007 | "Shining Night" | Japanese | Chemistry (supported by Monkey Majik) | | 2008 | "Septenova" | English and Japanese | Gospellers vs. Shintaro Tokita (from Sukima Switch) | | 2009 |  UAE | "The River Sings" | Loxian | Enya | | 2010 | | | | | 2011 |  Japan | "Never Give Up" | Japanese | Kylee | | 2012 | "World Quest" | Japanese | NEWS | | 2013 |  Morocco | "Seven Colors" | English and Japanese | | 2014 | | "Come Alive" | English | RedOne feat. Chawki | | 2015 |  Japan | "Anthem" | English | NEWS | | 2016 | | 2017 |  UAE | "Kingdom" | English and Japanese | | 2018 | "Spirit" | Japanese | | 2019 |  Qatar | "Superstar" | Japanese | | 2022 |  Morocco | "Welcome To Morocco" | English and Arabic | RedOne, Douzi, Hatim Ammor, Asma Lamnawar, Rym, Aminux, Nouaman Belaiachi, Zouhair Bahaoui, Dizzy DROS | | Reception --------- Since its inception in 2000, the competition, despite its name and the contestants' achievements, has received differing reception. In most of Europe it struggles to find broad media attention compared to the UEFA Champions League and commonly lacks recognition as a high-ranking contest. In South America, however, it is widely considered the highest point in the career of a footballer, coach and/or team at international club level. In Brazil and Argentina, the tournament is seen as a continuity of the Intercontinental Cup. The competition is also criticised, mainly by the European press and fans among others, for its format, which favours the UEFA and CONMEBOL teams, since their representatives start in the semi-finals and can only meet each other in the final match. The opening up of the global market in football has changed the balance. Nowadays, the best South Americans are usually playing for the European teams. FIFA's decision to choose the competition's host based on economic deals rather than their footballing merit, such as Qatar, has also been criticised. Additionally, the economic benefits to the winning team are considered inferior to any Super Cup prizes. See also -------- * List of association football competitions * List of world champion football clubs * Intercontinental Cup Further reading --------------- * Augustyn, Adam (2011). *The Britannica Guide to Soccer*. The Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-61530-581-0. * Darby, Paul (2002). *Africa, Football and Fifa: Politics, Colonialism and Resistance (Sport in the Global Society)*. Frank Cass Publishers. ISBN 0-7146-8029-X. * Dunmore, Tom (2011). *Historical Dictionary of Soccer*. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-7188-5. * Fortin, François (2003). *Sports: The Complete Visual Reference*. Firefly Books. ISBN 1-55297-807-9. * Goldblatt, David (2008). *The Ball Is Round: A Global History of Soccer*. Penguin Group. ISBN 978-1-59448-296-0. * Jozsa, Frank (2009). *Global Sports: Cultures, Markets and Organizations*. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-283-569-7. * Mitten, Adam (2010). *The Rough Guide to Cult Football*. Penguin Group. ISBN 978-1-4053-8577-0. * Oliver, Guy (2006). *Almanack of World Football 2007*. Headline Book Publishing. ISBN 0-7553-1506-5. * Peterson, Marc (2009). *The Integrity of the Game and Shareholdings in European Football Clubs*. GRIN Verlag. ISBN 978-3-640-43109-0. * Radnedge, Keir (2011). *FIFA World Football Records 2012*. Carlton Books. ISBN 978-1-84732-840-3. * Sugden, John (1998). *FIFA and the Contest For World Football*. Polity Press. ISBN 0-7456-1661-5. * Trecker, Jim; Miers, Charles (2008). Whitesell, J. Brett (ed.). *Women's Soccer: The Game and the Fifa World Cup* (Illustrated ed.). Explorer Publishing. ISBN 978-9948-8585-3-9. * Witzig, Richard (2006). *The Global Art of Soccer*. CusiBoy Publishing. ISBN 0-9776688-0-0. * *Explorer Tokyo: The Complete Residents' Guide*. Penguin Group. 2008. ISBN 978-1-59448-296-0. * *Soccer: The Ultimate Guide*. Penguin Group. 2010. ISBN 978-0-7566-7321-5.

FIFA Club World Cup

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA_Club_World_Cup

**Phishing** is a form of social engineering where attackers deceive people into revealing sensitive information or installing malware such as ransomware. Phishing attacks have become increasingly sophisticated and often transparently mirror the site being targeted, allowing the attacker to observe everything while the victim is navigating the site, and transverse any additional security boundaries with the victim. As of 2020, it is the most common type of cybercrime, with the FBI's Internet Crime Complaint Centre reporting more incidents of phishing than any other type of computer crime. The term "phishing" was first recorded in 1995 in the cracking toolkit AOHell, but may have been used earlier in the hacker magazine *2600*. It is a variation of *fishing* and refers to the use of lures to "fish" for sensitive information. Measures to prevent or reduce the impact of phishing attacks include legislation, user education, public awareness, and technical security measures. The importance of phishing awareness has increased in both personal and professional settings, with phishing attacks among businesses rising from 72% to 86% from 2017 to 2020. Types ----- ### Email phishing Phishing attacks, often delivered via email spam, attempt to trick individuals into giving away sensitive information or login credentials. Most attacks are "bulk attacks" that are not targeted and are instead sent in bulk to a wide audience. The goal of the attacker can vary, with common targets including financial institutions, email and cloud productivity providers, and streaming services. The stolen information or access may be used to steal money, install malware, or spear phish others within the target organization. Compromised streaming service accounts may also be sold on darknet markets. This method of social engineering attack involve sending fraud email or messages that appear to be from a trusted source, such as bank, amazon, or government agency. These messages will typically contain a link or attachment that, when you click, will install malware automatically on the targeted device or redirect them to fake login page of any trusted website where they will be promoted to enter their login credential. #### Spear phishing Spear phishing is a targeted phishing attack that uses personalized emails to trick a specific individual or organization into believing they are legitimate. It often utilizes personal information about the target to increase the chances of success. These attacks often target executives or those in financial departments with access to sensitive financial data and services. Accountancy and audit firms are particularly vulnerable to spear phishing due to the value of the information their employees have access to. Threat Group-4127 (Fancy Bear) targeted Hillary Clinton's 2016 presidential campaign with spear phishing attacks on over 1,800 Google accounts, using the accounts-google.com domain to threaten targeted users. A study on spear phishing susceptibility among different age groups found that 43% of 100 young and 58 older users clicked on simulated phishing links in daily emails over 21 days. Older women had the highest susceptibility, while susceptibility in young users declined over the study, but remained stable in older users. #### Whaling and CEO fraud Whaling attacks use spear phishing techniques to target senior executives and other high-profile individuals with customized content, often related to a subpoena or customer complaint. CEO fraud involves sending fake emails from senior executives to trick employees into sending money to an offshore account. It has a low success rate, but can result in organizations losing large sums of money. #### Clone phishing Clone phishing is a type of attack where a legitimate email with an attachment or link is copied and modified to contain malicious content. The modified email is then sent from a fake address made to look like it's from the original sender. The attack may appear to be a resend or update of the original email. It often relies on the sender or recipient being previously hacked so the attacker can access the legitimate email. ### Voice phishing Voice over IP (VoIP) is used in **vishing** or **voice phishing** attacks, where attackers make automated phone calls to large numbers of people, often using text-to-speech synthesizers, claiming fraudulent activity on their accounts. The attackers spoof the calling phone number to appear as if it is coming from a legitimate bank or institution. The victim is then prompted to enter sensitive information or connected to a live person who uses social engineering tactics to obtain information. Vishing takes advantage of the public's lower awareness and trust in voice telephony compared to email phishing. ### SMS phishing **SMS phishing** or **smishing** is a type of phishing attack that uses text messages from a cell phone or smartphone to deliver a bait message. The victim is usually asked to click a link, call a phone number, or contact an email address provided by the attacker. They may then be asked to provide private information, such as login credentials for other websites. The difficulty in identifying illegitimate links can be compounded on mobile devices due to the limited display of URLs in mobile browsers. Smishing can be just as effective as email phishing, as many smartphones have fast internet connectivity. Smishing messages may also come from unusual phone numbers. ### Page hijacking Page hijacking involves redirecting users to malicious websites or exploit kits through the compromise of legitimate web pages, often using cross site scripting. Hackers may insert exploit kits such as MPack into compromised websites to exploit legitimate users visiting the server. Page hijacking can also involve the insertion of malicious inline frames, allowing exploit kits to load. This tactic is often used in conjunction with watering hole attacks on corporate targets. ### Calendar phishing **Calendar phishing** involves sending fake calendar invitations with phishing links. These invitations often mimic common event requests and can easily be added to calendars automatically. To protect against this form of fraud, former Google click fraud czar Shuman Ghosemajumder recommends changing calendar settings to not automatically add new invitations. Techniques ---------- ### Link manipulation Phishing attacks often involve creating fake links that appear to be from a legitimate organization. These links may use misspelled URLs or subdomains to deceive the user. In the following example URL, `http://www.yourbank.example.com/`, it can appear to the untrained eye as though the URL will take the user to the *example* section of the *yourbank* website; actually this URL points to the "*yourbank*" (i.e. phishing subdomain) section of the *example* website (fraudster's domain name). Another tactic is to make the displayed text for a link appear trustworthy, while the actual link goes to the phisher's site. To check the destination of a link, many email clients and web browsers will show the URL in the status bar when the mouse is hovering over it. However, some phishers may be able to bypass this security measure. Internationalized domain names (IDNs) can be exploited via IDN spoofing or homograph attacks to allow attackers to create fake websites with visually identical addresses to legitimate ones. These attacks have been used by phishers to disguise malicious URLs using open URL redirectors on trusted websites. Even digital certificates, such as SSL, may not protect against these attacks as phishers can purchase valid certificates and alter content to mimic genuine websites or host phishing sites without SSL. ### Filter evasion Phishers have sometimes used images instead of text to make it harder for anti-phishing filters to detect the text commonly used in phishing emails. In response, more sophisticated anti-phishing filters are able to recover hidden text in images using optical character recognition (OCR). ### Social engineering Phishing often uses social engineering techniques to trick users into performing actions such as clicking a link or opening an attachment, or revealing sensitive information. It often involves pretending to be a trusted entity and creating a sense of urgency, like threatening to close or seize a victim's bank or insurance account. An alternative technique to impersonation-based phishing is the use of fake news articles to trick victims into clicking on a malicious link. These links often lead to fake websites that appear legitimate, but are actually run by attackers who may try to install malware or present fake "virus" notifications to the victim. History ------- ### Early history Early phishing techniques can be traced back to the 1990s, when black hat hackers and the warez community used AOL to steal credit card information and commit other online crimes. The term "phishing" is said to have been coined by Khan C. Smith, a well-known spammer and hacker, and its first recorded mention was found in the hacking tool AOHell, which was released in 1995. AOHell allowed hackers to impersonate AOL staff and send instant messages to victims asking them to reveal their passwords. In response, AOL implemented measures to prevent phishing and eventually shut down the warez scene on their platform. ### 2000s In the 2000s, phishing attacks became more organized and targeted. The first known direct attempt against a payment system, E-gold, occurred in June 2001, and shortly after the September 11 attacks, a "post-9/11 id check" phishing attack followed. The first known phishing attack against a retail bank was reported in September 2003. Between May 2004 and May 2005, approximately 1.2 million computer users in the United States suffered losses caused by phishing, totaling approximately US$929 million. Phishing was recognized as a fully organized part of the black market, and specializations emerged on a global scale that provided phishing software for payment, which were assembled and implemented into phishing campaigns by organized gangs. The United Kingdom banking sector suffered from phishing attacks, with losses from web banking fraud almost doubling in 2005 compared to 2004. In 2006, almost half of phishing thefts were committed by groups operating through the Russian Business Network based in St. Petersburg. Email scams posing as the Internal Revenue Service were also used to steal sensitive data from U.S. taxpayers. Social networking sites are a prime target of phishing, since the personal details in such sites can be used in identity theft; In 2007, 3.6 million adults lost US$3.2 billion due to phishing attacks. The Anti-Phishing Working Group reported receiving 115,370 phishing email reports from consumers with US and China hosting more than 25% of the phishing pages each in the third quarter of 2009. ### 2010s Phishing in the 2010s saw a significant increase in the number of attacks. In 2011, the master keys for RSA SecurID security tokens were stolen through a phishing attack. Chinese phishing campaigns also targeted high-ranking officials in the US and South Korean governments and military, as well as Chinese political activists. According to Ghosh, phishing attacks increased from 187,203 in 2010 to 445,004 in 2012. In August 2013, Outbrain suffered a spear-phishing attack, and in November 2013, 110 million customer and credit card records were stolen from Target customers through a phished subcontractor account. CEO and IT security staff subsequently fired. In August 2014, iCloud leaks of celebrity photos were based on phishing e-mails sent to victims that looked like they came from Apple or Google. In November 2014, phishing attacks on ICANN gained administrative access to the Centralized Zone Data System; also gained was data about users in the system - and access to ICANN's public Governmental Advisory Committee wiki, blog, and whois information portal. Fancy Bear was linked to spear-phishing attacks against the Pentagon email system in August 2015, and the group used a zero-day exploit of Java in a spear-phishing attack on the White House and NATO. Fancy Bear carried out spear phishing attacks on email addresses associated with the Democratic National Committee in the first quarter of 2016. In August 2016, members of the Bundestag and political parties such as Linken-faction leader Sahra Wagenknecht, Junge Union, and the CDU of Saarland were targeted by spear-phishing attacks suspected to be carried out by Fancy Bear. In August 2016, the World Anti-Doping Agency reported the receipt of phishing emails sent to users of its database claiming to be official WADA, but consistent with the Russian hacking group Fancy Bear. In 2017, 76% of organizations experienced phishing attacks, with nearly half of the information security professionals surveyed reporting an increase from 2016. In the first half of 2017, businesses and residents of Qatar were hit with over 93,570 phishing events in a three-month span. In August 2017, customers of Amazon faced the Amazon Prime Day phishing attack, when hackers sent out seemingly legitimate deals to customers of Amazon. When Amazon's customers attempted to make purchases using the "deals", the transaction would not be completed, prompting the retailer's customers to input data that could be compromised and stolen. In 2018, the company block.one, which developed the EOS.IO blockchain, was attacked by a phishing group who sent phishing emails to all customers aimed at intercepting the user's cryptocurrency wallet key, and a later attack targeted airdrop tokens. ### 2020s Phishing attacks have evolved in the 2020s to include elements of social engineering, as demonstrated by the July 15, 2020, Twitter breach. In this case, a 17-year-old hacker and accomplices set up a fake website resembling Twitter's internal VPN provider used by remote working employees. Posing as helpdesk staff, they called multiple Twitter employees, directing them to submit their credentials to the fake VPN website. Using the details supplied by the unsuspecting employees, they were able to seize control of several high-profile user accounts, including those of Barack Obama, Elon Musk, Joe Biden, and Apple Inc.'s company account. The hackers then sent messages to Twitter followers soliciting Bitcoin, promising to double the transaction value in return. The hackers collected 12.86 BTC (about $117,000 at the time). Anti-phishing ------------- There are anti-phishing websites which publish exact messages that have been recently circulating the internet, such as FraudWatch International and Millersmiles. Such sites often provide specific details about the particular messages. As recently as 2007, the adoption of anti-phishing strategies by businesses needing to protect personal and financial information was low. Now there are several different techniques to combat phishing, including legislation and technology created specifically to protect against phishing. These techniques include steps that can be taken by individuals, as well as by organizations. Phone, web site, and email phishing can now be reported to authorities, as described below. ### User training Effective phishing education, including conceptual knowledge and feedback, is an important part of any organization's anti-phishing strategy. While there is limited data on the effectiveness of education in reducing susceptibility to phishing, much information on the threat is available online. Simulated phishing campaigns, in which organizations test their employees' training by sending fake phishing emails, are commonly used to assess their effectiveness. One example is a study by the National Library of Medicine, in which an organization received 858,200 emails during a 1-month testing period, with 139,400 (16%) being marketing and 18,871 (2%) being identified as potential threats. These campaigns are often used in the healthcare industry, as healthcare data is a valuable target for hackers. These campaigns are just one of the ways that organizations are working to combat phishing. To avoid phishing attempts, people can modify their browsing habits and be cautious of emails claiming to be from a company asking to "verify" an account. It's best to contact the company directly or manually type in their website address rather than clicking on any hyperlinks in suspicious emails. Nearly all legitimate e-mail messages from companies to their customers contain an item of information that is not readily available to phishers. Some companies, for example PayPal, always address their customers by their username in emails, so if an email addresses the recipient in a generic fashion ("*Dear PayPal customer*") it is likely to be an attempt at phishing. Furthermore, PayPal offers various methods to determine spoof emails and advises users to forward suspicious emails to their spoof@PayPal.com domain to investigate and warn other customers. However it is unsafe to assume that the presence of personal information alone guarantees that a message is legitimate, and some studies have shown that the presence of personal information does not significantly affect the success rate of phishing attacks; which suggests that most people do not pay attention to such details. Emails from banks and credit card companies often include partial account numbers, but research has shown that people tend to not differentiate between the first and last digits. This is an issue because the first few digits are often the same for all clients of a financial institution. The Anti-Phishing Working Group, who's one of the largest anti-phishing organizations in the world, produces regular report on trends in phishing attacks. Google posted a video demonstrating how to identify and protect yourself from Phishing scams. ### Technical approaches A wide range of technical approaches are available to prevent phishing attacks reaching users or to prevent them from successfully capturing sensitive information. #### Filtering out phishing mail Specialized spam filters can reduce the number of phishing emails that reach their addressees' inboxes. These filters use a number of techniques including machine learning and natural language processing approaches to classify phishing emails, and reject email with forged addresses. #### Browsers alerting users to fraudulent websites Another popular approach to fighting phishing is to maintain a list of known phishing sites and to check websites against the list. One such service is the Safe Browsing service. Web browsers such as Google Chrome, Internet Explorer 7, Mozilla Firefox 2.0, Safari 3.2, and Opera all contain this type of anti-phishing measure. Firefox 2 used Google anti-phishing software. Opera 9.1 uses live blacklists from Phishtank, cyscon and GeoTrust, as well as live whitelists from GeoTrust. Some implementations of this approach send the visited URLs to a central service to be checked, which has raised concerns about privacy. According to a report by Mozilla in late 2006, Firefox 2 was found to be more effective than Internet Explorer 7 at detecting fraudulent sites in a study by an independent software testing company. An approach introduced in mid-2006 involves switching to a special DNS service that filters out known phishing domains: this will work with any browser, and is similar in principle to using a hosts file to block web adverts. To mitigate the problem of phishing sites impersonating a victim site by embedding its images (such as logos), several site owners have altered the images to send a message to the visitor that a site may be fraudulent. The image may be moved to a new filename and the original permanently replaced, or a server can detect that the image was not requested as part of normal browsing, and instead send a warning image. #### Augmenting password logins The Bank of America website is one of several that asks users to select a personal image (marketed as SiteKey) and displays this user-selected image with any forms that request a password. Users of the bank's online services are instructed to enter a password only when they see the image they selected. However, several studies suggest that few users refrain from entering their passwords when images are absent. In addition, this feature (like other forms of two-factor authentication) is susceptible to other attacks, such as those suffered by Scandinavian bank Nordea in late 2005, and Citibank in 2006. A similar system, in which an automatically generated "Identity Cue" consisting of a colored word within a colored box is displayed to each website user, is in use at other financial institutions. Security skins are a related technique that involves overlaying a user-selected image onto the login form as a visual cue that the form is legitimate. Unlike the website-based image schemes, however, the image itself is shared only between the user and the browser, and not between the user and the website. The scheme also relies on a mutual authentication protocol, which makes it less vulnerable to attacks that affect user-only authentication schemes. Still another technique relies on a dynamic grid of images that is different for each login attempt. The user must identify the pictures that fit their pre-chosen categories (such as dogs, cars and flowers). Only after they have correctly identified the pictures that fit their categories are they allowed to enter their alphanumeric password to complete the login. Unlike the static images used on the Bank of America website, a dynamic image-based authentication method creates a one-time passcode for the login, requires active participation from the user, and is very difficult for a phishing website to correctly replicate because it would need to display a different grid of randomly generated images that includes the user's secret categories. #### Monitoring and takedown Several companies offer banks and other organizations likely to suffer from phishing scams round-the-clock services to monitor, analyze and assist in shutting down phishing websites. Automated detection of phishing content is still below accepted levels for direct action, with content-based analysis reaching between 80% and 90% of success so most of the tools include manual steps to certify the detection and authorize the response. Individuals can contribute by reporting phishing to both volunteer and industry groups, such as cyscon or PhishTank. Phishing web pages and emails can be reported to Google. #### Transaction verification and signing Solutions have also emerged using the mobile phone (smartphone) as a second channel for verification and authorization of banking transactions. #### Multi-factor authentication Organizations can implement two factor or multi-factor authentication (MFA), which requires a user to use at least 2 factors when logging in. (For example, a user must both present a smart card and a password). This mitigates some risk, in the event of a successful phishing attack, the stolen password on its own cannot be reused to further breach the protected system. However, there are several attack methods which can defeat many of the typical systems. MFA schemes such as WebAuthn address this issue by design. #### Email content redaction Organizations that prioritize security over convenience can require users of its computers to use an email client that redacts URLs from email messages, thus making it impossible for the reader of the email to click on a link, or even copy a URL. While this may result in an inconvenience, it does almost eliminate email phishing attacks. #### Limitations of technical responses An article in *Forbes* in August 2014 argues that the reason phishing problems persist even after a decade of anti-phishing technologies being sold is that phishing is "a technological medium to exploit human weaknesses" and that technology cannot fully compensate for human weaknesses. ### Legal responses On January 26, 2004, the U.S. Federal Trade Commission filed the first lawsuit against a Californian teenager suspected of phishing by creating a webpage mimicking America Online and stealing credit card information. Other countries have followed this lead by tracing and arresting phishers. A phishing kingpin, Valdir Paulo de Almeida, was arrested in Brazil for leading one of the largest phishing crime rings, which in two years stole between US$18 million and US$37 million. UK authorities jailed two men in June 2005 for their role in a phishing scam, in a case connected to the U.S. Secret Service Operation Firewall, which targeted notorious "carder" websites. In 2006, Japanese police arrested eight people for creating fake Yahoo Japan websites, netting themselves ¥100 million (US$870,000) and the FBI detained a gang of sixteen in the U.S. and Europe in Operation Cardkeeper. Senator Patrick Leahy introduced the Anti-Phishing Act of 2005 to Congress in the United States on March 1, 2005. This bill aimed to impose fines of up to $250,000 and prison sentences of up to five years on criminals who used fake websites and emails to defraud consumers. In the UK, the Fraud Act 2006 introduced a general offense of fraud punishable by up to ten years in prison and prohibited the development or possession of phishing kits with the intention of committing fraud. Companies have also joined the effort to crack down on phishing. On March 31, 2005, Microsoft filed 117 federal lawsuits in the U.S. District Court for the Western District of Washington. The lawsuits accuse "John Doe" defendants of obtaining passwords and confidential information. March 2005 also saw a partnership between Microsoft and the Australian government teaching law enforcement officials how to combat various cyber crimes, including phishing. Microsoft announced a planned further 100 lawsuits outside the U.S. in March 2006, followed by the commencement, as of November 2006, of 129 lawsuits mixing criminal and civil actions. AOL reinforced its efforts against phishing in early 2006 with three lawsuits seeking a total of US$18 million under the 2005 amendments to the Virginia Computer Crimes Act, and Earthlink has joined in by helping to identify six men subsequently charged with phishing fraud in Connecticut. In January 2007, Jeffrey Brett Goodin of California became the first defendant convicted by a jury under the provisions of the CAN-SPAM Act of 2003. He was found guilty of sending thousands of emails to AOL users, while posing as the company's billing department, which prompted customers to submit personal and credit card information. Facing a possible 101 years in prison for the CAN-SPAM violation and ten other counts including wire fraud, the unauthorized use of credit cards, and the misuse of AOL's trademark, he was sentenced to serve 70 months. Goodin had been in custody since failing to appear for an earlier court hearing and began serving his prison term immediately. Notable incidents ----------------- * 2016–2021 literary phishing thefts See also -------- * Anti-phishing software – computer programs that attempt to identify phishing content contained in websites and e-mailPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback * Brandjacking – Assuming the online identity of another entity * Catfishing * Clickjacking * In-session phishing – Type of phishing attack * Internet fraud – Fraud or deception using the Internet * Link farm * List of cognitive biases – Systematic patterns of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment, many abusable by phishing * Mousetrapping * Penetration test – Authorized cyberattack for testing purposes * SiteKey – Web-based authentication service * Trojan Horse * TrustRank * Typosquatting – Form of cybersquatting which relies on mistakes when inputting a website address

Phishing

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phishing

An **abscess** is a collection of pus that has built up within the tissue of the body. Signs and symptoms of abscesses include redness, pain, warmth, and swelling. The swelling may feel fluid-filled when pressed. The area of redness often extends beyond the swelling. Carbuncles and boils are types of abscess that often involve hair follicles, with carbuncles being larger. They are usually caused by a bacterial infection. Often many different types of bacteria are involved in a single infection. In many areas of the world, the most common bacteria present is *methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus*. Rarely, parasites can cause abscesses; this is more common in the developing world. Diagnosis of a skin abscess is usually made based on what it looks like and is confirmed by cutting it open. Ultrasound imaging may be useful in cases in which the diagnosis is not clear. In abscesses around the anus, computer tomography (CT) may be important to look for deeper infection. Standard treatment for most skin or soft tissue abscesses is cutting it open and drainage. There appears to be some benefit from also using antibiotics. A small amount of evidence supports not packing the cavity that remains with gauze after drainage. Closing this cavity right after draining it rather than leaving it open may speed healing without increasing the risk of the abscess returning. Sucking out the pus with a needle is often not sufficient. Skin abscesses are common and have become more common in recent years. Risk factors include intravenous drug use, with rates reported as high as 65% among users. In 2005, in the United States, 3.2 million people went to the emergency department for an abscess. In Australia, around 13,000 people were hospitalized in 2008 with the condition. Signs and symptoms ------------------ Abscesses may occur in any kind of tissue but most frequently within the skin surface (where they may be superficial pustules known as boils or deep skin abscesses), in the lungs, brain, teeth, kidneys, and tonsils. Major complications may include spreading of the abscess material to adjacent or remote tissues, and extensive regional tissue death (gangrene). The main symptoms and signs of a skin abscess are redness, heat, swelling, pain, and loss of function. There may also be high temperature (fever) and chills. If superficial, abscesses may be fluctuant when palpated; this wave-like motion is caused by movement of the pus inside the abscess. An internal abscess is more difficult to identify, but signs include pain in the affected area, a high temperature, and generally feeling unwell. Internal abscesses rarely heal themselves, so prompt medical attention is indicated if such an abscess is suspected. An abscess can potentially be fatal depending on where it is located. Causes ------ Risk factors for abscess formation include intravenous drug use. Another possible risk factor is a prior history of disc herniation or other spinal abnormality, though this has not been proven. Abscesses are caused by bacterial infection, parasites, or foreign substances. Bacterial infection is the most common cause, particularly Staphylococcus aureus. The more invasive *methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus* (MRSA) may also be a source of infection, though is much rarer. Among spinal subdural abscesses, methicillin-sensitive *Staphylococcus aureus* is the most common organism involved. Rarely parasites can cause abscesses and this is more common in the developing world. Specific parasites known to do this include dracunculiasis and myiasis. ### Perianal abscess Surgery of the anal fistula to drain an abscess treats the fistula and reduces likelihood of its recurrence and the need for repeated surgery. There is no evidence that fecal incontinence is a consequence of this surgery for abscess drainage. Perianal abscesses can be seen in people with, for example, inflammatory bowel disease (such as Crohn's disease) or diabetes. Often the abscess will start as an internal wound caused by ulceration, hard stool, or penetrative objects with insufficient lubrication. This wound typically becomes infected as a result of the normal presence of feces in the rectal area, and then develops into an abscess. This often presents itself as a lump of tissue near the anus which grows larger and more painful with time. Like other abscesses, perianal abscesses may require prompt medical treatment, such as an incision and debridement or lancing. ### Incisional abscess An *incisional abscess* is one that develops as a complication secondary to a surgical incision. It presents as redness and warmth at the margins of the incision with purulent drainage from it. If the diagnosis is uncertain, the wound should be aspirated with a needle, with aspiration of pus confirming the diagnosis and availing for Gram stain and bacterial culture. Pathophysiology --------------- An abscess is a defensive reaction of the tissue to prevent the spread of infectious materials to other parts of the body. The organisms or foreign materials kill the local cells, resulting in the release of cytokines. The cytokines trigger an inflammatory response, which draws large numbers of white blood cells to the area and increases the regional blood flow. The final structure of the abscess is an abscess wall, or capsule, that is formed by the adjacent healthy cells in an attempt to keep the pus from infecting neighboring structures. However, such encapsulation tends to prevent immune cells from attacking bacteria in the pus, or from reaching the causative organism or foreign object. * A diagram of an abscessA diagram of an abscess * Pyemic abscesses of a kidneyPyemic abscesses of a kidney Diagnosis --------- An abscess is a localized collection of pus (purulent inflammatory tissue) caused by suppuration buried in a tissue, an organ, or a confined space, lined by the pyogenic membrane. Ultrasound imaging can help in a diagnosis. ### Classification Abscesses may be classified as either *skin abscesses* or *internal abscesses*. Skin abscesses are common; internal abscesses tend to be harder to diagnose, and more serious. Skin abscesses are also called cutaneous or subcutaneous abscesses. ### IV drug use For those with a history of intravenous drug use, an X-ray is recommended before treatment to verify that no needle fragments are present. If there is also a fever present in this population, infectious endocarditis should be considered. ### Differential Abscesses should be differentiated from empyemas, which are accumulations of pus in a preexisting, rather than a newly formed, anatomical cavity. Other conditions that can cause similar symptoms include: cellulitis, a sebaceous cyst, and necrotising fasciitis. Cellulitis typically also has an erythematous reaction, but does not confer any purulent drainage. Treatment --------- The standard treatment for an uncomplicated skin or soft tissue abscess is the act of opening and draining. There does not appear to be any benefit from also using antibiotics in most cases. A small amount of evidence did not find a benefit from packing the abscess with gauze. ### Incision and drainage The abscess should be inspected to identify if foreign objects are a cause, which may require their removal. If foreign objects are not the cause, incising and draining the abscess is standard treatment. In critical areas where surgery presents a high risk, it may be delayed or used as a last resort. The drainage of a lung abscess may be performed by positioning the affected individual in a way that enables the contents to be discharged via the respiratory tract. Warm compresses and elevation of the limb may be beneficial for a skin abscess. ### Antibiotics Most people who have an uncomplicated skin abscess should not use antibiotics. Antibiotics in addition to standard incision and drainage is recommended in persons with severe abscesses, many sites of infection, rapid disease progression, the presence of cellulitis, symptoms indicating bacterial illness throughout the body, or a health condition causing immunosuppression. People who are very young or very old may also need antibiotics. If the abscess does not heal only with incision and drainage, or if the abscess is in a place that is difficult to drain such as the face, hands, or genitals, then antibiotics may be indicated. In those cases of abscess which do require antibiotic treatment, *Staphylococcus aureus* bacteria is a common cause and an anti-staphylococcus antibiotic such as flucloxacillin or dicloxacillin is used. The Infectious Diseases Society of America advises that the draining of an abscess is not enough to address community-acquired methicillin-resistant *Staphylococcus aureus* (MRSA), and in those cases, traditional antibiotics may be ineffective. Alternative antibiotics effective against community-acquired MRSA often include clindamycin, doxycycline, minocycline, and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. The American College of Emergency Physicians advises that typical cases of abscess from MRSA get no benefit from having antibiotic treatment in addition to the standard treatment. If the condition is thought to be cellulitis rather than an abscess, consideration should be given to the possibility of the strep species as a cause, that are still sensitive to traditional anti-staphylococcus agents such as dicloxacillin or cephalexin. This would be in the case of people that are able to tolerate penicillin. Antibiotic therapy alone without surgical drainage of the abscess is seldom effective due to antibiotics often being unable to get into the abscess and their ineffectiveness at low pH levels. Culturing the wound is not needed if standard follow-up care can be provided after the incision and drainage. Performing a wound culture is unnecessary because it rarely gives information which can be used to guide treatment. ### Packing In North America, after drainage, an abscess cavity is usually packed, often with special iodoform-treated cloth. This is done to absorb and neutralize any remaining exudate as well as to promote draining and prevent premature closure. Prolonged draining is thought to promote healing. The hypothesis is that though the heart's pumping action can deliver immune and regenerative cells to the edge of an injury, an abscess is by definition a void in which no blood vessels are present. Packing is thought to provide a wicking action that continuously draws beneficial factors and cells from the body into the void that must be healed. Discharge is then absorbed by cutaneous bandages and further wicking promoted by changing these bandages regularly. However, evidence from emergency medicine literature reports that packing wounds after draining, especially smaller wounds, causes pain to the person and does not decrease the rate of recurrence, nor bring faster healing, or fewer physician visits. ### Loop drainage More recently, several North American hospitals have opted for less-invasive loop drainage over standard drainage and wound packing. In one study of 143 pediatric outcomes, a failure rate of 1.4% was reported in the loop group versus 10.5% in the packing group (P<.030), while a separate study reported a 5.5% failure rate among the loop group. ### Primary closure Closing an abscess immediately after draining it appears to speed healing without increasing the risk of recurrence. This may not apply to anorectal abscesses as while they may heal faster, there may be a higher rate of recurrence than those left open. Prognosis --------- Even without treatment, skin abscesses rarely result in death, as they will naturally break through the skin. Other types of abscess are more dangerous. Brain abscesses may be fatal if untreated. When treated, the mortality rate reduces to 5–10%, but is higher if the abscess ruptures. Epidemiology ------------ Skin abscesses are common and have become more common in recent years. Risk factors include intravenous drug use, with rates reported as high as 65% among users. In 2005, in the United States 3.2 million people went to the emergency department for an abscess. In Australia around 13,000 people were hospitalized in 2008 for the disease. Society and culture ------------------- The Latin medical aphorism "*ubi pus, ibi evacua*" expresses "where there is pus, there evacuate it" and is classical advice in the culture of Western medicine. Needle exchange programmes often administer or provide referrals for abscess treatment to injection drug users as part of a harm reduction public health strategy. ### Etymology An abscess is so called "abscess" because there is an *abscessus* (a going away or departure) of portions of the animal tissue from each other to make room for the suppurated matter lodged between them. The word carbuncle is believed to have originated from the Latin: *carbunculus*, originally a small coal; diminutive of *carbon-*, *carbo*: charcoal or ember, but also a carbuncle stone, "precious stones of a red or fiery colour", usually garnets. Other types ----------- The following types of abscess are listed in the medical dictionary: * acute abscess * alveolar abscess * amebic abscess * apical abscess * appendiceal abscess * Bartholin abscess * Bezold abscess * bicameral abscess * bone abscess * brain abscess * Brodie abscess * bursal abscess * caseous abscess * caseous lymphadenitis * cheesy abscess * cholangitic abscess * chronic abscess * collar stud abscess * cold abscess * crypt abscesses * dental abscess + periapical abscess + periodontal abscess - apical periodontal abscess - lateral periodontal abscess - root abscess + gingival abscess + lateral alveolar abscess + pericoronal abscess + combined periodontic-endodontic abscess * diffuse abscess * Douglas abscess * dry abscess * Dubois abscesses * embolic abscess * fecal abscess * follicular abscess * gas abscess * gravitation abscess * gummatous abscess * hidradenitis suppurativa * hematogenous abscess * hot abscess * hypostatic abscess * ischiorectal abscess * mastoid abscess * metastatic abscess * migrating abscess * miliary abscess * Munro abscess * orbital abscess * otitic abscess * palatal abscess * pancreatic abscess * parafrenal abscess * parametric abscess * paranephric abscess * parapharyngeal abscess * parotid * Pautrier * Pelvic abscess * perforating * periappendiceal * periarticular * pericemental * perinephric * perirectal * peritonsillar abscess * periureteral abscess * phlegmonous abscess * Pott abscess * premammary abscess (including subareolar abscess) * psoas abscess * pulp abscess * pyemic abscess * radicular abscess * residual abscess * retrobulbar abscess * retrocecal abscess * retropharyngeal abscess * ring abscess * satellite abscess * septicemic abscess * stellate abscess * stercoral abscess * sterile abscess * stitch abscess * subdiaphragmatic abscess * subepidermal abscess * subhepatic abscess * subperiosteal abscess * subphrenic abscess * subungual abscess * sudoriferous abscess * suture abscess * thymic abscesses * Tornwaldt abscess * tropical abscess * tubo-ovarian abscess * verminous abscess * wandering abscess * worm abscess

Abscess

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abscess

**RSA** (**Rivest–Shamir–Adleman**) is a public-key cryptosystem, one of the oldest, that is widely used for secure data transmission. The acronym "RSA" comes from the surnames of Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir and Leonard Adleman, who publicly described the algorithm in 1977. An equivalent system was developed secretly in 1973 at Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) (the British signals intelligence agency) by the English mathematician Clifford Cocks. That system was declassified in 1997. In a public-key cryptosystem, the encryption key is public and distinct from the decryption key, which is kept secret (private). An RSA user creates and publishes a public key based on two large prime numbers, along with an auxiliary value. The prime numbers are kept secret. Messages can be encrypted by anyone, via the public key, but can only be decoded by someone who knows the prime numbers. The security of RSA relies on the practical difficulty of factoring the product of two large prime numbers, the "factoring problem". Breaking RSA encryption is known as the RSA problem. Whether it is as difficult as the factoring problem is an open question. There are no published methods to defeat the system if a large enough key is used. RSA is a relatively slow algorithm. Because of this, it is not commonly used to directly encrypt user data. More often, RSA is used to transmit shared keys for symmetric-key cryptography, which are then used for bulk encryption–decryption. History ------- The idea of an asymmetric public-private key cryptosystem is attributed to Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman, who published this concept in 1976. They also introduced digital signatures and attempted to apply number theory. Their formulation used a shared-secret-key created from exponentiation of some number, modulo a prime number. However, they left open the problem of realizing a one-way function, possibly because the difficulty of factoring was not well-studied at the time. Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Leonard Adleman at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology made several attempts over the course of a year to create a one-way function that was hard to invert. Rivest and Shamir, as computer scientists, proposed many potential functions, while Adleman, as a mathematician, was responsible for finding their weaknesses. They tried many approaches, including "knapsack-based" and "permutation polynomials". For a time, they thought what they wanted to achieve was impossible due to contradictory requirements. In April 1977, they spent Passover at the house of a student and drank a good deal of Manischewitz wine before returning to their homes at around midnight. Rivest, unable to sleep, lay on the couch with a math textbook and started thinking about their one-way function. He spent the rest of the night formalizing his idea, and he had much of the paper ready by daybreak. The algorithm is now known as RSA – the initials of their surnames in same order as their paper. Clifford Cocks, an English mathematician working for the British intelligence agency Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), described an equivalent system in an internal document in 1973. However, given the relatively expensive computers needed to implement it at the time, it was considered to be mostly a curiosity and, as far as is publicly known, was never deployed. His discovery, however, was not revealed until 1997 due to its top-secret classification. Kid-RSA (KRSA) is a simplified, insecure public-key cipher published in 1997, designed for educational purposes. Some people feel that learning Kid-RSA gives insight into RSA and other public-key ciphers, analogous to simplified DES. Patent ------ A patent describing the RSA algorithm was granted to MIT on 20 September 1983: U.S. Patent 4,405,829 "Cryptographic communications system and method". From DWPI's abstract of the patent: > The system includes a communications channel coupled to at least one terminal having an encoding device and to at least one terminal having a decoding device. A message-to-be-transferred is enciphered to ciphertext at the encoding terminal by encoding the message as a number M in a predetermined set. That number is then raised to a first predetermined power (associated with the intended receiver) and finally computed. The remainder or residue, C, is... computed when the exponentiated number is divided by the product of two predetermined prime numbers (associated with the intended receiver). > > A detailed description of the algorithm was published in August 1977, in Scientific American's Mathematical Games column. This preceded the patent's filing date of December 1977. Consequently, the patent had no legal standing outside the United States. Had Cocks's work been publicly known, a patent in the United States would not have been legal either. When the patent was issued, terms of patent were 17 years. The patent was about to expire on 21 September 2000, but RSA Security released the algorithm to the public domain on 6 September 2000. Operation --------- The RSA algorithm involves four steps: key generation, key distribution, encryption, and decryption. A basic principle behind RSA is the observation that it is practical to find three very large positive integers e, d, and n, such that with modular exponentiation for all integers m (with 0 ≤ *m* < *n*): ( m e ) d ≡ m ( mod n ) {\displaystyle (m^{e})^{d}\equiv m{\pmod {n}}} {\displaystyle (m^{e})^{d}\equiv m{\pmod {n}}} and that knowing e and n, or even m, it can be extremely difficult to find d. The triple bar (≡) here denotes modular congruence (which is to say that when you divide *(me)d* by n and m by n, they both have the same remainder). In addition, for some operations it is convenient that the order of the two exponentiations can be changed and that this relation also implies ( m d ) e ≡ m ( mod n ) . {\displaystyle (m^{d})^{e}\equiv m{\pmod {n}}.} {\displaystyle (m^{d})^{e}\equiv m{\pmod {n}}.} RSA involves a *public key* and a *private key*. The public key can be known by everyone and is used for encrypting messages. The intention is that messages encrypted with the public key can only be decrypted in a reasonable amount of time by using the private key. The public key is represented by the integers n and e, and the private key by the integer d (although n is also used during the decryption process, so it might be considered to be a part of the private key too). m represents the message (previously prepared with a certain technique explained below). ### Key generation The keys for the RSA algorithm are generated in the following way: 1. Choose two large prime numbers p and q. * To make factoring harder, p and q should be chosen at random, be both large and have a large difference. For choosing them the standard method is to choose random integers and use a primality test until two primes are found. * p and q should be kept secret. 2. Compute *n* = *pq*. * n is used as the modulus for both the public and private keys. Its length, usually expressed in bits, is the key length. * n is released as part of the public key. 3. Compute *λ*(*n*), where λ is Carmichael's totient function. Since *n* = *pq*, *λ*(*n*) = lcm(*λ*(*p*), *λ*(*q*)), and since p and q are prime, *λ*(*p*) = *φ*(*p*) = *p* − 1, and likewise *λ*(*q*) = *q* − 1. Hence *λ*(*n*) = lcm(*p* − 1, *q* − 1). * The lcm may be calculated through the Euclidean algorithm, since lcm(*a*, *b*) = |*ab*|/gcd(*a*, *b*). * *λ*(*n*) is kept secret. 4. Choose an integer e such that 2 < *e* < *λ*(*n*) and gcd(*e*, *λ*(*n*)) = 1; that is, e and *λ*(*n*) are coprime. * e having a short bit-length and small Hamming weight results in more efficient encryption – the most commonly chosen value for e is 216 + 1 = 65537. The smallest (and fastest) possible value for e is 3, but such a small value for e has been shown to be less secure in some settings. * e is released as part of the public key. 5. Determine d as *d* ≡ *e*−1 (mod *λ*(*n*)); that is, d is the modular multiplicative inverse of e modulo *λ*(*n*). * This means: solve for d the equation *de* ≡ 1 (mod *λ*(*n*)); d can be computed efficiently by using the extended Euclidean algorithm, since, thanks to e and *λ*(*n*) being coprime, said equation is a form of Bézout's identity, where d is one of the coefficients. * d is kept secret as the *private key exponent*. The *public key* consists of the modulus n and the public (or encryption) exponent e. The *private key* consists of the private (or decryption) exponent d, which must be kept secret. p, q, and *λ*(*n*) must also be kept secret because they can be used to calculate d. In fact, they can all be discarded after d has been computed. In the original RSA paper, the Euler totient function *φ*(*n*) = (*p* − 1)(*q* − 1) is used instead of *λ*(*n*) for calculating the private exponent d. Since *φ*(*n*) is always divisible by *λ*(*n*), the algorithm works as well. The possibility of using Euler totient function results also from Lagrange's theorem applied to the multiplicative group of integers modulo *pq*. Thus any d satisfying *d*⋅*e* ≡ 1 (mod *φ*(*n*)) also satisfies *d*⋅*e* ≡ 1 (mod *λ*(*n*)). However, computing d modulo *φ*(*n*) will sometimes yield a result that is larger than necessary (i.e. *d* > *λ*(*n*)). Most of the implementations of RSA will accept exponents generated using either method (if they use the private exponent d at all, rather than using the optimized decryption method based on the Chinese remainder theorem described below), but some standards such as FIPS 186-4 may require that *d* < *λ*(*n*). Any "oversized" private exponents not meeting this criterion may always be reduced modulo *λ*(*n*) to obtain a smaller equivalent exponent. Since any common factors of (*p* − 1) and (*q* − 1) are present in the factorisation of *n* − 1 = *pq* − 1 = (*p* − 1)(*q* − 1) + (*p* − 1) + (*q* − 1), it is recommended that (*p* − 1) and (*q* − 1) have only very small common factors, if any, besides the necessary 2.[*failed verification*][*failed verification*] Note: The authors of the original RSA paper carry out the key generation by choosing d and then computing e as the modular multiplicative inverse of d modulo *φ*(*n*), whereas most current implementations of RSA, such as those following PKCS#1, do the reverse (choose e and compute d). Since the chosen key can be small, whereas the computed key normally is not, the RSA paper's algorithm optimizes decryption compared to encryption, while the modern algorithm optimizes encryption instead. ### Key distribution Suppose that Bob wants to send information to Alice. If they decide to use RSA, Bob must know Alice's public key to encrypt the message, and Alice must use her private key to decrypt the message. To enable Bob to send his encrypted messages, Alice transmits her public key (*n*, *e*) to Bob via a reliable, but not necessarily secret, route. Alice's private key (*d*) is never distributed. ### Encryption After Bob obtains Alice's public key, he can send a message M to Alice. To do it, he first turns M (strictly speaking, the un-padded plaintext) into an integer m (strictly speaking, the padded plaintext), such that 0 ≤ *m* < *n* by using an agreed-upon reversible protocol known as a padding scheme. He then computes the ciphertext c, using Alice's public key e, corresponding to c ≡ m e ( mod n ) . {\displaystyle c\equiv m^{e}{\pmod {n}}.} {\displaystyle c\equiv m^{e}{\pmod {n}}.} This can be done reasonably quickly, even for very large numbers, using modular exponentiation. Bob then transmits c to Alice. Note that at least nine values of m will yield a ciphertext c equal to m, but this is very unlikely to occur in practice. ### Decryption Alice can recover m from c by using her private key exponent d by computing c d ≡ ( m e ) d ≡ m ( mod n ) . {\displaystyle c^{d}\equiv (m^{e})^{d}\equiv m{\pmod {n}}.} {\displaystyle c^{d}\equiv (m^{e})^{d}\equiv m{\pmod {n}}.} Given m, she can recover the original message M by reversing the padding scheme. ### Example Here is an example of RSA encryption and decryption. The parameters used here are artificially small, but one can also use OpenSSL to generate and examine a real keypair. 1. Choose two distinct prime numbers, such as p = 61 {\displaystyle p=61} p=61 and q = 53 {\displaystyle q=53} q=53. 2. Compute *n* = *pq* giving n = 61 × 53 = 3233. {\displaystyle n=61\times 53=3233.} {\displaystyle n=61\times 53=3233.} 3. Compute the Carmichael's totient function of the product as *λ*(*n*) = lcm(*p* − 1, *q* − 1) giving λ ( 3233 ) = lcm ⁡ ( 60 , 52 ) = 780. {\displaystyle \lambda (3233)=\operatorname {lcm} (60,52)=780.} {\displaystyle \lambda (3233)=\operatorname {lcm} (60,52)=780.} 4. Choose any number 1 < *e* < 780 that is coprime to 780. Choosing a prime number for e leaves us only to check that e is not a divisor of 780. Let e = 17 {\displaystyle e=17} e=17. 5. Compute d, the modular multiplicative inverse of *e* (mod *λ*(*n*)), yielding d = 413 , {\displaystyle d=413,} {\displaystyle d=413,} as 1 = ( 17 × 413 ) mod 7 80. {\displaystyle 1=(17\times 413){\bmod {7}}80.} {\displaystyle 1=(17\times 413){\bmod {7}}80.} The **public key** is (*n* = 3233, *e* = 17). For a padded plaintext message m, the encryption function is c ( m ) = m e mod n = m 17 mod 3 233. {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}c(m)&=m^{e}{\bmod {n}}\\&=m^{17}{\bmod {3}}233.\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}c(m)&=m^{e}{\bmod {n}}\\&=m^{17}{\bmod {3}}233.\end{aligned}}} The **private key** is (*n* = 3233, *d* = 413). For an encrypted ciphertext c, the decryption function is m ( c ) = c d mod n = c 413 mod 3 233. {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}m(c)&=c^{d}{\bmod {n}}\\&=c^{413}{\bmod {3}}233.\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}m(c)&=c^{d}{\bmod {n}}\\&=c^{413}{\bmod {3}}233.\end{aligned}}} For instance, in order to encrypt *m* = 65, one calculates c = 65 17 mod 3 233 = 2790. {\displaystyle c=65^{17}{\bmod {3}}233=2790.} {\displaystyle c=65^{17}{\bmod {3}}233=2790.} To decrypt *c* = 2790, one calculates m = 2790 413 mod 3 233 = 65. {\displaystyle m=2790^{413}{\bmod {3}}233=65.} {\displaystyle m=2790^{413}{\bmod {3}}233=65.} Both of these calculations can be computed efficiently using the square-and-multiply algorithm for modular exponentiation. In real-life situations the primes selected would be much larger; in our example it would be trivial to factor *n* = 3233 (obtained from the freely available public key) back to the primes p and q. e, also from the public key, is then inverted to get d, thus acquiring the private key. Practical implementations use the Chinese remainder theorem to speed up the calculation using modulus of factors (mod *pq* using mod *p* and mod *q*). The values d*p*, d*q* and qinv, which are part of the private key are computed as follows: d p = d mod ( p − 1 ) = 413 mod ( 61 − 1 ) = 53 , d q = d mod ( q − 1 ) = 413 mod ( 53 − 1 ) = 49 , q inv = q − 1 mod p = 53 − 1 mod 6 1 = 38 ⇒ ( q inv × q ) mod p = 38 × 53 mod 6 1 = 1. {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}d\_{p}&=d{\bmod {(}}p-1)=413{\bmod {(}}61-1)=53,\\d\_{q}&=d{\bmod {(}}q-1)=413{\bmod {(}}53-1)=49,\\q\_{\text{inv}}&=q^{-1}{\bmod {p}}=53^{-1}{\bmod {6}}1=38\\&\Rightarrow (q\_{\text{inv}}\times q){\bmod {p}}=38\times 53{\bmod {6}}1=1.\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}d_{p}&=d{\bmod {(}}p-1)=413{\bmod {(}}61-1)=53,\\d_{q}&=d{\bmod {(}}q-1)=413{\bmod {(}}53-1)=49,\\q_{\text{inv}}&=q^{-1}{\bmod {p}}=53^{-1}{\bmod {6}}1=38\\&\Rightarrow (q_{\text{inv}}\times q){\bmod {p}}=38\times 53{\bmod {6}}1=1.\end{aligned}}} Here is how d*p*, d*q* and qinv are used for efficient decryption (encryption is efficient by choice of a suitable d and e pair): m 1 = c d p mod p = 2790 53 mod 6 1 = 4 , m 2 = c d q mod q = 2790 49 mod 5 3 = 12 , h = ( q inv × ( m 1 − m 2 ) ) mod p = ( 38 × − 8 ) mod 6 1 = 1 , m = m 2 + h × q = 12 + 1 × 53 = 65. {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}m\_{1}&=c^{d\_{p}}{\bmod {p}}=2790^{53}{\bmod {6}}1=4,\\m\_{2}&=c^{d\_{q}}{\bmod {q}}=2790^{49}{\bmod {5}}3=12,\\h&=(q\_{\text{inv}}\times (m\_{1}-m\_{2})){\bmod {p}}=(38\times -8){\bmod {6}}1=1,\\m&=m\_{2}+h\times q=12+1\times 53=65.\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}m_{1}&=c^{d_{p}}{\bmod {p}}=2790^{53}{\bmod {6}}1=4,\\m_{2}&=c^{d_{q}}{\bmod {q}}=2790^{49}{\bmod {5}}3=12,\\h&=(q_{\text{inv}}\times (m_{1}-m_{2})){\bmod {p}}=(38\times -8){\bmod {6}}1=1,\\m&=m_{2}+h\times q=12+1\times 53=65.\end{aligned}}} ### Signing messages Suppose Alice uses Bob's public key to send him an encrypted message. In the message, she can claim to be Alice, but Bob has no way of verifying that the message was from Alice, since anyone can use Bob's public key to send him encrypted messages. In order to verify the origin of a message, RSA can also be used to sign a message. Suppose Alice wishes to send a signed message to Bob. She can use her own private key to do so. She produces a hash value of the message, raises it to the power of d (modulo n) (as she does when decrypting a message), and attaches it as a "signature" to the message. When Bob receives the signed message, he uses the same hash algorithm in conjunction with Alice's public key. He raises the signature to the power of e (modulo n) (as he does when encrypting a message), and compares the resulting hash value with the message's hash value. If the two agree, he knows that the author of the message was in possession of Alice's private key and that the message has not been tampered with since being sent. This works because of exponentiation rules: h = hash ⁡ ( m ) , {\displaystyle h=\operatorname {hash} (m),} {\displaystyle h=\operatorname {hash} (m),} ( h e ) d = h e d = h d e = ( h d ) e ≡ h ( mod n ) . {\displaystyle (h^{e})^{d}=h^{ed}=h^{de}=(h^{d})^{e}\equiv h{\pmod {n}}.} {\displaystyle (h^{e})^{d}=h^{ed}=h^{de}=(h^{d})^{e}\equiv h{\pmod {n}}.} Thus the keys may be swapped without loss of generality, that is, a private key of a key pair may be used either to: 1. Decrypt a message only intended for the recipient, which may be encrypted by anyone having the public key (asymmetric encrypted transport). 2. Encrypt a message which may be decrypted by anyone, but which can only be encrypted by one person; this provides a digital signature. Proofs of correctness --------------------- ### Proof using Fermat's little theorem The proof of the correctness of RSA is based on Fermat's little theorem, stating that *a**p* − 1 ≡ 1 (mod *p*) for any integer a and prime p, not dividing a. We want to show that ( m e ) d ≡ m ( mod p q ) {\displaystyle (m^{e})^{d}\equiv m{\pmod {pq}}} {\displaystyle (m^{e})^{d}\equiv m{\pmod {pq}}} for every integer m when p and q are distinct prime numbers and e and d are positive integers satisfying *ed* ≡ 1 (mod *λ*(*pq*)). Since *λ*(*pq*) = lcm(*p* − 1, *q* − 1) is, by construction, divisible by both *p* − 1 and *q* − 1, we can write e d − 1 = h ( p − 1 ) = k ( q − 1 ) {\displaystyle ed-1=h(p-1)=k(q-1)} {\displaystyle ed-1=h(p-1)=k(q-1)} for some nonnegative integers h and k. To check whether two numbers, such as m*ed* and m, are congruent mod *pq*, it suffices (and in fact is equivalent) to check that they are congruent mod *p* and mod *q* separately. To show *med* ≡ *m* (mod *p*), we consider two cases: 1. If *m* ≡ 0 (mod *p*), m is a multiple of p. Thus *med* is a multiple of p. So *med* ≡ 0 ≡ *m* (mod *p*). 2. If *m* ≢ {\displaystyle \not \equiv } \not \equiv 0 (mod *p*), m e d = m e d − 1 m = m h ( p − 1 ) m = ( m p − 1 ) h m ≡ 1 h m ≡ m ( mod p ) , {\displaystyle m^{ed}=m^{ed-1}m=m^{h(p-1)}m=(m^{p-1})^{h}m\equiv 1^{h}m\equiv m{\pmod {p}},} {\displaystyle m^{ed}=m^{ed-1}m=m^{h(p-1)}m=(m^{p-1})^{h}m\equiv 1^{h}m\equiv m{\pmod {p}},} where we used Fermat's little theorem to replace *m**p*−1 mod *p* with 1. The verification that *med* ≡ *m* (mod *q*) proceeds in a completely analogous way: 1. If *m* ≡ 0 (mod *q*), *med* is a multiple of q. So *med* ≡ 0 ≡ *m* (mod *q*). 2. If *m* ≢ {\displaystyle \not \equiv } \not \equiv 0 (mod *q*), m e d = m e d − 1 m = m k ( q − 1 ) m = ( m q − 1 ) k m ≡ 1 k m ≡ m ( mod q ) . {\displaystyle m^{ed}=m^{ed-1}m=m^{k(q-1)}m=(m^{q-1})^{k}m\equiv 1^{k}m\equiv m{\pmod {q}}.} {\displaystyle m^{ed}=m^{ed-1}m=m^{k(q-1)}m=(m^{q-1})^{k}m\equiv 1^{k}m\equiv m{\pmod {q}}.} This completes the proof that, for any integer m, and integers e, d such that *ed* ≡ 1 (mod *λ*(*pq*)), ( m e ) d ≡ m ( mod p q ) . {\displaystyle (m^{e})^{d}\equiv m{\pmod {pq}}.} {\displaystyle (m^{e})^{d}\equiv m{\pmod {pq}}.} ### Proof using Euler's theorem Although the original paper of Rivest, Shamir, and Adleman used Fermat's little theorem to explain why RSA works, it is common to find proofs that rely instead on Euler's theorem. We want to show that *med* ≡ *m* (mod *n*), where *n* = *pq* is a product of two different prime numbers, and e and d are positive integers satisfying *ed* ≡ 1 (mod *φ*(*n*)). Since e and d are positive, we can write *ed* = 1 + *hφ*(*n*) for some non-negative integer h. *Assuming* that m is relatively prime to n, we have m e d = m 1 + h φ ( n ) = m ( m φ ( n ) ) h ≡ m ( 1 ) h ≡ m ( mod n ) , {\displaystyle m^{ed}=m^{1+h\varphi (n)}=m(m^{\varphi (n)})^{h}\equiv m(1)^{h}\equiv m{\pmod {n}},} {\displaystyle m^{ed}=m^{1+h\varphi (n)}=m(m^{\varphi (n)})^{h}\equiv m(1)^{h}\equiv m{\pmod {n}},} where the second-last congruence follows from Euler's theorem. More generally, for any e and d satisfying *ed* ≡ 1 (mod *λ*(*n*)), the same conclusion follows from Carmichael's generalization of Euler's theorem, which states that *m**λ*(n) ≡ 1 (mod *n*) for all m relatively prime to n. When m is not relatively prime to n, the argument just given is invalid. This is highly improbable (only a proportion of 1/*p* + 1/*q* − 1/(*pq*) numbers have this property), but even in this case, the desired congruence is still true. Either *m* ≡ 0 (mod *p*) or *m* ≡ 0 (mod *q*), and these cases can be treated using the previous proof. Padding ------- ### Attacks against plain RSA There are a number of attacks against plain RSA as described below. * When encrypting with low encryption exponents (e.g., *e* = 3) and small values of the m (i.e., *m* < *n*1/*e*), the result of *m**e* is strictly less than the modulus n. In this case, ciphertexts can be decrypted easily by taking the eth root of the ciphertext over the integers. * If the same clear-text message is sent to e or more recipients in an encrypted way, and the receivers share the same exponent e, but different p, q, and therefore n, then it is easy to decrypt the original clear-text message via the Chinese remainder theorem. Johan Håstad noticed that this attack is possible even if the clear texts are not equal, but the attacker knows a linear relation between them. This attack was later improved by Don Coppersmith (see Coppersmith's attack). * Because RSA encryption is a deterministic encryption algorithm (i.e., has no random component) an attacker can successfully launch a chosen plaintext attack against the cryptosystem, by encrypting likely plaintexts under the public key and test whether they are equal to the ciphertext. A cryptosystem is called semantically secure if an attacker cannot distinguish two encryptions from each other, even if the attacker knows (or has chosen) the corresponding plaintexts. RSA without padding is not semantically secure. * RSA has the property that the product of two ciphertexts is equal to the encryption of the product of the respective plaintexts. That is, *m*1*e**m*2*e* ≡ (*m*1*m*2)*e* (mod *n*). Because of this multiplicative property, a chosen-ciphertext attack is possible. E.g., an attacker who wants to know the decryption of a ciphertext *c* ≡ *m**e* (mod *n*) may ask the holder of the private key d to decrypt an unsuspicious-looking ciphertext *c*′ ≡ *cr**e* (mod *n*) for some value r chosen by the attacker. Because of the multiplicative property, c' is the encryption of *mr* (mod *n*). Hence, if the attacker is successful with the attack, they will learn *mr* (mod *n*), from which they can derive the message m by multiplying *mr* with the modular inverse of r modulo n. * Given the private exponent d, one can efficiently factor the modulus *n* = *pq*. And given factorization of the modulus *n* = *pq*, one can obtain any private key (d', n) generated against a public key (e', n). ### Padding schemes To avoid these problems, practical RSA implementations typically embed some form of structured, randomized padding into the value m before encrypting it. This padding ensures that m does not fall into the range of insecure plaintexts, and that a given message, once padded, will encrypt to one of a large number of different possible ciphertexts. Standards such as PKCS#1 have been carefully designed to securely pad messages prior to RSA encryption. Because these schemes pad the plaintext m with some number of additional bits, the size of the un-padded message M must be somewhat smaller. RSA padding schemes must be carefully designed so as to prevent sophisticated attacks that may be facilitated by a predictable message structure. Early versions of the PKCS#1 standard (up to version 1.5) used a construction that appears to make RSA semantically secure. However, at Crypto 1998, Bleichenbacher showed that this version is vulnerable to a practical adaptive chosen-ciphertext attack. Furthermore, at Eurocrypt 2000, Coron et al. showed that for some types of messages, this padding does not provide a high enough level of security. Later versions of the standard include Optimal Asymmetric Encryption Padding (OAEP), which prevents these attacks. As such, OAEP should be used in any new application, and PKCS#1 v1.5 padding should be replaced wherever possible. The PKCS#1 standard also incorporates processing schemes designed to provide additional security for RSA signatures, e.g. the Probabilistic Signature Scheme for RSA (RSA-PSS). Secure padding schemes such as RSA-PSS are as essential for the security of message signing as they are for message encryption. Two USA patents on PSS were granted (U.S. Patent 6,266,771 and U.S. Patent 7,036,014); however, these patents expired on 24 July 2009 and 25 April 2010 respectively. Use of PSS no longer seems to be encumbered by patents.[*original research?*] Note that using different RSA key pairs for encryption and signing is potentially more secure. Security and practical considerations ------------------------------------- ### Using the Chinese remainder algorithm For efficiency, many popular crypto libraries (such as OpenSSL, Java and .NET) use for decryption and signing the following optimization based on the Chinese remainder theorem. The following values are precomputed and stored as part of the private key: * p {\displaystyle p} p and q {\displaystyle q} q – the primes from the key generation, * d P = d ( mod p − 1 ) , {\displaystyle d\_{P}=d{\pmod {p-1}},} {\displaystyle d_{P}=d{\pmod {p-1}},} * d Q = d ( mod q − 1 ) , {\displaystyle d\_{Q}=d{\pmod {q-1}},} {\displaystyle d_{Q}=d{\pmod {q-1}},} * q inv = q − 1 ( mod p ) . {\displaystyle q\_{\text{inv}}=q^{-1}{\pmod {p}}.} {\displaystyle q_{\text{inv}}=q^{-1}{\pmod {p}}.} These values allow the recipient to compute the exponentiation *m* = *c**d* (mod *pq*) more efficiently as follows:       m 1 = c d P ( mod p ) {\displaystyle m\_{1}=c^{d\_{P}}{\pmod {p}}} {\displaystyle m_{1}=c^{d_{P}}{\pmod {p}}},       m 2 = c d Q ( mod q ) {\displaystyle m\_{2}=c^{d\_{Q}}{\pmod {q}}} {\displaystyle m_{2}=c^{d_{Q}}{\pmod {q}}},       h = q inv ( m 1 − m 2 ) ( mod p ) {\displaystyle h=q\_{\text{inv}}(m\_{1}-m\_{2}){\pmod {p}}} {\displaystyle h=q_{\text{inv}}(m_{1}-m_{2}){\pmod {p}}},       m = m 2 + h q ( mod p q ) {\displaystyle m=m\_{2}+hq{\pmod {pq}}} {\displaystyle m=m_{2}+hq{\pmod {pq}}} . This is more efficient than computing exponentiation by squaring, even though two modular exponentiations have to be computed. The reason is that these two modular exponentiations both use a smaller exponent and a smaller modulus. ### Integer factorization and RSA problem The security of the RSA cryptosystem is based on two mathematical problems: the problem of factoring large numbers and the RSA problem. Full decryption of an RSA ciphertext is thought to be infeasible on the assumption that both of these problems are hard, i.e., no efficient algorithm exists for solving them. Providing security against *partial* decryption may require the addition of a secure padding scheme. The RSA problem is defined as the task of taking eth roots modulo a composite n: recovering a value m such that *c* ≡ *m**e* (mod *n*), where (*n*, *e*) is an RSA public key, and c is an RSA ciphertext. Currently the most promising approach to solving the RSA problem is to factor the modulus n. With the ability to recover prime factors, an attacker can compute the secret exponent d from a public key (*n*, *e*), then decrypt c using the standard procedure. To accomplish this, an attacker factors n into p and q, and computes lcm(*p* − 1, *q* − 1) that allows the determination of d from e. No polynomial-time method for factoring large integers on a classical computer has yet been found, but it has not been proven that none exists; see integer factorization for a discussion of this problem. Multiple polynomial quadratic sieve (MPQS) can be used to factor the public modulus n. The first RSA-512 factorization in 1999 used hundreds of computers and required the equivalent of 8,400 MIPS years, over an elapsed time of about seven months. By 2009, Benjamin Moody could factor an 512-bit RSA key in 73 days using only public software (GGNFS) and his desktop computer (a dual-core Athlon64 with a 1,900 MHz CPU). Just less than 5 gigabytes of disk storage was required and about 2.5 gigabytes of RAM for the sieving process. Rivest, Shamir, and Adleman noted that Miller has shown that – assuming the truth of the extended Riemann hypothesis – finding d from n and e is as hard as factoring n into p and q (up to a polynomial time difference). However, Rivest, Shamir, and Adleman noted, in section IX/D of their paper, that they had not found a proof that inverting RSA is as hard as factoring. As of 2020[update], the largest publicly known factored RSA number had 829 bits (250 decimal digits, RSA-250). Its factorization, by a state-of-the-art distributed implementation, took about 2,700 CPU-years. In practice, RSA keys are typically 1024 to 4096 bits long. In 2003, RSA Security estimated that 1024-bit keys were likely to become crackable by 2010. As of 2020, it is not known whether such keys can be cracked, but minimum recommendations have moved to at least 2048 bits. It is generally presumed that RSA is secure if n is sufficiently large, outside of quantum computing. If n is 300 bits or shorter, it can be factored in a few hours in a personal computer, using software already freely available. Keys of 512 bits have been shown to be practically breakable in 1999, when RSA-155 was factored by using several hundred computers, and these are now factored in a few weeks using common hardware. Exploits using 512-bit code-signing certificates that may have been factored were reported in 2011. A theoretical hardware device named TWIRL, described by Shamir and Tromer in 2003, called into question the security of 1024-bit keys. In 1994, Peter Shor showed that a quantum computer – if one could ever be practically created for the purpose – would be able to factor in polynomial time, breaking RSA; see Shor's algorithm. ### Faulty key generation Finding the large primes p and q is usually done by testing random numbers of the correct size with probabilistic primality tests that quickly eliminate virtually all of the nonprimes. The numbers p and q should not be "too close", lest the Fermat factorization for n be successful. If *p* − *q* is less than 2*n*1/4 (*n* = *p*⋅*q*, which even for "small" 1024-bit values of n is 3×1077), solving for p and q is trivial. Furthermore, if either *p* − 1 or *q* − 1 has only small prime factors, n can be factored quickly by Pollard's *p* − 1 algorithm, and hence such values of p or q should be discarded. It is important that the private exponent d be large enough. Michael J. Wiener showed that if p is between q and 2*q* (which is quite typical) and *d* < *n*1/4/3, then d can be computed efficiently from n and e. There is no known attack against small public exponents such as *e* = 3, provided that the proper padding is used. Coppersmith's attack has many applications in attacking RSA specifically if the public exponent e is small and if the encrypted message is short and not padded. 65537 is a commonly used value for e; this value can be regarded as a compromise between avoiding potential small-exponent attacks and still allowing efficient encryptions (or signature verification). The NIST Special Publication on Computer Security (SP 800-78 Rev. 1 of August 2007) does not allow public exponents e smaller than 65537, but does not state a reason for this restriction. In October 2017, a team of researchers from Masaryk University announced the ROCA vulnerability, which affects RSA keys generated by an algorithm embodied in a library from Infineon known as RSALib. A large number of smart cards and trusted platform modules (TPM) were shown to be affected. Vulnerable RSA keys are easily identified using a test program the team released. ### Importance of strong random number generation A cryptographically strong random number generator, which has been properly seeded with adequate entropy, must be used to generate the primes p and q. An analysis comparing millions of public keys gathered from the Internet was carried out in early 2012 by Arjen K. Lenstra, James P. Hughes, Maxime Augier, Joppe W. Bos, Thorsten Kleinjung and Christophe Wachter. They were able to factor 0.2% of the keys using only Euclid's algorithm. They exploited a weakness unique to cryptosystems based on integer factorization. If *n* = *pq* is one public key, and *n*′ = *p*′*q*′ is another, then if by chance *p* = *p*′ (but q is not equal to q'), then a simple computation of gcd(*n*, *n*′) = *p* factors both n and n', totally compromising both keys. Lenstra et al. note that this problem can be minimized by using a strong random seed of bit length twice the intended security level, or by employing a deterministic function to choose q given p, instead of choosing p and q independently. Nadia Heninger was part of a group that did a similar experiment. They used an idea of Daniel J. Bernstein to compute the GCD of each RSA key n against the product of all the other keys n' they had found (a 729-million-digit number), instead of computing each gcd(*n*, *n*′) separately, thereby achieving a very significant speedup, since after one large division, the GCD problem is of normal size. Heninger says in her blog that the bad keys occurred almost entirely in embedded applications, including "firewalls, routers, VPN devices, remote server administration devices, printers, projectors, and VOIP phones" from more than 30 manufacturers. Heninger explains that the one-shared-prime problem uncovered by the two groups results from situations where the pseudorandom number generator is poorly seeded initially, and then is reseeded between the generation of the first and second primes. Using seeds of sufficiently high entropy obtained from key stroke timings or electronic diode noise or atmospheric noise from a radio receiver tuned between stations should solve the problem. Strong random number generation is important throughout every phase of public-key cryptography. For instance, if a weak generator is used for the symmetric keys that are being distributed by RSA, then an eavesdropper could bypass RSA and guess the symmetric keys directly. ### Timing attacks Kocher described a new attack on RSA in 1995: if the attacker Eve knows Alice's hardware in sufficient detail and is able to measure the decryption times for several known ciphertexts, Eve can deduce the decryption key d quickly. This attack can also be applied against the RSA signature scheme. In 2003, Boneh and Brumley demonstrated a more practical attack capable of recovering RSA factorizations over a network connection (e.g., from a Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)-enabled webserver). This attack takes advantage of information leaked by the Chinese remainder theorem optimization used by many RSA implementations. One way to thwart these attacks is to ensure that the decryption operation takes a constant amount of time for every ciphertext. However, this approach can significantly reduce performance. Instead, most RSA implementations use an alternate technique known as cryptographic blinding. RSA blinding makes use of the multiplicative property of RSA. Instead of computing *c**d* (mod *n*), Alice first chooses a secret random value r and computes (*r**e**c*)*d* (mod *n*). The result of this computation, after applying Euler's theorem, is *rc**d* (mod *n*), and so the effect of r can be removed by multiplying by its inverse. A new value of r is chosen for each ciphertext. With blinding applied, the decryption time is no longer correlated to the value of the input ciphertext, and so the timing attack fails. ### Adaptive chosen-ciphertext attacks In 1998, Daniel Bleichenbacher described the first practical adaptive chosen-ciphertext attack against RSA-encrypted messages using the PKCS #1 v1 padding scheme (a padding scheme randomizes and adds structure to an RSA-encrypted message, so it is possible to determine whether a decrypted message is valid). Due to flaws with the PKCS #1 scheme, Bleichenbacher was able to mount a practical attack against RSA implementations of the Secure Sockets Layer protocol and to recover session keys. As a result of this work, cryptographers now recommend the use of provably secure padding schemes such as Optimal Asymmetric Encryption Padding, and RSA Laboratories has released new versions of PKCS #1 that are not vulnerable to these attacks. A variant of this attack, dubbed "BERserk", came back in 2014. It impacted the Mozilla NSS Crypto Library, which was used notably by Firefox and Chrome. ### Side-channel analysis attacks A side-channel attack using branch-prediction analysis (BPA) has been described. Many processors use a branch predictor to determine whether a conditional branch in the instruction flow of a program is likely to be taken or not. Often these processors also implement simultaneous multithreading (SMT). Branch-prediction analysis attacks use a spy process to discover (statistically) the private key when processed with these processors. Simple Branch Prediction Analysis (SBPA) claims to improve BPA in a non-statistical way. In their paper, "On the Power of Simple Branch Prediction Analysis", the authors of SBPA (Onur Aciicmez and Cetin Kaya Koc) claim to have discovered 508 out of 512 bits of an RSA key in 10 iterations. A power-fault attack on RSA implementations was described in 2010. The author recovered the key by varying the CPU power voltage outside limits; this caused multiple power faults on the server. ### Tricky implementation There are many details to keep in mind in order to implement RSA securely (strong PRNG, acceptable public exponent...) . This makes the implementation challenging, to the point the book Practical Cryptography With Go suggests avoiding RSA if possible. Implementations --------------- Some cryptography libraries that provide support for RSA include: * Botan * Bouncy Castle * cryptlib * Crypto++ * Libgcrypt * Nettle * OpenSSL * wolfCrypt * GnuTLS * mbed TLS * LibreSSL See also -------- * Acoustic cryptanalysis * Computational complexity theory * Diffie–Hellman key exchange * Digital Signature Algorithm * Elliptic-curve cryptography * Key exchange * Key management * Key size * Public-key cryptography * Trapdoor function Further reading --------------- * Menezes, Alfred; van Oorschot, Paul C.; Vanstone, Scott A. (October 1996). *Handbook of Applied Cryptography*. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-8523-0. * Cormen, Thomas H.; Leiserson, Charles E.; Rivest, Ronald L.; Stein, Clifford (2001). *Introduction to Algorithms* (2nd ed.). MIT Press and McGraw-Hill. pp. 881–887. ISBN 978-0-262-03293-3.

RSA (cryptosystem)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RSA_(cryptosystem)

**Horse racing** is an equestrian performance sport, typically involving two or more horses ridden by jockeys (or sometimes driven without riders) over a set distance for competition. It is one of the most ancient of all sports, as its basic premise – to identify which of two or more horses is the fastest over a set course or distance – has been mostly unchanged since at least classical antiquity. Horse races vary widely in format, and many countries have developed their own particular traditions around the sport. Variations include restricting races to particular breeds, running over obstacles, running over different distances, running on different track surfaces, and running in different gaits. In some races, horses are assigned different weights to carry to reflect differences in ability, a process known as handicapping. While horses are sometimes raced purely for sport, a major part of horse racing's interest and economic importance is in the gambling associated with it, an activity that in 2019 generated a worldwide market worth around US$115 billion. History ------- Horse racing has a long and distinguished history and has been practiced in civilizations across the world since ancient times. Archaeological records indicate that horse racing occurred in Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, Babylon, Syria, Arabia, and Egypt. It also plays an important part of myth and legend, such as in the contest between the steeds of the god Odin and the giant Hrungnir in Norse mythology. Chariot racing was one of the most popular sports of ancient Greece, Rome and the Byzantine Empire. By 648 BCE, both chariot and mounted horse racing events were part of the ancient Greek Olympics, and were important in the other Panhellenic Games. Chariot racing was dangerous to both driver and horse, often leading to serious injury and even death. In the Roman Empire, chariot and mounted horse racing were major industries. From the mid-fifth century BCE, spring carnival in Rome closed with a horse race. Fifteen to twenty riderless horses, originally imported from the Barbary Coast of North Africa, were set loose to run the length of the Via del Corso, a long, straight city street. The race lasted about two-and-a-half minutes. In later times, Thoroughbred racing became popular with British royalty and aristocrats, earning it the title of "Sport of Kings". Historically, equestrians honed their skills through games and races. Equestrian sports provided entertainment for crowds and displayed the horsemanship required for battle. Horse racing evolved from impromptu competitions among riders and drivers. The various forms of competition, which required demanding and specialized skills from both horse and rider, resulted in the systematic development of specialized breeds and equipment. The popularity of equestrian sports throughout the centuries has resulted in the preservation of skills that would otherwise have vanished once horses were no longer used in combat. In Britain, horse racing became well-established in the 18th century, and continued to grow in popularity. King Charles II (reigned 1649 to 1685) was an avid sportsman who gave Newmarket its prominence. By 1750, the Jockey Club was formed as a way to control the Newmarket races, set the rules of the game, prevent dishonesty, and create a level field. The Epsom Derby began in 1780. The first of the five classic races began with the St Leger Stakes in 1776. In 1814, the system was complete with five annual races. While Newmarket and the Jockey Club set the standards, most of the racing took place in landowners' fields and in rising towns for small cash prizes and enormous local prestige. The system of wagering was essential to funding and growing of the industry, and all classes, from paupers to royalty. participated. Members of high society were in control, and they made a special effort to keep out the riff-raff and to keep the criminal element away from the wagering. With real money at stake, the system needed skilled jockeys, trainers, grooms, and experts at breeding, which opened up new careers for working-class rural men. Every young ambitious stable boy could dream of making it big. Horse racing was one of the few sports that continued during the 2020 COVID-19 crisis, with the Australian and Hong Kong racing jurisdictions carrying on, albeit with no crowds. The United States, the United Kingdom, and France were some of the more prominent racing bodies to either postpone or cancel all events. Types of horse racing --------------------- There are many types of horse racing, including: * **Flat racing**, where horses gallop directly between two points around a straight or oval track. * **Jump racing**, or **Jumps racing**, also known as **Steeplechasing** or, in the UK and Ireland, **National Hunt racing**, where horses race over obstacles. * **Harness racing**, where horses trot or pace while pulling a driver in a sulky. * Saddle Trotting, where horses must trot from a starting point to a finishing point under saddle * **Endurance racing**, where horses travel across the country over extreme distances, generally ranging from 25 to 100 miles (40 to 161 km). Anything less than 25 miles qualifies as a limited distance ride or LD. Different breeds of horses have been bred to excel in each of these disciplines. Breeds that are used for flat racing include the Thoroughbred, Quarter Horse, Arabian, Paint, and Appaloosa. Jump racing breeds include the Thoroughbred and AQPS. In harness racing, Standardbreds are used in Australia, New Zealand and North America. In Europe, Russian and French Trotters are used with Standardbreds. Light cold blood horses, such as Finnhorses and Scandinavian Coldblood Trotters are also used in harness racing within their respective geographical areas. There are also races for ponies: both flat and jump and harness racing. ### Flat racing Flat racing is the most common form of horse racing seen worldwide. Flat racing tracks are typically oval in shape and are generally level, although in Great Britain and Ireland there is much greater variation, including figure-of-eight tracks like Windsor and tracks with often severe gradients and changes of camber, such as Epsom Racecourse. Track surfaces vary, with turf most common in Europe and dirt more common in North America and Asia. Newly designed synthetic surfaces, such as Polytrack or Tapeta, are seen at some tracks. Individual flat races are run over distances ranging from 440 yards (400 m) to more than four miles (6.4 km), although races longer than two miles (3.2 km) are quite rare, and distances between five and twelve furlongs (1.0 and 2.4 km) are the most common. Short races are generally referred to as "sprints", while longer races are known as "routes" in the United States or "staying races" in Europe. Although fast acceleration ("a turn of foot") is usually required to win either type of race, in general sprints are seen as a test of speed, while long-distance races are seen as a test of stamina. The most prestigious flat races in the world, such as the Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe, Melbourne Cup, Japan Cup, Epsom Derby, Kentucky Derby and Dubai World Cup, are run over distances in the middle of this range and are seen as tests of both speed and stamina to some extent. In the most prestigious races, horses are generally allocated the same weight to carry for fairness, with allowances given to younger horses and female horses running against males. These races are called conditions races and offer the biggest purses. There is another category of races called handicap races where each horse is assigned a different weight to carry based on its ability. Besides the weight they carry, horses' performance can also be influenced by position relative to the inside barrier, gender, jockey, and training. ### Jump racing Jump (or jumps) racing in Great Britain and Ireland is known as National Hunt racing (although, confusingly, National Hunt racing also includes flat races taking place at jumps meetings; these are known as National Hunt flat races). Jump racing can be subdivided into steeplechasing and hurdling, according to the type and size of obstacles being jumped. The word "steeplechasing" can also refer collectively to any type of jump race in certain racing jurisdictions, particularly in the United States. Typically, horses progress to bigger obstacles and longer distances as they get older, so that a European jumps horse will tend to start in National Hunt flat races as a juvenile, move on to hurdling after a year or so, and then, if thought capable, move on to steeplechasing. ### Harness racing A type of racing where horses go around a track while pulling a sulky and a driver behind them. In this sport, Standardbreds are used. These horses are separated into two categories, trotters and pacers. Pacers move the legs on each side of their body in tandem, while trotters move their diagonal legs together. The latter are typically faster than the former due to the gaits used. Occasionally a horse will break their gait into an actual canter or gallop. This could cause the loss of a race or even a disqualification. Notable races include the Breeder's Crown series. ### Saddle trot racing Ridden trot races are more common in places such as Europe and New Zealand. These horses are trotters who race on the flat under saddle with a jockey on their backs. ### Endurance racing The length of an endurance race varies greatly. Some are very short, only ten miles, while other races can be up to one hundred miles. There are a few races that are even longer than one hundred miles and last multiple days. These different lengths of races are divided into five categories: pleasure rides (10–20 miles), non-competitive trail rides (21–27 miles), competitive trail rides (20–45 miles), progressive trail rides (25–60 miles), and endurance rides (40–100 miles in one day, up to 250 miles (400 km) in multiple days). Because each race is very long, trails of natural terrain are generally used. Contemporary organized endurance racing began in California around 1955, and the first race marked the beginning of the Tevis Cup This race was a one-hundred-mile, one-day-long ride starting in Squaw Valley, Placer County, and ending in Auburn. Founded in 1972, the American Endurance Ride Conference was the United States' first national endurance riding association. The longest endurance race in the world is the Mongol Derby, which is 1,000 km (620 mi) long. Breeds ------ In most horse races, entry is restricted to certain breeds; that is, the horse must have a sire (father) and a dam (mother) who are studbook-approved individuals of whatever breed is racing. For example, in a normal harness race, the horse's sire and dam must both be pure Standardbreds. The exception to this is in Quarter Horse racing, where an Appendix Quarter Horse may be considered eligible to race against (standard) Quarter Horses. The designation of "Appendix" refers to the addendum section, or Appendix, of the Official Quarter Horse registry. An Appendix Quarter Horse is a horse that has either one Quarter Horse parent and one parent of any other eligible breed (such as Thoroughbred, the most common Appendix cross), two parents that are registered Appendix Quarter Horses, or one parent that is a Quarter Horse and one parent that is an Appendix Quarter Horse. AQHA also issues a "Racing Register of Merit", which allows a horse to race on Quarter Horse tracks, but not be considered a Quarter Horse for breeding purposes (unless other requirements are met). A stallion who has won many races may be put up to stud when he is retired. Artificial insemination and embryo transfer technology (allowed only in some breeds) have brought changes to the traditions and ease of breeding. Pedigrees of stallions are recorded in various books and websites, such as *Weatherbys Stallion Book*, the *Australian Stud Book* and *Thoroughbred Heritage*. ### Thoroughbred There are three founding sires that all Thoroughbreds can trace back to in the male line: the Darley Arabian, the Godolphin Arabian, and the Byerley Turk, named after their respective owners Thomas Darley, Lord Godolphin, and Captain Robert Byerly. They were taken to England, where they were mated with mares from English and imported bloodlines. The resultant foals were the first generation of Thoroughbreds, and all modern Thoroughbreds trace back to them. Thoroughbreds range in height, which is measured in hands (a hand being four inches). Some are as small as 15 hands while others are over 17. Thoroughbreds can travel medium distances at fast paces, requiring a balance between speed and endurance. Thoroughbreds may be bay, black, dark bay/brown, chestnut, gray, roan, white or palomino. Artificial insemination, cloning and embryo transfer are not allowed in the Thoroughbred breed. ### Standardbred The standardbred is a breed of horse used for a variety of purposes, but they are largely bred for harness racing. They are descended from thoroughbreds, morgans, and extinct breeds. Standardbreds are typically docile and easy to handle. They do not spook easily and are quite versatile in what they can do. They can be jumpers, dressage, and pleasure riding horses. ### Arabian horse The Arabian horse was developed by the Bedouin people of the West Asia specifically for stamina over long distances, so they could outrun their enemies. It was not until 1725 that the Arabian was introduced into the United States. Arabians appeared in the United States in colonial times, though were not bred as purebreds until about the time of the Civil War. Until the formation of the Arabian Horse Registry of America in 1908, Arabians were recorded with the Jockey Club in a separate subsection from Thoroughbreds. Arabians must be able to withstand traveling long distances at a moderate pace. They have an abundance of type I muscle fibers, enabling their muscles to work for extended periods of time. Also, the muscles of the Arabian are not nearly as massive as those of the Quarter Horse, which allow it to travel longer distances at quicker speeds. The Arabian is primarily used today in endurance racing but is also raced over traditional race tracks in many countries. Arabian Horse Racing is governed by the International Federation of Arabian Horse Racing. ### Quarter Horse The ancestors of the Quarter Horse were prevalent in America in the early 17th century. These horses were a blend of Colonial Spanish horses crossed with English horses that were brought over in the 1700s. The native horse and the English horse were bred together, resulting in a compact, muscular horse. At this time, they were mainly used for chores such as plowing and cattle work. The American Quarter Horse was not recognized as an official breed until the formation of the American Quarter Horse Association in 1940. In order to be successful in racing, Quarter Horses need to be able to propel themselves forward at extremely fast sprinter speed. The Quarter Horse has much larger hind limb muscles than the Arabian, which make it less suitable for endurance racing. It also has more type II-b muscle fibers, which allow the Quarter Horse to accelerate rapidly. When Quarter Horse racing began, it was very expensive to lay a full mile of track so it was agreed that a straight track of four hundred meters, or one-quarter of a mile, would be laid instead. It became the standard racing distance for Quarter Horses and inspired their name. With the exception of the longer, 870-yard (800 m) distance contests, Quarter Horse races are run flat out, with the horses running at top speed for the duration. There is less jockeying for position, as turns are rare, and many races end with several contestants grouped together at the wire. The track surface is similar to that of Thoroughbred racing and usually consists of dirt. In addition to the three main racing breeds above and their crosses, horse racing may be conducted using various other breeds: Appaloosa, American Paint Horse, Selle Français, AQPS and Korean Jeju. ### Horse breeds and muscle structure Muscles are bundles of contractile fibers that are attached to bones by tendons. These bundles have different types of fibers within them, and horses have adapted over the years to produce different amounts of these fibers. #### Type 1 Type I muscle fibers are adapted for aerobic exercise and rely on the presence of oxygen. They are slow-twitch fibers. They allow muscles to work for longer periods of time resulting in greater endurance. #### Type 2 Type II muscles are adapted for anaerobic exercise because they can function in the absence of oxygen. Type II-a fibers are intermediate, representing a balance between the fast-twitch fibers and the slow-twitch fibers. They allow the muscles to generate both speed and endurance. Thoroughbreds possess more Type II-a muscle fibers than Quarter Horses or Arabians. This type of fiber allows them to propel themselves forward at great speeds and maintain it for an extended distance. Type II-b fibers are fast-twitch fibers. These fibers allow muscles to contract quickly, resulting in a great deal of power and speed. Training -------- The conditioning program for the horses varies depending on the race length. Genetics, training, age, and skeletal soundness are all factors that contribute to a horse's performance. The muscle structure and fiber type of horses depends on the breed; therefore, genetics must be considered when constructing a conditioning plan. A horse's fitness plan must be coordinated properly in order to prevent injury or lameness. If these are to occur, they may negatively affect a horse's willingness to learn. Sprinting exercises are appropriate for training two-year-old racehorses, but the number is limited by psychological factors as well as physical. A horse's skeletal system adapts to the exercise it receives. Because the skeletal system does not reach full maturity until the horse is at least six years of age, young racehorses often suffer injuries. Horse racing by continent ------------------------- ### North America #### United States In the United States, Thoroughbred flat races are run on surfaces of either dirt, synthetic or turf. Other tracks offer Quarter Horse racing and Standardbred racing, on combinations of these three types of racing surfaces. Racing of other breeds, such as Arabian horse racing, is found on a limited basis. American Thoroughbred races are run at a wide variety of distances, most commonly from 5 to 12 furlongs (0.63 to 1.50 mi; 1.0 to 2.4 km); with this in mind, breeders of Thoroughbred race horses attempt to breed horses that excel at a particular distance (see dosage index). Horse racing in the United States and on the North American continent dates back to 1665, which saw the establishment of the Newmarket course in Salisbury, New York, a section of what is now known as the Hempstead Plains of Long Island, New York. This first racing meet in North America was supervised by New York's colonial governor, Richard Nicolls. The area is now occupied by the present Nassau County, New York, a region of Greater Westbury and East Garden City. The South Westbury section is still known as Salisbury. The first record of quarter-mile length races dated back to 1674 in Henrico County, Virginia. Each race consisted of only two horses, and they raced down the village streets and lanes. The Quarter Horse received its name from the length of the race. The American Stud Book was started in 1868, prompting the beginning of organized horse racing in the United States. There were 314 tracks operating in the United States by 1890; and in 1894, the American Jockey Club was formed. The Pleasanton Fairgrounds Racetrack at the Alameda County Fairgrounds is the oldest remaining horse racing track in America, dating from 1858, when it was founded by the sons of the Spaniard Don Agustín Bernal. Belmont Park is located at the western edge of the Hempstead Plains. Its mile-and-a-half main track is the largest dirt Thoroughbred racecourse in the world, and it has the sport's largest grandstand. One of the latest major horse tracks opened in the United States was the Meadowlands Racetrack, opened in 1977 for Thoroughbred racing. It is the home of the Meadowlands Cup. Other more recently opened tracks include Remington Park, Oklahoma City, opened in 1988, and Lone Star Park in the Dallas–Fort Worth Metroplex, opened in 1997; the latter track hosted the prestigious Breeders' Cup series of races in 2004. Thoroughbred horse racing in the United States has its own Hall of Fame in Saratoga Springs, New York. The Hall of Fame honors remarkable horses, jockeys, owners, and trainers. The traditional high point of US horse racing is the Kentucky Derby, held on the first Saturday of May at Churchill Downs in Louisville, Kentucky. Together, the Derby; the Preakness Stakes, held two weeks later at Pimlico Race Course in Baltimore, Maryland; and the Belmont Stakes, held three weeks after the Preakness at Belmont Park on Long Island, form the Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing for three-year-olds. They are all held early in the year, throughout May and the beginning of June. In recent years the Breeders' Cup races, run at the end of the year, have challenged the Triple Crown events as determiners of the three-year-old champion. The Breeders' Cup is normally held at a different track every year; however, the 2010 and 2011 editions were both held at Churchill Downs, and 2012, 2013 and 2014 races were held at Santa Anita Park. Keeneland, in Lexington, Kentucky, hosted the 2015 Breeders' Cup. The corresponding Standardbred event is the Breeders Crown. There is also a Triple Crown of Harness Racing for Pacers and a Triple Crown of Harness Racing for Trotters. For Arabians, there is the Arabian Triple Crown, consisting of Drinkers of the Wind Derby in California, the Texas Six Shooter Stakes, and the Bob Magness Derby in Delaware. American betting on horse racing is sanctioned and regulated by the state where the race is located. Simulcast betting exists across state lines with minimal oversight except the companies involved through legalized parimutuel gambling. A takeout, or "take", is removed from each betting pool and distributed according to state law, among the state, race track and horsemen. A variety of factors affect takeout, namely location and the type of wager that is placed. One form of parimutuel gaming is Instant Racing, in which players bet on video replays of races. Advanced Deposit Wagering is a form of gambling on the outcome of horse races in which the bettor must fund his or her account before being allowed to place bets. ADW is often conducted online or by phone. In contrast to ADW, credit shops allow wagers without advance funding; accounts are settled at month-end. Racetrack owners, horse trainers and state governments sometimes receive a cut of ADW revenues. #### Canada The most famous horse from Canada is generally considered to be Northern Dancer, who after winning the Kentucky Derby, Preakness and Queen's Plate in 1964 went on to become the most successful Thoroughbred sire of the twentieth century; his two-minute-flat Derby was the fastest on record until Secretariat in 1973. The only challenger to his title of greatest Canadian horse would be his son Nijinsky II, who is the last horse to win the English Triple Crown. Woodbine Racetrack (1956) in Toronto is home of the Queen's Plate (1860), Canada's premier Thoroughbred stakes race, and the North America Cup (1984), Canada's premier Standardbred stakes race. It is the only race track in North America which stages Thoroughbred and Standardbred (harness) meetings on the same day. The Canadian International and Woodbine Mile (1981) are Canada's most important Grade I races worth Can$1,000,000 each, and have been won by many renowned horses such as Secretariat and Wise Dan respectively. Other key races include Woodbine Oaks (1956), Prince of Wales Stakes (1929), Breeders' Stakes (1889) and Canadian Derby (1930). ### Europe #### Belgium Horse racing in Belgium takes place at three venues – Hippodrome Wellington in Ostend (opened in 1883 in honour of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington), Hippodroom Waregem in Waregem in Flanders and Hippodrome de Wallonie in Mons, Wallonia. #### Czech Republic There are 15 racecourses in the Czech Republic, most notably Pardubice Racecourse, where the country's most famous race, the Velka Pardubicka steeplechase, has been run since 1874. However, the first official race was organized back in 1816 by Emperor Francis II near Kladruby nad Labem. The Czech horse racing season usually starts at the beginning of April and ends sometime in November. Racing takes place mostly at weekends and there is usually one meeting on a Saturday and one on Sunday. Horse races, as well as Thoroughbred horse breeding, is organized by Jockey Club Czech Republic, founded in 1919. #### France France has a major horse racing industry. It is home to the famous Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe held at Longchamp Racecourse, the richest race in Europe and the second richest turf race in the world after the Japan Cup, with a prize of 4  million Euros (approximately US$5.2  million). Other major races include the Grand Prix de Paris, the Prix du Jockey Club (the French Derby) and the Prix de Diane. Besides Longchamp, France's other premier flat racecourses include Chantilly and Deauville. There is also a smaller but nevertheless important jumps racing sector, with Auteil Racecourse being the best known. The sport's governing body is France Galop. #### Great Britain Horse racing in Great Britain is predominantly thoroughbred flat and jumps racing. It was in Great Britain in the 17th to 19th centuries that many of the sport's rules and regulations were established. Named after Edward Smith-Stanley, 12th Earl of Derby, The Derby was first run in 1780. The race serves as the middle leg of the British Triple Crown, preceded by the 2000 Guineas and followed by the St  Leger. The name "Derby" has since become synonymous with great races all over the world, and as such has been borrowed many times in races abroad. The Grand National is the most prominent race in British culture, watched by many people who do not normally watch or bet on horse racing at other times of the year. Many of the sport's greatest jockeys, most notably Sir Gordon Richards, have been British. The sport is regulated by the British Horseracing Authority. The BHA's authority does not extend to Northern Ireland; racing in Ireland is governed on an All-Ireland basis. #### Greece Despite having an ancient tradition with well-documented history, all racetracks in Greece have ceased operation due to the Greek government-debt crisis. #### Hungary Hungary has a long-standing horse racing tradition. The first horse racing in Pest was noted on June 6, 1827. Although racing in Hungary is neither as popular nor as prestigious as it is in Western Europe, the country is notable for producing some fine international racehorses. Foremost of these is Kincsem, foaled in 1874 and the most successful Thoroughbred racehorse ever, having won 54 races in 54 starts. The country also produced Overdose, a horse who won his first 12 races, including group races in Germany and Italy, and finished fourth in the King's Stand Stakes at Royal Ascot. #### Ireland Ireland has a rich history of horse racing; point to pointing originated there, and even today, jump racing is more popular than racing on the flat. As a result, every year Irish horse racing fans travel in huge numbers to the highlight event of the National Hunt calendar, the Cheltenham Festival, and in recent years Irish owned or bred horses have dominated the event. Ireland has a thriving Thoroughbred breeding industry, stimulated by favorable tax treatment. The world's largest Thoroughbred stud farm, Coolmore Stud, has its main site there (in addition to major operations in the U.S. and Australia). In recent years,[*when?*] various Irish bred and trained horses achieved victory in one or more of the British 2000 Guineas, The Derby and the Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe, considered the three most prestigious races in Europe. In the six runnings of the Epsom Derby between 2008 and 2013, Irish horses filled 20 of the first 30 placings, winning the race 5 times. #### Italy Historically, Italy has been one of the leading European horse-racing nations, albeit in some respects behind Great Britain, Ireland, and France in size and prestige. The late Italian horse breeder Federico Tesio was particularly notable. In recent years, however, the sport in the country has suffered a major funding crisis, culminating in its 2014 expulsion from the European Pattern. #### Netherlands In Wassenaar in the Hague there is a grass course at Duindigt. #### Poland Horse racing in Poland can be dated to 1777, when a horse owned by Polish noble Kazimierz Rzewuski beat the horse of the English chargé d'affaires, Sir Charles Whitworth, on the road from Wola to Ujazdów Castle. The first regular horse racing was organized in 1841 on Mokotów Fields in Warsaw by Towarzystwo Wyścigów Konnych i Wystawy Zwierząt Gospodarskich w Królestwie Polskim (in English, the Society of Horse Racing in Congress Poland). The main racetrack in Poland is Warsaw's Służewiec Racecourse. The industry was severely limited during the Communist era, when gambling, the major source of funding, was made illegal. #### Sweden Harness racing (also known as trotting), is a popular sport in Sweden, with significant amounts of money wagered annually. ### Oceania #### Australia Horse racing in Australia was founded during the early years of settlement and the industry has grown to be among the top three leading Thoroughbred racing nations of the world. The world-famous Melbourne Cup, the *race that stops a nation*, has recently attracted many international entries. In country racing, records indicate that Goulburn commenced racing in 1834. Australia's first country racing club was established at Wallabadah in 1852 and the Wallabadah Cup is still held on New Year's Day (the current racecourse was built in 1898). In Australia, the most famous racehorse was Phar Lap (bred in New Zealand), who raced from 1928 to 1932. Phar Lap carried 9 st 12 lb (62.5 kg) to win the 1930 Melbourne Cup. Australian steeplechaser Crisp is remembered for his battle with Irish champion Red Rum in the 1973 Grand National. In 2003–2005 the mare Makybe Diva (bred in Great Britain) became the only racehorse to ever win the Melbourne Cup three times, let alone in consecutive years. Still more recently, another mare, Winx. won the prestigious Cox Plate four straight times, and set a modern-era world record for most consecutive race wins by a Thoroughbred, winning the last 33 races of her career. In harness racing, Cane Smoke had 120 wins, including 34 in a single season, Paleface Adios became a household name during the 1970s, while Cardigan Bay, a pacing horse from New Zealand, enjoyed great success at the highest levels of American harness racing in the 1960s. More recently, Blacks A Fake has won four Inter Dominion Championships, making him the only horse to complete this feat in Australasia's premier harness race. Competitive endurance riding commenced in Australia in 1966, when the Tom Quilty Gold Cup was first held in the Hawkesbury district, near Sydney, New South Wales. The Quilty Cup is considered the National endurance ride and there are now over 100 endurance events contested across Australia, ranging in distances from 80 km to 400  km. The world's longest endurance ride is the Shahzada 400 km Memorial Test which is conducted over five days traveling 80 kilometers a day at St Albans on the Hawkesbury River, New South Wales. In all endurance events, there are rigorous vet checks, conducted before, during and after the competition, in which the horses' welfare is of the utmost concern. #### New Zealand Racing is a long-established sport in New Zealand, stretching back to colonial times. Horse racing is a significant part of the New Zealand economy which in 2004 generated 1.3% of the GDP. The indirect impact of expenditures on racing was estimated to have generated more than $1.4 billion in economic activity in 2004 and created 18,300 full-time equivalent jobs. More than 40,000 people were involved in some capacity in the New Zealand racing industry in 2004. In 2004, more than one million people attended race meetings in New Zealand. There are 69 Thoroughbred and 51 harness clubs licensed in New Zealand. Racecourses are situated in 59 locations throughout New Zealand. The bloodstock industry is important to New Zealand, with the export sale of horses – mainly to Australia and Asia – generating more than $120 million a year. During the 2008–09 racing season 19 New Zealand bred horses won 22 Group One races around the world. Notable thoroughbred racehorses from New Zealand include Carbine, Nightmarch, Sunline, Desert Gold and Rising Fast. Phar Lap and Tulloch were both bred in New Zealand but did not race there. The most famous New Zealand standardbred horse is probably Cardigan Bay. Stanley Dancer drove the New Zealand bred horse, Cardigan Bay to win $1 million in stakes in 1968, the first harness horse to surpass that milestone in American history. Other horses of note include Young Quinn, Christian Cullen, Lazarus and the trotter Lyell Creek. ### Africa #### Mauritius On 25 June 1812, the Champ de Mars Racecourse was inaugurated by The Mauritius Turf Club which was founded earlier in the same year by Colonel Edward A. Draper. The Champ de Mars is situated on a prestigious avenue in Port Louis, the capital city and is the oldest racecourse in the southern hemisphere. The Mauritius Turf Club is the second oldest active turf club in the world. Undeniably, racing is one of the most popular sports in Mauritius now attracting regular crowds of 20,000 people or more to the only racecourse of the island. A high level of professionalism has been attained in the organization of races over the last decades preserving the unique electrifying ambiance prevailing on race days at the Champ de Mars. Members of the British Royal Family, such as Queen Elizabeth II, Princess Margaret or the Queen Mother have attended or patronized races at the Champ de Mars numerous times. Champ de Mars has four classic events a year such as the Duchess of York Cup, the Barbé Cup, the Maiden Cup, and the Duke of York Cup. Most of the horses are imported from South Africa but some are also acquired from Australia, the United Kingdom and France. #### South Africa Horse racing is a popular sport in South Africa that can be traced back to 1797. The first recorded race club meeting took place five years later in 1802. The national horse racing body is known as the National Horseracing Authority and was founded in 1882. The premier event, which attracts 50,000 people to Durban, is the Durban July Handicap, which has been run since 1897 at Greyville Racecourse. It is the largest and most prestigious event on the continent, with betting running into the hundreds of millions of Rands. Several July winners have gone on to win major international races, such as Colorado King, London News, and Ipi Tombe. However, the other notable major races are the Summer Cup, held at Turffontein Racecourse in Johannesburg, and The Sun Met, which is held at Kenilworth race track in Cape Town. ### Asia #### China Horse racing in one form or another has been a part of Chinese culture for millennia. Horse racing was a popular pastime for the aristocracy at least by the Zhou Dynasty – 4th century B.C. General Tian Ji's strategem for a horse race remains perhaps the best-known story about horse racing in that period. In the 18th and 19th centuries, horse racing and equestrian sports in China was dominated by Mongol influences. Thoroughbred horse racing came to China with British settlements in the middle 1800s and most notably centered around the treaty ports, including the two major race courses in Shanghai, the Shanghai Racecourse and the International Recreation Grounds (in Kiang-wan), and the racecourses of Tianjin. The Kiang-wan racecourse was destroyed in the lead-up to the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Shanghai Race Club closed in 1954. The former Shanghai Racecourse is now People's Square and People's Park and the former club building was the Shanghai Art Museum. As Hong Kong and Macau are Special Administrative Region, they're allowed to exemption from ban of gambling on mainland China. (See below) Horse racing was banned in the Republic of China from 1945, and the People's Republic of China maintained the ban after 1949, although allowances were made for ethnic minority peoples for whom horse sports are a cultural tradition. Speed horse racing (速度赛马) was an event in the National Games of China, mainly introduced to cater to minority peoples, such as the Mongols. The racecourse was initially 5 km, but from 2005 (the 10th National Games) was extended to 12 km. The longer race led to deaths and injuries to participating horses in both 2005 and the 11th National Games in 2009. Also, with the entry into the sport of Han majority provinces such as Hubei, which are better funded and used Western, rather than traditional, breeding and training techniques, meant that the original purpose of the event to foster traditional horse racing for groups like the Mongols was at risk of being usurped. At the 2009 National Games, Hubei won both the gold and silver medals, with Inner Mongolia winning bronze. As a result of these factors, the event was abolished for the 12th National Games in 2013. Club horse racing reappeared on a small scale in the 1990s. In 2008, the China Speed Horse Race Open in Wuhan was organized as the qualification round for the speed horse race event at the National Games the next year, but was also seen by commentators as a step towards legalizing both horse racing and gambling on the races. The Wuhan Racecourse was the only racecourse that organized races in China. In 2014, the Wuhan Jockey Club organized more than 80 races. Almost all Chinese trainers and jockeys stabled in Wuhan. However, with the demise of the event at the National Games and the government not relenting from the ban on commercial racing, various racecourses built in recent years are all in a state of disuse: The Nanjing Racecourse, which previously hosted National Games equestrian events, is now used as a car park; the Beijing Jockey Club was shut down in 2008. The racecourse in Inner Mongolia has not been active since 2012. Horse racing eventually returned to mainland China on the year 2014 as the one-day, five-card event for foreign horses, trainers and jockeys. #### Hong Kong The British tradition of horse racing left its mark with the creation of one of the most important entertainment and gambling institutions in Hong Kong. Established as the Royal Hong Kong Jockey Club in 1884, the non-profit organization conducts nearly 700 races every season at the two race tracks: in Happy Valley and Sha Tin. All horses are imported since there is no breeding operation. The sport annually draws millions of dollars of tax revenue. Off-track betting is available from overseas bookmakers. In the 1920s, the Hong Kong Jockey Club had race meetings for visitors already. Visitors were divided into public and member. The charges for these two types of visitors are different. The charge for admission to the Public Enclosure is $1 per day for all while soldiers and sailors can enjoy half price. On the other hand, members are required to show their badges to obtain admission to the Members' Enclosure. And also the charge for admission to the Members' Enclosure is $2 per day. By comparing the lowest wage in 1929, we observe that the lowest wage is around $12 ( $0.4 per day) which has a large distance for the requirement enclosure. Therefore, we can observe that the race meetings are mainly opened for upper class mostly while grass-root has a lower chance to touch horse racing activity. Nowadays, the Hong Kong Jockey Club is a cornerstone of modern Hong Kong. It donates all its profits to the Hong Kong government, charities and public institutions. It is the territory's largest taxpayer, contributing 11% of the government's revenues in 2000. In economic terms, the Hong Kong Jockey Club is an old-fashioned government-protected monopoly; all other forms of gambling are illegal in this industry. ##### Hong Kong—Sweepstakes Sweepstakes were introduced in Hong Kong during the 1920s. There are three types of sweepstakes which are the Special Cash Sweeps, the Last Race Sweep and the Ordinary Cash Sweeps. Special Cash Sweeps were at first drawn twice a year, and increased to three times a year later given its popularity. It carried the highest prize money amongst three types of sweepstakes. The Last Race Sweep commanded higher prize money then Ordinary Cash Sweeps, which were drawn for almost every race and therefore carried the lowest prize money. Sweepstakes could be purchased either at sweepstakes stations or from sweepstakes vendors throughout Hong Kong. With different numbers print on each sweepstake, one sweepstake is drawn and assigned, for each horse participating in the race, and the sweepstake attached to the winning horse would win the first prize. Likewise, the number of the first runner-up and second runner-up would win the second and third prize, respectively, with the rest winning consolation prizes. With the introduction of new bet types in horse racing and the launch of the Mark Six lottery in the 1970s, the club finally stopped selling sweepstakes in 1977. #### Macau Jockey Club of Macau was established for harness racing. It started to conduct horse races in 1989. #### India India's first racecourse was set up in Madras in 1777. Today India has nine racetracks operated by seven racing authorities. #### Japan Japan has two governing bodies that control its horseracing – the Japan Racing Association (JRA), and National Association of Racing (NAR). Between them they conduct more than 21,000 horse races a year. The JRA is responsible for 'Chuo Keiba' (meaning 'central horse racing'), taking place on the ten main Japanese tracks. The NAR, meanwhile, is responsible for 'Chihou Keiba' (meaning 'local horse racing'). Racing in Japan is mainly flat racing, but Japan also has jump racing and a sled-pulling race known as Ban'ei (also called Draft Racing). Japan's top stakes races are run in the spring, autumn, and winter. These include the country's most prominent race – the Grade 1 Japan Cup, a 2,400 m (about 1½ mile) invitational turf race run every November at Tokyo Racecourse for a purse of ¥476  million (about US$5.6  million), one of the richest turf races in the world. Other noted stakes races include the February Stakes, Japanese Derby, Takamatsunomiya Kinen, Yasuda Kinen, Takarazuka Kinen, Arima Kinen, Satsuki Sho, Kikka Sho, and the Tenno Sho races run in the spring and fall. Japan's top jump race is the Nakayama Grand Jump, run every April at Nakayama Racecourse. #### Malaysia In Malaysia, horse racing was introduced during the British colonial era and remains to the present day as a gambling activity. There are three race courses in Peninsular Malaysia, namely Penang Turf Club, Perak Turf Club, and Selangor Turf Club. Within and only within the turf clubs, betting on horse racing is a legal form of gambling. Racing in Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore is conducted and governed under the Rules of the Malayan Racing Association and betting in Malaysia is operated and organized by Pan Malaysian Pools Sdn Bhd. In East Malaysia, races are governed independently by the Royal Sabah Turf Club and the Sarawak Turf Club. #### Mongolia Mongolian horse racing takes place during the Naadam festival. Mongolia does not have Thoroughbred horse racing. Rather, it has its own Mongolian style of horse racing in which the horses run for at least a distance of 25 kilometers. #### Pakistan Horse races are held in Pakistan at four clubs. In Lahore at Lahore Race Club, Rawalpindi at Chakri, in Karachi at Karachi Race Club, and in Gujrat at Gujrat Race Club. #### Philippines Horseracing in the Philippines began in 1867. The history of Philippine horseracing has three divisions according to the breeds of horses used. They are the Philippine-pony era (1867–1898), the Arabian-horse era (1898–1930), and the Thoroughbred-era (1935–present). #### Singapore Horse racing was introduced to Singapore by the British during the colonial era and remained one of the legal forms of gambling after independence. It remains a highly popular form of entertainment with the local Singaporean community to this day. Races are typically held on Friday evenings and Sundays at the Singapore Turf Club in Kranji. Horse racing has also left its mark in the naming of roads in Singapore such as Race Course Road in Little India, where horse racing was first held in Singapore, and Turf Club Road in Bukit Timah where Singapore Turf Club used to be situated before moving to its current location in 1999. #### South Korea Horse racing in South Korea dates back to May 1898, when a foreign language institute run by the government included a donkey race in its athletic rally. However, it wasn't until the 1920s that modern horse racing involving betting developed. The nation's first authorised club, the Chosun Racing Club, was established in 1922 and a year later, the pari-mutuel betting system was officially adopted for the first time. The Korean War disrupted the development of horse racing in the country, but after the Seoul Olympics in 1988, the Olympic Equestrian Park was converted into racing facilities named Seoul Race Park, which helped the sport to develop again. #### Turkey Horses have been an important role in Turks' lives throughout history. After the modern Republic Of Turkey was established in 1923 by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the number of breeding and racing Arabian and thoroughbred racehorses accelerated rapidly, especially after the beginning of the 1930s. The Jockey Club of Turkey, founded in 1950, was the turning point of both the Turkish breeding and racing industries. #### United Arab Emirates The big race in the UAE is the Dubai World Cup, a race with a purse of US$10  million, which was the largest purse in the world until being surpassed by the Pegasus World Cup, an American race with a $12  million purse that held its first edition in 2017. The Dubai World Cup is once again the world's richest horse race. The Pegasus World Cup had its purse reduced in 2019 to make room for a new turf race. Other races include the Dubai Kahayla Classic with a purse of US$250,000. The Meydan Racecourse in Dubai, reportedly the world's largest race track, opened on March 27, 2010, for the Dubai World Cup race. The race track complex contains two tracks with seating for 60,000, a hotel, restaurants, theater and a museum. There is no parimutuel betting in the UAE as gambling is illegal. ### South America #### Argentina In Argentina the sport is known as turf. Some of the most famous racers are Irineo Leguisamo, Vilmar Sanguinetti, Marina Lezcano, Jorge Valdivieso, Pablo Falero and Jorge Ricardo. The most notable Argentine horse of recent decades is Invasor, who won Uruguay's Triple Crown in 2005; won four U.S. Grade I races in 2006, including the Breeders' Cup Classic, on his way to being named that country's Horse of the Year; and ended his racing career in 2007 with two more Grade I/Group One wins, including the Dubai World Cup. Carlos Gardel's tango Por una cabeza is about horse racing, a sport of which he was a known fan. Gardel was a good friend of Irineo Leguisamo, who is the most recognized Uruguayan jockey, who raced numerous years in Argentine. Betting ------- At many horse races, there is a gambling station, where gamblers can stake money on a horse. Gambling on horses is prohibited at some tracks; Springdale Race Course, home of the nationally renowned TD Bank Carolina Cup and Colonial Cup Steeplechase in Camden, South Carolina, is known as one of the tracks where betting is illegal, due to a 1951 law. Where gambling is allowed, most tracks offer parimutuel betting where gamblers' money is pooled and shared proportionally among the winners once a deduction is made from the pool. In some countries, such as the UK, Ireland, and Australia, an alternative and more popular facility is provided by bookmakers who effectively make a market in odds. This allows the gambler to 'lock in' odds on a horse at a particular time (known as 'taking the price' in the UK). Parimutuel gambling on races also provides not only purse money to participants but considerable tax revenue, with over $100 billion wagered annually in 53 countries. Dangers ------- Anna Waller, a member of the Department of Emergency Medicine at the University of North Carolina, co-authored a four-year-long study of jockey injuries and stated to *The New York Times* that "For every 1,000 jockeys you have riding [for one year], over 600 will have medically treated injuries." She added that almost 20% of these were serious head or neck injuries. The study reported 6,545 injuries during the years 1993–1996. More than 100 jockeys were killed in the United States between 1950 and 1987. Horses also face dangers in racing. 1.5 horses die out of every 1,000 starts in the United States. The U.S. Jockey Club in New York estimates that about 600 horses died at racetracks in 2006. Another estimates there are 1,000 deaths annual in the US. The Jockey Club in Hong Kong reported a far lower figure of 0.58 horses per 1,000 starts. There is speculation that drugs used in horse racing in the United States, which are banned elsewhere, are responsible for the higher death rate in the United States. In the Canadian province of Ontario, a study of 1,709 racehorse deaths between 2003 and 2015 found that the majority of deaths were attributable to "damage during exercise to the horses' musculoskeletal system", including fractures, dislocations, and tendon ruptures. Mortality rates were eight times higher for thoroughbreds than standardbreds, and highest amongst young horses. The study also found that the incidence of off-track deaths was twice as high for thoroughbreds. In the United Kingdom, 186 horses were killed as a direct result of racing in 2019. Of these 145 died in National Hunt (jump) racing and 41 in flat racing. A report published in 2005 estimated that "around 375 horses who are entered into races each season die from their injuries, or they are killed because they are considered of no further commercial value, even though they are young enough to continue racing." It added, "Reasons for horses being destroyed include broken legs, back, neck and pelvis; fatal spinal injuries, exhaustion, heart attack, and burst blood vessels in the lungs." See also -------- * Australian and New Zealand punting glossary * Commercial animal cloning * Fully automatic time * Glossary of North American horse racing * Going (horse racing) * Horse length * Horse racing equipment * Jockey Challenge * List of films about horse racing * List of historical horses * List of horse racing tracks * List of jockeys * Match race

Horse racing

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horse_racing

**Borneo** (/ˈbɔːrnioʊ/; Indonesian: *Kalimantan*) is the third-largest island in the world, with an area of 748,168 km2 (288,869 sq mi). At the geographic centre of Maritime Southeast Asia, it is one of the Greater Sunda Islands, located north of Java, west of Sulawesi, and east of Sumatra. The island is politically divided among three countries: Malaysia and Brunei in the north, and Indonesia to the south. Approximately 73% of the island is Indonesian territory. In the north, the East Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak make up about 26% of the island. The population in Borneo is 23,053,723 (2020 national censuses). Additionally, the Malaysian federal territory of Labuan is situated on a small island just off the coast of Borneo. The sovereign state of Brunei, located on the north coast, comprises about 1% of Borneo's land area. A little more than half of the island is in the Northern Hemisphere, including Brunei and the Malaysian portion, while the Indonesian portion spans the Northern and Southern hemispheres. Etymology --------- The island is known by many names. Internationally it is known as *Borneo*, derived from European contact with the Brunei kingdom in the 16th century during the Age of Exploration. On a map from around 1601, Brunei city is referred to as Borneo, and the whole island is also labelled Borneo. The name *Borneo* may derive from the Sanskrit word **váruṇa** (वरुण), meaning either "water" or Varuna, the Hindu god of rain. The local population called it *Klemantan* or *Kalimantan*, which was derived from the Sanskrit word *Kalamanthana*, meaning "burning weather" possibly to describe its hot and humid tropical weather. Indonesian historian Slamet Muljana suggests that the name *Kalamanthana* was derived from Sanskrit terms *kala* (time or season) and *manthana* (churning, kindling or creating fire by friction), which possibly describes the heat of the weather. In earlier times, the island was known by other names. In 977, Chinese records began to use the term *Bo-ni* to refer to Borneo. In 1225, it was also mentioned by the Chinese official Chau Ju-Kua (趙汝适). The Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama, written by Majapahit court poet Mpu Prapanca in 1365, mentioned the island as *Nusa Tanjungnagara*, which means the island of the Tanjungpura Kingdom. Nevertheless, the same manuscript also mentioned *Barune* (Brunei) and other polities on the island. Geography --------- ### Geology Borneo was formed through Mesozoic accretion of microcontinental fragments, ophiolite terranes and island arc crust onto a Paleozoic continental core. At the beginning of the Cenozoic Borneo formed a promontory of Sundaland which partly separated from Asian mainland by the proto-South China Sea. The oceanic part of the proto-South China Sea was subducted during the Paleogene period and a large accretionary complex formed along the northwestern of the island of Borneo. In the early Miocene uplift of the accretionary complex occurred as a result of underthrusting of thinned continental crust in northwest. The uplift may have also resulted from shortening due to the counter-clockwise rotation of Borneo between 20 and 10 mega-annum (Ma) as a consequence of Australia-Southeast Asia collision. Large volumes of sediment were shed into basins, which scattered offshore to the west, north and east of Borneo as well into a Neogene basin which is currently exposed in large areas of eastern and southern Sabah. In southeast Sabah, the Miocene to recent island arc terranes of the Sulu Archipelago extend onshore into Borneo with the older volcanic arc was the result of southeast dipping subduction while the younger volcanics are likely resulted from northwest dipping subduction the Celebes Sea. Before sea levels rose at the end of the last ice age, Borneo was part of the mainland of Asia, forming, with Java and Sumatra, the upland regions of a peninsula that extended east from present day Indochina. The South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand now submerge the former low-lying areas of the peninsula. Deeper waters separating Borneo from neighbouring Sulawesi prevented a land connection to that island, creating the divide known as Wallace's Line between Asian and Australia-New Guinea biological regions. The island today is surrounded by the South China Sea to the north and northwest, the Sulu Sea to the northeast, the Celebes Sea and the Makassar Strait to the east, and the Java Sea and Karimata Strait to the south. To the west of Borneo are the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. To the south and east are islands of Indonesia: Java and Sulawesi, respectively. To the northeast are the Philippine Islands. With an area of 743,330 square kilometres (287,000 sq mi), it is the third-largest island in the world, and is the largest island of Asia (the largest continent). Its highest point is Mount Kinabalu in Sabah, Malaysia, with an elevation of 4,095 m (13,435 ft). The largest river system is the Kapuas in West Kalimantan, with a length of 1,143 km (710 mi). Other major rivers include the Mahakam in East Kalimantan (980 km (610 mi) long), the Barito, Kahayan, and Mendawai in South Kalimantan (1,090 km (680 mi), 658 km (409 mi), and 616 km (383 mi) long respectively), Rajang in Sarawak (565 km (351 mi) long) and Kinabatangan in Sabah (560 km (350 mi) long). Borneo has significant cave systems. In Sarawak, the Clearwater Cave has one of the world's longest underground rivers while Deer Cave is home to over three million bats, with guano accumulated to over 100 metres (330 ft) deep. The Gomantong Caves in Sabah has been dubbed as the "Cockroach Cave" due to the presence of millions of cockroaches inside the cave. The Gunung Mulu National Park in Sarawak and Sangkulirang-Mangkalihat Karst in East Kalimantan which particularly a karst areas contains thousands of smaller caves. ### Ecology The Borneo rainforest is estimated to be around 140 million years old, making it one of the oldest rainforests in the world. The current dominant tree group, the dipterocarps, has dominated the Borneo lowland rain forests for millions of years. It is the centre of the evolution and distribution of many endemic species of plants and animals, and the rainforest is one of the few remaining natural habitats for the endangered Bornean orangutan. It is an important refuge for many endemic forest species, including the Borneo elephant, the eastern Sumatran rhinoceros, the Bornean clouded leopard, the Bornean rock frog, the hose's palm civet and the dayak fruit bat. Peat swamp forests occupy the entire coastline of Borneo. The soil of the peat swamp is comparatively infertile, while it is known to be the home of various bird species such as the hook-billed bulbul, helmeted hornbill and rhinoceros hornbill. There are about 15,000 species of flowering plants with 3,000 species of trees (267 species are dipterocarps), 221 species of terrestrial mammals and 420 species of resident birds in Borneo. There are about 440 freshwater fish species in Borneo (about the same as Sumatra and Java combined). The Borneo river shark is known only from the Kinabatangan River. In 2010, the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) stated that 123 species have been discovered in Borneo since the "Heart of Borneo" agreement was signed in 2007. The WWF has classified the island into seven distinct ecoregions. Most are lowland regions: * Borneo lowland rain forests cover most of the island, with an area of 427,500 square kilometres (165,100 sq mi). * Borneo peat swamp forests * *Kerangas* or Sundaland heath forests * Southwest Borneo freshwater swamp forests are found in the island's western and southern lowlands * Sunda Shelf mangroves * The Borneo montane rain forests lie in the central highlands of the island, above the 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) elevation. * The highest elevations of Mount Kinabalu are home to the Kinabalu montane alpine meadows, a subalpine and alpine shrubland notable for its numerous endemic species, including many orchids. According to analysis of data from Global Forest Watch, the Indonesian portion of Borneo lost 10.7 million hectares (26 million acres) of tree cover between 2002 and 2019, of which 4 million hectares (9.9 million acres) was primary forest, compared with Malaysian Borneo's 4.4 million hectares (11 million acres) of tree cover loss and 1.9 million hectares (4.7 million acres) of primary forest cover loss. As of 2020, Indonesian Borneo accounts for 72% of the island's tree cover, Malaysian Borneo 27%, and Brunei 1%. Primary forest in Indonesia accounts for 44% of Borneo's overall tree cover. #### Conservation issues The island historically had extensive rainforest cover, but the area was reduced due to heavy logging by the Indonesian and Malaysian wood industry, especially with the large demands of raw materials from industrial countries along with the conversion of forest lands for large-scale agricultural purposes. Half of the annual global tropical timber acquisition comes from Borneo. Palm oil plantations have been widely developed and are rapidly encroaching on the last remnants of primary rainforest. Forest fires since 1997, started by the locals to clear the forests for plantations were exacerbated by an exceptionally dry El Niño season, worsening the annual shrinkage of the rainforest. During these fires, hotspots were visible on satellite images and the resulting haze frequently affected Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia. The haze could also reach southern Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam and the Philippines as evidenced on the 2015 Southeast Asian haze. A 2018 study found that Bornean orangutans declined by 148,500 individuals from 1999 to 2015. ### Topography List of highest peaks in Borneo by elevation. * Mount Kinabalu 13,435 ft (4,095 m) * Mount Trusmadi 8,668 ft (2,642 m) * Raya Hill 7.474 ft (2.278 m) * Muruk Miau 6,837 ft (2,084 m) * Mount Wakid 6,778 ft (2,066 m) * Monkobo Hill 5,866 ft (1,788 m) * Mount Lotung 5,843 ft (1,781 m) * Mount Magdalena 4,288 ft (1,307 m) * Talibu Hill 4,144 ft (1,263 m) ### River systems List of longest river in Borneo by length. * Kapuas River 1,143 km (710 mi) * Barito River 1,090 km (680 mi) * Mahakam River 980 km (610 mi) * Kahayan River 658 km (409 mi) * Mendawai River 616 km (383 mi) * Kayan River 576 km (358 mi) * Rajang River 565 km (351 mi) * Kinabatangan River 560 km (350 mi) * Baram River 400 km (250 mi) * Sembakung River 352 km (219 mi) * Sesayap River 279 km (173 mi) * Pawan River 197 km (122 mi) History ------- ### Early history In November 2018, scientists reported the discovery of the oldest known figurative art painting, over 40,000 (perhaps as old as 52,000) years old, of an unknown animal, in the cave of Lubang Jeriji Saléh on the island of Borneo. According to ancient Chinese (977), Indian and Japanese manuscripts, western coastal cities of Borneo had become trading ports by the first millennium AD. In Chinese manuscripts, gold, camphor, tortoise shells, hornbill ivory, rhinoceros horn, crane crest, beeswax, lakawood (a scented heartwood and root wood of a thick liana, *Dalbergia parviflora*), dragon's blood, rattan, edible bird's nests and various spices were described as among the most valuable items from Borneo. The Indians named Borneo *Suvarnabhumi* (the land of gold) and also *Karpuradvipa* (Camphor Island). The Javanese named Borneo *Puradvipa*, or Diamond Island. Archaeological findings in the Sarawak river delta reveal that the area was a thriving centre of trade between India and China from the 6th century until about 1300. Stone pillars bearing inscriptions in the Pallava script, found in Kutai along the Mahakam River in East Kalimantan and dating to around the second half of the 4th century, constitute some of the oldest evidence of Hindu influence in Southeast Asia. By the 14th century, Borneo became a vassal state of Majapahit (in present-day Indonesia), later changing its allegiance to the Ming dynasty of China. Pre-Islamic Sulu, then known locally as Lupah Sug, stretched from Palawan and the Sulu archipelago at the Philippines; to Sabah, Eastern, and Northern Kalimantan in Borneo. The Sulu empire rose as a rebellion and reaction against former Majapahit Imperialism against Sulu which Majapahit briefly occupied. The religion of Islam entered the island in the 10th century, following the arrival of Muslim traders who later converted many indigenous peoples in the coastal areas. The Sultanate of Brunei declared independence from Majapahit following the death of the Majapahit emperor in the mid-14th century. During its golden age under Bolkiah from the 15th to the 17th century, the Bruneian sultanate ruled almost the entire coastal area of Borneo (lending its name to the island due to its influence in the region) and several islands in the Philippines. During the 1450s, Shari'ful Hashem Syed Abu Bakr, an Arab born in Johor, arrived in Sulu from Malacca. In 1457, he founded the Sultanate of Sulu; he titled himself as "Paduka Maulana Mahasari Sharif Sultan Hashem Abu Bakr". Following its independence in 1578 from Brunei's influence, Sulu began to expand its thalassocracy to parts of the northern Borneo. Both the sultanates who ruled northern Borneo had traditionally engaged in trade with China by means of the frequently-arriving Chinese junks. Despite the thalassocracy of the sultanates, Borneo's interior region remained free from the rule of any kingdoms. ### British and Dutch control Since the fall of Malacca in 1511, Portuguese merchants traded regularly with Borneo, and especially with Brunei from 1530. Having visited Brunei's capital, the Portuguese described the place as surrounded by a stone wall. While Borneo was seen as rich, the Portuguese did not make any attempts to conquer it. The Spanish had sailed from Latin America and conquered the Brunei's provinces in the Philippines and incorporated it into the Mexico-Centered Viceroyalty of New Spain. The Spanish visit to Brunei led to the Castilian War in 1578. The English began to trade with Sambas of southern Borneo in 1609, while the Dutch only began their trade in 1644: to Banjar and Martapura, also in the southern Borneo. The Dutch tried to settle the island of Balambangan, north of Borneo, in the second half of the 18th century, but withdrew by 1797. In 1812, the sultan in southern Borneo ceded his forts to the English East India Company. The English, led by Stamford Raffles, then tried to establish an intervention in Sambas but failed. Although they managed to defeat the sultanate the next year and declared a blockade on all ports in Borneo except Brunei, Banjarmasin and Pontianak, the project was cancelled by the British governor-general Lord Minto in India as it was too expensive. At the beginning of British and Dutch exploration on the island, they described the island of Borneo as full of head hunters, with the indigenous in the interior practising cannibalism, and the waters around the island infested with pirates, especially between the north eastern Borneo and the southern Philippines. The Malay and Sea Dayak pirates preyed on maritime shipping in the waters between Singapore and Hong Kong from their haven in Borneo, along with the attacks by Illanuns of the Moro pirates from the southern Philippines, such as in the Battle off Mukah. The Dutch began to intervene in the southern part of the island upon resuming contact in 1815, posting *residents* to Banjarmasin, Pontianak and Sambas and *assistant-residents* to Landak and Mampawa. The Sultanate of Brunei in 1842 granted large parts of land in Sarawak to the English adventurer James Brooke, as a reward for his help in quelling a local rebellion. Brooke established the Raj of Sarawak and was recognised as its rajah after paying a fee to the sultanate. He established a monarchy, and the Brooke dynasty (through his nephew and great-nephew) ruled Sarawak for 100 years; the leaders were known as the White Rajahs. Brooke also acquired the island of Labuan for Great Britain in 1846 through the Treaty of Labuan with the sultan of Brunei, Omar Ali Saifuddin II on 18 December 1846. The region of northern Borneo came under the administration of North Borneo Chartered Company following the acquisition of territory from the Sultanates of Brunei and Sulu by a German businessman and adventurer named Baron von Overbeck, before it was passed to the British Dent brothers (comprising Alfred Dent and Edward Dent). Further expansion by the British continued into the Borneo interior. This led the 26th sultan of Brunei, Hashim Jalilul Alam Aqamaddin to appeal the British to halt such efforts, and as a result a Treaty of Protection was signed in 1888, rendering Brunei a British protectorate. Before the acquisition by the British, the Americans also managed to establish their temporary presence in northwestern Borneo after acquiring a parcel of land from the Sultanate of Brunei. A company known as American Trading Company of Borneo was formed by Joseph William Torrey, Thomas Bradley Harris and several Chinese investors, establishing a colony named "Ellena" in the Kimanis area. The colony failed and was abandoned, due to denials of financial backing, especially by the US government, and to diseases and riots among the workers. Before Torrey left, he managed to sell the land to the German businessman, Overbeck. Meanwhile, the Germans under William Frederick Schuck were awarded a parcel of land in northeastern Borneo of the Sandakan Bay from the Sultanate of Sulu where he conducted business and exported large quantities of arms, opium, textiles and tobacco to Sulu before the land was also passed to Overbeck by the sultanate. Prior to the recognition of Spanish presence in the Philippine archipelago, a protocol known as the Madrid Protocol of 1885 was signed between the governments of the United Kingdom, Germany and Spain in Madrid to cement Spanish influence and recognise their sovereignty over the Sultanate of Sulu—in return for Spain's relinquishing its claim to the former possessions of the sultanate in northern Borneo. The British administration then established the first railway network in northern Borneo, known as the North Borneo Railway. During this time, the British sponsored a large number of Chinese workers to migrate to northern Borneo to work in European plantation and mines, and the Dutch followed suit to increase their economic production. By 1888, North Borneo, Sarawak and Brunei in northern Borneo had become British protectorate. The area in southern Borneo was made Dutch protectorate in 1891. The Dutch who already claimed the whole Borneo were asked by Britain to delimit their boundaries between the two colonial territories to avoid further conflicts. The British and Dutch governments had signed the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 to exchange trading ports in Malay Peninsula and Sumatra that were under their controls and assert spheres of influence. This resulted in indirectly establishing British- and Dutch-controlled areas in the north (Malay Peninsula) and south (Sumatra and Riau Islands) respectively. In 1895, Marcus Samuel received a concession in the Kutei area of east Borneo, and based on oil seepages in the Mahakam River delta, Mark Abrahams struck oil in February 1897. This was the discovery of the Sanga Sanga Oil Field, a refinery was built in Balikpapan, and discovery of the Samboja Oil Field followed in 1909. In 1901, the Pamusian Oil Field was discovered on Tarakan, and the Bunyu Oil Field in 1929. Royal Dutch Shell discovered the Miri Oil Field in 1910, and the Seria oil field in 1929. ### World War II During World War II, Japanese forces gained control and occupied most areas of Borneo from 1941 to 1945. In the first stage of the war, the British saw the Japanese advance to Borneo as motivated by political and territorial ambitions rather than economic factors. The occupation drove many people in the coastal towns to the interior, searching for food and escaping the Japanese. The Chinese residents in Borneo, especially with the Sino-Japanese War in Mainland China mostly resisted the Japanese occupation. Following the formation of resistance movements in northern Borneo such as the Jesselton Revolt, many innocent indigenous and Chinese people were executed by the Japanese for their alleged involvement. In Kalimantan, the Japanese also killed many Malay intellectuals, executing all the Malay sultans of West Kalimantan in the Pontianak incidents, together with Chinese people who were already against the Japanese for suspecting them to be threats. Sultan Muhammad Ibrahim Shafi ud-din II of Sambas was executed in 1944. The sultanate was thereafter suspended and replaced by a Japanese council. The Japanese also set-up *Pusat Tenaga Rakjat* (PUTERA) in the Indonesian archipelago in 1943, although it was abolished the following year when it became too nationalistic. Some of the Indonesian nationalist like Sukarno and Hatta who had returned from Dutch exile began to co-operate with the Japanese. Shortly after his release, Sukarno became president of the Central Advisory Council, an advisory council for south Borneo, Celebes, and Lesser Sunda, set up in February 1945. Since the fall of Singapore, the Japanese sent several thousand of British and Australian prisoners of war to camps in Borneo such as Batu Lintang camp. From the Sandakan camp site, only six of some 2,500 prisoners survived after they were forced to march in an event known as the Sandakan Death March. In addition, of the total of 17,488 Javanese labourers brought in by the Japanese during the occupation, only 1,500 survived mainly due to starvation, harsh working conditions and maltreatment. The Dayak and other indigenous people played a role in guerrilla warfare against the occupying forces, particularly in the Kapit Division. They temporarily revived headhunting of Japanese toward the end of the war, with Allied Z Special Unit provided assistance to them. Australia contributed significantly to the liberation of Borneo. The Australian Imperial Force was sent to Borneo to fight off the Japanese. Together with other Allies, the island was completely liberated in 1945. ### Recent history In May 1945, officials in Tokyo suggested that whether northern Borneo should be included in the proposed new country of Indonesia should be separately determined based on the desires of its indigenous people and following the disposition of Malaya. Sukarno and Mohammad Yamin meanwhile continuously advocated for a Greater Indonesian republic. Towards the end of the war, Japan decided to give an early independence to a new proposed country of Indonesia on 17 July 1945, with an Independence Committee meeting scheduled for 19 August 1945. However, following the surrender of Japan to the Allied forces, the meeting was shelved. Sukarno and Hatta continued the plan by unilaterally declaring independence, although the Dutch tried to retake their colonial possession in Borneo. The southern part of the island achieved its independence through the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence on 17 August 1945. The southern part saw guerilla conflicts followed by Dutch blockade to cut supplies for nationalist within the region. While nationalist guerrillas supporting the inclusion of southern Borneo in the new Indonesian republic were active in Ketapang, and to lesser extent in Sambas where they rallied with the red-white flag which became the flag of Indonesia, most of the Chinese residents in southern Borneo expected to be liberated by Chinese Nationalist troops from mainland China and to integrate their districts as an overseas province of China. Meanwhile, Sarawak and Sabah in northern Borneo became separate British crown colonies in 1946. In 1961, Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman of the independent Federation of Malaya desired to unite Malaya, the British colonies of Sarawak, North Borneo, Singapore and the protectorate of Brunei under the proposed Federation of Malaysia. The idea was heavily opposed by the governments in both Indonesia and the Philippines as well from communist sympathisers and nationalists in Borneo. Sukarno, as the president of the new republic, perceiving the British trying to maintain their presence in northern Borneo and the Malay Peninsula, decided to launch a military infiltration, later known as the *confrontation*, from 1962 to 1969. As a response to the growing opposition, the British deployed their armed forces to guard their colonies against Indonesian and communist revolts, which was also participated by Australia and New Zealand. The Philippines opposed the newly proposed federation, claiming the eastern part of North Borneo (today the Malaysian state of Sabah) as part of its territory as a former possession of the Sultanate of Sulu. The Philippine government mostly based their claim on the Sultanate of Sulu's cession agreement with the British North Borneo Company, as by now the sultanate had come under the jurisdiction of the Philippine republican administration, which therefore should inherit the Sulu former territories. The Philippine government also claimed that the heirs of the sultanate had ceded all their territorial rights to the republic. The Sultanate of Brunei at the first welcomed the proposal of a new larger federation. Meanwhile, the Brunei People's Party led by A.M. Azahari desired to reunify Brunei, Sarawak and North Borneo into one federation known as the North Borneo Federation (Malay: *Kesatuan Negara Kalimantan Utara*), where the sultan of Brunei would be the head of state for the federation—though Azahari had his own intention to abolish the Brunei monarchy, to make Brunei more democratic, and to integrate the territory and other former British colonies in Borneo into Indonesia, with the support from the latter government. This directly led to the Brunei Revolt, which thwarted Azahari's attempt and forced him to escape to Indonesia. Brunei withdrew from being part of the new Federation of Malaysia due to some disagreements on other issues while political leaders in Sarawak and North Borneo continued to favour inclusion in a larger federation. With the continuous opposition from Indonesia and the Philippines, the Cobbold Commission was established to discover the feeling of the native populations in northern Borneo; it found the people greatly in favour of federation, with various stipulations. The federation was successfully achieved with the inclusion of northern Borneo through the Malaysia Agreement on 16 September 1963. To this day, the area in northern Borneo is still subjected to attacks by Moro pirates since the 18th century and militant from groups such as Abu Sayyaf since 2000 in the frequent cross border attacks. During the administration of Philippine president Ferdinand Marcos, Marcos made some attempts to destabilise the state of Sabah, although his plan failed and resulted in the Jabidah massacre and later the insurgency in the southern Philippines. In August 2019, Indonesian president Joko Widodo announced a plan to move the capital of Indonesia from Jakarta to a newly established location in the East Kalimantan province in Borneo. Demographics ------------ The demonym for Borneo is **Bornean**. Borneo had 23,053,723 inhabitants (in 2020 Censuses), a population density of 30.8 inhabitants per square kilometre (80 inhabitants per square mile). Most of the population lives in coastal cities, although the hinterland has small towns and villages along the rivers. ### Territories by population, size and timezone | Country | Population | Area (km2) | Density per km2 | Province/State | Population | Area (km2) | Density per km2 | Capital | Time zone | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **Brunei**a b | 460,345(2% of the population) | 5,765 km2(1% of the land area) | 72.11/km2 | | Bandar Seri Begawan | UTC+8 | | **Indonesia** (**Kalimantan**)a | 16,544,696(72% of the population) | 539,238 km2(72% of the land area) | 30.8/km2 |  North Kalimantan | 713,622(3% of the population) | 72,275 km2(9.7% of the land area) | 9.7/km2 | Tanjung Selor | UTC+8 | |  East Kalimantan | 3,849,842(16.8% of the population) | 127,347 km2(17.1% of the land area) | 29.6/km2 | Samarinda | UTC+8 | |  South Kalimantan | 3,808,235(16.6% of the population) | 38,744 km2(5.2% of the land area) | 105.1/km2 | Banjarbaru | UTC+8 | |  Central Kalimantan | 2,702,200(11.8% of the population) | 153,565 km2(20.6% of the land area) | 17.4/km2 | Palangka Raya | UTC+7 | |  West Kalimantan | 5,470,797(23.8% of the population) | 147,307 km2(19.8% of the land area) | 36.8/km2 | Pontianak | UTC+7 | | **Malaysia** (**East Malaysia**)a | 5,967,582(25.9% of the population) | 198,447 km2(26% of the land area) | 30.7/km2 |  Sabah | 3,418,785(14.9% of the population) | 73,904 km2(9.9% of the population) | 46/km2 | Kota Kinabalu | UTC+8 | |  Sarawak | 2,453,677(10.7% of the population) | 124,450 km2(16.7% of the population) | 22/km2 | Kuching | UTC+8 | |  Labuan | 95,120(0.4% of the population) | 92 km2(0.1% of the population) | 1,000/km2 | Victoria | UTC+8 | | **Total** | 22,972,623 | 743,450 km2 | 30.9~/km2 | a May includes the offshore islands and its populations b Due to its size, Brunei is further subdivided into 4 districts (mukim), which is similar to the size of smaller administrative units in Indonesia (kecamatan) and Malaysia (daerah) ### 10 largest cities and towns in Borneo by population * Provincial/State capital * National capital | Rank | City | Population!!Country | Province/State | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | **Samarinda** | 727,500 |  Indonesia |  East Kalimantan | | 2 | **Banjarmasin** | 625,481 |  Indonesia |  South Kalimantan | | 3 | **Kuching** | 617,886 |  Malaysia |  Sarawak | | 4 | **Balikpapan** | 557,579 |  Indonesia |  East Kalimantan | | 5 | **Pontianak** | 554,764 |  Indonesia |  West Kalimantan | | 6 | **Kota Kinabalu** | 462,963 |  Malaysia |  Sabah | | 7 | **Tawau** | 412,375 |  Malaysia |  Sabah | | 8 | **Sandakan** | 409,056 |  Malaysia |  Sabah | | 9 | **Miri** | 300,543 |  Malaysia |  Sarawak | | 10 | **Bandar Seri Begawan** | 300,000 |  Brunei | | | ### Urbanisation by region | Country | Province/State | Urban-Rural Population (%) | | --- | --- | --- | | Urban | Rural | | | **Brunei** | | 78.25% | 21.75% | | **Indonesia** (**Kalimantan**) |  East Kalimantan North Kalimantanc | 68.9% | 31.1% | |  South Kalimantan | 48.4% | 51.6% | |  Central Kalimantan | 40.2% | 59.8% | |  West Kalimantan | 36.2% | 63.8% | | **Malaysia** (**East Malaysia**) |  Sabah | 54.7% | 45.3% | |  Sarawak | 57% | 43% | |  Labuan | 88.9% | 11.1% | c Data based on the projection in the former territories in East Kalimantan Province (prior to the separation of North Kalimantan in 2012) ### Major ethnicities by region | Country | Province/State | Major ethnic groupsd | | --- | --- | --- | | **Indigenous** | **Non-indigenous** | | **Brunei** | | Bisaya, Dusun, Kedayan, Malay ,Murut | Chinese | | **Indonesia** (**Kalimantan**) |  North Kalimantan | , Bulungan, Dayak (Murut, Lundayeh, Kenyah, Kayan), Tidung | Bugis, Javanese | |  East Kalimantan | Banjarese, Berau, Dayak, Kutai, Paser | Bugis, Javanese | |  South Kalimantan | Banjarese, Dayak | Bugis, Javanese, Madurese | |  Central Kalimantan | Banjarese, Dayak, Malay | Javanese, Madurese | |  West Kalimantan | Dayak, Malay | Chinese, Javanese, Madurese | | **Malaysia** (**East Malaysia**) |  Sabah | Bajau, Kadazan-Dusun, Lundayeh, Malay, Murut, Rungus, Suluk | Bugis, Chinese | |  Sarawak | Bidayuh, Iban, Malay, Melanau, Orang Ulu | Chinese | |  Labuan | Bajau, Kadazan-Dusun, Kedayan,Lundayeh, Malay, Murut | Chinese | d Based on alphabetical order ### Religion Religions based on regions| Religion in Brunei (2016)   Islam (80.9%)  Christianity (7.1%)  Buddhism (7%)  Other (5%) | Religion in Indonesian Borneo (2022)   Islam (78.29%)  Protestantism (9.29%)  Roman Catholic (9.13%)  Buddhism (2.03%)  Hinduism (1.10%)  Confucianism (0.096%)  Folk religion (0.07%) | Religion in Malaysian Borneo (2020)   Islam (51.9%)  Christianity (37.4%)  Buddhism (9.0%)  Confucianism and others (0.3%)  Hinduism (0.1%)  No religion (1.3%) | Administration -------------- The island of Borneo is divided administratively by three countries. * The independent sultanate of Brunei (main part and eastern exclave of Temburong) * The Indonesian provinces of East, South, West, North and Central Kalimantan, in Kalimantan * The East Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak, as well as the Federal Territory of Labuan (on offshore islands nearby) Economy ------- Borneo's economy depends mainly on agriculture, logging and mining, oil and gas, and ecotourism. Brunei's economy is highly dependent on the oil and gas production sector, and the country has become one of the largest oil producers in Southeast Asia. The Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak are both top exporters of timber. Sabah is also known as the agricultural producer of rubber, cacao, and vegetables, and for its fisheries, while Sabah, Sarawak and Labuan export liquefied natural gas (LNG) and petroleum. The Indonesian provinces of Kalimantan are mostly dependent on mining sectors despite also being involved in logging and oil and gas explorations. ### List of territories by GDP/GRP | Country | Province/State | GDP Nominal | GDP/GRP per capita | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | **Brunei** | | US$ 14.1 billion | US$ 42,939 | | **Indonesia** (**Kalimantan**) |  North Kalimantan | US$ 9.34 billion | US$ 12,837 | |  East Kalimantan | US$ 62.05 billion | US$ 16,075 | |  South Kalimantan | US$ 16.92 billion | US$ 4,046 | |  Central Kalimantan | US$ 13.47 billion | US$ 4,913 | |  West Kalimantan | US$ 17.23 billion | US$ 3,109 | | **Malaysia** (**East Malaysia**) |  Sabah | US$ 22.74 billion | US$ 6,654 | |  Sarawak | US$ 36.19 billion | US$ 14,653 | |  Labuan | US$ 1.36 billion | US$ 18,068 | Human Development Index by territory ------------------------------------ **HDI** is a statistic of combined indicators that takes into account life expectancy, health, education and per-capita income. | Country | Province/State | HDI score | Country comparison | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | **Brunei** | | 0.829 (2022) |  Kuwait (0.831) | | **Indonesia** (**Kalimantan**) |  North Kalimantan | 0.718 (2022) |  Paraguay (0.717) | |  East Kalimantan | 0.774 (2022) |  Iran (0.774) | |  South Kalimantan | 0.718 (2022) |  Paraguay (0.717) | |  Central Kalimantan | 0.716 (2022) |  Paraguay (0.717) | |  West Kalimantan | 0.686 (2022) |  Iraq (0.686) | | **Malaysia** (**East Malaysia**) |  Sabah | 0.702 (2021) |  Vietnam (0.703) | |  Sarawak | 0.737 (2021) |  Mongolia (0.739) | |  Labuan | 0.777 (2021) |  Saint Kitts and Nevis (0.777) | See also -------- * Hikayat Banjar * Kutai basin * List of islands of Indonesia * List of islands of Malaysia * Maphilindo * List of bats of Borneo Further reading --------------- * L. W. W Gudgeon; Allan Stewart (1913), *British North Borneo / by L. W. W. Gudgeon ; with twelve full-page illustrations in colour by Allan Stewart*, Adam and Charles Black * Redmond O'Hanlon (1984). *Into the Heart of Borneo: An Account of a Journey Made in 1983 to the Mountains of Batu Tiban with James Fenton*. Salamander Press. ISBN 978-0-9075-4055-7. * Eric Hansen (1988). *Stranger in the Forest: On Foot Across Borneo*. Century. ISBN 978-0-7126-1158-9. * Gordon Barclay Corbet; John Edwards Hill (1992). *The mammals of the Indomalayan Region: a systematic review*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-854693-1. * Robert Young Pelton (1995). *Fielding's Borneo*. Fielding Worldwide. ISBN 978-1-5695-2026-0. * Ghazally Ismail (1996–2001). *A Scientific Journey Through Borneo*. Kota Samarahan: Universiti Malaysia Sarawak. * K. M. Wong; Chew Lun Chan (1997). *Mount Kinabalu: Borneo's Magic Mountain: An Introduction to the Natural History of One of the World's Great Natural Monuments*. Kota Kinabalu: Natural History Publications. ISBN 978-983-812-014-2. * Dennis Lau (1999). *Borneo: a photographic journey*. Travelcom Asia. ISBN 978-983-99431-1-5. * John Wassner (2001). *Espresso with the Headhunters: A Journey Through the Jungles of Borneo*. Summersdale. ISBN 978-1-84024-137-2. * Less S. Hall; Greg Richards; Mohamad Tajuddin Abdullah (2002), "The bats of Niah National Park, Sarawak", *The Sarawak Museum Journal* * Mohd Azlan J.; Ibnu Martono; Agus P. Kartono; Mohamad Tajuddin Abdullah (2003), "Diversity, Relative Abundance and Conservation of Chiropterans in Kayan Mentarang National Park, East Kalimantan, Indonesia", *The Sarawak Museum Journal* * Mohd Tajuddin Abdullah (2003), *Biogeography and variation of Cynopterus brachyotis in Southeast Asia* (PhD thesis ed.), Brisbane: University of Queensland * Catherine Karim; Andrew Alek Tuen; Mohamad Tajuddin Abdullah (2004), "Mammals", *The Sarawak Museum Journal* * Less S. Hall; Gordon G. Grigg; Craig Moritz; Besar Ketol; Isa Sait; Wahab Marni; M.T. Abdullah (2004), "Biogeography of fruit bats in Southeast Asia", *The Sarawak Museum Journal* * Stephen Holley (2004). *A White Headhunter in Borneo*. Kota Kinabalu: Natural History Publications. ISBN 978-983-812-081-4. * *Wild Borneo: The Wildlife and Scenery of Sabah, Sarawak, Brunei, and Kalimantan*. New Holland Publishers. 2006. ISBN 978-1-84537-378-8. * Mel White (November 2008), *Borneo's Moment of Truth*, National Geographic * Anton Willem Nieuwenhuis (2009). *Quer durch Borneo* (in Dutch). BoD – Books on Demand. ISBN 978-3-86195-028-8. * G. W. H. Davison (2010). *A Photographic Guide to Birds of Borneo: Sabah, Sarawak, Brunei and Kalimantan*. New Holland. ISBN 978-1-84773-828-8. * John Mathai (2010), *Hose's Civet: Borneo's mysterious carnivore*, Nature Watch 18/4: 2–8 * John Mathai; Jason Hon; Ngumbang Juat; Amanda Peter; Melvin Gumal (2010), *Small carnivores in a logging concession in the Upper Baram, Sarawak, Borneo*, Small Carnivore Conservation 42: 1–9 * Charles M. Francis (2013). *A Photographic Guide to Mammals of South-East Asia*. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. ISBN 978-1-84773-531-7.

Borneo

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borneo

**Diamond** is a solid form of the element carbon with its atoms arranged in a crystal structure called diamond cubic. Another solid form of carbon known as graphite is the chemically stable form of carbon at room temperature and pressure, but diamond is metastable and converts to it at a negligible rate under those conditions. Diamond has the highest hardness and thermal conductivity of any natural material, properties that are used in major industrial applications such as cutting and polishing tools. They are also the reason that diamond anvil cells can subject materials to pressures found deep in the Earth. Because the arrangement of atoms in diamond is extremely rigid, few types of impurity can contaminate it (two exceptions are boron and nitrogen). Small numbers of defects or impurities (about one per million of lattice atoms) color diamond blue (boron), yellow (nitrogen), brown (defects), green (radiation exposure), purple, pink, orange, or red. Diamond also has a very high refractive index and a relatively high optical dispersion. Most natural diamonds have ages between 1 billion and 3.5 billion years. Most were formed at depths between 150 and 250 kilometres (93 and 155 mi) in the Earth's mantle, although a few have come from as deep as 800 kilometres (500 mi). Under high pressure and temperature, carbon-containing fluids dissolved various minerals and replaced them with diamonds. Much more recently (hundreds to tens of million years ago), they were carried to the surface in volcanic eruptions and deposited in igneous rocks known as kimberlites and lamproites. Synthetic diamonds can be grown from high-purity carbon under high pressures and temperatures or from hydrocarbon gases by chemical vapor deposition (CVD). Imitation diamonds can also be made out of materials such as cubic zirconia and silicon carbide. Natural, synthetic and imitation diamonds are most commonly distinguished using optical techniques or thermal conductivity measurements. Properties ---------- Diamond is a solid form of pure carbon with its atoms arranged in a crystal. Solid carbon comes in different forms known as allotropes depending on the type of chemical bond. The two most common allotropes of pure carbon are diamond and graphite. In graphite the bonds are sp2 orbital hybrids and the atoms form in planes, with each bound to three nearest neighbors 120 degrees apart. In diamond they are sp3 and the atoms form tetrahedra with each bound to four nearest neighbors. Tetrahedra are rigid, the bonds are strong, and of all known substances diamond has the greatest number of atoms per unit volume, which is why it is both the hardest and the least compressible. It also has a high density, ranging from 3150 to 3530 kilograms per cubic metre (over three times the density of water) in natural diamonds and 3520 kg/m3 in pure diamond. In graphite, the bonds between nearest neighbors are even stronger, but the bonds between parallel adjacent planes are weak, so the planes easily slip past each other. Thus, graphite is much softer than diamond. However, the stronger bonds make graphite less flammable. Diamonds have been adopted for many uses because of the material's exceptional physical characteristics. It has the highest thermal conductivity and the highest sound velocity. It has low adhesion and friction, and its coefficient of thermal expansion is extremely low. Its optical transparency extends from the far infrared to the deep ultraviolet and it has high optical dispersion. It also has high electrical resistance. It is chemically inert, not reacting with most corrosive substances, and has excellent biological compatibility. ### Thermodynamics The equilibrium pressure and temperature conditions for a transition between graphite and diamond are well established theoretically and experimentally. The equilibrium pressure varies linearly with temperature, between 1.7 GPa at 0 K and 12 GPa at 5000 K (the diamond/graphite/liquid triple point). However, the phases have a wide region about this line where they can coexist. At normal temperature and pressure, 20 °C (293 K) and 1 standard atmosphere (0.10 MPa), the stable phase of carbon is graphite, but diamond is metastable and its rate of conversion to graphite is negligible. However, at temperatures above about 4500 K, diamond rapidly converts to graphite. Rapid conversion of graphite to diamond requires pressures well above the equilibrium line: at 2000 K, a pressure of 35 GPa is needed. Above the graphite-diamond-liquid carbon triple point, the melting point of diamond increases slowly with increasing pressure; but at pressures of hundreds of GPa, it decreases. At high pressures, silicon and germanium have a BC8 body-centered cubic crystal structure, and a similar structure is predicted for carbon at high pressures. At 0 K, the transition is predicted to occur at 1100 GPa. Research results published in an article in the scientific journal *Nature Physics* in 2010 suggest that at ultrahigh pressures and temperatures (about 10 million atmospheres or 1 TPa and 50,000 °C) diamond melts into a metallic fluid. The extreme conditions required for this to occur are present in the ice giants Neptune and Uranus. Both planets are made up of approximately 10 percent carbon and could hypothetically contain oceans of liquid carbon. Since large quantities of metallic fluid can affect the magnetic field, this could serve as an explanation as to why the geographic and magnetic poles of the two planets are unaligned. ### Crystal structure The most common crystal structure of diamond is called diamond cubic. It is formed of unit cells (see the figure) stacked together. Although there are 18 atoms in the figure, each corner atom is shared by eight unit cells and each atom in the center of a face is shared by two, so there are a total of eight atoms per unit cell. The length of each side of the unit cell is denoted by *a* and is 3.567 angstroms. The nearest neighbour distance in the diamond lattice is 1.732*a*/4 where *a* is the lattice constant, usually given in Angstrøms as *a* = 3.567 Å, which is 0.3567 nm. A diamond cubic lattice can be thought of as two interpenetrating face-centered cubic lattices with one displaced by 1⁄4 of the diagonal along a cubic cell, or as one lattice with two atoms associated with each lattice point. Viewed from a <1 1 1> crystallographic direction, it is formed of layers stacked in a repeating ABCABC ... pattern. Diamonds can also form an ABAB ... structure, which is known as hexagonal diamond or lonsdaleite, but this is far less common and is formed under different conditions from cubic carbon. ### Crystal habit Diamonds occur most often as euhedral or rounded octahedra and twinned octahedra known as *macles*. As diamond's crystal structure has a cubic arrangement of the atoms, they have many facets that belong to a cube, octahedron, rhombicosidodecahedron, tetrakis hexahedron, or disdyakis dodecahedron. The crystals can have rounded-off and unexpressive edges and can be elongated. Diamonds (especially those with rounded crystal faces) are commonly found coated in *nyf*, an opaque gum-like skin. Some diamonds contain opaque fibers. They are referred to as *opaque* if the fibers grow from a clear substrate or *fibrous* if they occupy the entire crystal. Their colors range from yellow to green or gray, sometimes with cloud-like white to gray impurities. Their most common shape is cuboidal, but they can also form octahedra, dodecahedra, macles, or combined shapes. The structure is the result of numerous impurities with sizes between 1 and 5 microns. These diamonds probably formed in kimberlite magma and sampled the volatiles. Diamonds can also form polycrystalline aggregates. There have been attempts to classify them into groups with names such as boart, ballas, stewartite, and framesite, but there is no widely accepted set of criteria. Carbonado, a type in which the diamond grains were sintered (fused without melting by the application of heat and pressure), is black in color and tougher than single crystal diamond. It has never been observed in a volcanic rock. There are many theories for its origin, including formation in a star, but no consensus. ### Mechanical #### Hardness Diamond is the hardest known natural material on both the Vickers scale and the Mohs scale. Diamond's great hardness relative to other materials has been known since antiquity, and is the source of its name. This does not mean that it is infinitely hard, indestructible, or unscratchable. Indeed, diamonds can be scratched by other diamonds and worn down over time even by softer materials, such as vinyl phonograph records. Diamond hardness depends on its purity, crystalline perfection, and orientation: hardness is higher for flawless, pure crystals oriented to the <111> direction (along the longest diagonal of the cubic diamond lattice). Therefore, whereas it might be possible to scratch some diamonds with other materials, such as boron nitride, the hardest diamonds can only be scratched by other diamonds and nanocrystalline diamond aggregates. The hardness of diamond contributes to its suitability as a gemstone. Because it can only be scratched by other diamonds, it maintains its polish extremely well. Unlike many other gems, it is well-suited to daily wear because of its resistance to scratching—perhaps contributing to its popularity as the preferred gem in engagement or wedding rings, which are often worn every day. The hardest natural diamonds mostly originate from the Copeton and Bingara fields located in the New England area in New South Wales, Australia. These diamonds are generally small, perfect to semiperfect octahedra, and are used to polish other diamonds. Their hardness is associated with the crystal growth form, which is single-stage crystal growth. Most other diamonds show more evidence of multiple growth stages, which produce inclusions, flaws, and defect planes in the crystal lattice, all of which affect their hardness. It is possible to treat regular diamonds under a combination of high pressure and high temperature to produce diamonds that are harder than the diamonds used in hardness gauges. Diamonds cut glass, but this does not positively identify a diamond because other materials, such as quartz, also lie above glass on the Mohs scale and can also cut it. Diamonds can scratch other diamonds, but this can result in damage to one or both stones. Hardness tests are infrequently used in practical gemology because of their potentially destructive nature. The extreme hardness and high value of diamond means that gems are typically polished slowly, using painstaking traditional techniques and greater attention to detail than is the case with most other gemstones; these tend to result in extremely flat, highly polished facets with exceptionally sharp facet edges. Diamonds also possess an extremely high refractive index and fairly high dispersion. Taken together, these factors affect the overall appearance of a polished diamond and most diamantaires still rely upon skilled use of a loupe (magnifying glass) to identify diamonds "by eye". #### Toughness Somewhat related to hardness is another mechanical property *toughness*, which is a material's ability to resist breakage from forceful impact. The toughness of natural diamond has been measured as 7.5–10 MPa·m1/2. This value is good compared to other ceramic materials, but poor compared to most engineering materials such as engineering alloys, which typically exhibit toughnesses over 100 MPa·m1/2. As with any material, the macroscopic geometry of a diamond contributes to its resistance to breakage. Diamond has a cleavage plane and is therefore more fragile in some orientations than others. Diamond cutters use this attribute to cleave some stones, prior to faceting. "Impact toughness" is one of the main indexes to measure the quality of synthetic industrial diamonds. #### Yield strength Diamond has compressive yield strength of 130–140 GPa. This exceptionally high value, along with the hardness and transparency of diamond, are the reasons that diamond anvil cells are the main tool for high pressure experiments. These anvils have reached pressures of 600 GPa. Much higher pressures may be possible with nanocrystalline diamonds. #### Elasticity and tensile strength Usually, attempting to deform bulk diamond crystal by tension or bending results in brittle fracture. However, when single crystalline diamond is in the form of micro/nanoscale wires or needles (~100–300 nanometers in diameter, micrometers long), they can be elastically stretched by as much as 9-10 percent tensile strain without failure, with a maximum local tensile stress of ~89 to 98 GPa, very close to the theoretical limit for this material. ### Electrical conductivity Other specialized applications also exist or are being developed, including use as semiconductors: some blue diamonds are natural semiconductors, in contrast to most diamonds, which are excellent electrical insulators. The conductivity and blue color originate from boron impurity. Boron substitutes for carbon atoms in the diamond lattice, donating a hole into the valence band. Substantial conductivity is commonly observed in nominally undoped diamond grown by chemical vapor deposition. This conductivity is associated with hydrogen-related species adsorbed at the surface, and it can be removed by annealing or other surface treatments. Thin needles of diamond can be made to vary their electronic band gap from the normal 5.6 eV to near zero by selective mechanical deformation. High-purity diamond wafers 5 cm in diameter exhibit perfect resistance in one direction and perfect conductance in the other, creating the possibility of using them for quantum data storage. The material contains only 3 parts per million of nitrogen. The diamond was grown on a stepped substrate, which eliminated cracking. ### Surface property Diamonds are naturally lipophilic and hydrophobic, which means the diamonds' surface cannot be wet by water, but can be easily wet and stuck by oil. This property can be utilized to extract diamonds using oil when making synthetic diamonds. However, when diamond surfaces are chemically modified with certain ions, they are expected to become so hydrophilic that they can stabilize multiple layers of water ice at human body temperature. The surface of diamonds is partially oxidized. The oxidized surface can be reduced by heat treatment under hydrogen flow. That is to say, this heat treatment partially removes oxygen-containing functional groups. But diamonds (sp3C) are unstable against high temperature (above about 400 °C (752 °F)) under atmospheric pressure. The structure gradually changes into sp2C above this temperature. Thus, diamonds should be reduced below this temperature. ### Chemical stability At room temperature, diamonds do not react with any chemical reagents including strong acids and bases. In an atmosphere of pure oxygen, diamond has an ignition point that ranges from 690 °C (1,274 °F) to 840 °C (1,540 °F); smaller crystals tend to burn more easily. It increases in temperature from red to white heat and burns with a pale blue flame, and continues to burn after the source of heat is removed. By contrast, in air the combustion will cease as soon as the heat is removed because the oxygen is diluted with nitrogen. A clear, flawless, transparent diamond is completely converted to carbon dioxide; any impurities will be left as ash. Heat generated from cutting a diamond will not ignite the diamond, and neither will a cigarette lighter, but house fires and blow torches are hot enough. Jewelers must be careful when molding the metal in a diamond ring. Diamond powder of an appropriate grain size (around 50 microns) burns with a shower of sparks after ignition from a flame. Consequently, pyrotechnic compositions based on synthetic diamond powder can be prepared. The resulting sparks are of the usual red-orange color, comparable to charcoal, but show a very linear trajectory which is explained by their high density. Diamond also reacts with fluorine gas above about 700 °C (1,292 °F). ### Color Diamond has a wide band gap of 5.5 eV corresponding to the deep ultraviolet wavelength of 225 nanometers. This means that pure diamond should transmit visible light and appear as a clear colorless crystal. Colors in diamond originate from lattice defects and impurities. The diamond crystal lattice is exceptionally strong, and only atoms of nitrogen, boron, and hydrogen can be introduced into diamond during the growth at significant concentrations (up to atomic percents). Transition metals nickel and cobalt, which are commonly used for growth of synthetic diamond by high-pressure high-temperature techniques, have been detected in diamond as individual atoms; the maximum concentration is 0.01% for nickel and even less for cobalt. Virtually any element can be introduced to diamond by ion implantation. Nitrogen is by far the most common impurity found in gem diamonds and is responsible for the yellow and brown color in diamonds. Boron is responsible for the blue color. Color in diamond has two additional sources: irradiation (usually by alpha particles), that causes the color in green diamonds, and plastic deformation of the diamond crystal lattice. Plastic deformation is the cause of color in some brown and perhaps pink and red diamonds. In order of increasing rarity, yellow diamond is followed by brown, colorless, then by blue, green, black, pink, orange, purple, and red. "Black", or carbonado, diamonds are not truly black, but rather contain numerous dark inclusions that give the gems their dark appearance. Colored diamonds contain impurities or structural defects that cause the coloration, while pure or nearly pure diamonds are transparent and colorless. Most diamond impurities replace a carbon atom in the crystal lattice, known as a carbon flaw. The most common impurity, nitrogen, causes a slight to intense yellow coloration depending upon the type and concentration of nitrogen present. The Gemological Institute of America (GIA) classifies low saturation yellow and brown diamonds as diamonds in the *normal color range*, and applies a grading scale from "D" (colorless) to "Z" (light yellow). Yellow diamonds of high color saturation or a different color, such as pink or blue, are called *fancy colored* diamonds and fall under a different grading scale. In 2008, the Wittelsbach Diamond, a 35.56-carat (7.112 g) blue diamond once belonging to the King of Spain, fetched over US$24 million at a Christie's auction. In May 2009, a 7.03-carat (1.406 g) blue diamond fetched the highest price per carat ever paid for a diamond when it was sold at auction for 10.5 million Swiss francs (6.97 million euros, or US$9.5 million at the time). That record was, however, beaten the same year: a 5-carat (1.0 g) vivid pink diamond was sold for $10.8 million in Hong Kong on December 1, 2009. ### Clarity Clarity is one of the 4C's (color, clarity, cut and carat weight) that helps in identifying the quality of diamonds. The Gemological Institute of America (GIA) developed 11 clarity scales to decide the quality of a diamond for its sale value. The GIA clarity scale spans from Flawless (FL) to included (I) having internally flawless (IF), very, very slightly included (VVS), very slightly included (VS) and slightly included (SI) in between. Impurities in natural diamonds are due to the presence of natural minerals and oxides. The clarity scale grades the diamond based on the color, size, location of impurity and quantity of clarity visible under 10x magnification. Inclusions in diamond can be extracted by optical methods. The process is to take pre-enhancement images, identifying the inclusion removal part and finally removing the diamond facets and noises. ### Fluorescence Between 25% and 35% of natural diamonds exhibit some degree of fluorescence when examined under invisible long-wave ultraviolet light or higher energy radiation sources such as X-rays and lasers. Incandescent lighting will not cause a diamond to fluoresce. Diamonds can fluoresce in a variety of colours including blue (most common), orange, yellow, white, green and very rarely red and purple. Although the causes are not well understood, variations in the atomic structure, such as the number of nitrogen atoms present are thought to contribute to the phenomenon. ### Thermal conductivity Diamonds can be identified by their high thermal conductivity (900–2320 W·m−1·K−1). Their high refractive index is also indicative, but other materials have similar refractivity. Geology ------- Diamonds are extremely rare, with concentrations of at most parts per billion in source rock. Before the 20th century, most diamonds were found in alluvial deposits. Loose diamonds are also found along existing and ancient shorelines, where they tend to accumulate because of their size and density. Rarely, they have been found in glacial till (notably in Wisconsin and Indiana), but these deposits are not of commercial quality. These types of deposit were derived from localized igneous intrusions through weathering and transport by wind or water. Most diamonds come from the Earth's mantle, and most of this section discusses those diamonds. However, there are other sources. Some blocks of the crust, or terranes, have been buried deep enough as the crust thickened so they experienced ultra-high-pressure metamorphism. These have evenly distributed *microdiamonds* that show no sign of transport by magma. In addition, when meteorites strike the ground, the shock wave can produce high enough temperatures and pressures for *microdiamonds* and *nanodiamonds* to form. Impact-type microdiamonds can be used as an indicator of ancient impact craters. Popigai impact structure in Russia may have the world's largest diamond deposit, estimated at trillions of carats, and formed by an asteroid impact. A common misconception is that diamonds form from highly compressed coal. Coal is formed from buried prehistoric plants, and most diamonds that have been dated are far older than the first land plants. It is possible that diamonds can form from coal in subduction zones, but diamonds formed in this way are rare, and the carbon source is more likely carbonate rocks and organic carbon in sediments, rather than coal. ### Surface distribution Diamonds are far from evenly distributed over the Earth. A rule of thumb known as Clifford's rule states that they are almost always found in kimberlites on the oldest part of cratons, the stable cores of continents with typical ages of 2.5 billion years or more. However, there are exceptions. The Argyle diamond mine in Australia, the largest producer of diamonds by weight in the world, is located in a *mobile belt*, also known as an *orogenic belt*, a weaker zone surrounding the central craton that has undergone compressional tectonics. Instead of kimberlite, the host rock is lamproite. Lamproites with diamonds that are not economically viable are also found in the United States, India, and Australia. In addition, diamonds in the Wawa belt of the Superior province in Canada and microdiamonds in the island arc of Japan are found in a type of rock called lamprophyre. Kimberlites can be found in narrow (1 to 4 meters) dikes and sills, and in pipes with diameters that range from about 75 m to 1.5 km. Fresh rock is dark bluish green to greenish gray, but after exposure rapidly turns brown and crumbles. It is hybrid rock with a chaotic mixture of small minerals and rock fragments (clasts) up to the size of watermelons. They are a mixture of xenocrysts and xenoliths (minerals and rocks carried up from the lower crust and mantle), pieces of surface rock, altered minerals such as serpentine, and new minerals that crystallized during the eruption. The texture varies with depth. The composition forms a continuum with carbonatites, but the latter have too much oxygen for carbon to exist in a pure form. Instead, it is locked up in the mineral calcite (CaCO 3). All three of the diamond-bearing rocks (kimberlite, lamproite and lamprophyre) lack certain minerals (melilite and kalsilite) that are incompatible with diamond formation. In kimberlite, olivine is large and conspicuous, while lamproite has Ti-phlogopite and lamprophyre has biotite and amphibole. They are all derived from magma types that erupt rapidly from small amounts of melt, are rich in volatiles and magnesium oxide, and are less oxidizing than more common mantle melts such as basalt. These characteristics allow the melts to carry diamonds to the surface before they dissolve. ### Exploration Kimberlite pipes can be difficult to find. They weather quickly (within a few years after exposure) and tend to have lower topographic relief than surrounding rock. If they are visible in outcrops, the diamonds are never visible because they are so rare. In any case, kimberlites are often covered with vegetation, sediments, soils, or lakes. In modern searches, geophysical methods such as aeromagnetic surveys, electrical resistivity, and gravimetry, help identify promising regions to explore. This is aided by isotopic dating and modeling of the geological history. Then surveyors must go to the area and collect samples, looking for kimberlite fragments or *indicator minerals*. The latter have compositions that reflect the conditions where diamonds form, such as extreme melt depletion or high pressures in eclogites. However, indicator minerals can be misleading; a better approach is geothermobarometry, where the compositions of minerals are analyzed as if they were in equilibrium with mantle minerals. Finding kimberlites requires persistence, and only a small fraction contain diamonds that are commercially viable. The only major discoveries since about 1980 have been in Canada. Since existing mines have lifetimes of as little as 25 years, there could be a shortage of new diamonds in the future. ### Ages Diamonds are dated by analyzing inclusions using the decay of radioactive isotopes. Depending on the elemental abundances, one can look at the decay of rubidium to strontium, samarium to neodymium, uranium to lead, argon-40 to argon-39, or rhenium to osmium. Those found in kimberlites have ages ranging from 1 to 3.5 billion years, and there can be multiple ages in the same kimberlite, indicating multiple episodes of diamond formation. The kimberlites themselves are much younger. Most of them have ages between tens of millions and 300 million years old, although there are some older exceptions (Argyle, Premier and Wawa). Thus, the kimberlites formed independently of the diamonds and served only to transport them to the surface. Kimberlites are also much younger than the cratons they have erupted through. The reason for the lack of older kimberlites is unknown, but it suggests there was some change in mantle chemistry or tectonics. No kimberlite has erupted in human history. ### Origin in mantle Most gem-quality diamonds come from depths of 150–250 km in the lithosphere. Such depths occur below cratons in *mantle keels*, the thickest part of the lithosphere. These regions have high enough pressure and temperature to allow diamonds to form and they are not convecting, so diamonds can be stored for billions of years until a kimberlite eruption samples them. Host rocks in a mantle keel include harzburgite and lherzolite, two type of peridotite. The most dominant rock type in the upper mantle, peridotite is an igneous rock consisting mostly of the minerals olivine and pyroxene; it is low in silica and high in magnesium. However, diamonds in peridotite rarely survive the trip to the surface. Another common source that does keep diamonds intact is eclogite, a metamorphic rock that typically forms from basalt as an oceanic plate plunges into the mantle at a subduction zone. A smaller fraction of diamonds (about 150 have been studied) come from depths of 330–660 km, a region that includes the transition zone. They formed in eclogite but are distinguished from diamonds of shallower origin by inclusions of majorite (a form of garnet with excess silicon). A similar proportion of diamonds comes from the lower mantle at depths between 660 and 800 km. Diamond is thermodynamically stable at high pressures and temperatures, with the phase transition from graphite occurring at greater temperatures as the pressure increases. Thus, underneath continents it becomes stable at temperatures of 950 degrees Celsius and pressures of 4.5 gigapascals, corresponding to depths of 150 kilometers or greater. In subduction zones, which are colder, it becomes stable at temperatures of 800 °C and pressures of 3.5 gigapascals. At depths greater than 240 km, iron-nickel metal phases are present and carbon is likely to be either dissolved in them or in the form of carbides. Thus, the deeper origin of some diamonds may reflect unusual growth environments. In 2018 the first known natural samples of a phase of ice called Ice VII were found as inclusions in diamond samples. The inclusions formed at depths between 400 and 800 km, straddling the upper and lower mantle, and provide evidence for water-rich fluid at these depths. ### Carbon sources The mantle has roughly one billion gigatonnes of carbon (for comparison, the atmosphere-ocean system has about 44,000 gigatonnes). Carbon has two stable isotopes, 12C and 13C, in a ratio of approximately 99:1 by mass. This ratio has a wide range in meteorites, which implies that it also varied a lot in the early Earth. It can also be altered by surface processes like photosynthesis. The fraction is generally compared to a standard sample using a ratio δ13C expressed in parts per thousand. Common rocks from the mantle such as basalts, carbonatites, and kimberlites have ratios between −8 and −2. On the surface, organic sediments have an average of −25 while carbonates have an average of 0. Populations of diamonds from different sources have distributions of δ13C that vary markedly. Peridotitic diamonds are mostly within the typical mantle range; eclogitic diamonds have values from −40 to +3, although the peak of the distribution is in the mantle range. This variability implies that they are not formed from carbon that is *primordial* (having resided in the mantle since the Earth formed). Instead, they are the result of tectonic processes, although (given the ages of diamonds) not necessarily the same tectonic processes that act in the present. ### Formation and growth Diamonds in the mantle form through a *metasomatic* process where a C-O-H-N-S fluid or melt dissolves minerals in a rock and replaces them with new minerals. (The vague term C-O-H-N-S is commonly used because the exact composition is not known.) Diamonds form from this fluid either by reduction of oxidized carbon (e.g., CO2 or CO3) or oxidation of a reduced phase such as methane. Using probes such as polarized light, photoluminescence, and cathodoluminescence, a series of growth zones can be identified in diamonds. The characteristic pattern in diamonds from the lithosphere involves a nearly concentric series of zones with very thin oscillations in luminescence and alternating episodes where the carbon is resorbed by the fluid and then grown again. Diamonds from below the lithosphere have a more irregular, almost polycrystalline texture, reflecting the higher temperatures and pressures as well as the transport of the diamonds by convection. ### Transport to the surface Geological evidence supports a model in which kimberlite magma rises at 4–20 meters per second, creating an upward path by hydraulic fracturing of the rock. As the pressure decreases, a vapor phase exsolves from the magma, and this helps to keep the magma fluid. At the surface, the initial eruption explodes out through fissures at high speeds (over 200 m/s (450 mph)). Then, at lower pressures, the rock is eroded, forming a pipe and producing fragmented rock (breccia). As the eruption wanes, there is pyroclastic phase and then metamorphism and hydration produces serpentinites. ### Double diamonds In rare cases, diamonds have been found that contain a cavity within which is a second diamond. The first double diamond, the Matryoshka, was found by Alrosa in Yakutia, Russia, in 2019. Another one was found in the Ellendale Diamond Field in Western Australia in 2021. ### In space Although diamonds on Earth are rare, they are very common in space. In meteorites, about three percent of the carbon is in the form of nanodiamonds, having diameters of a few nanometers. Sufficiently small diamonds can form in the cold of space because their lower surface energy makes them more stable than graphite. The isotopic signatures of some nanodiamonds indicate they were formed outside the Solar System in stars. High pressure experiments predict that large quantities of diamonds condense from methane into a "diamond rain" on the ice giant planets Uranus and Neptune. Some extrasolar planets may be almost entirely composed of diamond. Diamonds may exist in carbon-rich stars, particularly white dwarfs. One theory for the origin of carbonado, the toughest form of diamond, is that it originated in a white dwarf or supernova. Diamonds formed in stars may have been the first minerals. Industry -------- A clear faceted gem supported in four clamps attached to a wedding ringA round brilliant cut diamond set in a ring The most familiar uses of diamonds today are as gemstones used for adornment, and as industrial abrasives for cutting hard materials. The markets for gem-grade and industrial-grade diamonds value diamonds differently. ### Gem-grade diamonds The dispersion of white light into spectral colors is the primary gemological characteristic of gem diamonds. In the 20th century, experts in gemology developed methods of grading diamonds and other gemstones based on the characteristics most important to their value as a gem. Four characteristics, known informally as the *four Cs*, are now commonly used as the basic descriptors of diamonds: these are its mass in *carats* (a carat being equal to 0.2 grams), *cut* (quality of the cut is graded according to proportions, symmetry and polish), *color* (how close to white or colorless; for fancy diamonds how intense is its hue), and *clarity* (how free is it from inclusions). A large, flawless diamond is known as a paragon. A large trade in gem-grade diamonds exists. Although most gem-grade diamonds are sold newly polished, there is a well-established market for resale of polished diamonds (e.g. pawnbroking, auctions, second-hand jewelry stores, diamantaires, bourses, etc.). One hallmark of the trade in gem-quality diamonds is its remarkable concentration: wholesale trade and diamond cutting is limited to just a few locations; in 2003, 92% of the world's diamonds were cut and polished in Surat, India. Other important centers of diamond cutting and trading are the Antwerp diamond district in Belgium, where the International Gemological Institute is based, London, the Diamond District in New York City, the Diamond Exchange District in Tel Aviv and Amsterdam. One contributory factor is the geological nature of diamond deposits: several large primary kimberlite-pipe mines each account for significant portions of market share (such as the Jwaneng mine in Botswana, which is a single large-pit mine that can produce between 12,500,000 and 15,000,000 carats (2,500 and 3,000 kg) of diamonds per year). Secondary alluvial diamond deposits, on the other hand, tend to be fragmented amongst many different operators because they can be dispersed over many hundreds of square kilometers (e.g., alluvial deposits in Brazil). The production and distribution of diamonds is largely consolidated in the hands of a few key players, and concentrated in traditional diamond trading centers, the most important being Antwerp, where 80% of all rough diamonds, 50% of all cut diamonds and more than 50% of all rough, cut and industrial diamonds combined are handled. This makes Antwerp a de facto "world diamond capital". The city of Antwerp also hosts the Antwerpsche Diamantkring, created in 1929 to become the first and biggest diamond bourse dedicated to rough diamonds. Another important diamond center is New York City, where almost 80% of the world's diamonds are sold, including auction sales. The De Beers company, as the world's largest diamond mining company, holds a dominant position in the industry, and has done so since soon after its founding in 1888 by the British businessman Cecil Rhodes. De Beers is currently the world's largest operator of diamond production facilities (mines) and distribution channels for gem-quality diamonds. The Diamond Trading Company (DTC) is a subsidiary of De Beers and markets rough diamonds from De Beers-operated mines. De Beers and its subsidiaries own mines that produce some 40% of annual world diamond production. For most of the 20th century over 80% of the world's rough diamonds passed through De Beers, but by 2001–2009 the figure had decreased to around 45%, and by 2013 the company's market share had further decreased to around 38% in value terms and even less by volume. De Beers sold off the vast majority of its diamond stockpile in the late 1990s – early 2000s and the remainder largely represents working stock (diamonds that are being sorted before sale). This was well documented in the press but remains little known to the general public. As a part of reducing its influence, De Beers withdrew from purchasing diamonds on the open market in 1999 and ceased, at the end of 2008, purchasing Russian diamonds mined by the largest Russian diamond company Alrosa. As of January 2011, De Beers states that it only sells diamonds from the following four countries: Botswana, Namibia, South Africa and Canada. Alrosa had to suspend their sales in October 2008 due to the global energy crisis, but the company reported that it had resumed selling rough diamonds on the open market by October 2009. Apart from Alrosa, other important diamond mining companies include BHP, which is the world's largest mining company; Rio Tinto, the owner of the Argyle (100%), Diavik (60%), and Murowa (78%) diamond mines; and Petra Diamonds, the owner of several major diamond mines in Africa. Further down the supply chain, members of The World Federation of Diamond Bourses (WFDB) act as a medium for wholesale diamond exchange, trading both polished and rough diamonds. The WFDB consists of independent diamond bourses in major cutting centers such as Tel Aviv, Antwerp, Johannesburg and other cities across the US, Europe and Asia. In 2000, the WFDB and The International Diamond Manufacturers Association established the World Diamond Council to prevent the trading of diamonds used to fund war and inhumane acts. WFDB's additional activities include sponsoring the World Diamond Congress every two years, as well as the establishment of the International Diamond Council (IDC) to oversee diamond grading. Once purchased by Sightholders (which is a trademark term referring to the companies that have a three-year supply contract with DTC), diamonds are cut and polished in preparation for sale as gemstones ('industrial' stones are regarded as a by-product of the gemstone market; they are used for abrasives). The cutting and polishing of rough diamonds is a specialized skill that is concentrated in a limited number of locations worldwide. Traditional diamond cutting centers are Antwerp, Amsterdam, Johannesburg, New York City, and Tel Aviv. Recently, diamond cutting centers have been established in China, India, Thailand, Namibia and Botswana. Cutting centers with lower cost of labor, notably Surat in Gujarat, India, handle a larger number of smaller carat diamonds, while smaller quantities of larger or more valuable diamonds are more likely to be handled in Europe or North America. The recent expansion of this industry in India, employing low cost labor, has allowed smaller diamonds to be prepared as gems in greater quantities than was previously economically feasible. Diamonds prepared as gemstones are sold on diamond exchanges called *bourses*. There are 28 registered diamond bourses in the world. Bourses are the final tightly controlled step in the diamond supply chain; wholesalers and even retailers are able to buy relatively small lots of diamonds at the bourses, after which they are prepared for final sale to the consumer. Diamonds can be sold already set in jewelry, or sold unset ("loose"). According to the Rio Tinto, in 2002 the diamonds produced and released to the market were valued at US$9 billion as rough diamonds, US$14 billion after being cut and polished, US$28 billion in wholesale diamond jewelry, and US$57 billion in retail sales. #### Cutting Mined rough diamonds are converted into gems through a multi-step process called "cutting". Diamonds are extremely hard, but also brittle and can be split up by a single blow. Therefore, diamond cutting is traditionally considered as a delicate procedure requiring skills, scientific knowledge, tools and experience. Its final goal is to produce a faceted jewel where the specific angles between the facets would optimize the diamond luster, that is dispersion of white light, whereas the number and area of facets would determine the weight of the final product. The weight reduction upon cutting is significant and can be of the order of 50%. Several possible shapes are considered, but the final decision is often determined not only by scientific, but also practical considerations. For example, the diamond might be intended for display or for wear, in a ring or a necklace, singled or surrounded by other gems of certain color and shape. Some of them may be considered as classical, such as round, pear, marquise, oval, hearts and arrows diamonds, etc. Some of them are special, produced by certain companies, for example, Phoenix, Cushion, Sole Mio diamonds, etc. The most time-consuming part of the cutting is the preliminary analysis of the rough stone. It needs to address a large number of issues, bears much responsibility, and therefore can last years in case of unique diamonds. The following issues are considered: * The hardness of diamond and its ability to cleave strongly depend on the crystal orientation. Therefore, the crystallographic structure of the diamond to be cut is analyzed using X-ray diffraction to choose the optimal cutting directions. * Most diamonds contain visible non-diamond inclusions and crystal flaws. The cutter has to decide which flaws are to be removed by the cutting and which could be kept. * The diamond can be split by a single, well calculated blow of a hammer to a pointed tool, which is quick, but risky. Alternatively, it can be cut with a diamond saw, which is a more reliable but tedious procedure. After initial cutting, the diamond is shaped in numerous stages of polishing. Unlike cutting, which is a responsible but quick operation, polishing removes material by gradual erosion and is extremely time-consuming. The associated technique is well developed; it is considered as a routine and can be performed by technicians. After polishing, the diamond is reexamined for possible flaws, either remaining or induced by the process. Those flaws are concealed through various diamond enhancement techniques, such as repolishing, crack filling, or clever arrangement of the stone in the jewelry. Remaining non-diamond inclusions are removed through laser drilling and filling of the voids produced. #### Marketing Marketing has significantly affected the image of diamond as a valuable commodity. N. W. Ayer & Son, the advertising firm retained by De Beers in the mid-20th century, succeeded in reviving the American diamond market and the firm created new markets in countries where no diamond tradition had existed before. N. W. Ayer's marketing included product placement, advertising focused on the diamond product itself rather than the De Beers brand, and associations with celebrities and royalty. Without advertising the De Beers brand, De Beers was advertising its competitors' diamond products as well, but this was not a concern as De Beers dominated the diamond market throughout the 20th century. De Beers' market share dipped temporarily to second place in the global market below Alrosa in the aftermath of the global economic crisis of 2008, down to less than 29% in terms of carats mined, rather than sold. The campaign lasted for decades but was effectively discontinued by early 2011. De Beers still advertises diamonds, but the advertising now mostly promotes its own brands, or licensed product lines, rather than completely "generic" diamond products. The campaign was perhaps best captured by the slogan "a diamond is forever". This slogan is now being used by De Beers Diamond Jewelers, a jewelry firm which is a 50/50% joint venture between the De Beers mining company and LVMH, the luxury goods conglomerate. Brown-colored diamonds constituted a significant part of the diamond production, and were predominantly used for industrial purposes. They were seen as worthless for jewelry (not even being assessed on the diamond color scale). After the development of Argyle diamond mine in Australia in 1986, and marketing, brown diamonds have become acceptable gems. The change was mostly due to the numbers: the Argyle mine, with its 35,000,000 carats (7,000 kg) of diamonds per year, makes about one-third of global production of natural diamonds; 80% of Argyle diamonds are brown. ### Industrial-grade diamonds Industrial diamonds are valued mostly for their hardness and thermal conductivity, making many of the gemological characteristics of diamonds, such as the 4 Cs, irrelevant for most applications. Eighty percent of mined diamonds (equal to about 135,000,000 carats (27,000 kg) annually) are unsuitable for use as gemstones and are used industrially. In addition to mined diamonds, synthetic diamonds found industrial applications almost immediately after their invention in the 1950s; in 2014, 4,500,000,000 carats (900,000 kg) of synthetic diamonds were produced, 90% of which were produced in China. Approximately 90% of diamond grinding grit is currently of synthetic origin. The boundary between gem-quality diamonds and industrial diamonds is poorly defined and partly depends on market conditions (for example, if demand for polished diamonds is high, some lower-grade stones will be polished into low-quality or small gemstones rather than being sold for industrial use). Within the category of industrial diamonds, there is a sub-category comprising the lowest-quality, mostly opaque stones, which are known as bort. Industrial use of diamonds has historically been associated with their hardness, which makes diamond the ideal material for cutting and grinding tools. As the hardest known naturally occurring material, diamond can be used to polish, cut, or wear away any material, including other diamonds. Common industrial applications of this property include diamond-tipped drill bits and saws, and the use of diamond powder as an abrasive. Less expensive industrial-grade diamonds (bort) with more flaws and poorer color than gems, are used for such purposes. Diamond is not suitable for machining ferrous alloys at high speeds, as carbon is soluble in iron at the high temperatures created by high-speed machining, leading to greatly increased wear on diamond tools compared to alternatives. Specialized applications include use in laboratories as containment for high-pressure experiments (see diamond anvil cell), high-performance bearings, and limited use in specialized windows. With the continuing advances being made in the production of synthetic diamonds, future applications are becoming feasible. The high thermal conductivity of diamond makes it suitable as a heat sink for integrated circuits in electronics. ### Mining Approximately 130,000,000 carats (26,000 kg) of diamonds are mined annually, with a total value of nearly US$9 billion, and about 100,000 kg (220,000 lb) are synthesized annually. Roughly 49% of diamonds originate from Central and Southern Africa, although significant sources of the mineral have been discovered in Canada, India, Russia, Brazil, and Australia. They are mined from kimberlite and lamproite volcanic pipes, which can bring diamond crystals, originating from deep within the Earth where high pressures and temperatures enable them to form, to the surface. The mining and distribution of natural diamonds are subjects of frequent controversy such as concerns over the sale of *blood diamonds* or *conflict diamonds* by African paramilitary groups. The diamond supply chain is controlled by a limited number of powerful businesses, and is also highly concentrated in a small number of locations around the world. Only a very small fraction of the diamond ore consists of actual diamonds. The ore is crushed, during which care is required not to destroy larger diamonds, and then sorted by density. Today, diamonds are located in the diamond-rich density fraction with the help of X-ray fluorescence, after which the final sorting steps are done by hand. Before the use of X-rays became commonplace, the separation was done with grease belts; diamonds have a stronger tendency to stick to grease than the other minerals in the ore. Historically, diamonds were found only in alluvial deposits in Guntur and Krishna district of the Krishna River delta in Southern India. India led the world in diamond production from the time of their discovery in approximately the 9th century BC to the mid-18th century AD, but the commercial potential of these sources had been exhausted by the late 18th century and at that time India was eclipsed by Brazil where the first non-Indian diamonds were found in 1725. Currently, one of the most prominent Indian mines is located at Panna. Diamond extraction from primary deposits (kimberlites and lamproites) started in the 1870s after the discovery of the Diamond Fields in South Africa. Production has increased over time and now an accumulated total of 4,500,000,000 carats (900,000 kg) have been mined since that date. Twenty percent of that amount has been mined in the last five years, and during the last 10 years, nine new mines have started production; four more are waiting to be opened soon. Most of these mines are located in Canada, Zimbabwe, Angola, and one in Russia. In the U.S., diamonds have been found in Arkansas, Colorado, New Mexico, Wyoming, and Montana. In 2004, the discovery of a microscopic diamond in the U.S. led to the January 2008 bulk-sampling of kimberlite pipes in a remote part of Montana. The Crater of Diamonds State Park in Arkansas is open to the public, and is the only mine in the world where members of the public can dig for diamonds. Today, most commercially viable diamond deposits are in Russia (mostly in Sakha Republic, for example Mir pipe and Udachnaya pipe), Botswana, Australia (Northern and Western Australia) and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In 2005, Russia produced almost one-fifth of the global diamond output, according to the British Geological Survey. Australia boasts the richest diamantiferous pipe, with production from the Argyle diamond mine reaching peak levels of 42 metric tons per year in the 1990s. There are also commercial deposits being actively mined in the Northwest Territories of Canada and Brazil. Diamond prospectors continue to search the globe for diamond-bearing kimberlite and lamproite pipes. #### Political issues In some of the more politically unstable central African and west African countries, revolutionary groups have taken control of diamond mines, using proceeds from diamond sales to finance their operations. Diamonds sold through this process are known as *conflict diamonds* or *blood diamonds*. In response to public concerns that their diamond purchases were contributing to war and human rights abuses in central and western Africa, the United Nations, the diamond industry and diamond-trading nations introduced the Kimberley Process in 2002. The Kimberley Process aims to ensure that conflict diamonds do not become intermixed with the diamonds not controlled by such rebel groups. This is done by requiring diamond-producing countries to provide proof that the money they make from selling the diamonds is not used to fund criminal or revolutionary activities. Although the Kimberley Process has been moderately successful in limiting the number of conflict diamonds entering the market, some still find their way in. According to the International Diamond Manufacturers Association, conflict diamonds constitute 2–3% of all diamonds traded. Two major flaws still hinder the effectiveness of the Kimberley Process: (1) the relative ease of smuggling diamonds across African borders, and (2) the violent nature of diamond mining in nations that are not in a technical state of war and whose diamonds are therefore considered "clean". The Canadian Government has set up a body known as the Canadian Diamond Code of Conduct to help authenticate Canadian diamonds. This is a stringent tracking system of diamonds and helps protect the "conflict free" label of Canadian diamonds. Mineral resource exploitation in general causes irreversible environmental damage, which must be weighed against the socio-economic benefits to a country. Synthetics, simulants, and enhancements --------------------------------------- ### Synthetics Synthetic diamonds are diamonds manufactured in a laboratory, as opposed to diamonds mined from the Earth. The gemological and industrial uses of diamond have created a large demand for rough stones. This demand has been satisfied in large part by synthetic diamonds, which have been manufactured by various processes for more than half a century. However, in recent years it has become possible to produce gem-quality synthetic diamonds of significant size. It is possible to make colorless synthetic gemstones that, on a molecular level, are identical to natural stones and so visually similar that only a gemologist with special equipment can tell the difference. The majority of commercially available synthetic diamonds are yellow and are produced by so-called *high-pressure high-temperature* (HPHT) processes. The yellow color is caused by nitrogen impurities. Other colors may also be reproduced such as blue, green or pink, which are a result of the addition of boron or from irradiation after synthesis. Another popular method of growing synthetic diamond is chemical vapor deposition (CVD). The growth occurs under low pressure (below atmospheric pressure). It involves feeding a mixture of gases (typically 1 to 99 methane to hydrogen) into a chamber and splitting them into chemically active radicals in a plasma ignited by microwaves, hot filament, arc discharge, welding torch, or laser. This method is mostly used for coatings, but can also produce single crystals several millimeters in size (see picture). As of 2010, nearly all 5,000 million carats (1,000 tonnes) of synthetic diamonds produced per year are for industrial use. Around 50% of the 133 million carats of natural diamonds mined per year end up in industrial use. Mining companies' expenses average 40 to 60 US dollars per carat for natural colorless diamonds, while synthetic manufacturers' expenses average $2,500 per carat for synthetic, gem-quality colorless diamonds. However, a purchaser is more likely to encounter a synthetic when looking for a fancy-colored diamond because only 0.01% of natural diamonds are fancy-colored, while most synthetic diamonds are colored in some way. * Six crystals of cubo-octahedral shapes, each about 2 millimeters in diameter. Two are pale blue, one is pale yellow, one is green-blue, one is dark blue and one green-yellow.Synthetic diamonds of various colors grown by the high-pressure high-temperature technique * A round, clear gemstone with many facets, the main face being hexagonal, surrounded by many smaller facets.Colorless gem cut from diamond grown by chemical vapor deposition ### Simulants A diamond simulant is a non-diamond material that is used to simulate the appearance of a diamond, and may be referred to as diamante. Cubic zirconia is the most common. The gemstone moissanite (silicon carbide) can be treated as a diamond simulant, though more costly to produce than cubic zirconia. Both are produced synthetically. ### Enhancements Diamond enhancements are specific treatments performed on natural or synthetic diamonds (usually those already cut and polished into a gem), which are designed to better the gemological characteristics of the stone in one or more ways. These include laser drilling to remove inclusions, application of sealants to fill cracks, treatments to improve a white diamond's color grade, and treatments to give fancy color to a white diamond. Coatings are increasingly used to give a diamond simulant such as cubic zirconia a more "diamond-like" appearance. One such substance is diamond-like carbon—an amorphous carbonaceous material that has some physical properties similar to those of the diamond. Advertising suggests that such a coating would transfer some of these diamond-like properties to the coated stone, hence enhancing the diamond simulant. Techniques such as Raman spectroscopy should easily identify such a treatment. ### Identification Early diamond identification tests included a scratch test relying on the superior hardness of diamond. This test is destructive, as a diamond can scratch another diamond, and is rarely used nowadays. Instead, diamond identification relies on its superior thermal conductivity. Electronic thermal probes are widely used in the gemological centers to separate diamonds from their imitations. These probes consist of a pair of battery-powered thermistors mounted in a fine copper tip. One thermistor functions as a heating device while the other measures the temperature of the copper tip: if the stone being tested is a diamond, it will conduct the tip's thermal energy rapidly enough to produce a measurable temperature drop. This test takes about two to three seconds. Whereas the thermal probe can separate diamonds from most of their simulants, distinguishing between various types of diamond, for example synthetic or natural, irradiated or non-irradiated, etc., requires more advanced, optical techniques. Those techniques are also used for some diamonds simulants, such as silicon carbide, which pass the thermal conductivity test. Optical techniques can distinguish between natural diamonds and synthetic diamonds. They can also identify the vast majority of treated natural diamonds. "Perfect" crystals (at the atomic lattice level) have never been found, so both natural and synthetic diamonds always possess characteristic imperfections, arising from the circumstances of their crystal growth, that allow them to be distinguished from each other. Laboratories use techniques such as spectroscopy, microscopy, and luminescence under shortwave ultraviolet light to determine a diamond's origin. They also use specially made instruments to aid them in the identification process. Two screening instruments are the *DiamondSure* and the *DiamondView*, both produced by the DTC and marketed by the GIA. Several methods for identifying synthetic diamonds can be performed, depending on the method of production and the color of the diamond. CVD diamonds can usually be identified by an orange fluorescence. D-J colored diamonds can be screened through the Swiss Gemmological Institute's Diamond Spotter. Stones in the D-Z color range can be examined through the DiamondSure UV/visible spectrometer, a tool developed by De Beers. Similarly, natural diamonds usually have minor imperfections and flaws, such as inclusions of foreign material, that are not seen in synthetic diamonds. Screening devices based on diamond type detection can be used to make a distinction between diamonds that are certainly natural and diamonds that are potentially synthetic. Those potentially synthetic diamonds require more investigation in a specialized lab. Examples of commercial screening devices are D-Screen (WTOCD / HRD Antwerp), Alpha Diamond Analyzer (Bruker / HRD Antwerp), and D-Secure (DRC Techno). Etymology, earliest use and composition discovery ------------------------------------------------- The name *diamond* is derived from Ancient Greek: ἀδάμας (*adámas*), 'proper, unalterable, unbreakable, untamed', from ἀ- (*a-*), 'not' + Ancient Greek: δαμάω (*damáō*), 'to overpower, tame'. Diamonds are thought to have been first recognized and mined in India, where significant alluvial deposits of the stone could be found many centuries ago along the rivers Penner, Krishna, and Godavari. Diamonds have been known in India for at least 3,000 years but most likely 6,000 years. Diamonds have been treasured as gemstones since their use as religious icons in ancient India. Their usage in engraving tools also dates to early human history. The popularity of diamonds has risen since the 19th century because of increased supply, improved cutting and polishing techniques, growth in the world economy, and innovative and successful advertising campaigns. In 1772, the French scientist Antoine Lavoisier used a lens to concentrate the rays of the sun on a diamond in an atmosphere of oxygen, and showed that the only product of the combustion was carbon dioxide, proving that diamond is composed of carbon. Later in 1797, the English chemist Smithson Tennant repeated and expanded that experiment. By demonstrating that burning diamond and graphite releases the same amount of gas, he established the chemical equivalence of these substances. See also -------- * Deep carbon cycle * Diamondoid * List of diamonds + List of largest rough diamonds * List of minerals * Superhard material General and cited references ---------------------------- * Even-Zohar C (2007). *From Mine to Mistress: Corporate Strategies and Government Policies in the International Diamond Industry* (2nd ed.). Mining Journal Press. * Davies G (1994). *Properties and growth of diamond*. INSPEC. ISBN 978-0-85296-875-8. * O'Donoghue M (2006). *Gems*. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-7506-5856-0. * O'Donoghue M, Joyner L (2003). *Identification of gemstones*. Great Britain: Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-7506-5512-5. * Feldman A, Robins LH (1991). *Applications of Diamond Films and Related Materials*. Elsevier. ISBN 978-1-48329124-6. * Field JE (1979). *The Properties of Diamond*. London: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-255350-9. * Field JE (1992). *The Properties of Natural and Synthetic Diamond*. London: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-255352-3. * Hershey W (1940). *The Book of Diamonds*. Hearthside Press New York. ISBN 978-1-4179-7715-4. * Koizumi S, Nebel CE, Nesladek M (2008). *Physics and Applications of CVD Diamond*. Wiley VCH. ISBN 978-3-527-40801-6. * Pan LS, Kani DR (1995). *Diamond: Electronic Properties and Applications*. Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7923-9524-9. * Pagel-Theisen V (2001). *Diamond Grading ABC: the Manual*. Antwerp: Rubin & Son. ISBN 978-3-9800434-6-5. * Radovic RL, Walker RM, Thrower PA (1965). *Chemistry and physics of carbon: a series of advances*. New York: Marcel Dekker. ISBN 978-0-8247-0987-7. * Tolkowsky M (1919). *Diamond Design: A Study of the Reflection and Refraction of Light in a Diamond*. London: E. & F.N. Spon. * Wise RW (2016). *Secrets of the Gem Trade: The Connoisseur's Guide to Precious Gemstones* (Second ed.). Brunswick House Press. ISBN 978-0-9728223-2-9. * Zaitsev AM (2001). *Optical Properties of Diamond: A Data Handbook*. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-66582-3. Further reading --------------- * Epstein EJ (February 1982). "Have You Ever Tried to Sell a Diamond?". *The Atlantic Monthly*. Archived from the original on 15 March 2006. Retrieved 2 January 2023. * Tyson P (November 2000). "Diamonds in the Sky". The Diamond Deception. *Nova*. PBS. Retrieved 2 January 2023.

Diamond

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamond

**Sèvres** (/ˈsɛvrə/, French: [sɛvʁ] ()) is a commune in the southwestern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located 9.9 kilometres (6.2 miles) from the centre of Paris, in the Hauts-de-Seine department, Île-de-France region. The commune, which had a population of 23,251 as of 2018, is known for its famous porcelain production at the *Manufacture nationale de Sèvres*, which was also where the Treaty of Sèvres (1920) was signed. Geography --------- ### Situation Sèvres is a commune in the western suburbs of Paris, 10.3 km (6.4 mi) to the southwest of the centre of Paris, with an eastern edge by the river Seine. The commune borders Île Seguin, an island in the Seine, in the commune of Boulogne-Billancourt, adjoining Sèvres. * Situation of Sèvres * Map of the communeMap of the commune * View of the commune of Sèvres in red on the map of Paris and the "Petite Couronne"View of the commune of Sèvres in red on the map of Paris and the "Petite Couronne" * Banks of the Seine in the early 20th century. At that time, the river was an important transportation axis; river shuttles can be seen here as piers ensured the transportation of passengers to Paris.Banks of the Seine in the early 20th century. At that time, the river was an important transportation axis; river shuttles can be seen here as piers ensured the transportation of passengers to Paris. ### Geology and landforms The area of the commune is 391 hectares (970 acres). The altitude varies between 27–171 metres (89–561 ft). Work at Sèvres, including for the construction of the expressway, permitted an update of interesting fossils in different geological layers. Notably, in chalk, some types of sea urchins, belemnite beaks, rhynchonellas and oysters were found; in the coarse limestone, ammonites. ### Hydrography * The Seine * The Ru de Marivel [fr] which empties into the Seine 80 metres (262 feet) upstream of the Pont de Sèvres. ### Climate The climate of île-de-France is oceanic. The popular observation stations for meteorology at Sèvres are Orly Airport and Vélizy – Villacoublay Air Base. The climate in the departments of the small Parisian crown is characterised by sunshine and relatively low precipitation. The following table allows a comparison of the Île-de-France climate with that of some large French cities: Comparison of weather conditions| City | Sunshine(hrs/yr) | Rain(mm/yr) | Snow(days/yr) | Storm(days/yr) | Fog(days/yr) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | National average | 1973 | 770 | 14 | 22 | 40 | | Orly | 1797 | 615 | 16 | 20 | 31 | | Paris | 1661 | 637 | 12 | 18 | 10 | | Nice | 2724 | 733 | 1 | 29 | 1 | | Strasbourg | 1693 | 665 | 29 | 29 | 53 | | Brest | 1605 | 1211 | 7 | 12 | 75 | The following table shows the monthly averages of temperature and precipitation for the station of Orly collected over the period 1961–1990: | Climate data for île-de-France (station of Orly 1961-1990) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average high °C | 5.8 | 7.5 | 10.7 | 14.2 | 18.1 | 21.5 | 24.0 | 23.8 | 20.9 | 15.9 | 9.8 | 6.6 | 14.9 | | Daily mean °C | 3.3 | 4.4 | 6.8 | 9.8 | 13.5 | 16.7 | 18.9 | 18.6 | 16.0 | 11.9 | 6.8 | 4.1 | 10.9 | | Average low °C | 0.7 | 1.3 | 3.0 | 5.3 | 8.8 | 11.9 | 13.8 | 13.4 | 11.2 | 7.9 | 3.8 | 1.6 | 6.9 | | Average precipitation mm | 51.9 | 44.8 | 50.8 | 46.6 | 57.8 | 50.5 | 50.1 | 46.5 | 52.0 | 53.2 | 58.1 | 53.1 | 615.4 | | Average high °F | 42.4 | 45.5 | 51.3 | 57.6 | 64.6 | 70.7 | 75.2 | 74.8 | 69.6 | 60.6 | 49.6 | 43.9 | 58.8 | | Daily mean °F | 37.9 | 39.9 | 44.2 | 49.6 | 56.3 | 62.1 | 66.0 | 65.5 | 60.8 | 53.4 | 44.2 | 39.4 | 51.6 | | Average low °F | 33.3 | 34.3 | 37.4 | 41.5 | 47.8 | 53.4 | 56.8 | 56.1 | 52.2 | 46.2 | 38.8 | 34.9 | 44.4 | | Average precipitation inches | 2.04 | 1.76 | 2.00 | 1.83 | 2.28 | 1.99 | 1.97 | 1.83 | 2.05 | 2.09 | 2.29 | 2.09 | 24.23 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 86 | 80 | 76 | 72 | 72 | 71 | 70 | 71 | 77 | 83 | 86 | 86 | 78 | | Source: Infoclimat | Weather records in Île-de-France (Orly station 1961–1990)| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sept | Oct | Nov | Dec | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Number of days with frost | 12.4 | 10.3 | 7.0 | 1.6 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.2 | 5.4 | 11.6 | | Source: Infoclimat | | Climate data for île-de-France (station of Orly 1961-1990) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C | 16.5 | 20.0 | 24.5 | 29.4 | 35.0 | 37.0 | 39.2 | 40.0 | 33.0 | 31.3 | 20.1 | 17.3 | 40.0 | | Record low °C | −16.8 | −15.0 | −9.4 | −4.3 | −1.3 | 3.2 | 6.7 | 5.6 | 1.7 | 3.9 | −9.6 | −13.3 | −16.8 | | Record high °F | 61.7 | 68.0 | 76.1 | 84.9 | 95.0 | 98.6 | 102.6 | 104.0 | 91.4 | 88.3 | 68.2 | 63.1 | 104.0 | | Record low °F | 1.8 | 5.0 | 15.1 | 24.3 | 29.7 | 37.8 | 44.1 | 42.1 | 35.1 | 39.0 | 14.7 | 8.1 | 1.8 | | Source: JournalduNet | ### Routes of communication and transport #### Roads Sèvres is traversed from side to side by the RN 10, today downgraded and allowing connection of the city to Boulogne-Billancourt and Chaville. It is also the starting point of the RN 118 at the level of the Pont de Sèvres. #### Cycle paths Sèvres presents a main traffic artery which supports important transit traffic at morning and evening peak hours. This allows preservation of its secondary residential purpose from suffering the negative effects of through traffic, and on which the development zone 30 was under study, as early as 2007. The city hall has, however, launched a reconsideration on these routes for sharing public spaces in favour of soft links (comfortable pavements, if possible with the development of cycle paths) and the use of public transit where they pass (comfortable bus stops, creation of own sites where technical conditions permit). Since November 2011, fifteen streets have two-way cycle lanes. They are the subject of ground markings and installation of specific signaling panels: * *Avenue de la Cristallerie* * *Rue Brancas*, between the *Rue de Ville-d'Avray* and *Rue Bernard-Palissy* * *Grande Rue*, between the *Rue de Ville-d'Avray* and the *Place Gabriel-Péri* * *Rue du Docteur Gabriel-Ledermann*, between the *Rue de Rueil* and *Rue Jules Sandeau* * *Rue Riocreux*, between *Place Pierre-Brossolette* and *Rue de Ville d'Avray* * *Rue Brongniart* * *Rue Léon Journault* (between *Avenue Camille Sée* and *Sente Brézin*) then *Rue Victor-Hugo* * *Rue des Bas-Tillets* between *Rue Benoît Malon* and the *Rue de la Garenne* * *Rue Albert Dammouse*, between *Rue Avice* and the *Stade des Fontaines* turn * *Rue Rouget-de-l'Isle* * *Rue Jules-Ferry* * *Rue du Docteur Roux* * *Rue Charles-Vaillant* * *Rue Jean-Jaurès* * *Rue des Verrières* #### Public transport Bus routes 169 [fr], 171, 179, and 426 [fr] of the RATP bus network, route 469 [fr] of the *Établissement Transdev de Nanterre* [Transdev establishment of Nanterre], route 45 [fr] in the Phébus bus network [fr] and at night by N61 [fr] and N145 [fr] of the Noctilien route network. The city makes one minibus available to people with reduced mobility, *L'autre Bus* [The Other Bus]. #### Rail Sèvres is served by Sèvres-Rive-Gauche station [fr] on the Transilien Paris – Montparnasse suburban rail line. It is also served by Sèvres–Ville-d'Avray station on the Transilien Paris – Saint-Lazare suburban rail line. It is also served by the *Musée de Sèvres* and *Brimborion* stations on Line 2 of the Tramway of Île-de-France which links Paris - Porte de Versailles and La Défense. Urbanism -------- ### Urban morphology INSEE has divided the commune into ten islets grouped for statistical information. The commune of Sèvres includes 16 quarters, named as follows: | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | * 1. Bruyères - Acacias - Fonceaux * 2. Bruyères - Postillons - Jaurès * 3. Val des Bruyères - Allard * 4. Ernest Renan | * 5. Châtaigneraie * 6. Beau Site - Pommerets * 7. Binelles * 8. Manufacture - Brimborion | * 9. SEL - Division Leclerc * 10. Europe - Pierre Midrin * 11. Médiathèque - 11 novembre * 12. Danton - Gabriel Péri | * 13. Monesse * 14. Croix-Bosset * 15. Brancas - Fontenelles * 16. Brancas - Beauregard | **Land use in 2003**| Type of occupation | Percentage | Area | | --- | --- | --- | | Built urban space | 62.70% | 243.19 hectares (600.9 acres) | | Unbuilt urban space | 13.46% | 52.21 hectares (129.0 acres) | | Rural areas | 23.83% | 92.44 hectares (228.4 acres) | | *Source: IAURIF [fr]* | ### Housing In the project planning and sustainable development (PADD) approved 10 May 2007, the commune displays an ambition to maintain its population around its situation of early 2005. It has a commitment to offer every household in the commune the opportunity to live and grow in Sèvres, and a stake in preserving its fabric of facilities and local businesses. Studies conducted in the context of the PLH [fr] show that by 2015, this would involve the construction of approximately 40 homes per year (taking into account of the transformation of the former park, of the reduction of the vacancy rate and the loosening of household size) to maintain the communal population. In 2005, the commune had 24.5% of its total as social housing. These homes are mostly located along the RD 910, around the city centre. The commune displays a desire to preserve this social mix by ensuring a diversity of different types of housing, under the framework of future construction operations. As such, it shows the will to maintain its social housing stock at around 25% of the total stock of main residences. On the other hand, private rental declined between 1990 and 1999. An effort in favour of this type of housing will be always sought in order to maintain the diversity of population profiles. Some areas of the city are poorly provided with social housing, and the development of this type of housing should allow a better balance across the commune. ### Development projects The main projects are: * The reconstruction of the Croix Bosset school * The development of links between the banks of the Seine, the city, parks and woodlands by pedestrian openings designed to develop a frame of soft east–west links. Such as linking Saint-Cloud Park / île Monsieur, between Brimborion Park and the Brimborion tram station, along the Seine, a development project of the entrance of Sèvres and the vicinity of the Museum of Manufacturing by the creation of a pedestrian/bicycle along the *Grande Rue*, behind the wall of the Museum. Toponymy -------- The name of the locality is attested as *Savara* in the 6th century, originating from the name of the stream which followed the Valley of Viroflay, Chaville, Sèvres. Then in the forms of *Villa Savara* in the 6th century, *Saura*,[*when?*] *Saure*,[*when?*] *Savra*,[*when?*] *Saevara* in the 11th century, *Severa*, *Sepera* and *Separa* in the 13th century, *Sevra*,[*when?*] *Sièvre*,[*when?*] *Saives*,[*when?*] *Sèvre-en-France-lez-paris* from the 14th century, before *Sèvres*.[*when?*] Sèvres took the name of the river which ran through it. Sèvres includes radical *sav-*, *sab-*, in the sense of "hollow" or radical *sam-* "quiet". These radicals are often used in hydronymy. The root is the same for the Sèvre Nantaise and the Sèvre Niortaise which gave its name to the Department of the Deux-Sèvres. History ------- * The town of Sèvres existed in 560, when Saint Germain, Bishop of Paris, healed a sick person and built the church. * The Church of Saint-Romain-de-Blaye, current and several times revised, dates from the 13th century. There was a seigniorial château. * The manufacture de Sèvres was formed in 1750, by the Ferme générale; they were held by the Marquis de Fulvi who operated at Vincennes. * In 1756, Madame de Pompadour transferred the Vincennes porcelain factory to Sèvres. It was moved to the location of the Guyarde, the former resort of Lully. * In 1760, Louis XV bought the factory which thus becomes 'royal'. * The Pont de Sèvres, which was of wood, was begun in stone in 1809 and finished in 1820. * In 1815, the inhabitants of Sèvres, along with some soldiers, tried to resist the Prussians who occupied and looted Sèvres, despite the capitulation signed at Saint-Cloud. * **The Treaty of Sèvres** (10 August 1920) A treaty was signed in the large room which currently houses the Museum of Porcelain at Sèvres, it was a peace treaty between the Allies and the Ottoman Empire, to the detriment of the latter. * The **Protocols of Sèvres** (21 to 24 October 1956) Protocols of Sèvres (sometimes referred to as 'agreements') are a secret seven-point agreement recording in writing a tripartite agreement between Israel, France and Great Britain in response to the nationalisation of the Suez Canal by the Egyptian leader Nasser. * In 1961, the renovation of old town centre, which was unhealthy, accompanied by the deviation of the RN 10, was committed to by the municipality of Dr. Odic, and included the demolition of 1,500 houses and the construction of 1,600 new houses, along with 42,000 square metres (450,000 sq ft) of offices or commercial premises. The municipality of Jean Caillonneau redirected urbanisation at the end of the 1980s to promote the establishment of offices in order to "remake Sèvres as a dynamic and industrious city". Politics and administration --------------------------- ### Political trends and results Since the elections of 2007, Sèvres belongs to the communes of more than 3,500 inhabitants, using voting machines. In the referendum on the Constitutional Treaty for Europe on 29 May 2005, the Sevriens mostly voted for the European Constitution, with 69.93% in favour against 30.07% not in favour, with a 24.08% abstention rate (entire France: No at 54.67%, Yes at 45.33%). At the 2007 French presidential election, the first round saw Nicolas Sarkozy in the lead with 35.58% or 4,750 votes, followed by Ségolène Royal with 26,09% or 3,212 votes, and then François Bayrou with 23.35% or 2,875 votes, no other candidates exceeded the threshold of 5%. In the second round, 56.40% or 6,661 voted for Nicolas Sarkozy with 43.60% or 5,149 voting for Ségolène Royal, a result which was more disposed than the national average. In the second round, 53.06% voted for Nicolas Sarkozy and 46.94% for Ségolène Royal. For this presidential election, the turnout rate was very high. There were 18,455 registered voters in Sèvres, 89.56% or 16,528 voters participated in the ballot, the abstention rate was 10.44% or 1,927 votes, with 0.54% or 90 votes conducted as a blank vote, and finally 99.46% or 16,438 votes were cast. In the municipal elections of 2014 [fr], a list of the Miscellaneous Right led by Grégoire de La Roncière opposed the list led by the outgoing mayor, François Kosciusko-Morizet [fr] (UMP), and then by Laurence Roux-Fouillet after the withdrawal of the latter. In the second round, on 30 March, the Miscellaneous Right list gained two more votes than the UMP list (3279 votes against 3277). On 4 April, Grégoire de La Roncière was elected Mayor of Sèvres by the new municipal council. ### Municipal government Sèvres has implemented a Communal Youth Council, so as to involve young people in the life of the commune. ### List of mayors Since 1971, five mayors have succeeded in Sèvres: List of mayors of Sèvres since 1971| Start | End | Name | Party | Other details | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 21 March 1971 | 1978 | Georges Lenormand | PCF | General Counsel [fr] (1967-1970 and 1976–1982)Resigned | | 1978 | 13 March 1983 | Roger Fajnzylberg | PCF | | | 13 March 1983 | 18 June 1995 | Jean Caillonneau [fr] | UDF-CDS | Insurance executive | | 18 June 1995 | 4 April 2014 | François Kosciusko-Morizet [fr] | UMP | Politician | | 4 April 2014 | In progress | Grégoire de la Roncière | DVD | Vice-president of the communauté d'agglomération G.P.S.O. [fr] | ### Judicial and administrative authorities Sèvres is within the jurisdiction of the Tribunal d'instance as well as in that of the police court in Boulogne-Billancourt. ### Environmental policy The municipality wishes to enhance its environmental richness (forests, banks of the Seine, built heritage, topography, etc.) which is an asset in terms of image for the city and quality of life for its inhabitants: "It should preserve those elements which are the links of a string of parks and gardens which are also involved in large landscape continuity, of opportunities for walks and tours at an intercommunal level". ### Twin towns Sèvres is twinned with: * Germany Wolfenbüttel, Germany, since 1980 * United States Mount Prospect, Illinois, United States, since 2000 Furthermore, the commune of Sèvres signed a cooperation agreement with the Mărăcineni commune in Romania, in 1991. ### Intercommunality The commune of Sèvres was a member of the Agglomeration Community of Val de Seine and is a member of the Communauté d'agglomération Grand Paris Seine Ouest [fr] since its inception on 27 November 2008, along with the communes of Boulogne-Billancourt, Chaville, Issy-les-Moulineaux, Meudon, Vanves and Ville-d'Avray. Population and society ---------------------- ### Demography #### Demographic evolution In 2017, the commune had 23,507 inhabitants. Historical population| | Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1793 | 2,700 | —     | | 1800 | 2,642 | −2.1% | | 1806 | 2,779 | +5.2% | | 1821 | 3,131 | +12.7% | | 1831 | 3,973 | +26.9% | | 1836 | 3,977 | +0.1% | | 1841 | 4,626 | +16.3% | | 1846 | 4,963 | +7.3% | | 1851 | 4,750 | −4.3% | | 1856 | 5,760 | +21.3% | | 1861 | 6,328 | +9.9% | | 1866 | 6,754 | +6.7% | | | Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1872 | 7,096 | +5.1% | | 1876 | 6,552 | −7.7% | | 1881 | 6,834 | +4.3% | | 1886 | 7,620 | +11.5% | | 1891 | 6,902 | −9.4% | | 1896 | 7,317 | +6.0% | | 1901 | 8,216 | +12.3% | | 1906 | 8,143 | −0.9% | | 1911 | 9,465 | +16.2% | | 1921 | 11,436 | +20.8% | | 1926 | 14,505 | +26.8% | | 1931 | 15,457 | +6.6% | | | Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1936 | 15,501 | +0.3% | | 1946 | 15,242 | −1.7% | | 1954 | 17,109 | +12.2% | | 1962 | 20,129 | +17.7% | | 1968 | 20,083 | −0.2% | | 1975 | 21,149 | +5.3% | | 1982 | 20,208 | −4.4% | | 1990 | 21,990 | +8.8% | | 1999 | 22,534 | +2.5% | | 2007 | 23,174 | +2.8% | | 2012 | 23,572 | +1.7% | | 2017 | 23,507 | −0.3% | | | | | From 1962 to 1999: Population without double counting; for the years following: municipal population.Source: Ldh/EHESS/Cassini until 1999 and INSEE (1968-2017) | #### Age structure The distribution of age groups of the commune of Sèvres and of the department of Hauts-de-Seine are shown below. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | **Population by age of Sèvres, 2017** | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 90+ | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | | | | | 333 | | | 75-89 | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | | | | | 1654 | | | 60-74 | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | | | | | 3445 | | | 45-59 | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | | | | | 4649 | | | 30-44 | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | | | | | 4918 | | | 15-29 | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | | | | | 3893 | | | 0-14 | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | | | | | 4613 | | | | Total: 23505 | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | | | male | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | | | female | | | | Source: INSEE | | | | | --- | | **Population by age of Hauts-de-Seine, 2017** | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 90+ | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | | | | | 17493 | | | 75-95 | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | | | | | 101217 | | | 60-74 | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | | | | | 201892 | | | 45-59 | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | | | | | 309220 | | | 30-44 | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | | | | | 361479 | | | 15-29 | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | | | | | 310959 | | | 0-14 | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | | | | | 307045 | | | | Total: 1609305 | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | | | male | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | | | | --- | | | | female | | | | Source: INSEE | | ### Education The city administers six nursery schools and five primary schools. The department manages a middle school (*collège*) and the region of Île-de-France a senior high school/sixth-form college (*lycée*) by the name of Lycée Jean-Pierre-Vernant in memory of the Compagnon de la Libération [fr] and historian. The college/high school welcomes the international sections of Sèvres (bilingual French/English and French/German) recognised for their excellence. These international sections [fr] prepare undergraduate French and OIB (Baccalauréat International Option). Sèvres also boasts a private institution (school and college): The Jeanne-d'Arc [Joan of Arc] School. The École supérieure de fonderie et de forge [fr], a private engineering college is also installed on the territory of the commune, in the middle of the technical centre of the foundry industries Strate School of Design a private institution for technical education teaching industrial design, 3D modeling and design thinking is also located in Sèvres. #### History of education The Maison d'enfants de Sèvres [fr] operated from September 1941, under the direction of Yvonne Hagnauer (Goéland), until November 1958 at 14 Rue Croix-Bosset. It then moved to the Château de Bussières, on the opposite bank of the Seine. In 1991 it became the College Jean-Marie-Guyot. The École normale supérieure of young girls was created in Sèvres in 1881. It then moved to *Boulevard Jourdan*, Paris, before merging with the École Normale Supérieure, in 1985. It held the old buildings of the porcelain factory, which today houses the International Centre for pedagogical studies [fr]. ### Cultural events and festivities On the last Saturday of September is "The Dictation of Sèvres" writing competition. This has been held since 2007. ### Health Sèvres is home to one of the sites of the *Centre Hospitalier de 4 Villes* [Central Hospital of 4 cities]. Since 1 January 2006, this centre brings together the *Centre Hospitalier Intercommunal Jean Rostand*, (which already included Chaville, Sèvres and Ville d'Avray) and the *Centre Hospitalier de Saint-Cloud*. The site of Sèvres specialises in hospitalisation and consultation in maternity/gynaecology/fertility and medical services. ### Sport Sèvres hosts the French Federation of Sport Blowgun (France Sport Blowgun Association), founded in 2004 by Stéphane Jouanneau (Blowgun Long-Distance Vice World Champion). The Sèvres Football Club senior team is currently coached by Alexandre Matejic, a former professional footballer, and winner of the 2004–2005 Coupe Gambardella [fr] with Toulouse FC. Operating in the departmental divisions, Sèvres FC just missed reaching the 4th round of the Coupe de France 2008–2009. Indeed, playing against Red Star (then in CFA) at the Fountains Stadium, Sèvres FC opened the score in the 7th minute through Thomas Millet. The score remained at 1-0 for seventy-five minutes, until the equalisation by Demba Diagouraga, for the team from Saint-Ouen. The Sèvres team, however, collapsed in overtime and lost four goals, giving the 'Greens' a 5–1 win after extra time. Having been a location which the 2012 Tour de France passed through on that year's final stage, Sèvres will host the departure for Stage 21, the final stage of the 2015 Tour de France, on 26 July, heading towards the year's ultimate finish line on the Champs-Élysées. ### Media Sèvres has been host to the internet radio station *GOOM Radio*, since 2007. ### Worship Sèvres has places of Catholic, Jewish, Muslim, Protestant and Buddhist worship. #### Catholic worship Since January 2010, the commune of Sèvres is part of the deanery of the hills, one of the nine deaneries of the Diocese of Nanterre. Within this deanery, places of Catholic worship under the two parishes of Sèvres are: * Parish of Saint-Romain: Church of Saint-Romain [fr] * Parish of Notre-Dame-des-Bruyères: Notre-Dame des Bruyères. #### Protestant worship Reformed Church of France (Sequoia Parish Centre) #### Jewish worship Jewish Community of Sèvres #### Muslim worship Association of Muslims of Sèvres #### Buddhist faith It is at Sèvres where the Tinh Tam pagoda [fr] is situated. Economy ------- ### Income of the population and taxation In 2010, the median taxable household income was €44,450, which ranked Sèvres at 960th position among the 31,525 communes with more than 39 households in metropolitan France. ### Employment In 2007, the communal employment rate was close to 100% (10,369 jobs for 10,607 employable people who resided in Sèvres), which corresponds to the objective which was set out in the blueprint of the Val de Seine, to the horizon of 2015. ### Businesses and shops Local culture and heritage -------------------------- ### Places and monuments The commune includes many listed monuments in the general inventory of French cultural heritage [fr]. **Monuments and sites, inventory on 31 December 2005**| Title | Classified ensemble | Registered ensemble | | --- | --- | --- | | International pedagogical centre | | • | | | Title | Classified monument | Registered monument | | National porcelain manufactory, 4 Grand-Rue: The six ovens | • | | | Sèvres Espace Loisirs [fr], 47 Grand-Rue: Former covered market | • | | | House of Jardies and Memorial of Gambetta (museum) | • | | | National school of ceramics | | • | | Building and gate, 17 Grande-Rue | | • | | Building, 16 Rue Troyon | | • | | Façades, roofs, gate, 14 rue Ville-d'Avray | | • | | Church | | • | | Former hôtel, 164 Grande-Rue: Main body, first span of both wings, closing on street, ground of the court, and interior decoration of the chapel, 33 rue | | • | | Armenian College | | • | | | Title | Classified site | Registered site | | Wood of Fausses-Reposes | | • | | Wood of Meudon and Viroflay | | • | | Banks of the Seine | | • | | Domain of Saint-Cloud with the Villeneuve-l'Etang Park | • | | | Domain of Brimborion | • | | | Île Monsieur | • | | | Banks of the Seine | | • | | Ponds and their surroundings | | • | | *Source : IAURIF [fr]* | #### The Church of Saint-Romain-de-Blaye The church offers an amalgam of Gothic, redesigned and damaged by the 17th century: Outdoors, there is a clerestory tower which was disfigured. The rounded roof has been largely preserved, but it is much uncovered. The Way of the Cross, painted on porcelain, comes from the Manufacture de Sèvres, and stained glass windows, more than a century old. This church was inaugurated several times. It was founded by the Merovingian King Dagobert II in the 7th century, it was a Royal Parish under Marie Leszczyńska. The first municipal assembly, created by the edict of 1787, consisted of two members: The lord, namely King Louis XVI, and the priest, as well as nine other elected members. This assembly met in the church at the end of vespers or high mass. This church was listed in the inventory of historical monuments in 1937. Its bell, called *Anette*, was blessed in 1760 and listed in the inventory of historical monuments on 27 April 1944. The rectory was built between 1744 and 1786. #### The Church of Our Lady of Bruyères This chapel was built in 1930, on the edge of the Route des Gardes. Established as a parish in 1962, destroyed in 1971, it was rebuilt at 23 rue du Docteur Roux in 1968. #### The Armenian College This building, located 26 *Rue Troyon*, was given to the Pompadour for a school for girls. It was rebuilt for Bacler d'Albe between 1816 (cadastre) and 1824 (death of general). Occupied in 1898 by a convalescent home for colonial soldiers, it is currently the Samuel Moorat Armenian College, but it is currently threatened, taking into account its state. #### The manufacture of crystals of the Queen The building of this factory, located at 16 Rue Troyon and built in 1744, was classified in the inventory of historical monuments on 1 December 1986. #### The *Manufacture nationale de Sèvres* The current building dates from 1876. This building was classified in the inventory of historical monuments on 30 October 1935. The *Manufacture nationale de Sèvres* is a public establishment manufacturing ceramic in the tradition of the 18th century. #### The Maison des Jardies The Maison des Jardies [fr] is the home of Balzac, Corot and Gambetta who died there on 31 December 1882. This house, located 14 Avenue Gambetta, had been bought by Balzac, which he occupied from 1837 to 1840, and was then leased by Gambetta in 1878. #### National Ceramic Museum Founded in 1824 by Alexandre Brongniart, director of the Manufacture nationale de Sèvres, under the name of Ceramic and Vitric Museum. Anxious to present the history of the techniques of ceramics and vitreous materials, through the world and eras, the latter was one of the collections of ceramics of the most varied. The Museum brings together an exceptional selection of pottery, ceramics and porcelain. #### Tinh Tam Buddhist Temple The magnificent Buddhist temple or Tinh Tam pagoda [fr] is one of the busiest in France. #### Castel Henriette Villa Castel Henriette, built in 1899–1900, was an important Art Nouveau work by the architect Hector Guimard; it was demolished in 1969. #### Stone quarries These stone quarries were dug into the hillside and used for wine storage in 1740, divided into 30 galleries including one called Royal Gallery; converted into a brasserie in 1840, which burned down in 1880 and was rebuilt in 1898. #### Religious institutions * Boarding school of the Dominicans: The presence of nuns who teach at Sèvres dates back to 1788, when an act provided for the education of poor girls by four sisters of charity. At Sèvres, on Rue Gabriel Péri, were formerly the convent, school and boarding school of the Dominican teachers of Most Holy-Rosary of Sèvres, work encouraged by the Holy curé d'Ars, founded by the Sister Marie-Rose of the Sacred Heart Order of Preachers at the end of the 19th century, with Fr. Codant, in 1858, of which novices carried the name of servants of the Sacred Heart and had several foundations, in San Remo for example during the exile from France in 1903, and also an orphanage, Rue Troyon (they returned to France in 1913 and asked for Government permission to reopen a novitiate). During the war an ambulance and infirmary for wounded soldiers was installed in the convent. * Novitiate of the Assumptionists: On some old postcards, one can admire the Chapel of the Assumptionists, located at 14 Rue de la Croix-Bosset in the quarter of La Croix-Bosset. This property, acquired on 30 April 1874, was offered to the religious of the assumption at the end of the year 1877 to become the Paris novitiate outside the city. The Oblates of the Assumption also settled in Sèvres and then a community of Assumptionist sisters. Finally, the religious of the province of Paris between 1946 and 1964, a lively workers' mission [fr] centre of Saint-Étienne in Sèvres, on Avenue Division Leclerc, a community called *La Cloche*, close to the Renault factories. ### Cultural heritage #### Sèvres and artworks Sèvres, near Paris but very rustic, attracted the greatest painters: * Samuel William Reynolds painted *Saint-Cloud et le pont de Sèvres* (Musée Condé, Chantilly) * The Douanier Rousseau painted in 1908 a *Vue du pont de Sèvres* (The Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts, Moscow) * Sisley, who lived in *Grand-Rue*, painted the former factory, the bridge and the banks of the Seine, paths * Corot is painted his famous *Chemin de Sèvres* (Musée du Louvre) * Paul Huet painted are tasty and country views as possible (Musée de l'Île-de-France, Sceaux) * Marie Bracquemond, wife of Félix Bracquemond (*Le Chemin des Coutures à Sèvres*, National Gallery of Canada) linked to the Group of impressionists and employed at the factory, is painted Sèvres. His most famous work: *Sur la terrasse de Sèvres avec Fantin-Latour* (leg. Caillebotte). * Constant Troyon born in Sèvres in 1810, first painter of the Barbizon school are painted *Chemin de forêt* and the *Maison Colas*, the *Prise de la culée du pont de Sèvres*. Constant Troyon's parents worked at the manufacture de Sèvres, his father as a painter decorator, and his mother as a buffer. He was encouraged in the field of the arts by his godfather, Riocreux, the curator of the Ceramics Museum of Sèvres and a floral painter. He lived with his mother at the factory until the age of twenty. He first exhibited three paintings at the Paris Salon in 1833, including the *Vue de la Maison Colas* and the *Vue de la Fête de Sèvres*. * Wassily Kandinsky lived for a year in Sèvres, in 1906–1907, at the Rue des Ursulines and then small Rue des Binelles, became Rue Théodore Deck. He painted the *La Vie Mélangée*. * Alain Azémar, a painter from Sèvres, living in the Rue de Caves, a street which was the theatre of many "squats" protest-painted scenes of Sèvres on many occasions. Many of his watercolours were commissioned and are displayed by the city hall. #### Sèvres and philately The French Post Office has developed several times Sèvres à l'Honneur: On 25 March 1957, a postage stamp was issued with a face value of 30.00 Francs, honouring the Manufacture Nationale de Sèvres, drawn and engraved by Pierre Munier. On 10 January 2009, a postage stamp was issued with a face value of €0.55, representing a Quimper flat oval earthenware, displayed by the Museum of Sèvres. #### Sèvres and television The city of Sèvres is the scene for the filming of the French television series *Fais pas ci, fais pas ça*. ### Personalities linked to the commune * Andrew Albicy basketball player * Demba Ba - Senegalese international football player * André Bizette-Lindet, sculptor, died in Sèvres in 1988 * Yamoudou Camara - French football player * Manu Chao - Hispano-French musician * Issiar Dia - Senegalese international football player * Pierre Louis Félix Lanquetot (1880–1974) - French brigadier general * Allan Linguet (born 1999), footballer * Benoit Mozin (1769–1857), French composer, died in Sèvres * Iliana Rupert (born 2001), basketball player * Georges Salles (1889–1966), art historian, was born in Sèvres * Jean-Pierre Vernant (1914–2007), historian, died in Sèvres * Karim Ziani - Algerian international football player ### Heraldry, logo and motto | | | | --- | --- | | Arms of SèvreArms of Sèvre | The arms of Sèvre are blazoned :*Azure a bridge of wood two batteries or on waves argent issuing from base, surmounted by a huchet covered or virole and enguiche sable, to the chief or a branch of laurel and a palm in double saltire sable, displayed two vases azure overloaded each a Fleur-de-lis or.* | See also -------- * Communes of the Hauts-de-Seine department * Porcelain * Sèvres Syndrome

Sèvres

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A8vres

**Machine learning** (**ML**) is a branch of artificial intelligence that leverages data to improve computer performance by giving machines the ability to "learn". Machine learning algorithms build a model based on sample data, known as training data, in order to make predictions or decisions without being explicitly programmed to do so. Machine learning algorithms are used in a wide variety of applications, such as in medicine, email filtering, speech recognition, agriculture, and computer vision, where it is difficult or unfeasible to develop conventional algorithms to perform the needed tasks. A subset of machine learning is closely related to computational statistics, which focuses on making predictions using computers, but not all machine learning is statistical learning. The study of mathematical optimization delivers methods, theory and application domains to the field of machine learning. Data mining is a related field of study, focusing on exploratory data analysis through unsupervised learning. Some implementations of machine learning use data and artificial neural networks in a way that mimics the working of a biological brain. In its application across business problems, machine learning is also referred to as predictive analytics. Overview -------- Learning algorithms work on the basis that strategies, algorithms, and inferences that worked well in the past are likely to continue working well in the future. These inferences can sometimes be obvious, such as "since the sun rose every morning for the last 10,000 days, it will probably rise tomorrow morning as well". Other times, they can be more nuanced, such as "X% of families have geographically separate species with color variants, so there is a Y% chance that undiscovered black swans exist". Machine learning programs can perform tasks without being explicitly programmed to do so. It involves computers learning from data provided so that they carry out certain tasks. For simple tasks assigned to computers, it is possible to program algorithms telling the machine how to execute all steps required to solve the problem at hand; on the computer's part, no learning is needed. For more complex tasks, it can be challenging for a human to manually create the needed algorithms. In practice, it can turn out to be more effective to help the machine develop its own algorithm, rather than having human programmers specify every needed step. The discipline of machine learning employs various approaches to teach computers to accomplish tasks where no fully satisfactory algorithm is available. In cases where vast numbers of potential answers exist, one approach is to label some of the correct answers as valid. This can then be used as training data for the computer to improve the algorithm(s) it uses to determine correct answers. For example, to train a system for the task of digital character recognition, the MNIST dataset of handwritten digits has often been used. History and relationships to other fields ----------------------------------------- The term *machine learning* was coined in 1959 by Arthur Samuel, an IBM employee and pioneer in the field of computer gaming and artificial intelligence. The synonym *self-teaching computers* was also used in this time period. By the early 1960s an experimental "learning machine" with punched tape memory, called Cybertron, had been developed by Raytheon Company to analyze sonar signals, electrocardiograms, and speech patterns using rudimentary reinforcement learning. It was repetitively "trained" by a human operator/teacher to recognize patterns and equipped with a "goof" button to cause it to re-evaluate incorrect decisions. A representative book on research into machine learning during the 1960s was Nilsson's book on Learning Machines, dealing mostly with machine learning for pattern classification. Interest related to pattern recognition continued into the 1970s, as described by Duda and Hart in 1973. In 1981 a report was given on using teaching strategies so that a neural network learns to recognize 40 characters (26 letters, 10 digits, and 4 special symbols) from a computer terminal. Tom M. Mitchell provided a widely quoted, more formal definition of the algorithms studied in the machine learning field: "A computer program is said to learn from experience *E* with respect to some class of tasks *T* and performance measure *P* if its performance at tasks in *T*, as measured by *P*, improves with experience *E*." This definition of the tasks in which machine learning is concerned offers a fundamentally operational definition rather than defining the field in cognitive terms. This follows Alan Turing's proposal in his paper "Computing Machinery and Intelligence", in which the question "Can machines think?" is replaced with the question "Can machines do what we (as thinking entities) can do?". Modern-day machine learning has two objectives, one is to classify data based on models which have been developed, the other purpose is to make predictions for future outcomes based on these models. A hypothetical algorithm specific to classifying data may use computer vision of moles coupled with supervised learning in order to train it to classify the cancerous moles. A machine learning algorithm for stock trading may inform the trader of future potential predictions. ### Artificial intelligence As a scientific endeavor, machine learning grew out of the quest for artificial intelligence (AI). In the early days of AI as an academic discipline, some researchers were interested in having machines learn from data. They attempted to approach the problem with various symbolic methods, as well as what were then termed "neural networks"; these were mostly perceptrons and other models that were later found to be reinventions of the generalized linear models of statistics. Probabilistic reasoning was also employed, especially in automated medical diagnosis. However, an increasing emphasis on the logical, knowledge-based approach caused a rift between AI and machine learning. Probabilistic systems were plagued by theoretical and practical problems of data acquisition and representation. By 1980, expert systems had come to dominate AI, and statistics was out of favor. Work on symbolic/knowledge-based learning did continue within AI, leading to inductive logic programming, but the more statistical line of research was now outside the field of AI proper, in pattern recognition and information retrieval. Neural networks research had been abandoned by AI and computer science around the same time. This line, too, was continued outside the AI/CS field, as "connectionism", by researchers from other disciplines including Hopfield, Rumelhart, and Hinton. Their main success came in the mid-1980s with the reinvention of backpropagation. Machine learning (ML), reorganized and recognized as its own field, started to flourish in the 1990s. The field changed its goal from achieving artificial intelligence to tackling solvable problems of a practical nature. It shifted focus away from the symbolic approaches it had inherited from AI, and toward methods and models borrowed from statistics, fuzzy logic, and probability theory. ### Data mining Machine learning and data mining often employ the same methods and overlap significantly, but while machine learning focuses on prediction, based on *known* properties learned from the training data, data mining focuses on the discovery of (previously) *unknown* properties in the data (this is the analysis step of knowledge discovery in databases). Data mining uses many machine learning methods, but with different goals; on the other hand, machine learning also employs data mining methods as "unsupervised learning" or as a preprocessing step to improve learner accuracy. Much of the confusion between these two research communities (which do often have separate conferences and separate journals, ECML PKDD being a major exception) comes from the basic assumptions they work with: in machine learning, performance is usually evaluated with respect to the ability to *reproduce known* knowledge, while in knowledge discovery and data mining (KDD) the key task is the discovery of previously *unknown* knowledge. Evaluated with respect to known knowledge, an uninformed (unsupervised) method will easily be outperformed by other supervised methods, while in a typical KDD task, supervised methods cannot be used due to the unavailability of training data. Machine learning also has intimate ties to optimization: many learning problems are formulated as minimization of some loss function on a training set of examples. Loss functions express the discrepancy between the predictions of the model being trained and the actual problem instances (for example, in classification, one wants to assign a label to instances, and models are trained to correctly predict the pre-assigned labels of a set of examples). ### Generalization The difference between optimization and machine learning arises from the goal of generalization: while optimization algorithms can minimize the loss on a training set, machine learning is concerned with minimizing the loss on unseen samples. Characterizing the generalization of various learning algorithms is an active topic of current research, especially for deep learning algorithms. ### Statistics Machine learning and statistics are closely related fields in terms of methods, but distinct in their principal goal: statistics draws population inferences from a sample, while machine learning finds generalizable predictive patterns. According to Michael I. Jordan, the ideas of machine learning, from methodological principles to theoretical tools, have had a long pre-history in statistics. He also suggested the term data science as a placeholder to call the overall field. Leo Breiman distinguished two statistical modeling paradigms: data model and algorithmic model, wherein "algorithmic model" means more or less the machine learning algorithms like Random Forest. Some statisticians have adopted methods from machine learning, leading to a combined field that they call *statistical learning*. ### Physics Analytical and computational techniques derived from deep-rooted physics of disordered systems can be extended to large-scale problems, including machine learning, e.g., to analyze the weight space of deep neural networks. Statistical physics is thus finding applications in the area of medical diagnostics. Theory ------- A core objective of a learner is to generalize from its experience. Generalization in this context is the ability of a learning machine to perform accurately on new, unseen examples/tasks after having experienced a learning data set. The training examples come from some generally unknown probability distribution (considered representative of the space of occurrences) and the learner has to build a general model about this space that enables it to produce sufficiently accurate predictions in new cases. The computational analysis of machine learning algorithms and their performance is a branch of theoretical computer science known as computational learning theory via the Probably Approximately Correct Learning (PAC) model. Because training sets are finite and the future is uncertain, learning theory usually does not yield guarantees of the performance of algorithms. Instead, probabilistic bounds on the performance are quite common. The bias–variance decomposition is one way to quantify generalization error. For the best performance in the context of generalization, the complexity of the hypothesis should match the complexity of the function underlying the data. If the hypothesis is less complex than the function, then the model has under fitted the data. If the complexity of the model is increased in response, then the training error decreases. But if the hypothesis is too complex, then the model is subject to overfitting and generalization will be poorer. In addition to performance bounds, learning theorists study the time complexity and feasibility of learning. In computational learning theory, a computation is considered feasible if it can be done in polynomial time. There are two kinds of time complexity results: Positive results show that a certain class of functions can be learned in polynomial time. Negative results show that certain classes cannot be learned in polynomial time. Approaches ---------- Machine learning approaches are traditionally divided into three broad categories, which correspond to learning paradigms, depending on the nature of the "signal" or "feedback" available to the learning system: * Supervised learning: The computer is presented with example inputs and their desired outputs, given by a "teacher", and the goal is to learn a general rule that maps inputs to outputs. * Unsupervised learning: No labels are given to the learning algorithm, leaving it on its own to find structure in its input. Unsupervised learning can be a goal in itself (discovering hidden patterns in data) or a means towards an end (feature learning). * Reinforcement learning: A computer program interacts with a dynamic environment in which it must perform a certain goal (such as driving a vehicle or playing a game against an opponent). As it navigates its problem space, the program is provided feedback that's analogous to rewards, which it tries to maximize. Although each algorithm has advantages and limitations, no single algorithm works for all problems. ### Supervised learning Supervised learning algorithms build a mathematical model of a set of data that contains both the inputs and the desired outputs. The data is known as training data, and consists of a set of training examples. Each training example has one or more inputs and the desired output, also known as a supervisory signal. In the mathematical model, each training example is represented by an array or vector, sometimes called a feature vector, and the training data is represented by a matrix. Through iterative optimization of an objective function, supervised learning algorithms learn a function that can be used to predict the output associated with new inputs. An optimal function will allow the algorithm to correctly determine the output for inputs that were not a part of the training data. An algorithm that improves the accuracy of its outputs or predictions over time is said to have learned to perform that task. Types of supervised-learning algorithms include active learning, classification and regression. Classification algorithms are used when the outputs are restricted to a limited set of values, and regression algorithms are used when the outputs may have any numerical value within a range. As an example, for a classification algorithm that filters emails, the input would be an incoming email, and the output would be the name of the folder in which to file the email. Similarity learning is an area of supervised machine learning closely related to regression and classification, but the goal is to learn from examples using a similarity function that measures how similar or related two objects are. It has applications in ranking, recommendation systems, visual identity tracking, face verification, and speaker verification. ### Unsupervised learning Unsupervised learning algorithms take a set of data that contains only inputs, and find structure in the data, like grouping or clustering of data points. The algorithms, therefore, learn from test data that has not been labeled, classified or categorized. Instead of responding to feedback, unsupervised learning algorithms identify commonalities in the data and react based on the presence or absence of such commonalities in each new piece of data. A central application of unsupervised learning is in the field of density estimation in statistics, such as finding the probability density function. Though unsupervised learning encompasses other domains involving summarizing and explaining data features. Unsupervised learning algorithms streamlined the process of survey and graph large indel based haplotypes of a gene of interest from pan-genome. Cluster analysis is the assignment of a set of observations into subsets (called *clusters*) so that observations within the same cluster are similar according to one or more predesignated criteria, while observations drawn from different clusters are dissimilar. Different clustering techniques make different assumptions on the structure of the data, often defined by some *similarity metric* and evaluated, for example, by *internal compactness*, or the similarity between members of the same cluster, and *separation*, the difference between clusters. Other methods are based on *estimated density* and *graph connectivity*. ### Semi-supervised learning Semi-supervised learning falls between unsupervised learning (without any labeled training data) and supervised learning (with completely labeled training data). Some of the training examples are missing training labels, yet many machine-learning researchers have found that unlabeled data, when used in conjunction with a small amount of labeled data, can produce a considerable improvement in learning accuracy. In weakly supervised learning, the training labels are noisy, limited, or imprecise; however, these labels are often cheaper to obtain, resulting in larger effective training sets. ### Reinforcement learning Reinforcement learning is an area of machine learning concerned with how software agents ought to take actions in an environment so as to maximize some notion of cumulative reward. Due to its generality, the field is studied in many other disciplines, such as game theory, control theory, operations research, information theory, simulation-based optimization, multi-agent systems, swarm intelligence, statistics and genetic algorithms. In machine learning, the environment is typically represented as a Markov decision process (MDP). Many reinforcements learning algorithms use dynamic programming techniques. Reinforcement learning algorithms do not assume knowledge of an exact mathematical model of the MDP and are used when exact models are infeasible. Reinforcement learning algorithms are used in autonomous vehicles or in learning to play a game against a human opponent. ### Dimensionality reduction Dimensionality reduction is a process of reducing the number of random variables under consideration by obtaining a set of principal variables. In other words, it is a process of reducing the dimension of the feature set, also called the "number of features". Most of the dimensionality reduction techniques can be considered as either feature elimination or extraction. One of the popular methods of dimensionality reduction is principal component analysis (PCA). PCA involves changing higher-dimensional data (e.g., 3D) to a smaller space (e.g., 2D). This results in a smaller dimension of data (2D instead of 3D), while keeping all original variables in the model without changing the data. The manifold hypothesis proposes that high-dimensional data sets lie along low-dimensional manifolds, and many dimensionality reduction techniques make this assumption, leading to the area of manifold learning and manifold regularization. ### Other types Other approaches have been developed which do not fit neatly into this three-fold categorization, and sometimes more than one is used by the same machine learning system. For example, topic modeling, meta-learning. As of 2022, deep learning is the dominant approach for much ongoing work in the field of machine learning. #### Self-learning Self-learning, as a machine learning paradigm was introduced in 1982 along with a neural network capable of self-learning, named *crossbar adaptive array* (CAA). It is learning with no external rewards and no external teacher advice. The CAA self-learning algorithm computes, in a crossbar fashion, both decisions about actions and emotions (feelings) about consequence situations. The system is driven by the interaction between cognition and emotion. The self-learning algorithm updates a memory matrix W =||w(a,s)|| such that in each iteration executes the following machine learning routine: 1. in situation *s* perform action *a* 2. receive consequence situation *s'* 3. compute emotion of being in consequence situation *v(s')* 4. update crossbar memory *w'(a,s) = w(a,s) + v(s')* It is a system with only one input, situation, and only one output, action (or behavior) a. There is neither a separate reinforcement input nor an advice input from the environment. The backpropagated value (secondary reinforcement) is the emotion toward the consequence situation. The CAA exists in two environments, one is the behavioral environment where it behaves, and the other is the genetic environment, wherefrom it initially and only once receives initial emotions about situations to be encountered in the behavioral environment. After receiving the genome (species) vector from the genetic environment, the CAA learns a goal-seeking behavior, in an environment that contains both desirable and undesirable situations. #### Feature learning Several learning algorithms aim at discovering better representations of the inputs provided during training. Classic examples include principal component analysis and cluster analysis. Feature learning algorithms, also called representation learning algorithms, often attempt to preserve the information in their input but also transform it in a way that makes it useful, often as a pre-processing step before performing classification or predictions. This technique allows reconstruction of the inputs coming from the unknown data-generating distribution, while not being necessarily faithful to configurations that are implausible under that distribution. This replaces manual feature engineering, and allows a machine to both learn the features and use them to perform a specific task. Feature learning can be either supervised or unsupervised. In supervised feature learning, features are learned using labeled input data. Examples include artificial neural networks, multilayer perceptrons, and supervised dictionary learning. In unsupervised feature learning, features are learned with unlabeled input data. Examples include dictionary learning, independent component analysis, autoencoders, matrix factorization and various forms of clustering. Manifold learning algorithms attempt to do so under the constraint that the learned representation is low-dimensional. Sparse coding algorithms attempt to do so under the constraint that the learned representation is sparse, meaning that the mathematical model has many zeros. Multilinear subspace learning algorithms aim to learn low-dimensional representations directly from tensor representations for multidimensional data, without reshaping them into higher-dimensional vectors. Deep learning algorithms discover multiple levels of representation, or a hierarchy of features, with higher-level, more abstract features defined in terms of (or generating) lower-level features. It has been argued that an intelligent machine is one that learns a representation that disentangles the underlying factors of variation that explain the observed data. Feature learning is motivated by the fact that machine learning tasks such as classification often require input that is mathematically and computationally convenient to process. However, real-world data such as images, video, and sensory data has not yielded attempts to algorithmically define specific features. An alternative is to discover such features or representations through examination, without relying on explicit algorithms. #### Sparse dictionary learning Sparse dictionary learning is a feature learning method where a training example is represented as a linear combination of basis functions, and is assumed to be a sparse matrix. The method is strongly NP-hard and difficult to solve approximately. A popular heuristic method for sparse dictionary learning is the K-SVD algorithm. Sparse dictionary learning has been applied in several contexts. In classification, the problem is to determine the class to which a previously unseen training example belongs. For a dictionary where each class has already been built, a new training example is associated with the class that is best sparsely represented by the corresponding dictionary. Sparse dictionary learning has also been applied in image de-noising. The key idea is that a clean image patch can be sparsely represented by an image dictionary, but the noise cannot. #### Anomaly detection In data mining, anomaly detection, also known as outlier detection, is the identification of rare items, events or observations which raise suspicions by differing significantly from the majority of the data. Typically, the anomalous items represent an issue such as bank fraud, a structural defect, medical problems or errors in a text. Anomalies are referred to as outliers, novelties, noise, deviations and exceptions. In particular, in the context of abuse and network intrusion detection, the interesting objects are often not rare objects, but unexpected bursts of inactivity. This pattern does not adhere to the common statistical definition of an outlier as a rare object. Many outlier detection methods (in particular, unsupervised algorithms) will fail on such data unless aggregated appropriately. Instead, a cluster analysis algorithm may be able to detect the micro-clusters formed by these patterns. Three broad categories of anomaly detection techniques exist. Unsupervised anomaly detection techniques detect anomalies in an unlabeled test data set under the assumption that the majority of the instances in the data set are normal, by looking for instances that seem to fit the least to the remainder of the data set. Supervised anomaly detection techniques require a data set that has been labeled as "normal" and "abnormal" and involves training a classifier (the key difference to many other statistical classification problems is the inherently unbalanced nature of outlier detection). Semi-supervised anomaly detection techniques construct a model representing normal behavior from a given normal training data set and then test the likelihood of a test instance to be generated by the model. #### Robot learning Robot learning is inspired by a multitude of machine learning methods, starting from supervised learning, reinforcement learning, and finally meta-learning (e.g. MAML). #### Association rules Association rule learning is a rule-based machine learning method for discovering relationships between variables in large databases. It is intended to identify strong rules discovered in databases using some measure of "interestingness". Rule-based machine learning is a general term for any machine learning method that identifies, learns, or evolves "rules" to store, manipulate or apply knowledge. The defining characteristic of a rule-based machine learning algorithm is the identification and utilization of a set of relational rules that collectively represent the knowledge captured by the system. This is in contrast to other machine learning algorithms that commonly identify a singular model that can be universally applied to any instance in order to make a prediction. Rule-based machine learning approaches include learning classifier systems, association rule learning, and artificial immune systems. Based on the concept of strong rules, Rakesh Agrawal, Tomasz Imieliński and Arun Swami introduced association rules for discovering regularities between products in large-scale transaction data recorded by point-of-sale (POS) systems in supermarkets. For example, the rule { o n i o n s , p o t a t o e s } ⇒ { b u r g e r } {\displaystyle \{\mathrm {onions,potatoes} \}\Rightarrow \{\mathrm {burger} \}} \{{\mathrm {onions,potatoes}}\}\Rightarrow \{{\mathrm {burger}}\} found in the sales data of a supermarket would indicate that if a customer buys onions and potatoes together, they are likely to also buy hamburger meat. Such information can be used as the basis for decisions about marketing activities such as promotional pricing or product placements. In addition to market basket analysis, association rules are employed today in application areas including Web usage mining, intrusion detection, continuous production, and bioinformatics. In contrast with sequence mining, association rule learning typically does not consider the order of items either within a transaction or across transactions. Learning classifier systems (LCS) are a family of rule-based machine learning algorithms that combine a discovery component, typically a genetic algorithm, with a learning component, performing either supervised learning, reinforcement learning, or unsupervised learning. They seek to identify a set of context-dependent rules that collectively store and apply knowledge in a piecewise manner in order to make predictions. Inductive logic programming (ILP) is an approach to rule learning using logic programming as a uniform representation for input examples, background knowledge, and hypotheses. Given an encoding of the known background knowledge and a set of examples represented as a logical database of facts, an ILP system will derive a hypothesized logic program that entails all positive and no negative examples. Inductive programming is a related field that considers any kind of programming language for representing hypotheses (and not only logic programming), such as functional programs. Inductive logic programming is particularly useful in bioinformatics and natural language processing. Gordon Plotkin and Ehud Shapiro laid the initial theoretical foundation for inductive machine learning in a logical setting. Shapiro built their first implementation (Model Inference System) in 1981: a Prolog program that inductively inferred logic programs from positive and negative examples. The term *inductive* here refers to philosophical induction, suggesting a theory to explain observed facts, rather than mathematical induction, proving a property for all members of a well-ordered set. ### Models Performing machine learning involves creating a model, which is trained on some training data and then can process additional data to make predictions. Various types of models have been used and researched for machine learning systems. #### Artificial neural networks Artificial neural networks (ANNs), or connectionist systems, are computing systems vaguely inspired by the biological neural networks that constitute animal brains. Such systems "learn" to perform tasks by considering examples, generally without being programmed with any task-specific rules. An ANN is a model based on a collection of connected units or nodes called "artificial neurons", which loosely model the neurons in a biological brain. Each connection, like the synapses in a biological brain, can transmit information, a "signal", from one artificial neuron to another. An artificial neuron that receives a signal can process it and then signal additional artificial neurons connected to it. In common ANN implementations, the signal at a connection between artificial neurons is a real number, and the output of each artificial neuron is computed by some non-linear function of the sum of its inputs. The connections between artificial neurons are called "edges". Artificial neurons and edges typically have a weight that adjusts as learning proceeds. The weight increases or decreases the strength of the signal at a connection. Artificial neurons may have a threshold such that the signal is only sent if the aggregate signal crosses that threshold. Typically, artificial neurons are aggregated into layers. Different layers may perform different kinds of transformations on their inputs. Signals travel from the first layer (the input layer) to the last layer (the output layer), possibly after traversing the layers multiple times. The original goal of the ANN approach was to solve problems in the same way that a human brain would. However, over time, attention moved to performing specific tasks, leading to deviations from biology. Artificial neural networks have been used on a variety of tasks, including computer vision, speech recognition, machine translation, social network filtering, playing board and video games and medical diagnosis. Deep learning consists of multiple hidden layers in an artificial neural network. This approach tries to model the way the human brain processes light and sound into vision and hearing. Some successful applications of deep learning are computer vision and speech recognition. #### Decision trees Decision tree learning uses a decision tree as a predictive model to go from observations about an item (represented in the branches) to conclusions about the item's target value (represented in the leaves). It is one of the predictive modeling approaches used in statistics, data mining, and machine learning. Tree models where the target variable can take a discrete set of values are called classification trees; in these tree structures, leaves represent class labels, and branches represent conjunctions of features that lead to those class labels. Decision trees where the target variable can take continuous values (typically real numbers) are called regression trees. In decision analysis, a decision tree can be used to visually and explicitly represent decisions and decision making. In data mining, a decision tree describes data, but the resulting classification tree can be an input for decision-making. #### Support-vector machines Support-vector machines (SVMs), also known as support-vector networks, are a set of related supervised learning methods used for classification and regression. Given a set of training examples, each marked as belonging to one of two categories, an SVM training algorithm builds a model that predicts whether a new example falls into one category. An SVM training algorithm is a non-probabilistic, binary, linear classifier, although methods such as Platt scaling exist to use SVM in a probabilistic classification setting. In addition to performing linear classification, SVMs can efficiently perform a non-linear classification using what is called the kernel trick, implicitly mapping their inputs into high-dimensional feature spaces. #### Regression analysis Regression analysis encompasses a large variety of statistical methods to estimate the relationship between input variables and their associated features. Its most common form is linear regression, where a single line is drawn to best fit the given data according to a mathematical criterion such as ordinary least squares. The latter is often extended by regularization methods to mitigate overfitting and bias, as in ridge regression. When dealing with non-linear problems, go-to models include polynomial regression (for example, used for trendline fitting in Microsoft Excel), logistic regression (often used in statistical classification) or even kernel regression, which introduces non-linearity by taking advantage of the kernel trick to implicitly map input variables to higher-dimensional space. #### Bayesian networks A Bayesian network, belief network, or directed acyclic graphical model is a probabilistic graphical model that represents a set of random variables and their conditional independence with a directed acyclic graph (DAG). For example, a Bayesian network could represent the probabilistic relationships between diseases and symptoms. Given symptoms, the network can be used to compute the probabilities of the presence of various diseases. Efficient algorithms exist that perform inference and learning. Bayesian networks that model sequences of variables, like speech signals or protein sequences, are called dynamic Bayesian networks. Generalizations of Bayesian networks that can represent and solve decision problems under uncertainty are called influence diagrams. #### Gaussian processes A Gaussian process is a stochastic process in which every finite collection of the random variables in the process has a multivariate normal distribution, and it relies on a pre-defined covariance function, or kernel, that models how pairs of points relate to each other depending on their locations. Given a set of observed points, or input–output examples, the distribution of the (unobserved) output of a new point as function of its input data can be directly computed by looking like the observed points and the covariances between those points and the new, unobserved point. Gaussian processes are popular surrogate models in Bayesian optimization used to do hyperparameter optimization. #### Genetic algorithms A genetic algorithm (GA) is a search algorithm and heuristic technique that mimics the process of natural selection, using methods such as mutation and crossover to generate new genotypes in the hope of finding good solutions to a given problem. In machine learning, genetic algorithms were used in the 1980s and 1990s. Conversely, machine learning techniques have been used to improve the performance of genetic and evolutionary algorithms. ### Training models Typically, machine learning models require a high quantity of reliable data in order for the models to perform accurate predictions. When training a machine learning model, machine learning engineers need to target and collect a large and representative sample of data. Data from the training set can be as varied as a corpus of text, a collection of images, sensor data, and data collected from individual users of a service. Overfitting is something to watch out for when training a machine learning model. Trained models derived from biased or non-evaluated data can result in skewed or undesired predictions. Bias models may result in detrimental outcomes thereby furthering the negative impacts on society or objectives. Algorithmic bias is a potential result of data not being fully prepared for training. Machine learning ethics is becoming a field of study and notably be integrated within machine learning engineering teams. #### Federated learning Federated learning is an adapted form of distributed artificial intelligence to training machine learning models that decentralizes the training process, allowing for users' privacy to be maintained by not needing to send their data to a centralized server. This also increases efficiency by decentralizing the training process to many devices. For example, Gboard uses federated machine learning to train search query prediction models on users' mobile phones without having to send individual searches back to Google. Applications ------------ There are many applications for machine learning, including: * Agriculture * Anatomy * Adaptive website * Affective computing * Astronomy * Automated decision-making * Banking * Behaviorism * Bioinformatics * Brain–machine interfaces * Cheminformatics * Citizen Science * Climate Science * Computer networks * Computer vision * Credit-card fraud detection * Data quality * DNA sequence classification * Economics * Financial market analysis * General game playing * Handwriting recognition * Healthcare * Information retrieval * Insurance * Internet fraud detection * Knowledge graph embedding * Linguistics * Machine learning control * Machine perception * Machine translation * Marketing * Medical diagnosis * Natural language processing * Natural language understanding * Online advertising * Optimization * Recommender systems * Robot locomotion * Search engines * Sentiment analysis * Sequence mining * Software engineering * Speech recognition * Structural health monitoring * Syntactic pattern recognition * Telecommunication * Theorem proving * Time-series forecasting * User behavior analytics In 2006, the media-services provider Netflix held the first "Netflix Prize" competition to find a program to better predict user preferences and improve the accuracy of its existing Cinematch movie recommendation algorithm by at least 10%. A joint team made up of researchers from AT&T Labs-Research in collaboration with the teams Big Chaos and Pragmatic Theory built an ensemble model to win the Grand Prize in 2009 for $1 million. Shortly after the prize was awarded, Netflix realized that viewers' ratings were not the best indicators of their viewing patterns ("everything is a recommendation") and they changed their recommendation engine accordingly. In 2010 The Wall Street Journal wrote about the firm Rebellion Research and their use of machine learning to predict the financial crisis. In 2012, co-founder of Sun Microsystems, Vinod Khosla, predicted that 80% of medical doctors jobs would be lost in the next two decades to automated machine learning medical diagnostic software. In 2014, it was reported that a machine learning algorithm had been applied in the field of art history to study fine art paintings and that it may have revealed previously unrecognized influences among artists. In 2019 Springer Nature published the first research book created using machine learning. In 2020, machine learning technology was used to help make diagnoses and aid researchers in developing a cure for COVID-19. Machine learning was recently applied to predict the pro-environmental behavior of travelers. Recently, machine learning technology was also applied to optimize smartphone's performance and thermal behavior based on the user's interaction with the phone. Limitations ----------- Although machine learning has been transformative in some fields, machine-learning programs often fail to deliver expected results. Reasons for this are numerous: lack of (suitable) data, lack of access to the data, data bias, privacy problems, badly chosen tasks and algorithms, wrong tools and people, lack of resources, and evaluation problems. In 2018, a self-driving car from Uber failed to detect a pedestrian, who was killed after a collision. Attempts to use machine learning in healthcare with the IBM Watson system failed to deliver even after years of time and billions of dollars invested. Machine learning has been used as a strategy to update the evidence related to a systematic review and increased reviewer burden related to the growth of biomedical literature. While it has improved with training sets, it has not yet developed sufficiently to reduce the workload burden without limiting the necessary sensitivity for the findings research themselves. ### Bias Machine learning approaches in particular can suffer from different data biases. A machine learning system trained specifically on current customers may not be able to predict the needs of new customer groups that are not represented in the training data. When trained on human-made data, machine learning is likely to pick up the constitutional and unconscious biases already present in society. Language models learned from data have been shown to contain human-like biases. Machine learning systems used for criminal risk assessment have been found to be biased against black people. In 2015, Google photos would often tag black people as gorillas, and in 2018 this still was not well resolved, but Google reportedly was still using the workaround to remove all gorillas from the training data, and thus was not able to recognize real gorillas at all. Similar issues with recognizing non-white people have been found in many other systems. In 2016, Microsoft tested a chatbot that learned from Twitter, and it quickly picked up racist and sexist language. Because of such challenges, the effective use of machine learning may take longer to be adopted in other domains. Concern for fairness in machine learning, that is, reducing bias in machine learning and propelling its use for human good is increasingly expressed by artificial intelligence scientists, including Fei-Fei Li, who reminds engineers that "There's nothing artificial about AI...It's inspired by people, it's created by people, and—most importantly—it impacts people. It is a powerful tool we are only just beginning to understand, and that is a profound responsibility." ### Explainability Explainable AI (XAI), or Interpretable AI, or Explainable Machine Learning (XML), is artificial intelligence (AI) in which humans can understand the decisions or predictions made by the AI. It contrasts with the "black box" concept in machine learning where even its designers cannot explain why an AI arrived at a specific decision. By refining the mental models of users of AI-powered systems and dismantling their misconceptions, XAI promises to help users perform more effectively. XAI may be an implementation of the social right to explanation. ### Overfitting Settling on a bad, overly complex theory gerrymandered to fit all the past training data is known as overfitting. Many systems attempt to reduce overfitting by rewarding a theory in accordance with how well it fits the data but penalizing the theory in accordance with how complex the theory is. ### Other limitations and vulnerabilities Learners can also disappoint by "learning the wrong lesson". A toy example is that an image classifier trained only on pictures of brown horses and black cats might conclude that all brown patches are likely to be horses. A real-world example is that, unlike humans, current image classifiers often do not primarily make judgments from the spatial relationship between components of the picture, and they learn relationships between pixels that humans are oblivious to, but that still correlate with images of certain types of real objects. Modifying these patterns on a legitimate image can result in "adversarial" images that the system misclassifies. Adversarial vulnerabilities can also result in nonlinear systems, or from non-pattern perturbations. Some systems are so brittle that changing a single adversarial pixel predictably induces misclassification. Machine learning models are often vulnerable to manipulation and/or evasion via adversarial machine learning. Researchers have demonstrated how backdoors can be placed undetectably into classifying (e.g., for categories "spam" and well-visible "not spam" of posts) machine learning models which are often developed and/or trained by third parties. Parties can change the classification of any input, including in cases for which a type of data/software transparency is provided, possibly including white-box access. Model assessments ----------------- Classification of machine learning models can be validated by accuracy estimation techniques like the holdout method, which splits the data in a training and test set (conventionally 2/3 training set and 1/3 test set designation) and evaluates the performance of the training model on the test set. In comparison, the K-fold-cross-validation method randomly partitions the data into K subsets and then K experiments are performed each respectively considering 1 subset for evaluation and the remaining K-1 subsets for training the model. In addition to the holdout and cross-validation methods, bootstrap, which samples n instances with replacement from the dataset, can be used to assess model accuracy. In addition to overall accuracy, investigators frequently report sensitivity and specificity meaning True Positive Rate (TPR) and True Negative Rate (TNR) respectively. Similarly, investigators sometimes report the false positive rate (FPR) as well as the false negative rate (FNR). However, these rates are ratios that fail to reveal their numerators and denominators. The total operating characteristic (TOC) is an effective method to express a model's diagnostic ability. TOC shows the numerators and denominators of the previously mentioned rates, thus TOC provides more information than the commonly used receiver operating characteristic (ROC) and ROC's associated area under the curve (AUC). Ethics ------ Machine learning poses a host of ethical questions. Systems that are trained on datasets collected with biases may exhibit these biases upon use (algorithmic bias), thus digitizing cultural prejudices. For example, in 1988, the UK's Commission for Racial Equality found that St. George's Medical School had been using a computer program trained from data of previous admissions staff and this program had denied nearly 60 candidates who were found to be either women or had non-European sounding names. Using job hiring data from a firm with racist hiring policies may lead to a machine learning system duplicating the bias by scoring job applicants by similarity to previous successful applicants. Responsible collection of data and documentation of algorithmic rules used by a system thus is a critical part of machine learning. AI can be well-equipped to make decisions in technical fields, which rely heavily on data and historical information. These decisions rely on the objectivity and logical reasoning. Because human languages contain biases, machines trained on language *corpora* will necessarily also learn these biases. Other forms of ethical challenges, not related to personal biases, are seen in health care. There are concerns among health care professionals that these systems might not be designed in the public's interest but as income-generating machines. This is especially true in the United States where there is a long-standing ethical dilemma of improving health care, but also increase profits. For example, the algorithms could be designed to provide patients with unnecessary tests or medication in which the algorithm's proprietary owners hold stakes. There is potential for machine learning in health care to provide professionals an additional tool to diagnose, medicate, and plan recovery paths for patients, but this requires these biases to be mitigated. Hardware -------- Since the 2010s, advances in both machine learning algorithms and computer hardware have led to more efficient methods for training deep neural networks (a particular narrow subdomain of machine learning) that contain many layers of non-linear hidden units. By 2019, graphic processing units (GPUs), often with AI-specific enhancements, had displaced CPUs as the dominant method of training large-scale commercial cloud AI. OpenAI estimated the hardware computing used in the largest deep learning projects from AlexNet (2012) to AlphaZero (2017), and found a 300,000-fold increase in the amount of compute required, with a doubling-time trendline of 3.4 months. ### Neuromorphic/Physical Neural Networks A physical neural network or Neuromorphic computer is a type of artificial neural network in which an electrically adjustable material is used to emulate the function of a neural synapse. "Physical" neural network is used to emphasize the reliance on physical hardware used to emulate neurons as opposed to software-based approaches. More generally the term is applicable to other artificial neural networks in which a memristor or other electrically adjustable resistance material is used to emulate a neural synapse. ### Embedded Machine Learning **Embedded Machine Learning** is a sub-field of machine learning, where the machine learning model is run on embedded systems with limited computing resources such as wearable computers, edge devices and microcontrollers. Running machine learning model in embedded devices removes the need for transferring and storing data on cloud servers for further processing, henceforth, reducing data breaches and privacy leaks happening because of transferring data, and also minimizes theft of intellectual properties, personal data and business secrets. Embedded Machine Learning could be applied through several techniques including hardware acceleration, using approximate computing, optimization of machine learning models and many more. Software -------- Software suites containing a variety of machine learning algorithms include the following: ### Free and open-source software * Caffe * Deeplearning4j * DeepSpeed * ELKI * Google JAX * Infer.NET * Keras * Kubeflow * LightGBM * Mahout * Mallet * Microsoft Cognitive Toolkit * ML.NET * mlpack * MLFlow * MXNet * Neural Lab * OpenNN * Orange * pandas (software) * ROOT (TMVA with ROOT) * scikit-learn * Shogun * Spark MLlib * SystemML * TensorFlow * Torch / PyTorch * Weka / MOA * XGBoost * Yooreeka ### Proprietary software with free and open-source editions * KNIME * RapidMiner ### Proprietary software * Amazon Machine Learning * Angoss KnowledgeSTUDIO * Azure Machine Learning * Ayasdi * IBM Watson Studio * Google Cloud Vertex AI * Google Prediction API * IBM SPSS Modeler * KXEN Modeler * LIONsolver * Mathematica * MATLAB * Neural Designer * NeuroSolutions * Oracle Data Mining * Oracle AI Platform Cloud Service * PolyAnalyst * RCASE * SAS Enterprise Miner * SequenceL * Splunk * STATISTICA Data Miner Journals -------- * Journal of Machine Learning Research * Machine Learning * Nature Machine Intelligence * Neural Computation * IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence Conferences ----------- * AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence * Association for Computational Linguistics (**ACL**) * European Conference on Machine Learning and Principles and Practice of Knowledge Discovery in Databases (**ECML PKDD**) * International Conference on Computational Intelligence Methods for Bioinformatics and Biostatistics (**CIBB**) * International Conference on Machine Learning (**ICML**) * International Conference on Learning Representations (**ICLR**) * International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (**IROS**) * Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (**KDD**) * Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (**NeurIPS**) See also -------- * Automated machine learning – Process of automating the application of machine learning * Big data – Information assets characterized by high volume, velocity, and variety * Differentiable programming – Programming paradigm * List of important publications in machine learning * List of datasets for machine-learning research – OAIS 2.0 Further reading --------------- * Nils J. Nilsson, *Introduction to Machine Learning Archived 2019-08-16 at the Wayback Machine*. * Trevor Hastie, Robert Tibshirani and Jerome H. Friedman (2001). *The Elements of Statistical Learning Archived 2013-10-27 at the Wayback Machine*, Springer. ISBN 0-387-95284-5. * Pedro Domingos (September 2015), *The Master Algorithm*, Basic Books, ISBN 978-0-465-06570-7 * Ian H. Witten and Eibe Frank (2011). *Data Mining: Practical machine learning tools and techniques* Morgan Kaufmann, 664pp., ISBN 978-0-12-374856-0. * Ethem Alpaydin (2004). *Introduction to Machine Learning*, MIT Press, ISBN 978-0-262-01243-0. * David J. C. MacKay. *Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms Archived 2016-02-17 at the Wayback Machine* Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-521-64298-1 * Richard O. Duda, Peter E. Hart, David G. Stork (2001) *Pattern classification* (2nd edition), Wiley, New York, ISBN 0-471-05669-3. * Christopher Bishop (1995). *Neural Networks for Pattern Recognition*, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-853864-2. * Stuart Russell & Peter Norvig, (2009). *Artificial Intelligence – A Modern Approach Archived 2011-02-28 at the Wayback Machine*. Pearson, ISBN 9789332543515. * Ray Solomonoff, *An Inductive Inference Machine*, IRE Convention Record, Section on Information Theory, Part 2, pp., 56–62, 1957. * Ray Solomonoff, *An Inductive Inference Machine Archived 2011-04-26 at the Wayback Machine* A privately circulated report from the 1956 Dartmouth Summer Research Conference on AI. * Kevin P. Murphy (2021). *Probabilistic Machine Learning: An Introduction Archived 2021-04-11 at the Wayback Machine*, MIT Press.

Machine learning

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_learning

**Shampoo** (/ʃæmˈpuː/) is a hair care product, typically in the form of a viscous liquid, that is used for cleaning hair. Less commonly, shampoo is available in solid bar format. Shampoo is used by applying it to wet hair, massaging the product into the scalp, and then rinsing it out. Some users may follow a shampooing with the use of hair conditioner. Shampoo is typically used to remove the unwanted build-up of sebum in the hair without stripping out so much as to make hair unmanageable. Shampoo is generally made by combining a surfactant, most often sodium lauryl sulfate or sodium laureth sulfate, with a co-surfactant, most often cocamidopropyl betaine in water. The sulfate ingredient acts as a surfactant, trapping oils and other contaminants, similarly to soap. Specialty shampoos are marketed to people with dandruff, color-treated hair, gluten or wheat allergies,[*why?*] an interest in using an organic product, infants and young children ("baby shampoo" is less irritating). There are also shampoos intended for animals that may contain insecticides or other medications to treat skin conditions or parasite infestations such as fleas. Etymology --------- The word *shampoo* entered the English language from the Indian subcontinent during the colonial era. It dated to 1762 and was derived from the Hindi word *cā̃pō* (चाँपो, pronounced [tʃãːpoː]), itself derived from the Sanskrit root *capati* (चपति), which means 'to press, knead, or soothe'. History ------- ### Indian subcontinent In the Indian subcontinent, a variety of herbs and their extracts have been used as shampoos since ancient times. The first origin of shampoo came from the Indus Valley Civilization. A very effective early shampoo was made by boiling Sapindus with dried Indian gooseberry (amla) and a selection of other herbs, using the strained extract. Sapindus, also known as soapberries or soapnuts, a tropical tree widespread in India, is called *ksuna* (Sanskrit: क्षुण) in ancient Indian texts and its fruit pulp contains saponins which are a natural surfactant. The extract of soapberries creates a lather which Indian texts called *phenaka* (Sanskrit: फेनक). It leaves the hair soft, shiny and manageable. Other products used for hair cleansing were shikakai (*Acacia concinna*), hibiscus flowers, ritha (*Sapindus mukorossi*) and arappu (*Albizzia amara*). Guru Nanak, the founder and the first Guru of Sikhism, made references to soapberry tree and soap in the 16th century. Cleansing the hair and body massage (champu) during one's daily bath was an indulgence of early colonial traders in India. When they returned to Europe, they introduced the newly learned habits, including the hair treatment they called shampoo. ### Europe Sake Dean Mahomed, a Bengali traveller, surgeon, and entrepreneur, is credited with introducing the practice of *shampoo* or "shampooing" to Britain. In 1814, Mahomed, with his Irish wife Jane Daly, opened the first commercial "shampooing" vapour masseur bath in England, in Brighton. He described the treatment in a local paper as "The Indian Medicated Vapour Bath (type of Turkish bath), a cure to many diseases and giving full relief when everything fails; particularly Rheumatic and paralytic, gout, stiff joints, old sprains, lame legs, aches and pains in the joints". During the early stages of shampoo in Europe, English hair stylists boiled shaved soap in water and added herbs to give the hair shine and fragrance. Commercially made shampoo was available from the turn of the 20th century. A 1914 advertisement for Canthrox Shampoo in *American Magazine* showed young women at camp washing their hair with Canthrox in a lake; magazine advertisements in 1914 by Rexall featured Harmony Hair Beautifier and Shampoo. In 1900, German perfumer and hair-stylist Josef Wilhelm Rausch developed the first liquid hair washing soap and named it "Champooing" in Emmishofen, Switzerland. Later, in 1919, J.W. Rausch developed an antiseptic Chamomile Shampooing (pH 8.5) https://www.rausch.ch/ueber-uns/geschichte.html In 1927, liquid shampoo was improved for mass production by German inventor Hans Schwarzkopf in Berlin; his name became a shampoo brand sold in Europe. Originally, soap and shampoo were very similar products; both containing the same naturally derived surfactants, a type of detergent. Modern shampoo as it is known today was first introduced in the 1930s with *Drene*, the first shampoo using synthetic surfactants instead of soap. Shampoo is also more beneficial for the hair roots. ### Indonesia Early shampoos used in Indonesia were made from the husk and straw (*merang*) of rice. The husks and straws were burned into ash, and the ashes (which have alkaline properties) are mixed with water to form lather. The ashes and lather were scrubbed into the hair and rinsed out, leaving the hair clean, but very dry. Afterwards, coconut oil was applied to the hair in order to moisturize it. ### Philippines Filipinos have been traditionally using *gugo* before commercial shampoos were sold in stores. The shampoo is obtained by soaking and rubbing the bark of the vine *Gugo* (*Entada phaseoloides*), producing a lather that cleanses the scalp effectively. *Gugo* is also used as an ingredient in hair tonics. ### Pre-Columbian North America Certain Native American tribes used extracts from North American plants as hair shampoo; for example the Costanoans of present-day coastal California used extracts from the coastal woodfern, *Dryopteris expansa*. ### Pre-Columbian South America Before quinoa can be eaten the saponin must be washed out from the grain prior to cooking. Pre-Columbian Andean civilizations used this soapy by-product as a shampoo. Composition ----------- Shampoo is generally made by combining a surfactant, most often sodium lauryl sulfate or sodium laureth sulfate, with a co-surfactant, most often cocamidopropyl betaine in water to form a thick, viscous liquid. Other essential ingredients include salt (sodium chloride), which is used to adjust the viscosity, a preservative and fragrance. Other ingredients are generally included in shampoo formulations to maximize the following qualities: * pleasing foam * ease of rinsing * minimal skin and eye irritation * thick or creamy feeling * pleasant fragrance * low toxicity * good biodegradability * slight acidity (pH less than 7) * no damage to hair * repair of damage already done to hair[*how?*] Many shampoos are pearlescent. This effect is achieved by the addition of tiny flakes of suitable materials, e.g. glycol distearate, chemically derived from stearic acid, which may have either animal or vegetable origins. Glycol distearate is a wax. Many shampoos also include silicone to provide conditioning benefits. ### Commonly used ingredients * Ammonium chloride * Ammonium lauryl sulfate * Glycol * Sodium laureth sulfate is derived from coconut oils and is used to soften water and create a lather. There was some concern over this particular ingredient circa 1998 as evidence suggested it might be a carcinogen, and this has yet to be disproved, as many sources still describe it as irritating to the hair and scalp. * Hypromellose cellulose ethers are widely used as thickeners, rheology modifiers, emulsifiers and dispersants in Shampoo products. * Sodium lauroamphoacetate is naturally derived from coconut oils and is used as a cleanser and counter-irritant. This is the ingredient that makes the product tear-free. * Polysorbate 20 (abbreviated as PEG(20)) is a mild glycol-based surfactant that is used to solubilize fragrance oils and essential oils, meaning it causes liquid to spread across and penetrate the surface of a solid (i.e. hair). * Polysorbate 80 (abbreviated as PEG(80)) is a glycol used to emulsify (or disperse) oils in water (so the oils do not float on top like Italian salad dressing). * PEG-150 distearate is a simple thickener. * Citric acid is produced biochemically and is used as an antioxidant to preserve the oils in the product. While it is a severe eye-irritant, the sodium lauroamphoacetate counteracts that property. Citric acid is used to adjust the pH down to approximately 5.5. It is a fairly weak acid which makes the adjustment easier. Shampoos usually are at pH 5.5 because at slightly acidic pH, the scales on a hair follicle lie flat, making the hair feel smooth and look shiny. It also has a small amount of preservative action. Citric acid, as opposed to any other acid, will prevent bacterial growth. * Quaternium-15 is used as a bacterial and fungicidal preservative. * Polyquaternium-10 has nothing to do with the chemical quaternium-15; it acts as the conditioning ingredient, providing moisture and fullness to the hair. * Di-PPG-2 myreth-10 adipate is a water-dispersible emollient that forms clear solutions with surfactant systems. * Chloromethylisothiazolinone, or CMIT, is a powerful biocide and preservative. ### Benefit claims regarding ingredients In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) mandates that shampoo containers accurately list ingredients on the products container. The government further regulates what shampoo manufacturers can and cannot claim as any associated benefit. Shampoo producers often use these regulations to challenge marketing claims made by competitors, helping to enforce these regulations. While the claims may be substantiated, however, the testing methods and details of such claims are not as straightforward. For example, many products are purported to protect hair from damage due to ultraviolet radiation. While the ingredient responsible for this protection does block UV, it is not often present in a high enough concentration to be effective. The North American Hair Research Society has a program to certify functional claims based on third-party testing. Shampoos made for treating medical conditions such as dandruff or itchy scalp are regulated as OTC drugs in the US marketplace. In the European Union, there is a requirement for the anti-dandruff claim to be substantiated as with any other advertising claim, but it is not considered to be a medical problem. Health risks ------------ A number of contact allergens are used as ingredients in shampoos, and contact allergy caused by shampoos is well known. Patch testing can identify ingredients to which patients are allergic, after which a physician can help the patient find a shampoo that is free of the ingredient to which they are allergic. The US bans 11 ingredients from shampoos, Canada bans 587, and the EU bans 1328. Specialized shampoos -------------------- ### Dandruff Cosmetic companies have developed shampoos specifically for those who have dandruff. These contain fungicides such as ketoconazole, zinc pyrithione and selenium disulfide, which reduce loose dander by killing fungi like *Malassezia furfur*. Coal tar and salicylate derivatives are often used as well. Alternatives to medicated shampoos are available for people who wish to avoid synthetic fungicides. Such shampoos often use tea tree oil, essential oils or herbal extracts. ### Colored hair Many companies have also developed color-protection shampoos suitable for colored hair; some of these shampoos contain gentle cleansers according to their manufacturers. ### Baby Shampoo for infants and young children is formulated so that it is less irritating and usually less prone to produce a stinging or burning sensation if it were to get into the eyes. For example, Johnson's Baby Shampoo advertises under the premise of "No More Tears". This is accomplished by one or more of the following formulation strategies. 1. dilution, in case the product comes in contact with eyes after running off the top of the head with minimal further dilution 2. adjusting pH to that of non-stress tears, approximately 7, which may be a higher pH than that of shampoos which are pH adjusted for skin or hair effects, and lower than that of shampoo made of soap 3. Use of surfactants which, alone or in combination, are less irritating than those used in other shampoos (e.g. Sodium lauroamphoacetate) 4. use of nonionic surfactants of the form of polyethoxylated synthetic glycolipids and polyethoxylated synthetic monoglycerides, which counteract the eye sting of other surfactants without producing the anesthetizing effect of alkyl polyethoxylates or alkylphenol polyethoxylates The distinction in 4 above does not completely surmount the controversy over the use of shampoo ingredients to mitigate eye sting produced by other ingredients, or the use of the products so formulated. The considerations in 3 and 4 frequently result in a much greater multiplicity of surfactants being used in individual baby shampoos than in other shampoos, and the detergency or foaming of such products may be compromised thereby. The monoanionic sulfonated surfactants and viscosity-increasing or foam stabilizing alkanolamides seen so frequently in other shampoos are much less common in the better baby shampoos. ### Sulfate-free shampoos Sulfate-free shampoos are composed of natural ingredients and free from both sodium lauryl sulfate and sodium Laureth sulfate. These shampoos use alternative surfactants to cleanse the hair. ### Animal Shampoo intended for animals may contain insecticides or other medications for treatment of skin conditions or parasite infestations such as fleas or mange. These must never be used on humans. While some human shampoos may be harmful when used on animals, any human haircare products that contain active ingredients or drugs (such as zinc in anti-dandruff shampoos) are potentially toxic when ingested by animals. Special care must be taken not to use those products on pets. Cats are at particular risk due to their instinctive method of grooming their fur with their tongues. Shampoos that are especially designed to be used on pets, commonly dogs and cats, are normally intended to do more than just clean the pet's coat or skin. Most of these shampoos contain ingredients which act different and are meant to treat a skin condition or an allergy or to fight against fleas. The main ingredients contained by pet shampoos can be grouped in insecticidals, antiseborrheic, antibacterials, antifungals, emollients, emulsifiers and humectants. Whereas some of these ingredients may be efficient in treating some conditions, pet owners are recommended to use them according to their veterinarian's indications because many of them cannot be used on cats or can harm the pet if it is misused. Generally, insecticidal pet shampoos contain pyrethrin, pyrethroids (such as permethrin and which may not be used on cats) and carbaryl. These ingredients are mostly found in shampoos that are meant to fight against parasite infestations. Antifungal shampoos are used on pets with yeast or ringworm infections. These might contain ingredients such as miconazole, chlorhexidine, providone iodine, ketoconazole or selenium sulfide (which cannot be used on cats). Bacterial infections in pets are sometimes treated with antibacterial shampoos. They commonly contain benzoyl peroxide, chlorhexidine, povidone iodine, triclosan, ethyl lactate, or sulfur. Antipruritic shampoos are intended to provide relief of itching due to conditions such as atopy and other allergies. These usually contain colloidal oatmeal, hydrocortisone, Aloe vera, pramoxine hydrochloride, menthol, diphenhydramine, sulfur or salicylic acid. These ingredients are aimed to reduce the inflammation, cure the condition and ease the symptoms at the same time while providing comfort to the pet. Antiseborrheic shampoos are those especially designed for pets with scales or those with excessive oily coats. These shampoos are made of sulfur, salicylic acid, refined tar (which cannot be used on cats), selenium sulfide (cannot be used on cats) and benzoyl peroxide. All these are meant to treat or prevent seborrhea oleosa, which is a condition characterized by excess oils. Dry scales can be prevented and treated with shampoos that contain sulfur or salicylic acid and which can be used on both cats and dogs. Emollient shampoos are efficient in adding oils to the skin and relieving the symptoms of a dry and itchy skin. They usually contain oils such as almond, corn, cottonseed, coconut, olive, peanut, Persia, safflower, sesame, lanolin, mineral or paraffin oil. The emollient shampoos are typically used with emulsifiers as they help distributing the emollients. These include ingredients such as cetyl alcohol, laureth-5, lecithin, PEG-4 dilaurate, stearic acid, stearyl alcohol, carboxylic acid, lactic acid, urea, sodium lactate, propylene glycol, glycerin, or polyvinylpyrrolidone. Although some of the pet shampoos are highly effective, some others may be less effective for some condition than another. Yet, although natural pet shampoos exist, it has been brought to attention that some of these might cause irritation to the skin of the pet. Natural ingredients that might be potential allergens for some pets include eucalyptus, lemon or orange extracts and tea tree oil. On the contrary, oatmeal appears to be one of the most widely skin-tolerated ingredients that is found in pet shampoos. Most ingredients found in a shampoo meant to be used on animals are safe for the pet as there is a high likelihood that the pets will lick their coats, especially in the case of cats. Pet shampoos which include fragrances, deodorants or colors may harm the skin of the pet by causing inflammations or irritation. Shampoos that do not contain any unnatural additives are known as hypoallergenic shampoos and are increasing in popularity. ### Solid shampoo bars Solid shampoos or shampoo bars can either be soap-based or use other plant-based surfactants, such as sodium cocoyl isethionate or sodium coco-sulfate combined with oils and waxes. Soap-based shampoo bars are high in pH (alkaline) compared to human hair and scalps, which are slightly acidic. Alkaline pH increases the friction of the hair fibres which may cause damage to the hair cuticle, making it feel rough and drying out the scalp. ### Jelly and gel Stiff, non-pourable clear gels to be squeezed from a tube were once popular forms of shampoo, and can be produced by increasing a shampoo's viscosity. This type of shampoo cannot be spilled, but unlike a solid, it can still be lost down the drain by sliding off wet skin or hair. ### Paste and cream Shampoos in the form of pastes or creams were formerly marketed in jars or tubes. The contents were wet but not completely dissolved. They would apply faster than solids and dissolve quickly. ### Antibacterial Antibacterial shampoos are often used in veterinary medicine for various conditions, as well as in humans before some surgical procedures. No Poo Movement --------------- Closely associated with environmentalism, the "no poo" movement consists of people rejecting the societal norm of frequent shampoo use. Some adherents of the no poo movement use baking soda or vinegar to wash their hair, while others use diluted honey. Further methods include the use of raw eggs (potentially mixed with salt water), rye flour, or chickpea flour dissolved in water. Other people use nothing or rinse their hair only with conditioner. ### Theory In the 1970s, ads featuring Farrah Fawcett and Christie Brinkley asserted that it was unhealthy not to shampoo several times a week. This mindset is reinforced by the greasy feeling of the scalp after a day or two of not shampooing. Using shampoo every day removes sebum, the oil produced by the scalp. This causes the sebaceous glands to produce oil at a higher rate, to compensate for what is lost during shampooing. According to Michelle Hanjani, a dermatologist at Columbia University, a gradual reduction in shampoo use will cause the sebum glands to produce at a slower rate, resulting in less grease in the scalp. Although this approach might seem unappealing to some individuals, many people try alternate shampooing techniques like baking soda and vinegar in order to avoid ingredients used in many shampoos that make hair greasy over time. There is no known mechanism in the body that allows the sebaceous glands to detect oil on the scalp and react accordingly, as such these claims are unsupported by current science.[*contradictory*] Whereas the use of baking soda for hair cleansing has been associated with hair damage and skin irritation, likely due to its high pH value and exfoliating properties, honey, egg, rye flour, and chickpea flour hair washes seem gentler for long-term use. See also -------- * Soap * Dry shampoo * Baby shampoo * Hair conditioner * Exfoliant * No Poo

Shampoo

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shampoo

**Trajan** (/ˈtreɪdʒən/ *TRAY-jən*; Latin: *Caesar Nerva Traianus*; 18 September 53 – c. 11 August 117) was Roman emperor from 98 to 117. Officially declared *optimus princeps* ("best ruler") by the senate, Trajan is remembered as a successful soldier-emperor who presided over one of the greatest military expansions in Roman history and led the empire to attain its greatest territorial extent by the time of his death. He is also known for his philanthropic rule, overseeing extensive public building programs and implementing social welfare policies, which earned him his enduring reputation as one of the Five Good Emperors who presided over an era of peace within the Empire and prosperity in the Mediterranean world known as *Pax Romana.* Trajan was born in Italica, close to modern Seville in present-day Spain, a small Roman *municipium* founded by Italic settlers in the province of Hispania Baetica. His branch of the *gens* Ulpia, the *Ulpi Traiani*, came from the town of Tuder in the Umbria region of Italia. His father Marcus Ulpius Traianus, also born at Italica in Hispania, was a senator, and therefore Trajan was born into a senatorial family. Trajan rose to prominence during the reign of emperor Domitian. Serving as a legatus legionis of the *Legio VII Gemina* in Hispania Tarraconensis, in 89 Trajan supported Domitian against a revolt on the Rhine led by Antonius Saturninus. He then served as governor of Germania and Pannonia. In September 96, Domitian was succeeded by the elderly and childless Nerva, who proved to be unpopular with the army. After a brief and tumultuous year in power, culminating in a revolt by members of the Praetorian Guard, he decided to adopt the more popular Trajan as his heir and successor. Nerva died in 98 and was succeeded by his adopted son without incident. Trajan's extensive public building program reshaped the city of Rome and left numerous enduring landmarks such as Trajan's Forum, Trajan's Market, and Trajan's Column. Early in his reign, he annexed the Nabataean Kingdom, creating the province of Arabia Petraea. His conquest of Dacia enriched the empire greatly, as the new province possessed many valuable gold mines. Trajan's war against the Parthian Empire ended with the sack of its capital Ctesiphon and the annexation of Armenia, Mesopotamia, and (possibly) Assyria. In August 117, while sailing back to Rome, Trajan fell ill and died of a stroke in the city of Selinus. He was deified by the Senate and his cousin and successor, Hadrian, whom Trajan had supposedly adopted while on his deathbed. According to historical tradition, Trajan's ashes were entombed in a small room beneath Trajan's Column. Sources ------- As an emperor, Trajan's reputation has endured – he is one of the few rulers whose reputation has survived 19 centuries. Every new emperor after him was honoured by the Senate with the wish *felicior Augusto, melior Traiano* (that he be "luckier than Augustus and better than Trajan"). Among medieval Christian theologians, Trajan was considered a virtuous pagan. In the Renaissance, Machiavelli, speaking on the advantages of adoptive succession over heredity, mentioned the five successive good emperors "from Nerva to Marcus" – a trope out of which the 18th-century historian Edward Gibbon popularized the notion of the Five Good Emperors, of whom Trajan was the second. An account of the Dacian Wars, the *Commentarii de bellis Dacicis*, written by Trajan himself or a ghostwriter and modelled after Caesar's *Commentarii de Bello Gallico*, is lost with the exception of one sentence. Only fragments remain of the *Getica*, a book by Trajan's personal physician Titus Statilius Criton. The *Parthica*, a 17-volume account of the Parthian Wars written by Arrian, has met a similar fate. Book 68 in Greek author Cassius Dio's *Roman History*, which survives mostly as Byzantine abridgements and epitomes, is the main source for the political history of Trajan's rule. Besides this, Pliny the Younger's *Panegyricus* and Dio Chrysostom's orations are the best surviving contemporary sources. Both are adulatory perorations, typical of the High Imperial period, that describe an idealized monarch and an equally idealized view of Trajan's rule, and concern themselves more with ideology than with fact. The 10th volume of Pliny's letters contains his correspondence with Trajan, which deals with various aspects of imperial Roman government, but this correspondence is neither intimate nor candid; it is an exchange of official mail, in which Pliny's stance borders on the servile. It is certain that much of the text of the letters that appear in this collection over Trajan's signature was written and/or edited by Trajan's Imperial secretary, his *ab epistulis*. Therefore, discussion of Trajan and his rule in modern historiography cannot avoid speculation. Non-literary sources such as archaeology, epigraphy, and numismatics are also useful for reconstructing his reign. Early life ---------- Marcus Ulpius Trajanus was born on 18 September 53 AD in the Roman province of Hispania Baetica (in what is now Andalusia in modern Spain), in the *municipium* of Italica (now in the municipal area of Santiponce, in the outskirts of Seville), a Roman colony established in 206 BC by Scipio Africanus. At the time of Trajan's birth it was a small town, without baths, theatre and amphitheatre, and with a very narrow territory under its direct administration. His year of birth is not reliably attested and may have been 56 AD. Cassius Dio claimed that Trajan was the first emperor of non-Italic origins, referring to him as "an Iberian, and neither an Italian nor even an Italiote", but this claim is rejected by scholars. Trajan was, according to the academic consensus, Hispaniensis by birthplace and Italic by lineage. In fact, as asserted by Appian and inferred from the name of the city, Trajan's hometown of Italica in Hispania Baetica was founded by Italic settlers: in particular, according to the description of Trajan as "Ulpius Traianus ex urbe Tudertina" in the Epitome de Caesaribus, his branch of the *gens* Ulpia, the *Ulpi Traianii*, derived from the town of *Tuder* (Todi) in the Umbria region of Italia. This is confirmed by archeological attestations, with epigraphic evidence of the Ulpii and the Traii in Umbria at large and Tuder specifically, and by linguistic studies on the family names *Ulpius* and *Traius*, both Osco-Umbrian in origin. Intermarriage between the *Ulpii* and the *Traii* resulted in the *Ulpii Traiani*; it's unknown if they were co-founders of Italica or migrants that later arrived in the town. It is also unknown when Trajan's ancestors acquired Roman citizenship; all the Umbrians were awarded this status by 89/88 BC, with Tuder being enrolled in the Clustumina tribe. It is possible that they lost their citizenship by marrying with non-citizen locals of Iberia, but they would have certainly recovered their status when Italica became a municipium with Latin citizenship in the mid-1st century BC. One author has argued that the Traii ancestors of Trajan were a family of indigenous Iberian Turdetani rather than Italic settlers, but this view departs from the prevailing view in academia. Trajan's father was Marcus Ulpius Trajanus, a prominent senator and general, and his mother was Marcia, a Roman noblewoman of the gens Marcia and a sister-in-law of the second Flavian Emperor Titus. Marcus Ulpius Trajanus the elder served Vespasian in the First Jewish-Roman War, commanding the *Legio X *Fretensis**. Trajan himself was just one of many well-known Ulpii in a line that continued long after his own death. His elder sister was Ulpia Marciana, and his niece was Salonia Matidia. Very little is known about Trajan's early formative years, but it is thought likely that he spent his first months or years in Italica before moving to Rome and then, perhaps at around eight or nine years of age, he almost certainly would have returned temporarily to Italica with his father during Trajanus' governorship of Baetica (ca. 64–65). The lack of a strong local power base, caused by the size of the town from which they came, made it necessary for the Ulpii (and for the Aelii, the other important senatorial family of Italica with whom they were allied) to weave local alliances, in the Baetica (with the Annii, the Ucubi and perhaps the Dasumii from Corduba), the Tarraconense and the Narbonense, here above all through Pompeia Plotina, Trajan's wife. Many of these alliances were made not in Spain, but in Rome. The family home in Rome, the Domus Traiana, was on the Aventine Hill, and excavation findings under a car park in the Piazza del Tempio di Diana are thought to be the family's large suburban villa with exquisitely decorated rooms. ### Military career As a young man Trajan rose through the ranks of the Roman army, serving in some of the most contested parts of the Empire's frontier. In 76–77, his father was Governor of Syria (*Legatus pro praetore Syriae*), where Trajan himself remained as *Tribunus legionis*. From there, after his father's replacement, he seems to have been transferred to an unspecified Rhine province, and Pliny implies that he engaged in active combat duty during both commissions. In about 86, Trajan's cousin Aelius Afer died, leaving his young children Hadrian and Paulina orphans. Trajan and his colleague Publius Acilius Attianus became co-guardians of the two children. Trajan, in his late thirties, was created ordinary consul for the year 91. This early appointment may reflect the prominence of his father's career, as his father had been instrumental to the ascent of the ruling Flavian dynasty, held consular rank himself and had just been made a patrician. Around this time Trajan brought the architect and engineer Apollodorus of Damascus with him to Rome, and married Pompeia Plotina, a noblewoman from the Roman settlement at Nîmes; the marriage ultimately remained childless. The historian Cassius Dio later noted that Trajan was a lover of young men, in contrast to the usual bisexual activity that was common among upper-class Roman men of the period. The Emperor Julian also made a sardonic reference to his predecessor's sexual preference, stating that Zeus himself would have had to be on guard had his Ganymede come within Trajan's vicinity. This distaste reflected a change of mores that began with the Severan dynasty, Trajan's putative lovers included the future emperor Hadrian, pages of the imperial household, the actor Pylades, a dancer called Apolaustus, Lucius Licinius Sura, and Trajan's predecessor Nerva. Cassius Dio also relates that Trajan made an ally out of Abgar VII on account of the latter's beautiful son, Arbandes, who would then dance for Trajan at a banquet. The details of Trajan's early military career are obscure, save for the fact that in 89, as legate of Legio VII Gemina in Hispania Tarraconensis, he supported Domitian against an attempted *coup* by Lucius Antonius Saturninus, the governor of Germania Superior. Trajan probably remained in the region after the revolt was quashed, to engage with the Chatti who had sided with Saturninus, before returning the VII Gemina legion to Legio in Hispania Tarraconensis. In 91 he held a consulate with Acilius Glabrio, a rarity in that neither consul was a member of the ruling dynasty. He held an unspecified consular commission as governor of either Pannonia or Germania Superior, or possibly both. Pliny – who seems to deliberately avoid offering details that would stress personal attachment between Trajan and the "tyrant" Domitian – attributes to him, at the time, various (and unspecified) feats of arms. ### Rise to power Domitian's successor, Nerva, was unpopular with the army, and had been forced by his Praetorian Prefect Casperius Aelianus to execute Domitian's killers. Nerva needed the army's support to avoid being ousted. He accomplished this in the summer of 97 by naming Trajan as his adoptive son and successor, claiming that this was entirely due to Trajan's outstanding military merits. There are hints, however, in contemporary literary sources that Trajan's adoption was imposed on Nerva. Pliny implied as much when he wrote that, although an emperor could not be coerced into doing something, if this was the way in which Trajan was raised to power, then it was worth it. Alice König argues that the notion of a natural continuity between Nerva's and Trajan's reigns was an *ex post facto* fiction developed by authors writing under Trajan, including Tacitus and Pliny. According to the *Historia Augusta*, the future Emperor Hadrian brought word to Trajan of his adoption. Trajan retained Hadrian on the Rhine frontier as a military tribune, and Hadrian thus became privy to the circle of friends and relations with whom Trajan surrounded himself. Among them was the governor of Germania Inferior, the Spaniard Lucius Licinius Sura, who became Trajan's chief personal adviser and official friend. Sura was highly influential, and was appointed consul for third term in 107. Some senators may have resented Sura's activities as a kingmaker and éminence grise, among them the historian Tacitus, who acknowledged Sura's military and oratorical talents, but compared his rapacity and devious ways to those of Vespasian's éminence grise Licinius Mucianus. Sura is said to have informed Hadrian in 108 that he had been chosen as Trajan's imperial heir. As governor of Upper Germany (Germania Superior) during Nerva's reign, Trajan received the impressive title of *Germanicus* for his skilful management and rule of the volatile Imperial province. When Nerva died on 28 January 98, Trajan succeeded to the role of emperor without any outward adverse incident. The fact that he chose not to hasten towards Rome, but made a lengthy tour of inspection on the Rhine and Danube frontiers, may suggest that he was unsure of his position, both in Rome and with the armies at the front. Alternatively, Trajan's keen military mind understood the importance of strengthening the empire's frontiers. His vision for future conquests required the diligent improvement of surveillance networks, defences and transport along the Danube. Prior to his frontier tours, Trajan ordered his Prefect Aelianus to attend him in Germany, where he was apparently executed forthwith ("put out of the way"), and his now-vacant post taken by Attius Suburanus. Trajan's accession, therefore, could qualify more as a successful *coup* than an orderly succession. Roman emperor ------------- On his entry to Rome, Trajan granted the plebs a direct gift of money. The traditional donative to the troops, however, was reduced by half. There remained the issue of the strained relations between the emperor and the Senate, especially after the supposed bloodiness that had marked Domitian's reign and his dealings with the Curia. By feigning reluctance to hold power, Trajan was able to start building a consensus around him in the Senate. His belated ceremonial entry into Rome in 99 was notably understated, something on which Pliny the Younger elaborated. By not openly supporting Domitian's preference for equestrian officers, Trajan appeared to conform to the idea (developed by Pliny) that an emperor derived his legitimacy from his adherence to traditional hierarchies and senatorial morals. Therefore, he could point to the allegedly republican character of his rule. In a speech at the inauguration of his third consulship, on 1 January 100, Trajan exhorted the Senate to share the care-taking of the Empire with him – an event later celebrated on a coin. In reality, Trajan did not share power in any meaningful way with the Senate, something that Pliny admits candidly: "[E]verything depends on the whims of a single man who, on behalf of the common welfare, has taken upon himself all functions and all tasks". One of the most significant trends of his reign was his encroachment on the Senate's sphere of authority, such as his decision to make the senatorial provinces of Achaea and Bithynia into imperial ones in order to deal with the inordinate spending on public works by local magnates and the general mismanagement of provincial affairs by various proconsuls appointed by the Senate. ### *Optimus princeps* In the formula developed by Pliny, however, Trajan was a "good" emperor in that, by himself, he approved or blamed the same things that the Senate would have approved or blamed. If in reality Trajan was an autocrat, his deferential behavior towards his peers qualified him to be viewed as a virtuous monarch. The idea is that Trajan wielded autocratic power through *moderatio* instead of *contumacia* – moderation instead of insolence. In short, according to the ethics for autocracy developed by most political writers of the Imperial Roman Age, Trajan was a good ruler in that he ruled less by fear, and more by acting as a role model, for, according to Pliny, "men learn better from examples". Eventually, Trajan's popularity among his peers was such that the Roman Senate bestowed upon him the honorific of *optimus*, meaning "the best", which appears on coins from 105 on. This title had mostly to do with Trajan's role as benefactor, such as in the case of his returning confiscated property. Pliny states that Trajan's ideal role was a conservative one, argued as well by the orations of Dio Chrysostom—in particular his four *Orations on Kingship*, composed early during Trajan's reign. Dio, as a Greek notable and intellectual with friends in high places, and possibly an official friend to the emperor (*amicus caesaris*), saw Trajan as a defender of the *status quo*. In his third kingship oration, Dio describes an ideal king ruling by means of "friendship" – that is, through patronage and a network of local notables who act as mediators between the ruled and the ruler. Dio's notion of being "friend" to Trajan (or any other Roman emperor), however, was that of an *informal* arrangement, that involved no formal entry of such "friends" into the Roman administration. Trajan ingratiated himself with the Greek intellectual elite by recalling to Rome many (including Dio) who had been exiled by Domitian, and by returning (in a process begun by Nerva) a great deal of private property that Domitian had confiscated. He also had good dealings with Plutarch, who, as a notable of Delphi, seems to have been favoured by the decisions taken on behalf of his home-place by one of Trajan's legates, who had arbitrated a boundary dispute between Delphi and its neighbouring cities. However, it was clear to Trajan that Greek intellectuals and notables were to be regarded as tools for local administration, and not be allowed to fancy themselves in a privileged position. As Pliny said in one of his letters at the time, it was official policy that Greek civic elites be treated according to their status as notionally free but not put on an equal footing with their Roman rulers. When the city of Apamea complained of an audit of its accounts by Pliny, alleging its "free" status as a Roman colony, Trajan replied by writing that it was by his own wish that such inspections had been ordered. Concern about independent local political activity is seen in Trajan's decision to forbid Nicomedia from having a corps of firemen ("If people assemble for a common purpose ... they soon turn it into a political society", Trajan wrote to Pliny) as well as in his and Pliny's fears about excessive civic generosities by local notables such as distribution of money or gifts. Pliny's letters suggest that Trajan and his aides were as much bored as they were alarmed by the claims of Dio and other Greek notables to political influence based on what they saw as their "special connection" to their Roman overlords. Pliny tells of Dio of Prusa placing a statue of Trajan in a building complex where Dio's wife and son were buried – therefore incurring a charge of treason for placing the Emperor's statue near a grave. Trajan, however, dropped the charge. Nevertheless, while the office of *corrector* was intended as a tool to curb any hint of independent political activity among local notables in the Greek cities, the *correctores* themselves were all men of the highest social standing entrusted with an exceptional commission. The post seems to have been conceived partly as a reward for senators who had chosen to make a career solely on the Emperor's behalf. Therefore, in reality the post was conceived as a means for "taming" both Greek notables and Roman senators. It must be added that, although Trajan was wary of the civic oligarchies in the Greek cities, he also admitted into the Senate a number of prominent Eastern notables already slated for promotion during Domitian's reign by reserving for them one of the twenty posts open each year for minor magistrates (the *vigintiviri*). Such must be the case of the Galatian notable and "leading member of the Greek community" (according to one inscription) Gaius Julius Severus, who was a descendant of several Hellenistic dynasts and client kings. Severus was the grandfather of the prominent general Gaius Julius Quadratus Bassus, consul in 105. Other prominent Eastern senators included Gaius Julius Alexander Berenicianus, a descendant of Herod the Great, suffect consul in 116. Trajan created at least fourteen new senators from the Greek-speaking half of the Empire, an unprecedented recruitment number that opens to question the issue of the "traditionally Roman" character of his reign, as well as the "Hellenism" of his successor Hadrian. But then Trajan's new Eastern senators were mostly very powerful and very wealthy men with more than local influence and much interconnected by marriage, so that many of them were not altogether "new" to the Senate. On the local level, among the lower section of the Eastern propertied, the alienation of most Greek notables and intellectuals towards Roman rule, and the fact that the Romans were seen by most such Greek notables as aliens, persisted well after Trajan's reign. One of Trajan's senatorial creations from the East, the Athenian Gaius Julius Antiochus Epiphanes Philopappos, a member of the Royal House of Commagene, left behind him a funeral monument on the Mouseion Hill that was later disparagingly described by Pausanias as "a monument built to a Syrian man". ### Greek-Roman relations As a senatorial Emperor, Trajan was inclined to choose his local base of political support from among the members of the ruling urban oligarchies. In the West, that meant local senatorial families like his own. In the East, that meant the families of Greek notables. The Greeks, though, had their own memories of independence – and a commonly acknowledged sense of cultural superiority – and, instead of seeing themselves as Roman, disdained Roman rule. What the Greek oligarchies wanted from Rome was, above all, to be left in peace, to be allowed to exert their right to self-government (i.e., to be excluded from the provincial government, as was Italy) and to concentrate on their local interests. This was something the Romans were not disposed to do as from their perspective the Greek notables were shunning their responsibilities in regard to the management of Imperial affairs – primarily in failing to keep the common people under control, thus creating the need for the Roman governor to intervene. An excellent example of this Greek alienation was the personal role played by Dio of Prusa in his relationship with Trajan. Dio is described by Philostratus as Trajan's close friend, and Trajan as supposedly engaging publicly in conversations with Dio. Nevertheless, as a Greek local magnate with a taste for costly building projects and pretensions of being an important political agent for Rome, Dio of Prusa was actually a target for one of Trajan's authoritarian innovations: the appointing of imperial *correctores* to audit the civic finances of the technically free Greek cities. The main goal was to curb the overenthusiastic spending on public works that served to channel ancient rivalries between neighbouring cities. As Pliny wrote to Trajan, this had as its most visible consequence a trail of unfinished or ill-kept public utilities. Competition among Greek cities and their ruling oligarchies was mainly for marks of pre-eminence, especially for titles bestowed by the Roman emperor. Such titles were ordered in a ranking system that determined how the cities were to be outwardly treated by Rome. The usual form that such rivalries took was that of grandiose building plans, giving the cities the opportunity to vie with each other over "extravagant, needless ... structures that would make a show". A side effect of such extravagant spending was that junior and thus less wealthy members of the local oligarchies felt disinclined to present themselves to fill posts as local magistrates, positions that involved ever-increasing personal expense. Roman authorities liked to play the Greek cities against one another – something of which Dio of Prusa was fully aware: > [B]y their public acts [the Roman governors] have branded you as a pack of fools, yes, they treat you just like children, for we often offer children the most trivial things in place of things of greatest worth [...] In place of justice, in place of the freedom of the cities from spoliation or from the seizure of the private possessions of their inhabitants, in place of their refraining from insulting you [...] your governors hand you titles, and call you 'first' either by word of mouth or in writing; that done, they may thenceforth with impunity treat you as being the very last!" > > These same Roman authorities had also an interest in assuring the cities' solvency and therefore ready collection of Imperial taxes. Last but not least, inordinate spending on civic buildings was not only a means to achieve local superiority, but also a means for the local Greek elites to maintain a separate cultural identity – something expressed in the contemporary rise of the Second Sophistic; this "cultural patriotism" acted as a kind of substitute for the loss of political independence, and as such was shunned by Roman authorities. As Trajan himself wrote to Pliny: "These poor Greeks all love a gymnasium ... they will have to content with one that suits their real needs". The first known *corrector* was charged with a commission "to deal with the situation of the free cities", as it was felt that the old method of *ad hoc* intervention by the Emperor and/or the proconsuls had not been enough to curb the pretensions of the Greek notables. It is noteworthy that an embassy from Dio's city of Prusa was not favourably received by Trajan, and that this had to do with Dio's chief objective, which was to elevate Prusa to the status of a free city, an "independent" city-state exempt from paying taxes to Rome. Eventually, Dio gained for Prusa the right to become the head of the assize-district, conventus (meaning that Prusans did not have to travel to be judged by the Roman governor), but *eleutheria* (freedom, in the sense of full political autonomy) was denied. Eventually, it fell to Pliny, as imperial governor of Bithynia in 110 AD, to deal with the consequences of the financial mess wrought by Dio and his fellow civic officials. "It's well established that [the cities' finances] are in a state of disorder", Pliny once wrote to Trajan, plans for unnecessary works made in collusion with local contractors being identified as one of the main problems. One of the compensatory measures proposed by Pliny expressed a thoroughly Roman conservative position: as the cities' financial solvency depended on the councilmen's purses, it was necessary to have more councilmen on the local city councils. According to Pliny, the best way to achieve this was to lower the minimum age for holding a seat on the council, making it possible for more sons of the established oligarchical families to join and thus contribute to civic spending; this was seen as preferable to enrolling non-noble wealthy upstarts. Such an increase in the number of council members was granted to Dio's city of Prusa, to the dismay of existing councilmen who felt their status lowered. A similar situation existed in Claudiopolis, where a public bath was built with the proceeds from the entrance fees paid by "supernumerary" members of the council, enrolled with Trajan's permission. According to the Digest, Trajan decreed that when a city magistrate promised to achieve a particular public building, his heirs inherited responsibility for its completion. ### Building projects Trajan was a prolific builder. Many of his buildings were designed and erected by the gifted architect Apollodorus of Damascus, including a massive bridge over the Danube, which the Roman army and its reinforcements could use regardless of weather; the Danube sometimes froze over in winter, but seldom enough to bear the passage of a party of soldiers. Trajan's works at the Iron Gates region of the Danube created or enlarged the boardwalk road cut into the cliff-face along the Iron Gate's gorge. A canal was built between the Danube's Kasajna tributary and Ducis Pratum, circumventing rapids and cataracts. Trajan's Forum Traiani was Rome's largest forum. It was built to commemorate his victories in Dacia, and was largely financed from that campaign's loot. To accommodate it, parts of the Capitoline and Quirinal Hills had to be removed, the latter enlarging a clear area first established by Domitian. Apollodorus of Damascus' "magnificent" design incorporated a Triumphal arch entrance, a forum space approximately 120 m long and 90m wide, surrounded by peristyles: a monumentally sized basilica: and later, Trajan's Column and libraries. It was started in 107 AD, dedicated on 1 January 112, and remained in use for at least 500 years. It still drew admiration when Emperor Constantius II visited Rome in the fourth century. It accommodated Trajan's Market, and an adjacent brick market. Trajan was also a prolific builder of triumphal arches, many of which survive. He built roads, such as the Via Traiana, an extension of the Via Appia from Beneventum to Brundisium and the Via Traiana Nova, a mostly military road between Damascus and Aila, which Rome employed in its annexation of Nabataea and founding of Arabia Province. Some historians attribute the construction or reconstruction of Old Cairo's Roman fortress (also known as "Babylon Fort") to Trajan, and the building of a canal between the River Nile and the Red Sea. In Egypt, Trajan was "quite active" in constructing and embellishing buildings. He is portrayed, together with Domitian, on the propylon of the Temple of Hathor at Dendera. His cartouche also appears in the column shafts of the Temple of Khnum at Esna. He built palatial villas outside Rome at Arcinazzo, at Centumcellae and at Talamone. ### Games Trajan invested heavily in the provision of popular amusements. He carried out a "massive reconstruction" of the Circus Maximus, which was already the Empire's biggest and best appointed circuit for the immensely popular sport of chariot racing. The Circus also hosted religious theatrical spectacles and games, and public processions on a grand scale. Trajan's reconstruction, completed by 103, was modestly described by Trajan himself as "adequate" for the Roman people. It replaced flammable wooden seating tiers with stone, and increased the Circus' already vast capacity by about 5,000 seats. Its lofty, elevated Imperial viewing box was rebuilt among the seating tiers, so that spectators could see their emperor sharing their enjoyment of the races, alongside his family and images of the gods, At some time during 108 or 109, Trajan held 123 days of games to celebrate his Dacian victory. They involved "fully 10,000" gladiators, and the slaughter of thousands, "possibly tens of thousands," of animals, both wild and domestic. Trajan's careful management of public spectacles led the orator Fronto to congratulate him for paying equal attention to public entertainments and more serious issues, acknowledging that "neglect of serious matters can cause greater damage, but neglect of amusements greater discontent". State-funded public entertainments helped to maintain contentment among the populace; the more "serious matter" of the corn dole aimed to satisfy individuals. ### Christians During the period of peace that followed the Dacian war, Trajan exchanged letters with Pliny the Younger on how best to deal with the Christians of Pontus. Trajan told Pliny to continue prosecutions of Christians if they merited that, but not to accept anonymous or malicious denunciations. He considered this to be in the interests of justice, and to reflect "the spirit of the age". Non-citizens who admitted to being Christians and refused to recant were to be executed "for obstinacy". Citizens were sent to Rome for trial. ### Currency and welfare In 107, Trajan devalued the Roman currency, decreasing the silver content of the denarius from 93.5% to 89.0% – the actual silver weight dropping from 3.04 grams to 2.88 grams. This devaluation, along with the massive amounts of gold and silver acquired through his Dacian wars, allowed Trajan to mint many more denarii than his predecessors. He also withdrew from circulation silver denarii minted before Nero's devaluation. Trajan's devaluation may have had a political intent, enabling planned increases in civil and military spending. Trajan formalised the alimenta, a welfare program that helped orphans and poor children throughout Italy by providing cash, food and subsidized education. The program was supported out of Dacian War booty, estate taxes and philanthropy. The alimenta also relied indirectly on mortgages secured against Italian farms (*fundi*). Registered landowners received a lump sum from the imperial treasury, and in return were expected to repay an annual sum to support the alimentary fund. Military campaigns ------------------ ### Conquest of Dacia Trajan took the Roman empire to its greatest expanse. The earliest conquests were Rome's two wars against Dacia, an area that had troubled Roman politics for over a decade in regard to the unstable peace negotiated by Domitian's ministers with the powerful Dacian king Decebalus. Dacia would be reduced by Trajan's Rome to a client kingdom in the first war (101–102), followed by a second war that ended in actual incorporation into the Empire of the trans-Danube border group of Dacia. According to the provisions of Decebalus's earlier treaty with Rome, made in the time of Domitian, Decebalus was acknowledged as *rex amicus*, that is, client king; in exchange for accepting client status, he received from Rome both a generous stipend and a steady supply of technical experts. The treaty seems to have allowed Roman troops the right of passage through the Dacian kingdom in order to attack the Marcomanni, Quadi and Sarmatians. However, senatorial opinion never forgave Domitian for paying what was seen as tribute to a barbarian king. Unlike the Germanic tribes, the Dacian kingdom was an organized state capable of developing alliances of its own, thus making it a strategic threat and giving Trajan a strong motive to attack it. In May of 101, Trajan launched his first campaign into the Dacian kingdom, crossing to the northern bank of the Danube and defeating the Dacian army at Tapae (see Second Battle of Tapae), near the Iron Gates of Transylvania. It was not a decisive victory, however. Trajan's troops took heavy losses in the encounter, and he put off further campaigning for the year in order to regroup and reinforce his army. Nevertheless, the battle was considered a Roman victory and Trajan strived to ultimately consolidate his position, including other major engagements, as well as the capture of Decebalus' sister as depicted on Trajan's Column. The following winter, Decebalus took the initiative by launching a counter-attack across the Danube further downstream, supported by Sarmatian cavalry, forcing Trajan to come to the aid of the troops in his rearguard. The Dacians and their allies were repulsed after two battles in Moesia, at Nicopolis ad Istrum and Adamclisi. Trajan's army then advanced further into Dacian territory, and, a year later, forced Decebalus to submit. He had to renounce claim to some regions of his kingdom, return runaways from Rome then under his protection (most of them technical experts), and surrender all his war machines. Trajan returned to Rome in triumph and was granted the title *Dacicus*. The peace of 102 had returned Decebalus to the condition of more or less harmless client king; however, he soon began to rearm, to again harbour Roman runaways, and to pressure his Western neighbours, the Iazyges Sarmatians, into allying themselves with him. Through his efforts to develop an anti-Roman bloc, Decebalus prevented Trajan from treating Dacia as a protectorate instead of an outright conquest. In 104, Decebalus devised an attempt on Trajan's life by means of some Roman deserters, a plan that failed. Decebalus also took prisoner Trajan's legate Longinus, who eventually poisoned himself while in custody. Finally, in 105, Decebalus undertook an invasion of Roman-occupied territory north of the Danube. Prior to the campaign, Trajan had raised two entirely new legions: II Traiana – which, however, may have been posted in the East, at the Syrian port of Laodicea – and XXX Ulpia Victrix, which was posted to Brigetio, in Pannonia. By 105, the concentration of Roman troops assembled in the middle and lower Danube amounted to fourteen legions (up from nine in 101) – about half of the entire Roman army. Even after the Dacian wars, the Danube frontier would permanently replace the Rhine as the main military axis of the Roman Empire. Including auxiliaries, the number of Roman troops engaged on both campaigns was between 150,000 and 175,000, while Decebalus could dispose of up to 200,000. Other estimates for the Roman forces involved in Trajan's second Dacian War cite around 86,000 for active campaigning with large reserves retained in the proximal provinces, and potentially much lower numbers around 50,000 for Decebalus' depleted forces and absent allies. In a fierce campaign that seems to have consisted mostly of static warfare, the Dacians, devoid of manoeuvring room, kept to their network of fortresses, which the Romans sought systematically to storm (see also Second Dacian War). The Romans gradually tightened their grip around Decebalus' stronghold in Sarmizegetusa Regia, which they finally took and destroyed. A controversial scene on Trajan's column just before the fall of Sarmizegetusa Regia suggests that Decebalus may have offered poison to his remaining men as an alternative option to capture or death while trying to flee the besieged capital with him. Decebalus fled but, when later cornered by Roman cavalry, committed suicide. His severed head, brought to Trajan by the cavalryman Tiberius Claudius Maximus, was later exhibited in Rome on the steps leading up to the Capitol and thrown on the Gemonian stairs. The famous Dacian treasures were not found in the captured capital and their whereabouts were only revealed when a Dacian nobleman called Bikilis was captured. Decebalus’ treasures had been buried under a temporarily diverted river and the captive workers executed to retain the secret. Staggering amounts of gold and silver were found and packed off to fill Rome's coffers. Trajan built a new city, Colonia Ulpia Traiana Augusta Dacica Sarmizegetusa, on another site (north of the hill citadel holding the previous Dacian capital), although bearing the same full name, Sarmizegetusa. This capital city was conceived as a purely civilian administrative centre and was provided the usual Romanized administrative apparatus (decurions, aediles, etc.). Urban life in Roman Dacia seems to have been restricted to Roman colonists, mostly military veterans; there is no extant evidence for the existence in the province of peregrine cities. Native Dacians continued to live in scattered rural settlements, according to their own ways. In another arrangement with no parallels in any other Roman province, the existing quasi-urban Dacian settlements disappeared after the Roman conquest. A number of unorganized urban settlements (*vici*) developed around military encampments in Dacia proper – the most important being Apulum – but were only acknowledged as cities proper well after Trajan's reign. The main regional effort of urbanization was concentrated by Trajan at the rearguard, in Moesia, where he created the new cities of Nicopolis ad Istrum and Marcianopolis. A vicus was also created around the Tropaeum Traianum. The garrison city of Oescus received the status of Roman colony after its legionary garrison was redeployed. The fact that these former Danubian outposts had ceased to be frontier bases and were now in the deep rear acted as an inducement to their urbanization and development. Not all of Dacia was permanently occupied. After the post-Trajanic evacuation of lands across the lower Danube, land extending from the Danube to the inner arch of the Carpathian Mountains, including Transylvania, the Metaliferi Mountains and Oltenia was absorbed into the Roman province, which eventually took the form of an "excrescence" with ill-defined limits, stretching from the Danube northwards to the Carpathians. This may have been intended as a basis for further expansion within Eastern Europe, as the Romans believed the region to be much more geographically "flattened", and thus easier to traverse, than it actually was; they also underestimated the distance from those vaguely defined borders to the ocean. Defence of the province was entrusted to a single legion, the XIII Gemina, stationed at Apulum, which functioned as an advance guard that could, in case of need, strike either west or east at the Sarmatians living at the borders. Therefore, the indefensible character of the province did not appear to be a problem for Trajan, as the province was conceived more as a sally-base for further attacks. Even in the absence of further Roman expansion, the value of the province depended on Roman overall strength: while Rome was strong, the Dacian salient was an instrument of military and diplomatic control over the Danubian lands; when Rome was weak, as during the Crisis of the Third Century, the province became a liability and was eventually abandoned. Trajan resettled Dacia with Romans and annexed it as a province of the Roman Empire. Aside from their enormous booty (over half a million slaves, according to John Lydus), Trajan's Dacian campaigns benefited the Empire's finances through the acquisition of Dacia's gold mines, managed by an imperial procurator of equestrian rank (*procurator aurariarum*). On the other hand, commercial agricultural exploitation on the villa model, based on the centralized management of a huge landed estate by a single owner (*fundus*) was poorly developed. Therefore, use of slave labor in the province itself seems to have been relatively undeveloped, and epigraphic evidence points to work in the gold mines being conducted by means of labor contracts (*locatio conductio rei*) and seasonal wage-earning. The victory was commemorated by the construction both of the 102 cenotaph generally known as the Tropaeum Traiani in Moesia, as well of the much later (113) Trajan's Column in Rome, the latter depicting in stone carved bas-reliefs the Dacian Wars' most important moments. ### Nabataean annexation In 106, Rabbel II Soter, one of Rome's client kings, died. This event might have prompted the annexation of the Nabataean Kingdom, but the manner and the formal reasons for the annexation are unclear. Some epigraphic evidence suggests a military operation, with forces from Syria and Egypt. What is known is that by 107, Roman legions were stationed in the area around Petra and Bosra, as is shown by a papyrus found in Egypt. The furthest south the Romans occupied (or, better, garrisoned, adopting a policy of having garrisons at key points in the desert) was Hegra, over 300 kilometres (190 mi) south-west of Petra. The empire gained what became the province of Arabia Petraea (modern southern Jordan and northwest Saudi Arabia). At this time, a Roman road (*Via Traiana Nova*) was built from Aila (now Aqaba) in Limes Arabicus to Bosrah. As Nabataea was the last client kingdom in Asia west of the Euphrates, the annexation meant that the entire Roman East had been provincialized, completing a trend towards direct rule that had begun under the Flavians. ### Parthian campaign In 113, Trajan embarked on his last campaign, provoked by Parthia's decision to put an unacceptable king on the throne of Armenia, a kingdom over which the two great empires had shared hegemony since the time of Nero some fifty years earlier. Trajan, already in Syria early in 113, consistently refused to accept diplomatic approaches from the Parthians intended to settle the Armenian imbroglio peacefully. As the surviving literary accounts of Trajan's Parthian War are fragmentary and scattered, it is difficult to assign them a proper context, something that has led to a long-running controversy about its precise happenings and ultimate aims. #### Cause of the war Modern historians advance the possibility that Trajan's decision to wage war against Parthia had economic motives: after Trajan's annexation of Arabia, he built a new road, Via Traiana Nova, that went from Bostra to Aila on the Red Sea. That meant that Charax on the Persian Gulf was the sole remaining western terminus of the Indian trade route outside direct Roman control, and such control was important in order to lower import prices and to limit the supposed drain of precious metals created by the deficit in Roman trade with the Far East. That Charax traded with the Roman Empire, there can be no doubt, as its actual connections with merchants from Palmyra during the period are well documented in a contemporary Palmyrene epigraph, which tells of various Palmyrene citizens honoured for holding office in Charax. Also, Charax's rulers domains at the time possibly included the Bahrain islands, which offered the possibility of extending Roman hegemony into the Persian Gulf itself. (A Palmyrene citizen held office as satrap over the islands shortly after Trajan's death, though the appointment was made by a Parthian king of Charax.) The rationale behind Trajan's campaign, in this case, was one of breaking down a system of Far Eastern trade through small Semitic ("Arab") cities under Parthia's control and to put it under Roman control instead. In his Dacian conquests, Trajan had already resorted to Syrian auxiliary units, whose veterans, along with Syrian traders, had an important role in the subsequent colonization of Dacia. He had recruited Palmyrene units into his army, including a camel unit, therefore apparently procuring Palmyrene support to his ultimate goal of annexing Charax. It has even been ventured that, when earlier in his campaign Trajan annexed Armenia, he was bound to annex the whole of Mesopotamia lest the Parthians interrupt the flux of trade from the Persian Gulf and/or foment trouble at the Roman frontier on the Danube. Other historians reject these motives, as the supposed Parthian "control" over the maritime Far Eastern trade route was, at best, conjectural and based on a selective reading of Chinese sources – trade by land through Parthia seems to have been unhampered by Parthian authorities and left solely to the devices of private enterprise. Commercial activity in second century Mesopotamia seems to have been a general phenomenon, shared by many peoples within and without the Roman Empire, with no sign of a concerted Imperial policy towards it. As in the case of the *alimenta*, scholars like Moses Finley and Paul Veyne have considered the whole idea of a foreign trade "policy" behind Trajan's war anachronistic: according to them, the sole Roman concern with the Far Eastern luxuries trade – besides collecting toll taxes and customs – was moral and involved frowning upon the "softness" of luxuries, but no economic policy. In the absence of conclusive evidence, trade between Rome and India might have been far more balanced, in terms of quantities of precious metals exchanged: one of our sources for the notion of the Roman gold drain – Pliny's the Younger's uncle Pliny the Elder – had earlier described the Gangetic Plains as one of the gold sources for the Roman Empire. Accordingly, in his controversial book on the Ancient economy, Finley considers Trajan's "badly miscalculated and expensive assault on Parthia" to be an example of the many Roman "commercial wars" that had in common the fact of existing only in the books of modern historians. The alternative view is to see the campaign as triggered by the lure of territorial annexation and prestige, the sole motive ascribed by Cassius Dio. As far as territorial conquest involved tax-collecting, especially of the 25% tax levied on all goods entering the Roman Empire, the *tetarte*, one can say that Trajan's Parthian War had an "economic" motive. Also, there was the propaganda value of an Eastern conquest that would emulate, in Roman fashion, those of Alexander the Great. The fact that emissaries from the Kushan Empire might have attended to the commemorative ceremonies for the Dacian War may have kindled in some Greco-Roman intellectuals like Plutarch – who wrote about only 70,000 Roman soldiers being necessary to a conquest of India  – as well as in Trajan's closer associates, speculative dreams about the booty to be obtained by reproducing Macedonian Eastern conquests. There could also be Trajan's idea to use an ambitious blueprint of conquests as a way to emphasize quasi-divine status, such as with his cultivated association, in coins and monuments, to Hercules. Also, it is possible that the attachment of Trajan to an expansionist policy was supported by a powerful circle of conservative senators from Hispania committed to a policy of imperial expansion, first among them being the all-powerful Licinius Sura. Alternatively, one can explain the campaign by the fact that, for the Romans, their empire was in principle unlimited, and that Trajan only took advantage of an opportunity to make idea and reality coincide. Finally, there are other modern historians who think that Trajan's original aims were purely military and strategic: to assure a more defensible Eastern frontier for the Roman Empire, crossing Northern Mesopotamia along the course of the Khabur River in order to offer cover to a Roman Armenia. This interpretation is backed by the fact that all subsequent Roman wars against Parthia would aim at establishing a Roman presence deep into Parthia itself. It is possible that during the onset of Trajan's military experience, as a young tribune, he had witnessed engagement with the Parthians; so any strategic vision was grounded in a tactical awareness of what was needed to tackle Parthia. #### Course of the war The campaign was carefully planned in advance: ten legions were concentrated in the Eastern theatre; since 111, the correspondence of Pliny the Younger witnesses to the fact that provincial authorities in Bithynia had to organize supplies for passing troops, and local city councils and their individual members had to shoulder part of the increased expenses by supplying troops themselves. The intended campaign, therefore, was immensely costly from its very beginning. Trajan marched first on Armenia, deposed the Parthian-appointed king, Parthamasiris (who was afterwards murdered while kept in the custody of Roman troops in an unclear incident, later described by Fronto as a breach of Roman good faith), and annexed it to the Roman Empire as a province, receiving in passing the acknowledgement of Roman hegemony by various tribes in the Caucasus and on the Eastern coast of the Black Sea – a process that kept him busy until the end of 114. At the same time, a Roman column under the legate Lusius Quietus – an outstanding cavalry general who had signalled himself during the Dacian Wars by commanding a unit from his native Mauretania – crossed the Araxes river from Armenia into Media Atropatene and the land of the Mardians (present-day Ghilan). It is possible that Quietus' campaign had as its goal the extending of the newer, more defensible Roman border eastwards towards the Caspian Sea and northwards to the foothills of the Caucasus. This newer, more "rational" frontier, depended, however, on an increased, permanent Roman presence east of the Euphrates. The chronology of subsequent events is uncertain, but it is generally believed that early in 115 Trajan launched a Mesopotamian campaign, marching down towards the Taurus mountains in order to consolidate territory between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. He placed permanent garrisons along the way to secure the territory. While Trajan moved from west to east, Lusius Quietus moved with his army from the Caspian Sea towards the west, both armies performing a successful pincer movement, whose apparent result was to establish a Roman presence into the Parthian Empire proper, with Trajan taking the northern Mesopotamian cities of Nisibis and Batnae and organizing a province of Mesopotamia, including the Kingdom of Osrhoene – where King Abgar VII submitted to Trajan publicly – as a Roman protectorate. This process seems to have been completed at the beginning of 116, when coins were issued announcing that Armenia and Mesopotamia had been put under the authority of the Roman people. The area between the Khabur River and the mountains around Singara seems to have been considered as the new frontier, and as such received a road surrounded by fortresses. After wintering in Antioch during 115/116  – and, according to literary sources, barely escaping from a violent earthquake that claimed the life of one of the consuls, Marcus Pedo Virgilianus – Trajan again took to the field in 116, with a view to the conquest of the whole of Mesopotamia, an overambitious goal that eventually backfired on the results of his entire campaign. According to some modern historians, the aim of the campaign of 116 was to achieve a "pre-emptive demonstration" aiming not toward the conquest of Parthia, but for tighter Roman control over the Eastern trade route. However, the overall scarcity of manpower for the Roman military establishment meant that the campaign was doomed from the start. It is noteworthy that no new legions were raised by Trajan before the Parthian campaign, maybe because the sources of new citizen recruits were already over-exploited. As far as the sources allow a description of this campaign, it seems that one Roman division crossed the Tigris into Adiabene, sweeping south and capturing Adenystrae; a second followed the river south, capturing Babylon; Trajan himself sailed down the Euphrates from Dura-Europos – where a triumphal arch was erected in his honour – through Ozogardana, where he erected a "tribunal" still to be seen at the time of Julian the Apostate's campaigns in the same area. Having come to the narrow strip of land between the Euphrates and the Tigris, he then dragged his fleet overland into the Tigris, capturing Seleucia and finally the Parthian capital of Ctesiphon. He continued southward to the Persian Gulf, when, after escaping with his fleet a tidal bore on the Tigris, he received the submission of Athambelus, the ruler of Charax. He declared Babylon a new province of the Empire and had his statue erected on the shore of the Persian Gulf, after which he sent the Senate a laurelled letter declaring the war to be at a close and bemoaning that he was too old to go on any further and repeat the conquests of Alexander the Great. Since Charax was a *de facto* independent kingdom whose connections to Palmyra were described above, Trajan's bid for the Persian Gulf may have coincided with Palmyrene interests in the region. Another hypothesis is that the rulers of Charax had expansionist designs on Parthian Babylon, giving them a rationale for alliance with Trajan. The Parthian city of Susa was apparently also occupied by the Romans. According to late literary sources (not backed by numismatic or inscriptional evidence) a province of Assyria was also proclaimed, apparently covering the territory of Adiabene. Some measures seem to have been considered regarding the fiscal administration of Indian trade – or simply about the payment of customs (*portoria*) on goods traded on the Euphrates and Tigris. It is possible that it was this "streamlining" of the administration of the newly conquered lands according to the standard pattern of Roman provincial administration in tax collecting, requisitions and the handling of local potentates' prerogatives, that triggered later resistance against Trajan. According to some modern historians, Trajan might have busied himself during his stay on the Persian Gulf with ordering raids on the Parthian coasts, as well as probing into extending Roman suzerainty over the mountaineer tribes holding the passes across the Zagros Mountains into the Iranian plateau eastward, as well as establishing some sort of direct contact between Rome and the Kushan Empire. No attempt was made to expand into the Iranian Plateau itself, where the Roman army, with its relative weakness in cavalry, would have been at a disadvantage. Trajan left the Persian Gulf for Babylon – where he intended to offer sacrifice to Alexander in the house where he had died in 323 BC –  But a revolt led by Sanatruces, a nephew of the Parthian king Osroes I who had retained a cavalry force, possibly strengthened by the addition of Saka archers, imperilled Roman positions in Mesopotamia and Armenia. Trajan sought to deal with this by forsaking direct Roman rule in Parthia proper, at least partially. Trajan sent two armies towards Northern Mesopotamia: the first, under Lusius Quietus, recovered Nisibis and Edessa from the rebels, probably having King Abgarus deposed and killed in the process, with Quietus probably earning the right to receive the honors of a senator of praetorian rank (*adlectus inter praetorios*). The second army, however, under Appius Maximus Santra (probably a governor of Macedonia) was defeated and Santra killed. Later in 116, Trajan, with the assistance of Quietus and two other legates, Marcus Erucius Clarus and Tiberius Julius Alexander Julianus, defeated a Parthian army in a battle where Sanatruces was killed (possibly with the assistance of Osroes' son and Sanatruces' cousin, Parthamaspates, whom Trajan wooed successfully). After re-taking and burning Seleucia, Trajan then formally deposed Osroes, putting Parthamaspates on the throne as client ruler. This event was commemorated in a coin as the reduction of Parthia to client kingdom status: REX PARTHIS DATUS, "a king is given to the Parthians". That done, Trajan retreated north in order to retain what he could of the new provinces of Armenia – where he had already accepted an armistice in exchange for surrendering part of the territory to Sanatruces' son Vologeses – and Mesopotamia. It was at this point that Trajan's health started to fail him. The fortress city of Hatra, on the Tigris in his rear, continued to hold out against repeated Roman assaults. He was personally present at the siege, and it is possible that he suffered a heat stroke while in the blazing heat. ### Kitos War Shortly afterwards, the Jews inside the Eastern Roman Empire, in Egypt, Cyprus, and Cyrene – this last province being probably the original trouble hotspot – rose up in what probably was an outburst of religious rebellion against the local pagans, this widespread rebellion being afterwards named the Kitos War. Another rebellion flared up among the Jewish communities of Northern Mesopotamia, probably part of a general reaction against Roman occupation. Trajan was forced to withdraw his army in order to put down the revolts. He saw this withdrawal as simply a temporary setback, but he was destined never to command an army in the field again, turning his Eastern armies over to Lusius Quietus, who meanwhile (early 117) had been made governor of Judaea and might have had to deal earlier with some kind of Jewish unrest in the province. Quietus discharged his commissions successfully, so much that the war was afterward named after him – *Kitus* being a corruption of *Quietus*. Whether or not the Kitos War theatre included Judea proper, or only the Jewish Eastern diaspora, remains doubtful in the absence of clear epigraphic and archaeological evidence. What is certain is that there was an increased Roman military presence in Judea at the time. Quietus was promised a consulate in the following year (118) for his victories, but he was killed before this could occur, during the bloody purge that opened Hadrian's reign, in which Quietus and three other former consuls were sentenced to death after being tried on a vague charge of conspiracy by the (secret) court of the Praetorian Prefect Attianus. It has been thought that Quietus and his colleagues were executed on Hadrian's direct orders, for fear of their popular standing with the army and their close connections to Trajan. In contrast, the next prominent Roman figure in charge of the repression of the Jewish revolt, the equestrian Quintus Marcius Turbo, who had dealt with the rebel leader from Cyrene, Loukuas, retained Hadrian's trust, eventually becoming his Praetorian Prefect. As all four consulars were senators of the highest standing and as such generally regarded as able to take imperial power (*capaces imperii*), Hadrian seems to have decided to forestall these prospective rivals. Death and succession -------------------- Early in 117, Trajan grew ill and set sail for Italy. His health declined throughout the spring and summer of 117, possibly acknowledged to the public by the display of a bronze portrait-bust at the public baths of Ancyra, showing an aged and emaciated man, though the identification with Trajan is disputed. He reached Selinus, where he suddenly died, on or shortly before 11 August. Trajan in person could have lawfully nominated Hadrian as his successor, but Dio claims that Trajan's wife, Pompeia Plotina, assured Hadrian's succession by keeping Trajan's death a secret, long enough for her to produce and sign a document attesting to Hadrian's adoption as son and successor. Dio, who tells this narrative, offers his father – the governor of Cilicia Apronianus – as a source, so his narrative may be based on contemporary rumour. It may also reflect male Roman displeasure that an empress – let alone any woman –  could presume to meddle in Rome's political affairs. Hadrian held an ambiguous position during Trajan's reign. After commanding Legio I Minervia during the Dacian Wars, he had been relieved from front-line duties at the decisive stage of the Second Dacian War, being sent to govern the newly created province of Pannonia Inferior. He had pursued a senatorial career without particular distinction and had not been officially adopted by Trajan although he received from him decorations and other marks of distinction that made him hope for the succession. He received no post after his 108 consulate and no further honours other than being made Archon eponymos for Athens in 111/112. He probably did not take part in the Parthian War. Literary sources relate that Trajan had considered others, such as the jurist Lucius Neratius Priscus, as heir. Hadrian, who was eventually entrusted with the governorship of Syria at the time of Trajan's death, was Trajan's cousin and was married to Trajan's grandniece, which all made him as good as heir designate. Hadrian seems to have been well connected to the powerful and influential coterie of Spanish senators at Trajan's court, through his ties to Plotina and the Prefect Attianus. His refusal to sustain Trajan's senatorial and expansionist policy during his own reign may account for the "crass hostility" shown him by literary sources. Hadrian's first major act as emperor was to abandon Mesopotamia as too costly and distant to defend, and to restore Armenia and Osrhoene to Parthian hegemony, under Rome's suzerainty. The Parthian campaign had been an enormous setback to Trajan's policy, proof that Rome had overstretched its capacity to sustain an ambitious program of conquest. According to the *Historia Augusta*, Hadrian claimed to follow the precedent set by Cato the Elder towards the Macedonians, who "were to be set free because they could not be protected" – something Birley sees as an unconvincing precedent. Other territories conquered by Trajan were retained. According to a well-established historical tradition, Trajan's ashes were placed within the small cella that still survives at the base of Trajan's column. In some modern scholarship, his ashes were more likely interred near his column, in a mausoleum, temple or tomb built for his cult as a *divus* of the Roman state. Legacy ------ Ancient sources on Trajan's personality and accomplishments are unanimously positive. Pliny the Younger, for example, celebrates Trajan in his panegyric as a wise and just emperor and a moral man. Cassius Dio added that he always remained dignified and fair. A third-century emperor, Decius, even received from the Senate the name Trajan as a decoration. After the setbacks of the third century, Trajan, together with Augustus, became in the Later Roman Empire the paragon of the most positive traits of the Imperial order. Some theologians such as Thomas Aquinas discussed Trajan as an example of a virtuous pagan. In the *Divine Comedy*, Dante, following this legend, sees the spirit of Trajan in the Heaven of Jupiter with other historical and mythological persons noted for their justice. Also, a mural of Trajan stopping to provide justice for a poor widow is present in the first terrace of Purgatory as a lesson to those who are purged for being proud. > I noticed that the inner bank of the curve... > > > > Was of white marble, and so decorated > > With carvings that not only Polycletus > > But nature herself would there be put to shame... > > > > There was recorded the high glory > > Of that ruler of Rome whose worth > > Moved Gregory to his great victory; > > > > I mean by this the Emperor Trajan; > > And at his bridle a poor widow > > Whose attitude bespoke tears and grief... > > > > The wretched woman, in the midst of all this, > > Seemed to be saying: 'Lord, avenge my son, > > Who is dead, so that my heart is broken..' > > > > So he said: 'Now be comforted, for I must > > Carry out my duty before I go on: > > Justice requires it and pity holds me back.' > > > > *Dante, The Divine Comedy, Purgatorio X, ll. 32 f. and 73 f.* > > ### Iconography After the despised Nero, Roman emperors until Trajan were depicted shaven. Trajan's successor Hadrian made beards fashionable again for emperors. ### Later Emperors Many emperors after Trajan would, when they were sworn into office, be wished *Felicior Augusto, Melior Traiano* ("May you be more fortunate than Augustus and better than Trajan"). The fourth-century emperor Constantine I is credited with calling him a "plant upon every wall" for the many buildings bearing inscriptions with his name. ### After Rome In the 18th century, King Charles III of Spain commissioned Anton Raphael Mengs to paint *The Triumph of Trajan* on the ceiling of the banquet hall of the Royal Palace of Madrid – considered among the best works of this artist. It was only during the Enlightenment that this legacy began to be contested, when Edward Gibbon expressed doubts about the militarized character of Trajan's reign in contrast to the "moderate" practices of his immediate successors. Mommsen adopted a divided stance towards Trajan, at some point of his posthumously published lectures even speaking about his "vainglory" (*Scheinglorie*). Mommsen also speaks of Trajan's "insatiable, unlimited lust for conquest". Although Mommsen had no liking for Trajan's successor Hadrian – "a repellent manner, and a venomous, envious and malicious nature" – he admitted that Hadrian, in renouncing Trajan's conquests, was "doing what the situation clearly required". It was exactly this military character of Trajan's reign that attracted his early twentieth-century biographer, the Italian Fascist historian Roberto Paribeni, who in his 1927 two-volume biography *Optimus Princeps* described Trajan's reign as the acme of the Roman principate, which he saw as Italy's patrimony. Following in Paribeni's footsteps, the German historian Alfred Heuss saw in Trajan "the accomplished human embodiment of the imperial title" (*die ideale Verkörperung des humanen Kaiserbegriffs*). Trajan's first English-language biography by Julian Bennett is also a positive one in that it assumes that Trajan was an active policy-maker concerned with the management of the empire as a whole – something his reviewer Lendon considers an anachronistic outlook that sees in the Roman emperor a kind of modern administrator. During the 1980s, the Romanian historian Eugen Cizek took a more nuanced view as he described the changes in the *personal* ideology of Trajan's reign, stressing the fact that it became ever more autocratic and militarized, especially after 112 and towards the Parthian War (as "only an universal monarch, a *kosmocrator*, could dictate his law to the East"). The biography by the German historian Karl Strobel stresses the continuity between Domitian's and Trajan's reigns, saying that Trajan's rule followed the same autocratic and sacred character as Domitian's, culminating in a failed Parthian adventure intended as the crown of his personal achievement. It is in modern French historiography that Trajan's reputation becomes most markedly deflated: Paul Petit writes about Trajan's portraits as a "lowbrow boor with a taste for booze and boys". For Paul Veyne, what is to be retained from Trajan's "stylish" qualities was that he was the last Roman emperor to think of the empire as a purely Italian and Rome-centred hegemony of conquest. In contrast, his successor Hadrian would stress the notion of the empire as ecumenical and of the Emperor as universal benefactor and not *kosmocrator*. ### In Jewish legend In the Jewish homiletical works, such as *Esther Rabbah*, Trajan is described with the epitaph "may his bones be crushed" (Hebrew: שְׁחִיק עֲצָמוֹת, *sh'hik atzamot*). The same epitaph is also used for Hadrian. Nerva–Antonine family tree -------------------------- | | | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Q. Marcius Barea Soranus | | Q. Marcius Barea Sura | | Antonia Furnilla | | | | | | | M. Cocceius Nerva | | Sergia Plautilla | | | | | | | P. Aelius Hadrianus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Titus(r. 79–81) | | Marcia Furnilla | | Marcia | | Trajanus Pater | | | | Nerva(r. 96–98) | | | | Ulpia | | Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Flavia | | Marciana | | C. Salonius Matidius | | Trajan(r. 98–117) | | Plotina | | P. Acilius Attianus | | P. Aelius Afer | | Paulina Major | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Lucius Mindius (2) | | | Libo Rupilius Frugi (3) | | | Salonia Matidia | | L. Vibius Sabinus (1) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Paulina Minor | | L. Julius Ursus Servianus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Matidia Minor | | | | | | | | | | Suetonius? | | Sabina | | Hadrian (r. 117–138) | | Antinous | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Julia Balbilla? | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | C. Fuscus Salinator I | | Julia Serviana Paulina | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | M. Annius Verus | | Rupilia Faustina | | | | | | Boionia Procilla | | Cn. Arrius Antoninus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | L. Ceionius Commodus | | Appia Severa | | C. Fuscus Salinator II | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | L. Caesennius Paetus | | | | | | Arria Antonina | | Arria Fadilla | | | T. Aurelius Fulvus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | L. Caesennius Antoninus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | L. Commodus | | Plautia | | *unknown* | | C. Avidius Nigrinus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | M. Annius Verus | | Calvisia Domitia Lucilla | | | | Fundania | | M. Annius Libo | | Faustina | | Antoninus Pius(r. 138–161) | | | | L. Aelius Caesar | | | | | | Avidia | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Cornificia | | Marcus Aurelius(r. 161–180) | | | Faustina Minor | | C. Avidius Cassius | | | Aurelia Fadilla | | Lucius Verus(r. 161–169) (1) | | | Ceionia Fabia | | Plautius Quintillus | | Q. Servilius Pudens | | Ceionia Plautia | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Cornificia Minor | | M. Petronius Sura | | Commodus(r. 177–192) | | | Fadilla | | | M. Annius Verus Caesar | | Ti. Claudius Pompeianus (2) | | Lucilla | | | | | M. Plautius Quintillus | | Junius Licinius Balbus | | Servilia Ceionia | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Petronius Antoninus | | L. Aurelius Agaclytus (2) | | Aurelia Sabina | | L. Antistius Burrus (1) | | Plautius Quintillus | | Plautia Servilla | | | C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus | | Antonia Gordiana | | Junius Licinius Balbus? | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Furia Sabina Tranquillina | | | Gordian III(r. 238–244) | | | | | | | | | --- | | * (1) = 1st spouse * (2) = 2nd spouse * (3) = 3rd spouse * Reddish-purple indicates emperor of the Nerva–Antonine dynasty  lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said dynasty who never reigned  grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants  bluish-purple indicates emperors of other dynasties * dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love affairs/unmarried relationships * Small Caps = posthumously deified (*Augusti, Augustae,* or other) | | | **Notes:** Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. 1. ↑ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. 2. ↑ Giacosa (1977), p. 8. 3. 1 2 Levick (2014), p. 161. 4. ↑ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. 5. 1 2 Giacosa (1977), p. 7. 6. 1 2 3 *DIR* contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian". 7. 1 2 Giacosa (1977), p. 9. 8. ↑ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161. 9. ↑ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus". 10. ↑ Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of *HA Hadrianus* 11:3 11. ↑ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322. 12. ↑ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and *passim*; deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2–5, etc. 13. ↑ Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997), *Hadrian, the Restless Emperor*, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30, who is sceptical of this suggestion. 14. ↑ Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. 15. 1 2 3 4 Levick (2014), p. 163. 16. ↑ It is uncertain whether Rupilia Faustina was Frugi's daughter by Salonia Matidia or another woman. 17. 1 2 3 4 Levick (2014), p. 162. 18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Levick (2014), p. 164. 19. ↑ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10. 20. ↑ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. 21. 1 2 3 4 5 Giacosa (1977), p. 10. 22. ↑ The epitomator of Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in *HA* "Marcus Aurelius" 24. 23. ↑ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. 24. 1 2 3 Levick (2014), p. 117. | | **References:*** *DIR* contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved 14 April 2015. * Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). *Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and Portraits on Coins*. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2. * Lambert, Royston (1984). *Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous*. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2. * Levick, Barbara (2014). *Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9. * Smith, William, ed. (1870). *Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology*. | See also -------- * Felicior Augusto, melior Traiano * Justice of Trajan * Trajanic art Sources and further reading --------------------------- * Alighieri, Dante (1998) [1993]. *The Divine Comedy*. Translated by Sisson, Charles H. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-283502-4. * Alston, Richard (2014). *Aspects of Roman History 31BC-AD117*. Abingdon: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-61120-6. * Ancel, R. Manning. "Soldiers". *Military Heritage*. December 2001. Volume 3, No. 3: 12, 14, 16, 20 (Trajan, Emperor of Rome). * Bennett, Julian (2001). *Trajan. Optimus Princeps*. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-21435-5. * Birley, Anthony R. (2013). *Hadrian: The Restless Emperor*. Abingdon: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-16544-0. * Des Boscs-Plateaux, Françoise (2005). *Un parti hispanique à Rome?: ascension des élites hispaniques et pouvoir politique d'Auguste à Hadrien, 27 av. J.-C.-138 ap. J.-C* (in French). Madrid: Casa de Velázquez. ISBN 978-84-95555-80-9. * Bowersock, G.W. *Roman Arabia*, Harvard University Press, 1983 * Browning, Iain (1982). *Jerash and the Decapolis*. London: Chatto & Windus. OCLC 1166989366. * Choisnel, Emmanuel (2004). *Les Parthes et la Route de la Soie* (in French). Paris: L'Harmattan. ISBN 978-2-7475-7037-4. * Christol, Michel; Nony, N. (2003). *Rome et son Empire* (in French). Paris: Hachette. ISBN 978-2-01-145542-0. * (in French) Cizek, Eugen. *L'époque de Trajan: circonstances politiques et problèmes idéologiques*. Bucharest, Editura Științifică și Enciclopedică, 1983, ISBN 978-2-251-32852-2 * Dando-Collins, Stephen (2012). *Legions of Rome: The definitive history of every Roman legion*. London: Quercus. ISBN 978-1-84916-230-2. * Edwell, Peter (2007). *Between Rome and Persia: The Middle Euphrates, Mesopotamia and Palmyra Under Roman Control*. Abingdon: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-93833-1. * Finley, M.I. (1999). *The Ancient Economy*. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-21946-5. * Fuller, J.F.C. *A Military History of the Western World*. Three Volumes. New York: Da Capo Press, Inc., 1987 and 1988. + v. 1. *From the late times to the Battle of Lepanto*; ISBN 0-306-80304-6. 255, 266, 269, 270, 273 (Trajan, Roman Emperor). * Garzetti, Albino (2014). *From Tiberius to the Antonines: A History of the Roman Empire AD 14-192*. Abingdon: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-01920-1. * Găzdac, Cristian (2010). *Monetary Circulation in Dacia and the Provinces from the Middle and Lower Danube from Trajan to Constantine I (AD 106–337)*. Cluj-Napoca: Mega. ISBN 978-606-543-040-2. * Grainger, John D. (2004). *Nerva and the Roman Succession Crisis of AD 96–99*. Abingdon: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-34958-1. * Isaac, B. *The Limits of Empire*, The Roman Army in the East, Revised Edition, Oxford University Press, 1990 ISBN 0-19-814891-7 OCLC 20091873 * Jackson, N. *Trajan: Rome's Last Conqueror*, 1st edition, GreenHill Books, 2022. ISBN 9781784387075 * Kennedy, D. *The Roman Army in Jordan*, Revised Edition, Council for British Research in the Levant, 2004. ISBN 0-9539102-1-0 OCLC 59267318 * Kettenhofen, Erich (2004). "TRAJAN". *Encyclopaedia Iranica*. * Jones, Brian (2002). *The Emperor Domitian*. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-03625-9. * Lepper, F.A. *Trajan's Parthian War*. London: Oxford University Press, 1948. OCLC 2898605 Also available online. * Luttwak, Edward N. (1979). *The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire: From the First Century A.D. to the Third*. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-2158-5. * Mattern, Susan P. (1999). *Rome and the Enemy: Imperial Strategy in the Principate*. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-21166-7. * Mommsen, Theodor (1999). *A History of Rome Under the Emperors*. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-97908-2. * (in French) Minaud, Gérard, *Les vies de 12 femmes d'empereur romain – Devoirs, Intrigues & Voluptés*, Paris, L'Harmattan, 2012, ch. 6, *La vie de Plotine, femme de Trajan*, p. 147–168. ISBN 978-2-336-00291-0. * Petit, Paul (1976). *Pax Romana*. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-02171-6. * Rees, Roger (2012). *Latin Panegyric*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-957671-5. * Le Roux, Patrick (1998). *Le Haut-Empire Romain en Occident, d'Auguste aux Sévères* (in French). Paris: Seuil. ISBN 978-2-02-025932-3. * de Ste. Croix, G.E.M. (1989). *The Class Struggle in the Ancient Greek World*. London: Duckworth. ISBN 978-0-8014-9597-7. * Sartre, Maurice (1994). *El Oriente romano, Parte 3* (in Spanish). Madrid: AKAL. ISBN 978-84-460-0412-7. * Schmitz, Michael (2005). *The Dacian Threat, 101–106 AD*. Armidale, Australia: Caeros Pty. ISBN 978-0-9758445-0-2. * Sidebotham, Steven E. (1986). *Roman Economic Policy in the Erythra Thalassa: 30 B.C. – A.D. 217*. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-07644-0. * Strobel, Karl (2010). *Kaiser Traian: Eine Epoche der Weltgeschichte* (in German). Regensburg: F. Pustet. ISBN 978-3-7917-2172-9. * Veyne, Paul (1976). *Le Pain et le Cirque* (in French). Paris: Seuil. ISBN 978-2-02-004507-0. * Veyne, Paul (2001). *La Société Romaine* (in French). Paris: Seuil. ISBN 978-2-02-052360-8. * Veyne, Paul (2005). *L'Empire Gréco-Romain* (in French). Paris: Seuil. ISBN 978-2-02-057798-4. * Young, Gary K. (2001). *Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC – AD 305*. Abingdon: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-47093-0. * Wildfeuer, C.R.H. *Trajan, Lion of Rome: the Untold Story of Rome's Greatest Emperor*, Aquifer Publishing, 2009. ISBN 0-9818460-6-8 OCLC 496004778 Historical fiction. ### Primary sources * Cassius Dio, *Roman History* Book 68, English translation * Aurelius Victor (attrib.), *Epitome de Caesaribus* Chapter 13, English translation * Pliny the Younger, Letters, Book 10, English translation ### Secondary material * Benario, Herbert W. (2000). "Trajan (A.D. 98–117)". De Imperatoribus Romanis. Retrieved 24 September 2007. External links -------------- | | | --- | | Trajan **Nerva–Antonine dynasty****Born:** 18 September 53 **Died:** August 117 | | Regnal titles | | Preceded byNerva | **Roman emperor** 98–117 | Succeeded byHadrian | | Political offices | | Preceded byMarcus Tullius Cerialis [la; pt]Cn. Pompeius Catullinus***as suffect consul*** | **Roman consul** 91 With: **Mn. Acilius Glabrio** | Succeeded byGnaeus Minicius Faustinus [es; de; ru]P. Valerius Marinus***as suffect consul*** | | Preceded byP. Cornelius TacitusM. Ostorius Scapula***as suffect consul*** | **Roman consul** 98 With: **Nerva IV** | Succeeded byL. Maecius Postumus***as suffect consul*** | | Preceded byA. Cornelius Palma FrontonianusQ. Sosius Senecio | **Roman consul** 100 With: **Sex. Julius Frontinus** | Succeeded byLucius Julius Ursus***as suffect consul*** | | Preceded byL. Roscius Aelianus Maecius CelerTi. Claudius Sacerdos Julianus***as suffect consul*** | **Roman consul** 101 With: **Q. Articuleius Paetus** | Succeeded bySex. Attius Suburanus Aemilianus***as suffect consul*** | | Preceded byL. Antonius AlbusM. Junius Homullus***as suffect consul*** | **Roman consul** 103 With: **Manius Laberius Maximus** | Succeeded byQ. Glitius Atilius Agricola II***as suffect consul*** | | Preceded byL. Octavius CrassusP. Coelius Apollinaris***as suffect consul*** | **Roman consul** 112 With: **T. Sextius Cornelius Africanus** | Succeeded byM. Licinius Ruso***as suffect consul*** |

Trajan

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trajan

**Entropy** is a scientific concept, as well as a measurable physical property, that is most commonly associated with a state of disorder, randomness, or uncertainty. The term and the concept are used in diverse fields, from classical thermodynamics, where it was first recognized, to the microscopic description of nature in statistical physics, and to the principles of information theory. It has found far-ranging applications in chemistry and physics, in biological systems and their relation to life, in cosmology, economics, sociology, weather science, climate change, and information systems including the transmission of information in telecommunication. The thermodynamic concept was referred to by Scottish scientist and engineer William Rankine in 1850 with the names *thermodynamic function* and *heat-potential*. In 1865, German physicist Rudolf Clausius, one of the leading founders of the field of thermodynamics, defined it as the quotient of an infinitesimal amount of heat to the instantaneous temperature. He initially described it as *transformation-content*, in German *Verwandlungsinhalt*, and later coined the term *entropy* from a Greek word for *transformation*. Referring to microscopic constitution and structure, in 1862, Clausius interpreted the concept as meaning disgregation. Entropy is central to the second law of thermodynamics, which states that the entropy of an isolated system left to spontaneous evolution cannot decrease with time. As a result, isolated systems evolve torward thermodynamic equilibrium, where the entropy is highest. A consequence of the second law of thermodynamics is that certain processes are irreversible. Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann explained entropy as the measure of the number of possible microscopic arrangements or states of individual atoms and molecules of a system that comply with the macroscopic condition of the system. He thereby introduced the concept of statistical disorder and probability distributions into a new field of thermodynamics, called statistical mechanics, and found the link between the microscopic interactions, which fluctuate about an average configuration, to the macroscopically observable behavior, in form of a simple logarithmic law, with a proportionality constant, the Boltzmann constant, that has become one of the defining universal constants for the modern International System of Units (SI). In 1948, Bell Labs scientist Claude Shannon developed similar statistical concepts of measuring microscopic uncertainty and multiplicity to the problem of random losses of information in telecommunication signals. Upon John von Neumann's suggestion, Shannon named this entity of *missing information* in analogous manner to its use in statistical mechanics as *entropy*, and gave birth to the field of information theory. This description has been identified as a universal definition of the concept of entropy. History ------- In his 1803 paper *Fundamental Principles of Equilibrium and Movement*, the French mathematician Lazare Carnot proposed that in any machine, the accelerations and shocks of the moving parts represent losses of *moment of activity*; in any natural process there exists an inherent tendency towards the dissipation of useful energy. In 1824, building on that work, Lazare's son, Sadi Carnot, published *Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire*, which posited that in all heat-engines, whenever "caloric" (what is now known as heat) falls through a temperature difference, work or motive power can be produced from the actions of its fall from a hot to cold body. He used an analogy with how water falls in a water wheel. That was an early insight into the second law of thermodynamics. Carnot based his views of heat partially on the early 18th-century "Newtonian hypothesis" that both heat and light were types of indestructible forms of matter, which are attracted and repelled by other matter, and partially on the contemporary views of Count Rumford, who showed in 1789 that heat could be created by friction, as when cannon bores are machined. Carnot reasoned that if the body of the working substance, such as a body of steam, is returned to its original state at the end of a complete engine cycle, "no change occurs in the condition of the working body". The first law of thermodynamics, deduced from the heat-friction experiments of James Joule in 1843, expresses the concept of energy and its conservation in all processes; the first law, however, is unsuitable to separately quantify the effects of friction and dissipation. In the 1850s and 1860s, German physicist Rudolf Clausius objected to the supposition that no change occurs in the working body, and gave that change a mathematical interpretation, by questioning the nature of the inherent loss of usable heat when work is done, e.g., heat produced by friction. He described his observations as a dissipative use of energy, resulting in a *transformation-content* (*Verwandlungsinhalt* in German), of a thermodynamic system or working body of chemical species during a change of state. That was in contrast to earlier views, based on the theories of Isaac Newton, that heat was an indestructible particle that had mass. Clausius discovered that the non-usable energy increases as steam proceeds from inlet to exhaust in a steam engine. From the prefix *en-*, as in 'energy', and from the Greek word τροπή [tropē], which is translated in an established lexicon as *turning* or *change* and that he rendered in German as *Verwandlung*, a word often translated into English as *transformation*, in 1865 Clausius coined the name of that property as *entropy*. The word was adopted into the English language in 1868. Later, scientists such as Ludwig Boltzmann, Josiah Willard Gibbs, and James Clerk Maxwell gave entropy a statistical basis. In 1877, Boltzmann visualized a probabilistic way to measure the entropy of an ensemble of ideal gas particles, in which he defined entropy as proportional to the natural logarithm of the number of microstates such a gas could occupy. The proportionality constant in this definition, called the Boltzmann constant, has become one of the defining universal constants for the modern International System of Units (SI). Henceforth, the essential problem in statistical thermodynamics has been to determine the distribution of a given amount of energy *E* over *N* identical systems. Constantin Carathéodory, a Greek mathematician, linked entropy with a mathematical definition of irreversibility, in terms of trajectories and integrability. Etymology --------- In 1865, Clausius named the concept of "the differential of a quantity which depends on the configuration of the system", *entropy* (*Entropie*) after the Greek word for 'transformation'. He gave "transformational content" (*Verwandlungsinhalt*) as a synonym, paralleling his "thermal and ergonal content" (*Wärme- und Werkinhalt*) as the name of U {\displaystyle U} U, but preferring the term *entropy* as a close parallel of the word *energy*, as he found the concepts nearly "analogous in their physical significance". This term was formed by replacing the root of ἔργον ('ergon', 'work') by that of τροπή ('tropy', 'transformation'). In more detail, Clausius explained his choice of "entropy" as a name as follows: > > I prefer going to the ancient languages for the names of important scientific quantities, so that they may mean the same thing in all living tongues. I propose, therefore, to call *S* the *entropy* of a body, after the Greek word "transformation". I have designedly coined the word *entropy* to be similar to energy, for these two quantities are so analogous in their physical significance, that an analogy of denominations seems to me helpful. > > > Leon Cooper added that in this way "he succeeded in coining a word that meant the same thing to everybody: nothing". Definitions and descriptions ---------------------------- > > Any method involving the notion of entropy, the very existence of which depends on the second law of thermodynamics, will doubtless seem to many far-fetched, and may repel beginners as obscure and difficult of comprehension. > > > Willard Gibbs, *Graphical Methods in the Thermodynamics of Fluids* The concept of entropy is described by two principal approaches, the macroscopic perspective of classical thermodynamics, and the microscopic description central to statistical mechanics. The classical approach defines entropy in terms of macroscopically measurable physical properties, such as bulk mass, volume, pressure, and temperature. The statistical definition of entropy defines it in terms of the statistics of the motions of the microscopic constituents of a system – modeled at first classically, e.g. Newtonian particles constituting a gas, and later quantum-mechanically (photons, phonons, spins, etc.). The two approaches form a consistent, unified view of the same phenomenon as expressed in the second law of thermodynamics, which has found universal applicability to physical processes. ### State variables and functions of state Many thermodynamic properties are defined by physical variables that define a state of thermodynamic equilibrium; these are *state variables*. State variables depend only on the equilibrium condition, not on the path evolution to that state. State variables can be functions of state, also called *state functions*, in a sense that one state variable is a mathematical function of other state variables. Often, if some properties of a system are determined, they are sufficient to determine the state of the system and thus other properties' values. For example, temperature and pressure of a given quantity of gas determine its state, and thus also its volume via the ideal gas law. A system composed of a pure substance of a single phase at a particular uniform temperature and pressure is determined, and is thus a particular state, and has not only a particular volume but also a specific entropy. The fact that entropy is a function of state makes it useful. In the Carnot cycle, the working fluid returns to the same state that it had at the start of the cycle, hence the change or line integral of any state function, such as entropy, over this reversible cycle is zero. ### Reversible process Total entropy may be conserved during a reversible process. The entropy change *d S {\textstyle dS} {\textstyle dS}* of the system (not including the surroundings) is well-defined as heat *δ Q rev {\textstyle \delta Q\_{\text{rev}}} {\textstyle \delta Q_{\text{rev}}}* transferred to the system divided by the system temperature *T {\textstyle T} {\textstyle T}*, d S = δ Q rev T {\textstyle dS={\frac {\delta Q\_{\text{rev}}}{T}}} {\textstyle dS={\frac {\delta Q_{\text{rev}}}{T}}}. A reversible process is a quasistatic one that deviates only infinitesimally from thermodynamic equilibrium and avoids friction or other dissipation. Any process that happens quickly enough to deviate from thermal equilibrium cannot be reversible, total entropy increases, and the potential for maximum work to be done in the process is also lost. For example, in the Carnot cycle, while the heat flow from the hot reservoir to the cold reservoir represents an increase in entropy in the cold reservoir, the work output, if reversibly and perfectly stored in some energy storage mechanism, represents a decrease in entropy that could be used to operate the heat engine in **reverse** and return to the previous state; thus the *total* entropy change may still be zero at all times if the entire process is reversible. An irreversible process increases the total entropy of the system and surroundings. ### Carnot cycle The concept of entropy arose from Rudolf Clausius's study of the Carnot cycle that is a thermodynamic cycle performed by a Carnot heat engine as a reversible heat engine. In a Carnot cycle, heat *Q*H is absorbed isothermally at temperature *T*H from a 'hot' reservoir (in the isothermal expansion stage) and given up isothermally as heat *Q*C to a 'cold' reservoir at *T*C (in the isothermal compression stage). According to Carnot's principle or theorem, work from a heat engine with two thermal reservoirs can be produced only when there is a temperature difference between these reservoirs, and for reversible engines which are mostly and equally efficient among all heat engines for a given thermal reservoir pair, the work is a function of the reservoir temperatures and the heat absorbed to the engine *Q*H (heat engine work output = heat engine efficiency × heat to the engine, where the efficiency is a function of the reservoir temperatures for reversible heat engines). Carnot did not distinguish between *Q*H and *Q*C, since he was using the incorrect hypothesis that caloric theory was valid, and hence heat was conserved (the incorrect assumption that *Q*H and *Q*C were equal in magnitude) when, in fact, *Q*H is greater than the magnitude of *Q*C in magnitude. Through the efforts of Clausius and Kelvin, it is now known that the work done by a reversible heat engine is the product of the Carnot efficiency (it is the efficiency of all reversible heat engines with the same thermal reservoir pairs according to the Carnot's theorem) and the heat absorbed from the hot reservoir: | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | W = ( T H − T C T H ) Q H = ( 1 − T C T H ) Q H {\displaystyle W=\left({\frac {T\_{\text{H}}-T\_{\text{C}}}{T\_{\text{H}}}}\right)Q\_{\text{H}}=\left(1-{\frac {T\_{\text{C}}}{T\_{\text{H}}}}\right)Q\_{\text{H}}} {\displaystyle W=\left({\frac {T_{\text{H}}-T_{\text{C}}}{T_{\text{H}}}}\right)Q_{\text{H}}=\left(1-{\frac {T_{\text{C}}}{T_{\text{H}}}}\right)Q_{\text{H}}} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(1)** | Here W {\displaystyle W} W is work done by the Carnot heat engine, Q H {\displaystyle Q\_{\text{H}}} Q_{\text{H}} is heat to the engine from the hot reservoir, and − T C T H Q H {\displaystyle -{\frac {T\_{\text{C}}}{T\_{\text{H}}}}Q\_{\text{H}}} {\displaystyle -{\frac {T_{\text{C}}}{T_{\text{H}}}}Q_{\text{H}}} is heat to the cold reservoir from the engine. To derive the *Carnot efficiency*, which is 1 − *T*C/*T*H (a number less than one), Kelvin had to evaluate the ratio of the work output to the heat absorbed during the isothermal expansion with the help of the Carnot–Clapeyron equation, which contained an unknown function called the Carnot function. The possibility that the Carnot function could be the temperature as measured from a zero point of temperature was suggested by Joule in a letter to Kelvin. This allowed Kelvin to establish his absolute temperature scale. It is also known that the net work *W* produced by the system in one cycle is the net heat absorbed, which is the sum (or difference of the magnitudes) of the heat *Q*H > 0 absorbed from the hot reservoir and the waste heat *Q*C < 0 given off to the cold reservoir: | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | W = Q H + Q C {\displaystyle W=Q\_{\text{H}}+Q\_{\text{C}}} {\displaystyle W=Q_{\text{H}}+Q_{\text{C}}} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(2)** | Since the latter is valid over the entire cycle, this gave Clausius the hint that at each stage of the cycle, work and heat would not be equal, but rather their difference would be the change of a state function that would vanish upon completion of the cycle. The state function was called the internal energy, that is central to the first law of thermodynamics. Now equating (**1**) and (**2**) gives, for the engine per Carnot cycle, | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Q H / T H + Q C / T C = 0 {\displaystyle Q\_{\text{H}}/T\_{\text{H}}+Q\_{\text{C}}/T\_{\text{C}}=0} {\displaystyle Q_{\text{H}}/T_{\text{H}}+Q_{\text{C}}/T_{\text{C}}=0} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(3)** | This implies that there is a function of state whose change is *Q*/*T* and this state function is conserved over a complete Carnot cycle, like other state function such as the internal energy. Clausius called this state function *entropy*. One can see that entropy was discovered through mathematics rather than through laboratory experimental results. It is a mathematical construct and has no easy physical analogy. This makes the concept somewhat obscure or abstract, akin to how the concept of energy arose. This equation shows an entropy change per Carnot cycle is zero. In fact, an entropy change in the both thermal reservoirs per Carnot cycle is also zero since that change is simply expressed by reverting the sign of each term in the equation (**3**) according to the fact that, for example, for heat transfer from the hot reservoir to the engine, the engine receives the heat while the hot reservoir loses the same amount of the heat; | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Δ S r,H + Δ S r,C = − Q H / T H − Q C / T C = 0 {\displaystyle \Delta S\_{\text{r,H}}+\Delta S\_{\text{r,C}}=-Q\_{\text{H}}/T\_{\text{H}}-Q\_{\text{C}}/T\_{\text{C}}=0} {\displaystyle \Delta S_{\text{r,H}}+\Delta S_{\text{r,C}}=-Q_{\text{H}}/T_{\text{H}}-Q_{\text{C}}/T_{\text{C}}=0} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(4)** | where we denote an entropy change for a thermal reservoir by Δ*S**r,i* = - *Q**i*/*T**i*, for *i* as either H (Hot reservoir) or C (Cold reservoir), by considering the above-mentioned signal convention of heat for the engine. Clausius then asked what would happen if less work is produced by the system than that predicted by Carnot's principle for the same thermal reservoir pair and the same heat transfer from the hot reservoir to the engine *Q*H. In this case, the right-hand side of the equation (**1**) would be the upper bound of the work output by the system, and the equation would now be converted into an inequality W < ( 1 − T C T H ) Q H {\displaystyle W<\left(1-{\frac {T\_{\text{C}}}{T\_{\text{H}}}}\right)Q\_{\text{H}}} {\displaystyle W<\left(1-{\frac {T_{\text{C}}}{T_{\text{H}}}}\right)Q_{\text{H}}}When the equation (**2**) is used to express the work as a net or total heat exchanged in a cycle, we get Q H + Q C < ( 1 − T C T H ) Q H {\displaystyle Q\_{\text{H}}+Q\_{\text{C}}<\left(1-{\frac {T\_{\text{C}}}{T\_{\text{H}}}}\right)Q\_{\text{H}}} {\displaystyle Q_{\text{H}}+Q_{\text{C}}<\left(1-{\frac {T_{\text{C}}}{T_{\text{H}}}}\right)Q_{\text{H}}}or | Q C | > T C T H Q H {\displaystyle |Q\_{\text{C}}|>{\frac {T\_{\text{C}}}{T\_{\text{H}}}}Q\_{\text{H}}} {\displaystyle |Q_{\text{C}}|>{\frac {T_{\text{C}}}{T_{\text{H}}}}Q_{\text{H}}}by considering the sign convention of heat where *Q*H > 0 is heat that is from the hot reservoir and is absorbed by the engine and *Q*C < 0 is the waste heat given off to the cold reservoir from the engine. So, more heat is given up to the cold reservoir than in the Carnot cycle. The above inequality Q H + Q C < ( 1 − T C T H ) Q H {\displaystyle Q\_{\text{H}}+Q\_{\text{C}}<\left(1-{\frac {T\_{\text{C}}}{T\_{\text{H}}}}\right)Q\_{\text{H}}} {\displaystyle Q_{\text{H}}+Q_{\text{C}}<\left(1-{\frac {T_{\text{C}}}{T_{\text{H}}}}\right)Q_{\text{H}}} can be written as Q H T H + Q C T C < 0. {\displaystyle {\frac {Q\_{\text{H}}}{T\_{\text{H}}}}+{\frac {Q\_{\text{C}}}{T\_{\text{C}}}}<0.} {\displaystyle {\frac {Q_{\text{H}}}{T_{\text{H}}}}+{\frac {Q_{\text{C}}}{T_{\text{C}}}}<0.}If we, again, denote an entropy change for a thermal reservoir by Δ*S**r,i* = - *Q**i*/*T**i*, for *i* as either H (Hot reservoir) or C (Cold reservoir), by considering the abovementioned signal convention of heat for the engine, then Δ S r,H + Δ S r,C > 0 {\displaystyle \Delta S\_{\text{r,H}}+\Delta S\_{\text{r,C}}>0} {\displaystyle \Delta S_{\text{r,H}}+\Delta S_{\text{r,C}}>0}or | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Δ S r,C > − Δ S r,H = | Δ S r,H | {\displaystyle \Delta S\_{\text{r,C}}>-\Delta S\_{\text{r,H}}=\left\vert \Delta S\_{\text{r,H}}\right\vert } {\displaystyle \Delta S_{\text{r,C}}>-\Delta S_{\text{r,H}}=\left\vert \Delta S_{\text{r,H}}\right\vert } | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(5)** | telling that the magnitude of the entropy earned by the cold reservoir is greater than the entropy lost by the hot reservoir. The net entropy change in the engine per its thermodynamic cycle is zero, so the net entropy change in the engine and both the thermal reservoirs per cycle increases if work produced by the engine is less than the work achieved by a Carnot engine in the equation (**1**). The Carnot cycle and Carnot efficiency as shown in the equation (**1**) are useful because they define the upper bound of the possible work output and the efficiency of any classical thermodynamic heat engine. Other cycles, such as the Otto cycle, Diesel cycle and Brayton cycle, can be analyzed from the standpoint of the Carnot cycle. Any machine or cyclic process that converts heat to work and is claimed to produce an efficiency greater than the Carnot efficiency is not viable because it violates the second law of thermodynamics. For very small numbers of particles in the system, statistical thermodynamics must be used. The efficiency of devices such as photovoltaic cells requires an analysis from the standpoint of quantum mechanics. ### Classical thermodynamics The thermodynamic definition of entropy was developed in the early 1850s by Rudolf Clausius and essentially describes how to measure the entropy of an isolated system in thermodynamic equilibrium with its parts. Clausius created the term entropy as an extensive thermodynamic variable that was shown to be useful in characterizing the Carnot cycle. Heat transfer in the isotherm steps (isothermal expansion and isothermal compression) of the Carnot cycle was found to be proportional to the temperature of a system (known as its absolute temperature). This relationship was expressed in an increment of entropy that is equal to incremental heat transfer divided by temperature. Entropy was found to vary in the thermodynamic cycle but eventually returned to the same value at the end of every cycle. Thus it was found to be a function of state, specifically a thermodynamic state of the system. While Clausius based his definition on a reversible process, there are also irreversible processes that change entropy. Following the second law of thermodynamics, entropy of an isolated system always increases for irreversible processes. The difference between an isolated system and closed system is that energy may *not* flow to and from an isolated system, but energy flow to and from a closed system is possible. Nevertheless, for both closed and isolated systems, and indeed, also in open systems, irreversible thermodynamics processes may occur. According to the Clausius equality, for a reversible cyclic process: ∮ δ Q rev T = 0 {\textstyle \oint {\frac {\delta Q\_{\text{rev}}}{T}}=0} {\textstyle \oint {\frac {\delta Q_{\text{rev}}}{T}}=0}. This means the line integral ∫ L δ Q rev T {\textstyle \int \_{L}{\frac {\delta Q\_{\text{rev}}}{T}}} {\textstyle \int _{L}{\frac {\delta Q_{\text{rev}}}{T}}} is path-independent. So we can define a state function S called entropy, which satisfies d S = δ Q rev T {\textstyle dS={\frac {\delta Q\_{\text{rev}}}{T}}} {\textstyle dS={\frac {\delta Q_{\text{rev}}}{T}}}. To find the entropy difference between any two states of a system, the integral must be evaluated for some reversible path between the initial and final states. Since entropy is a state function, the entropy change of the system for an irreversible path is the same as for a reversible path between the same two states. However, the heat transferred to or from, and the entropy change of, the surroundings is different. We can only obtain the change of entropy by integrating the above formula. To obtain the absolute value of the entropy, we need the third law of thermodynamics, which states that *S* = 0 at absolute zero for perfect crystals. From a macroscopic perspective, in classical thermodynamics the entropy is interpreted as a state function of a thermodynamic system: that is, a property depending only on the current state of the system, independent of how that state came to be achieved. In any process where the system gives up energy Δ*E*, and its entropy falls by Δ*S*, a quantity at least *T*R Δ*S* of that energy must be given up to the system's surroundings as heat (*T*R is the temperature of the system's external surroundings). Otherwise the process cannot go forward. In classical thermodynamics, the entropy of a system is defined only if it is in physical thermodynamic equilibrium. (But chemical equilibrium is not required: the entropy of a mixture of two moles of hydrogen and one mole of oxygen at 1 bar pressure and 298 K is well-defined.) ### Statistical mechanics The statistical definition was developed by Ludwig Boltzmann in the 1870s by analyzing the statistical behavior of the microscopic components of the system. Boltzmann showed that this definition of entropy was equivalent to the thermodynamic entropy to within a constant factor—known as the Boltzmann constant. In short, the thermodynamic definition of entropy provides the experimental verification of entropy, while the statistical definition of entropy extends the concept, providing an explanation and a deeper understanding of its nature. The interpretation of entropy in statistical mechanics is the measure of uncertainty, disorder, or *mixedupness* in the phrase of Gibbs, which remains about a system after its observable macroscopic properties, such as temperature, pressure and volume, have been taken into account. For a given set of macroscopic variables, the entropy measures the degree to which the probability of the system is spread out over different possible microstates. In contrast to the macrostate, which characterizes plainly observable average quantities, a microstate specifies all molecular details about the system including the position and velocity of every molecule. The more such states are available to the system with appreciable probability, the greater the entropy. In statistical mechanics, entropy is a measure of the number of ways a system can be arranged, often taken to be a measure of "disorder" (the higher the entropy, the higher the disorder). This definition describes the entropy as being proportional to the natural logarithm of the number of possible microscopic configurations of the individual atoms and molecules of the system (microstates) that could cause the observed macroscopic state (macrostate) of the system. The constant of proportionality is the Boltzmann constant. The Boltzmann constant, and therefore entropy, have dimensions of energy divided by temperature, which has a unit of joules per kelvin (J⋅K−1) in the International System of Units (or kg⋅m2⋅s−2⋅K−1 in terms of base units). The entropy of a substance is usually given as an intensive property – either entropy per unit mass (SI unit: J⋅K−1⋅kg−1) or entropy per unit amount of substance (SI unit: J⋅K−1⋅mol−1). Specifically, entropy is a logarithmic measure of the number of system states with significant probability of being occupied: S = − k B ∑ i p i ln ⁡ p i , {\displaystyle S=-k\_{\text{B}}\sum \_{i}p\_{i}\ln p\_{i},} {\displaystyle S=-k_{\text{B}}\sum _{i}p_{i}\ln p_{i},} ( p i {\displaystyle p\_{i}} p_{i} is the probability that the system is in i {\displaystyle i} ith state, usually given by the Boltzmann distribution; if states are defined in a continuous manner, the summation is replaced by an integral over all possible states) or, equivalently, the expected value of the logarithm of the probability that a microstate is occupied S = − k B ⟨ ln ⁡ p ⟩ , {\displaystyle S=-k\_{\text{B}}\langle \ln p\rangle ,} {\displaystyle S=-k_{\text{B}}\langle \ln p\rangle ,} where *k*B is the Boltzmann constant, equal to 1.38065×10−23 J/K. The summation is over all the possible microstates of the system, and *pi* is the probability that the system is in the *i*-th microstate. This definition assumes that the basis set of states has been picked so that there is no information on their relative phases. In a different basis set, the more general expression is S = − k B Tr ⁡ ( ρ ^ ln ⁡ ( ρ ^ ) ) , {\displaystyle S=-k\_{\mathrm {B} }\operatorname {Tr} {\big (}{\widehat {\rho }}\ln({\widehat {\rho }}){\big )},} {\displaystyle S=-k_{\mathrm {B} }\operatorname {Tr} {\big (}{\widehat {\rho }}\ln({\widehat {\rho }}){\big )},} where ρ ^ {\displaystyle {\widehat {\rho }}} {\widehat {\rho }} is the density matrix, Tr {\displaystyle \operatorname {Tr} } \operatorname {Tr} is trace, and ln {\displaystyle \ln } \ln is the matrix logarithm. This density matrix formulation is not needed in cases of thermal equilibrium so long as the basis states are chosen to be energy eigenstates. For most practical purposes, this can be taken as the fundamental definition of entropy since all other formulas for *S* can be mathematically derived from it, but not vice versa. In what has been called *the fundamental assumption of statistical thermodynamics* or *the fundamental postulate in statistical mechanics*, among system microstates of the same energy (degenerate microstates) each microstate is assumed to be populated with equal probability; this assumption is usually justified for an isolated system in equilibrium. Then for an isolated system *p**i* = 1/Ω, where Ω is the number of microstates whose energy equals the system's energy, and the previous equation reduces to S = k B ln ⁡ Ω . {\displaystyle S=k\_{\text{B}}\ln \Omega .} {\displaystyle S=k_{\text{B}}\ln \Omega .} In thermodynamics, such a system is one in which the volume, number of molecules, and internal energy are fixed (the microcanonical ensemble). For a given thermodynamic system, the *excess entropy* is defined as the entropy minus that of an ideal gas at the same density and temperature, a quantity that is always negative because an ideal gas is maximally disordered. This concept plays an important role in liquid-state theory. For instance, Rosenfeld's excess-entropy scaling principle states that reduced transport coefficients throughout the two-dimensional phase diagram are functions uniquely determined by the excess entropy. The most general interpretation of entropy is as a measure of the extent of uncertainty about a system. The equilibrium state of a system maximizes the entropy because it does not reflect all information about the initial conditions, except for the conserved variables. This uncertainty is not of the everyday subjective kind, but rather the uncertainty inherent to the experimental method and interpretative model. The interpretative model has a central role in determining entropy. The qualifier "for a given set of macroscopic variables" above has deep implications: if two observers use different sets of macroscopic variables, they see different entropies. For example, if observer A uses the variables *U*, *V* and *W*, and observer B uses *U*, *V*, *W*, *X*, then, by changing *X*, observer B can cause an effect that looks like a violation of the second law of thermodynamics to observer A. In other words: the set of macroscopic variables one chooses must include everything that may change in the experiment, otherwise one might see decreasing entropy. Entropy can be defined for any Markov processes with reversible dynamics and the detailed balance property. In Boltzmann's 1896 *Lectures on Gas Theory*, he showed that this expression gives a measure of entropy for systems of atoms and molecules in the gas phase, thus providing a measure for the entropy of classical thermodynamics. ### Entropy of a system Entropy arises directly from the Carnot cycle. It can also be described as the reversible heat divided by temperature. Entropy is a fundamental function of state. In a thermodynamic system, pressure and temperature tend to become uniform over time because the equilibrium state has higher probability (more possible combinations of microstates) than any other state. As an example, for a glass of ice water in air at room temperature, the difference in temperature between the warm room (the surroundings) and the cold glass of ice and water (the system and not part of the room) decreases as portions of the thermal energy from the warm surroundings spread to the cooler system of ice and water. Over time the temperature of the glass and its contents and the temperature of the room become equal. In other words, the entropy of the room has decreased as some of its energy has been dispersed to the ice and water, of which the entropy has increased. However, as calculated in the example, the entropy of the system of ice and water has increased more than the entropy of the surrounding room has decreased. In an isolated system such as the room and ice water taken together, the dispersal of energy from warmer to cooler always results in a net increase in entropy. Thus, when the "universe" of the room and ice water system has reached a temperature equilibrium, the entropy change from the initial state is at a maximum. The entropy of the thermodynamic system is a measure of how far the equalization has progressed. Thermodynamic entropy is a non-conserved state function that is of great importance in the sciences of physics and chemistry. Historically, the concept of entropy evolved to explain why some processes (permitted by conservation laws) occur spontaneously while their time reversals (also permitted by conservation laws) do not; systems tend to progress in the direction of increasing entropy. For isolated systems, entropy never decreases. This fact has several important consequences in science: first, it prohibits "perpetual motion" machines; and second, it implies the arrow of entropy has the same direction as the arrow of time. Increases in the total entropy of system and surroundings correspond to irreversible changes, because some energy is expended as waste heat, limiting the amount of work a system can do. Unlike many other functions of state, entropy cannot be directly observed but must be calculated. Absolute standard molar entropy of a substance can be calculated from the measured temperature dependence of its heat capacity. The molar entropy of ions is obtained as a difference in entropy from a reference state defined as zero entropy. The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of an isolated system must increase or remain constant. Therefore, entropy is not a conserved quantity: for example, in an isolated system with non-uniform temperature, heat might irreversibly flow and the temperature become more uniform such that entropy increases. Chemical reactions cause changes in entropy and system entropy, in conjunction with enthalpy, plays an important role in determining in which direction a chemical reaction spontaneously proceeds. One dictionary definition of entropy is that it is "a measure of thermal energy per unit temperature that is not available for useful work" in a cyclic process. For instance, a substance at uniform temperature is at maximum entropy and cannot drive a heat engine. A substance at non-uniform temperature is at a lower entropy (than if the heat distribution is allowed to even out) and some of the thermal energy can drive a heat engine. A special case of entropy increase, the entropy of mixing, occurs when two or more different substances are mixed. If the substances are at the same temperature and pressure, there is no net exchange of heat or work – the entropy change is entirely due to the mixing of the different substances. At a statistical mechanical level, this results due to the change in available volume per particle with mixing. ### Equivalence of definitions Proofs of equivalence between the definition of entropy in statistical mechanics (the Gibbs entropy formula S = − k B ∑ i p i log ⁡ p i {\textstyle S=-k\_{\mathrm {B} }\sum \_{i}p\_{i}\log p\_{i}} {\textstyle S=-k_{\mathrm {B} }\sum _{i}p_{i}\log p_{i}}) and in classical thermodynamics ( d S = δ Q rev T {\textstyle dS={\frac {\delta Q\_{\text{rev}}}{T}}} {\textstyle dS={\frac {\delta Q_{\text{rev}}}{T}}} together with the fundamental thermodynamic relation) are known for the microcanonical ensemble, the canonical ensemble, the grand canonical ensemble, and the isothermal–isobaric ensemble. These proofs are based on the probability density of microstates of the generalized Boltzmann distribution and the identification of the thermodynamic internal energy as the ensemble average U = ⟨ E i ⟩ {\displaystyle U=\left\langle E\_{i}\right\rangle } {\displaystyle U=\left\langle E_{i}\right\rangle }. Thermodynamic relations are then employed to derive the well-known Gibbs entropy formula. However, the equivalence between the Gibbs entropy formula and the thermodynamic definition of entropy is not a fundamental thermodynamic relation but rather a consequence of the form of the generalized Boltzmann distribution. Furthermore, it has been shown that the definitions of entropy in statistical mechanics is the only entropy that is equivalent to the classical thermodynamics entropy under the following postulates: 1. The probability density function is proportional to some function of the ensemble parameters and random variables. 2. Thermodynamic state functions are described by ensemble averages of random variables. 3. At infinite temperature, all the microstates have the same probability. Second law of thermodynamics ---------------------------- The second law of thermodynamics requires that, in general, the total entropy of any system does not decrease other than by increasing the entropy of some other system. Hence, in a system isolated from its environment, the entropy of that system tends not to decrease. It follows that heat cannot flow from a colder body to a hotter body without the application of work to the colder body. Secondly, it is impossible for any device operating on a cycle to produce net work from a single temperature reservoir; the production of net work requires flow of heat from a hotter reservoir to a colder reservoir, or a single expanding reservoir undergoing adiabatic cooling, which performs adiabatic work. As a result, there is no possibility of a perpetual motion machine. It follows that a reduction in the increase of entropy in a specified process, such as a chemical reaction, means that it is energetically more efficient. It follows from the second law of thermodynamics that the entropy of a system that is not isolated may decrease. An air conditioner, for example, may cool the air in a room, thus reducing the entropy of the air of that system. The heat expelled from the room (the system), which the air conditioner transports and discharges to the outside air, always makes a bigger contribution to the entropy of the environment than the decrease of the entropy of the air of that system. Thus, the total of entropy of the room plus the entropy of the environment increases, in agreement with the second law of thermodynamics. In mechanics, the second law in conjunction with the fundamental thermodynamic relation places limits on a system's ability to do useful work. The entropy change of a system at temperature T {\textstyle T} {\textstyle T} absorbing an infinitesimal amount of heat δ q {\textstyle \delta q} {\textstyle \delta q} in a reversible way, is given by δ q / T {\textstyle \delta q/T} {\textstyle \delta q/T}. More explicitly, an energy T R S {\textstyle T\_{R}S} {\textstyle T_{R}S} is not available to do useful work, where T R {\textstyle T\_{R}} {\textstyle T_{R}} is the temperature of the coldest accessible reservoir or heat sink external to the system. For further discussion, see *Exergy*. Statistical mechanics demonstrates that entropy is governed by probability, thus allowing for a decrease in disorder even in an isolated system. Although this is possible, such an event has a small probability of occurring, making it unlikely. The applicability of a second law of thermodynamics is limited to systems in or sufficiently near equilibrium state, so that they have defined entropy. Some inhomogeneous systems out of thermodynamic equilibrium still satisfy the hypothesis of local thermodynamic equilibrium, so that entropy density is locally defined as an intensive quantity. For such systems, there may apply a principle of maximum time rate of entropy production. It states that such a system may evolve to a steady state that maximizes its time rate of entropy production. This does not mean that such a system is necessarily always in a condition of maximum time rate of entropy production; it means that it may evolve to such a steady state. Applications ------------ ### The fundamental thermodynamic relation The entropy of a system depends on its internal energy and its external parameters, such as its volume. In the thermodynamic limit, this fact leads to an equation relating the change in the internal energy U {\displaystyle U} U to changes in the entropy and the external parameters. This relation is known as the *fundamental thermodynamic relation*. If external pressure p {\displaystyle p} p bears on the volume V {\displaystyle V} V as the only external parameter, this relation is: d U = T d S − p d V {\displaystyle dU=T\,dS-p\,dV} {\displaystyle dU=T\,dS-p\,dV} Since both internal energy and entropy are monotonic functions of temperature T {\displaystyle T} T, implying that the internal energy is fixed when one specifies the entropy and the volume, this relation is valid even if the change from one state of thermal equilibrium to another with infinitesimally larger entropy and volume happens in a non-quasistatic way (so during this change the system may be very far out of thermal equilibrium and then the whole-system entropy, pressure, and temperature may not exist). The fundamental thermodynamic relation implies many thermodynamic identities that are valid in general, independent of the microscopic details of the system. Important examples are the Maxwell relations and the relations between heat capacities. ### Entropy in chemical thermodynamics Thermodynamic entropy is central in chemical thermodynamics, enabling changes to be quantified and the outcome of reactions predicted. The second law of thermodynamics states that entropy in an isolated system – the combination of a subsystem under study and its surroundings – increases during all spontaneous chemical and physical processes. The Clausius equation of δ q rev / T = Δ S {\displaystyle \delta q\_{\text{rev}}/T=\Delta S} {\displaystyle \delta q_{\text{rev}}/T=\Delta S} introduces the measurement of entropy change, Δ S {\displaystyle \Delta S} \Delta S. Entropy change describes the direction and quantifies the magnitude of simple changes such as heat transfer between systems – always from hotter to cooler spontaneously. The thermodynamic entropy therefore has the dimension of energy divided by temperature, and the unit joule per kelvin (J/K) in the International System of Units (SI). Thermodynamic entropy is an extensive property, meaning that it scales with the size or extent of a system. In many processes it is useful to specify the entropy as an intensive property independent of the size, as a specific entropy characteristic of the type of system studied. Specific entropy may be expressed relative to a unit of mass, typically the kilogram (unit: J⋅kg−1⋅K−1). Alternatively, in chemistry, it is also referred to one mole of substance, in which case it is called the *molar entropy* with a unit of J⋅mol−1⋅K−1. Thus, when one mole of substance at about 0 K is warmed by its surroundings to 298 K, the sum of the incremental values of q rev / T {\textstyle q\_{\text{rev}}/T} {\textstyle q_{\text{rev}}/T} constitute each element's or compound's standard molar entropy, an indicator of the amount of energy stored by a substance at 298 K. Entropy change also measures the mixing of substances as a summation of their relative quantities in the final mixture. Entropy is equally essential in predicting the extent and direction of complex chemical reactions. For such applications, Δ S {\displaystyle \Delta S} \Delta S must be incorporated in an expression that includes both the system and its surroundings, Δ S universe = Δ S surroundings + Δ S system {\displaystyle \Delta S\_{\text{universe}}=\Delta S\_{\text{surroundings}}+\Delta S\_{\text{system}}} {\displaystyle \Delta S_{\text{universe}}=\Delta S_{\text{surroundings}}+\Delta S_{\text{system}}}. This expression becomes, via some steps, the Gibbs free energy equation for reactants and products in the system: Δ G {\displaystyle \Delta G} \Delta G [the Gibbs free energy change of the system] = Δ H {\displaystyle =\Delta H} {\displaystyle =\Delta H} [the enthalpy change] − T Δ S {\displaystyle -T\,\Delta S} {\displaystyle -T\,\Delta S} [the entropy change]. ### World's technological capacity to store and communicate entropic information A 2011 study in Science (journal) estimated the world's technological capacity to store and communicate optimally compressed information normalized on the most effective compression algorithms available in the year 2007, therefore estimating the entropy of the technologically available sources. The author's estimate that human kind's technological capacity to store information grew from 2.6 (entropically compressed) exabytes in 1986 to 295 (entropically compressed) exabytes in 2007. The world's technological capacity to receive information through one-way broadcast networks was 432 exabytes of (entropically compressed) information in 1986, to 1.9 zettabytes in 2007. The world's effective capacity to exchange information through two-way telecommunication networks was 281 petabytes of (entropically compressed) information in 1986, to 65 (entropically compressed) exabytes in 2007. ### Entropy balance equation for open systems In chemical engineering, the principles of thermodynamics are commonly applied to "open systems", i.e. those in which heat, work, and mass flow across the system boundary. Flows of both heat ( Q ˙ {\displaystyle {\dot {Q}}} {\dot {Q}}) and work, i.e. W ˙ S {\displaystyle {\dot {W}}\_{\text{S}}} {\displaystyle {\dot {W}}_{\text{S}}} (shaft work) and P ( d V / d t ) {\displaystyle P(dV/dt)} {\displaystyle P(dV/dt)} (pressure-volume work), across the system boundaries, in general cause changes in the entropy of the system. Transfer as heat entails entropy transfer Q ˙ / T {\displaystyle {\dot {Q}}/T} {\dot {Q}}/T, where T {\displaystyle T} T is the absolute thermodynamic temperature of the system at the point of the heat flow. If there are mass flows across the system boundaries, they also influence the total entropy of the system. This account, in terms of heat and work, is valid only for cases in which the work and heat transfers are by paths physically distinct from the paths of entry and exit of matter from the system. To derive a generalized entropy balanced equation, we start with the general balance equation for the change in any extensive quantity θ {\displaystyle \theta } \theta in a thermodynamic system, a quantity that may be either conserved, such as energy, or non-conserved, such as entropy. The basic generic balance expression states that d θ / d t {\displaystyle d\theta /dt} d\theta /dt, i.e. the rate of change of θ {\displaystyle \theta } \theta in the system, equals the rate at which θ {\displaystyle \theta } \theta enters the system at the boundaries, minus the rate at which θ {\displaystyle \theta } \theta leaves the system across the system boundaries, plus the rate at which θ {\displaystyle \theta } \theta is generated within the system. For an open thermodynamic system in which heat and work are transferred by paths separate from the paths for transfer of matter, using this generic balance equation, with respect to the rate of change with time t {\displaystyle t} t of the extensive quantity entropy S {\displaystyle S} S, the entropy balance equation is: d S d t = ∑ k = 1 K M ˙ k S ^ k + Q ˙ T + S ˙ gen {\displaystyle {\frac {dS}{dt}}=\sum \_{k=1}^{K}{\dot {M}}\_{k}{\hat {S}}\_{k}+{\frac {\dot {Q}}{T}}+{\dot {S}}\_{\text{gen}}} {\displaystyle {\frac {dS}{dt}}=\sum _{k=1}^{K}{\dot {M}}_{k}{\hat {S}}_{k}+{\frac {\dot {Q}}{T}}+{\dot {S}}_{\text{gen}}} where * ∑ k = 1 K M ˙ k S ^ k {\textstyle \sum \_{k=1}^{K}{\dot {M}}\_{k}{\hat {S}}\_{k}} {\textstyle \sum _{k=1}^{K}{\dot {M}}_{k}{\hat {S}}_{k}} is the net rate of entropy flow due to the flows of mass into and out of the system (where S ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {S}}} {\hat {S}} is entropy per unit mass). * Q ˙ T {\textstyle {\frac {\dot {Q}}{T}}} {\textstyle {\frac {\dot {Q}}{T}}} is the rate of entropy flow due to the flow of heat across the system boundary. * S ˙ gen {\textstyle {\dot {S}}\_{\text{gen}}} {\textstyle {\dot {S}}_{\text{gen}}} is the rate of entropy production within the system. This entropy production arises from processes within the system, including chemical reactions, internal matter diffusion, internal heat transfer, and frictional effects such as viscosity occurring within the system from mechanical work transfer to or from the system. If there are multiple heat flows, the term Q ˙ / T {\displaystyle {\dot {Q}}/T} {\dot {Q}}/T is replaced by ∑ Q ˙ j / T j , {\textstyle \sum {\dot {Q}}\_{j}/T\_{j},} {\textstyle \sum {\dot {Q}}_{j}/T_{j},} where Q ˙ j {\displaystyle {\dot {Q}}\_{j}} {\dot {Q}}_{j} is the heat flow and T j {\displaystyle T\_{j}} T_{j} is the temperature at the j {\displaystyle j} jth heat flow port into the system. The nomenclature "entropy balance" is misleading and often deemed inappropriate because entropy is not a conserved quantity. In other words, the term S ˙ gen {\displaystyle {\dot {S}}\_{\text{gen}}} {\displaystyle {\dot {S}}_{\text{gen}}} is never a known quantity but always a derived one based on the expression above. Therefore, the open system version of the second law is more appropriately described as the "entropy generation equation" since it specifies that S ˙ gen ≥ 0 {\displaystyle {\dot {S}}\_{\text{gen}}\geq 0} {\displaystyle {\dot {S}}_{\text{gen}}\geq 0}, with zero for reversible processes or greater than zero for irreversible ones. Entropy change formulas for simple processes -------------------------------------------- For certain simple transformations in systems of constant composition, the entropy changes are given by simple formulas. ### Isothermal expansion or compression of an ideal gas For the expansion (or compression) of an ideal gas from an initial volume V 0 {\displaystyle V\_{0}} V_{0} and pressure P 0 {\displaystyle P\_{0}} P_{0} to a final volume V {\displaystyle V} V and pressure P {\displaystyle P} P at any constant temperature, the change in entropy is given by: Δ S = n R ln ⁡ V V 0 = − n R ln ⁡ P P 0 . {\displaystyle \Delta S=nR\ln {\frac {V}{V\_{0}}}=-nR\ln {\frac {P}{P\_{0}}}.} \Delta S=nR\ln {\frac {V}{V_{0}}}=-nR\ln {\frac {P}{P_{0}}}. Here n {\displaystyle n} n is the amount of gas (in moles) and R {\displaystyle R} R is the ideal gas constant. These equations also apply for expansion into a finite vacuum or a throttling process, where the temperature, internal energy and enthalpy for an ideal gas remain constant. ### Cooling and heating For pure heating or cooling of any system (gas, liquid or solid) at constant pressure from an initial temperature T 0 {\displaystyle T\_{0}} T_{0} to a final temperature T {\displaystyle T} T, the entropy change is Δ S = n C P ln ⁡ T T 0 . {\displaystyle \Delta S=nC\_{P}\ln {\frac {T}{T\_{0}}}.} {\displaystyle \Delta S=nC_{P}\ln {\frac {T}{T_{0}}}.} provided that the constant-pressure molar heat capacity (or specific heat) *C**P* is constant and that no phase transition occurs in this temperature interval. Similarly at constant volume, the entropy change is Δ S = n C v ln ⁡ T T 0 , {\displaystyle \Delta S=nC\_{v}\ln {\frac {T}{T\_{0}}},} {\displaystyle \Delta S=nC_{v}\ln {\frac {T}{T_{0}}},} where the constant-volume molar heat capacity *C*v is constant and there is no phase change. At low temperatures near absolute zero, heat capacities of solids quickly drop off to near zero, so the assumption of constant heat capacity does not apply. Since entropy is a state function, the entropy change of any process in which temperature and volume both vary is the same as for a path divided into two steps – heating at constant volume and expansion at constant temperature. For an ideal gas, the total entropy change is Δ S = n C v ln ⁡ T T 0 + n R ln ⁡ V V 0 . {\displaystyle \Delta S=nC\_{v}\ln {\frac {T}{T\_{0}}}+nR\ln {\frac {V}{V\_{0}}}.} {\displaystyle \Delta S=nC_{v}\ln {\frac {T}{T_{0}}}+nR\ln {\frac {V}{V_{0}}}.} Similarly if the temperature and pressure of an ideal gas both vary, Δ S = n C P ln ⁡ T T 0 − n R ln ⁡ P P 0 . {\displaystyle \Delta S=nC\_{P}\ln {\frac {T}{T\_{0}}}-nR\ln {\frac {P}{P\_{0}}}.} {\displaystyle \Delta S=nC_{P}\ln {\frac {T}{T_{0}}}-nR\ln {\frac {P}{P_{0}}}.} ### Phase transitions Reversible phase transitions occur at constant temperature and pressure. The reversible heat is the enthalpy change for the transition, and the entropy change is the enthalpy change divided by the thermodynamic temperature. For fusion (melting) of a solid to a liquid at the melting point *T*m, the entropy of fusion is Δ S fus = Δ H fus T m . {\displaystyle \Delta S\_{\text{fus}}={\frac {\Delta H\_{\text{fus}}}{T\_{\text{m}}}}.} \Delta S_{\text{fus}}={\frac {\Delta H_{\text{fus}}}{T_{\text{m}}}}. Similarly, for vaporization of a liquid to a gas at the boiling point *T*b, the entropy of vaporization is Δ S vap = Δ H vap T b . {\displaystyle \Delta S\_{\text{vap}}={\frac {\Delta H\_{\text{vap}}}{T\_{\text{b}}}}.} \Delta S_{\text{vap}}={\frac {\Delta H_{\text{vap}}}{T_{\text{b}}}}. Approaches to understanding entropy ----------------------------------- As a fundamental aspect of thermodynamics and physics, several different approaches to entropy beyond that of Clausius and Boltzmann are valid. ### Standard textbook definitions The following is a list of additional definitions of entropy from a collection of textbooks: * a measure of energy dispersal at a specific temperature. * a measure of disorder in the universe or of the availability of the energy in a system to do work. * a measure of a system's thermal energy per unit temperature that is unavailable for doing useful work. In Boltzmann's analysis in terms of constituent particles, entropy is a measure of the number of possible microscopic states (or microstates) of a system in thermodynamic equilibrium. ### Order and disorder Entropy is often loosely associated with the amount of order or disorder, or of chaos, in a thermodynamic system. The traditional qualitative description of entropy is that it refers to changes in the status quo of the system and is a measure of "molecular disorder" and the amount of wasted energy in a dynamical energy transformation from one state or form to another. In this direction, several recent authors have derived exact entropy formulas to account for and measure disorder and order in atomic and molecular assemblies. One of the simpler entropy order/disorder formulas is that derived in 1984 by thermodynamic physicist Peter Landsberg, based on a combination of thermodynamics and information theory arguments. He argues that when constraints operate on a system, such that it is prevented from entering one or more of its possible or permitted states, as contrasted with its forbidden states, the measure of the total amount of "disorder" in the system is given by: Disorder = C D C I . {\displaystyle {\text{Disorder}}={C\_{\text{D}} \over C\_{\text{I}}}.\,} {\displaystyle {\text{Disorder}}={C_{\text{D}} \over C_{\text{I}}}.\,} Similarly, the total amount of "order" in the system is given by: Order = 1 − C O C I . {\displaystyle {\text{Order}}=1-{C\_{\text{O}} \over C\_{\text{I}}}.\,} {\displaystyle {\text{Order}}=1-{C_{\text{O}} \over C_{\text{I}}}.\,} In which *C*D is the "disorder" capacity of the system, which is the entropy of the parts contained in the permitted ensemble, *C*I is the "information" capacity of the system, an expression similar to Shannon's channel capacity, and *C*O is the "order" capacity of the system. ### Energy dispersal The concept of entropy can be described qualitatively as a measure of energy dispersal at a specific temperature. Similar terms have been in use from early in the history of classical thermodynamics, and with the development of statistical thermodynamics and quantum theory, entropy changes have been described in terms of the mixing or "spreading" of the total energy of each constituent of a system over its particular quantized energy levels. Ambiguities in the terms *disorder* and *chaos*, which usually have meanings directly opposed to equilibrium, contribute to widespread confusion and hamper comprehension of entropy for most students. As the second law of thermodynamics shows, in an isolated system internal portions at different temperatures tend to adjust to a single uniform temperature and thus produce equilibrium. A recently developed educational approach avoids ambiguous terms and describes such spreading out of energy as dispersal, which leads to loss of the differentials required for work even though the total energy remains constant in accordance with the first law of thermodynamics (compare discussion in next section). Physical chemist Peter Atkins, in his textbook *Physical Chemistry*, introduces entropy with the statement that "spontaneous changes are always accompanied by a dispersal of energy or matter and often both". ### Relating entropy to energy *usefulness* It is possible (in a thermal context) to regard lower entropy as a measure of the *effectiveness* or *usefulness* of a particular quantity of energy. Energy supplied at a higher temperature (i.e. with low entropy) tends to be more useful than the same amount of energy available at a lower temperature. Mixing a hot parcel of a fluid with a cold one produces a parcel of intermediate temperature, in which the overall increase in entropy represents a "loss" that can never be replaced. As the entropy of the universe is steadily increasing, its total energy is becoming less useful. Eventually, this leads to the heat death of the universe. ### Entropy and adiabatic accessibility A definition of entropy based entirely on the relation of adiabatic accessibility between equilibrium states was given by E. H. Lieb and J. Yngvason in 1999. This approach has several predecessors, including the pioneering work of Constantin Carathéodory from 1909 and the monograph by R. Giles. In the setting of Lieb and Yngvason, one starts by picking, for a unit amount of the substance under consideration, two reference states X 0 {\displaystyle X\_{0}} X_{0} and X 1 {\displaystyle X\_{1}} X_{1} such that the latter is adiabatically accessible from the former but not conversely. Defining the entropies of the reference states to be 0 and 1 respectively, the entropy of a state X {\displaystyle X} X is defined as the largest number λ {\displaystyle \lambda } \lambda such that X {\displaystyle X} X is adiabatically accessible from a composite state consisting of an amount λ {\displaystyle \lambda } \lambda in the state X 1 {\displaystyle X\_{1}} X_{1} and a complementary amount, ( 1 − λ ) {\displaystyle (1-\lambda )} {\displaystyle (1-\lambda )}, in the state X 0 {\displaystyle X\_{0}} X_{0}. A simple but important result within this setting is that entropy is uniquely determined, apart from a choice of unit and an additive constant for each chemical element, by the following properties: It is monotonic with respect to the relation of adiabatic accessibility, additive on composite systems, and extensive under scaling. ### Entropy in quantum mechanics In quantum statistical mechanics, the concept of entropy was developed by John von Neumann and is generally referred to as "von Neumann entropy", S = − k B Tr ⁡ ( ρ ln ⁡ ρ ) , {\displaystyle S=-k\_{\text{B}}\operatorname {Tr} (\rho \ln \rho ),} {\displaystyle S=-k_{\text{B}}\operatorname {Tr} (\rho \ln \rho ),} where *ρ* is the density matrix, and Tr is the trace operator. This upholds the correspondence principle, because in the classical limit, when the phases between the basis states used for the classical probabilities are purely random, this expression is equivalent to the familiar classical definition of entropy, S = − k B ∑ i p i ln p i , {\displaystyle S=-k\_{\text{B}}\sum \_{i}p\_{i}\,\ln \,p\_{i},} {\displaystyle S=-k_{\text{B}}\sum _{i}p_{i}\,\ln \,p_{i},} i.e. in such a basis the density matrix is diagonal. Von Neumann established a rigorous mathematical framework for quantum mechanics with his work *Mathematische Grundlagen der Quantenmechanik*. He provided in this work a theory of measurement, where the usual notion of wave function collapse is described as an irreversible process (the so-called von Neumann or projective measurement). Using this concept, in conjunction with the density matrix he extended the classical concept of entropy into the quantum domain. ### Information theory > > I thought of calling it "information", but the word was overly used, so I decided to call it "uncertainty". [...] Von Neumann told me, "You should call it entropy, for two reasons. In the first place your uncertainty function has been used in statistical mechanics under that name, so it already has a name. In the second place, and more important, nobody knows what entropy really is, so in a debate you will always have the advantage. > > > Conversation between Claude Shannon and John von Neumann regarding what name to give to the attenuation in phone-line signals When viewed in terms of information theory, the entropy state function is the amount of information in the system that is needed to fully specify the microstate of the system. Entropy is the measure of the amount of missing information before reception. Often called *Shannon entropy*, it was originally devised by Claude Shannon in 1948 to study the size of information of a transmitted message. The definition of information entropy is expressed in terms of a discrete set of probabilities p i {\displaystyle p\_{i}} p_{i} so that H ( X ) = − ∑ i = 1 n p ( x i ) log ⁡ p ( x i ) , {\displaystyle H(X)=-\sum \_{i=1}^{n}p(x\_{i})\log p(x\_{i}),} {\displaystyle H(X)=-\sum _{i=1}^{n}p(x_{i})\log p(x_{i}),} where the base of the logarithm determines the units (for example, the binary logarithm corresponds to bits). In the case of transmitted messages, these probabilities were the probabilities that a particular message was actually transmitted, and the entropy of the message system was a measure of the average size of information of a message. For the case of equal probabilities (i.e. each message is equally probable), the Shannon entropy (in bits) is just the number of binary questions needed to determine the content of the message. Most researchers consider information entropy and thermodynamic entropy directly linked to the same concept, while others argue that they are distinct. Both expressions are mathematically similar. If W {\displaystyle W} W is the number of microstates that can yield a given macrostate, and each microstate has the same *a priori* probability, then that probability is p = 1 / W {\displaystyle p=1/W} {\displaystyle p=1/W}. The Shannon entropy (in nats) is H = − ∑ i = 1 W p i ln ⁡ p i = ln ⁡ W , {\displaystyle H=-\sum \_{i=1}^{W}p\_{i}\ln p\_{i}=\ln W,} {\displaystyle H=-\sum _{i=1}^{W}p_{i}\ln p_{i}=\ln W,} and if entropy is measured in units of k {\displaystyle k} k per nat, then the entropy is given by H = k ln ⁡ W , {\displaystyle H=k\ln W,} {\displaystyle H=k\ln W,} which is the Boltzmann entropy formula, where k {\displaystyle k} k is the Boltzmann constant, which may be interpreted as the thermodynamic entropy per nat. Some authors argue for dropping the word entropy for the H {\displaystyle H} H function of information theory and using Shannon's other term, "uncertainty", instead. ### Measurement The entropy of a substance can be measured, although in an indirect way. The measurement, known as entropymetry, is done on a closed system (with particle number N and volume V being constants) and uses the definition of temperature in terms of entropy, while limiting energy exchange to heat ( d U → d Q {\displaystyle dU\rightarrow dQ} {\displaystyle dU\rightarrow dQ}). T := ( ∂ U ∂ S ) V , N ⇒ ⋯ ⇒ d S = d Q / T {\displaystyle T:=\left({\frac {\partial U}{\partial S}}\right)\_{V,N}\Rightarrow \cdots \Rightarrow \;dS=dQ/T} {\displaystyle T:=\left({\frac {\partial U}{\partial S}}\right)_{V,N}\Rightarrow \cdots \Rightarrow \;dS=dQ/T} The resulting relation describes how entropy changes d S {\displaystyle dS} dS when a small amount of energy d Q {\displaystyle dQ} dQ is introduced into the system at a certain temperature  T {\displaystyle T} T. The process of measurement goes as follows. First, a sample of the substance is cooled as close to absolute zero as possible. At such temperatures, the entropy approaches zero – due to the definition of temperature. Then, small amounts of heat are introduced into the sample and the change in temperature is recorded, until the temperature reaches a desired value (usually 25 °C). The obtained data allows the user to integrate the equation above, yielding the absolute value of entropy of the substance at the final temperature. This value of entropy is called calorimetric entropy. Interdisciplinary applications ------------------------------ Although the concept of entropy was originally a thermodynamic concept, it has been adapted in other fields of study, including information theory, psychodynamics, thermoeconomics/ecological economics, and evolution. ### Philosophy and theoretical physics Entropy is the only quantity in the physical sciences that seems to imply a particular direction of progress, sometimes called an arrow of time. As time progresses, the second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of an isolated system never decreases in large systems over significant periods of time. Hence, from this perspective, entropy measurement is thought of as a clock in these conditions. ### Biology Chiavazzo *et al.* proposed that where cave spiders choose to lay their eggs can be explained through entropy minimization. Entropy has been proven useful in the analysis of base pair sequences in DNA. Many entropy-based measures have been shown to distinguish between different structural regions of the genome, differentiate between coding and non-coding regions of DNA, and can also be applied for the recreation of evolutionary trees by determining the evolutionary distance between different species. ### Cosmology Assuming that a finite universe is an isolated system, the second law of thermodynamics states that its total entropy is continually increasing. It has been speculated, since the 19th century, that the universe is fated to a heat death in which all the energy ends up as a homogeneous distribution of thermal energy so that no more work can be extracted from any source. If the universe can be considered to have generally increasing entropy, then – as Roger Penrose has pointed out – gravity plays an important role in the increase because gravity causes dispersed matter to accumulate into stars, which collapse eventually into black holes. The entropy of a black hole is proportional to the surface area of the black hole's event horizon. Jacob Bekenstein and Stephen Hawking have shown that black holes have the maximum possible entropy of any object of equal size. This makes them likely end points of all entropy-increasing processes, if they are totally effective matter and energy traps. However, the escape of energy from black holes might be possible due to quantum activity (see Hawking radiation). The role of entropy in cosmology remains a controversial subject since the time of Ludwig Boltzmann. Recent work has cast some doubt on the heat death hypothesis and the applicability of any simple thermodynamic model to the universe in general. Although entropy does increase in the model of an expanding universe, the maximum possible entropy rises much more rapidly, moving the universe further from the heat death with time, not closer. This results in an "entropy gap" pushing the system further away from the posited heat death equilibrium. Other complicating factors, such as the energy density of the vacuum and macroscopic quantum effects, are difficult to reconcile with thermodynamical models, making any predictions of large-scale thermodynamics extremely difficult. Current theories suggest the entropy gap to have been originally opened up by the early rapid exponential expansion of the universe. ### Economics Romanian American economist Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, a progenitor in economics and a paradigm founder of ecological economics, made extensive use of the entropy concept in his magnum opus on *The Entropy Law and the Economic Process*. Due to Georgescu-Roegen's work, the laws of thermodynamics form an integral part of the ecological economics school. Although his work was blemished somewhat by mistakes, a full chapter on the economics of Georgescu-Roegen has approvingly been included in one elementary physics textbook on the historical development of thermodynamics. In economics, Georgescu-Roegen's work has generated the term 'entropy pessimism'. Since the 1990s, leading ecological economist and steady-state theorist Herman Daly – a student of Georgescu-Roegen – has been the economics profession's most influential proponent of the entropy pessimism position. See also -------- * Boltzmann entropy * Brownian ratchet * Configuration entropy * Conformational entropy * Entropic explosion * Entropic force * Entropic value at risk * Entropy and life * Entropy unit * Free entropy * Harmonic entropy * Info-metrics * Negentropy (negative entropy) * Phase space * Principle of maximum entropy * Residual entropy * Thermodynamic potential * David, Kover. "Entropia – fyzikálna veličina vesmíru a nášho života". *stejfree.sk*. Retrieved 13 April 2022. Further reading --------------- * Adam, Gerhard; Otto Hittmair (1992). *Wärmetheorie*. Vieweg, Braunschweig. ISBN 978-3-528-33311-9. * Atkins, Peter; Julio De Paula (2006). *Physical Chemistry* (8th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-870072-2. * Baierlein, Ralph (2003). *Thermal Physics*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-65838-6. * Ben-Naim, Arieh (2007). *Entropy Demystified*. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-270-055-1. * Callen, Herbert, B (2001). *Thermodynamics and an Introduction to Thermostatistics* (2nd ed.). John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-86256-7. * Chang, Raymond (1998). *Chemistry* (6th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-115221-1. * Cutnell, John, D.; Johnson, Kenneth, J. (1998). *Physics* (4th ed.). John Wiley and Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-0-471-19113-1. * Dugdale, J. S. (1996). *Entropy and its Physical Meaning* (2nd ed.). Taylor and Francis (UK); CRC (US). ISBN 978-0-7484-0569-5. * Fermi, Enrico (1937). *Thermodynamics*. Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-486-60361-2. * Goldstein, Martin; Inge, F (1993). *The Refrigerator and the Universe*. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-75325-9. * Gyftopoulos, E.P.; G.P. Beretta (2010). *Thermodynamics. Foundations and Applications*. Dover. ISBN 978-0-486-43932-7. * Haddad, Wassim M.; Chellaboina, VijaySekhar; Nersesov, Sergey G. (2005). *Thermodynamics – A Dynamical Systems Approach*. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12327-1. * Johnson, Eric (2018). Anxiety and the Equation: Understanding Boltzmann's Entropy. The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-03861-4. * Kroemer, Herbert; Charles Kittel (1980). *Thermal Physics* (2nd ed.). W. H. Freeman Company. ISBN 978-0-7167-1088-2. * Lambert, Frank L.; * Müller-Kirsten, Harald J. W. (2013). *Basics of Statistical Physics* (2nd ed.). Singapore: World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-4449-53-3. * Penrose, Roger (2005). *The Road to Reality: A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe*. New York: A. A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-679-45443-4. * Reif, F. (1965). *Fundamentals of statistical and thermal physics*. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-051800-1. * Schroeder, Daniel V. (2000). *Introduction to Thermal Physics*. New York: Addison Wesley Longman. ISBN 978-0-201-38027-9. * Serway, Raymond, A. (1992). *Physics for Scientists and Engineers*. Saunders Golden Subburst Series. ISBN 978-0-03-096026-0. * Sharp, Kim (2019). *Entropy and the Tao of Counting: A Brief Introduction to Statistical Mechanics and the Second Law of Thermodynamics* (SpringerBriefs in Physics). Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3030354596. * Spirax-Sarco Limited, Entropy – A Basic Understanding A primer on entropy tables for steam engineering * vonBaeyer; Hans Christian (1998). *Maxwell's Demon: Why Warmth Disperses and Time Passes*. Random House. ISBN 978-0-679-43342-2.

Entropy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropy

**St James' Park** is a football stadium in Newcastle upon Tyne, England. It is the home of Newcastle United. With a seating capacity of 52,305 seats, it is the 8th largest football stadium in England. St James' Park has been the home ground of Newcastle United F.C since 1892 and has been used for football since 1880. Throughout its history, the desire for expansion has caused conflict with local residents and the local council. This has led to proposals to move at least twice in the late 1960s, and a controversial 1995 proposed move to nearby Leazes Park. Reluctance to move has led to the distinctive lop-sided appearance of the present-day stadium's asymmetrical stands. Besides club football, St James' Park has also been used for international football, at the 2012 Olympics, for the rugby league Magic Weekend, rugby union World Cup, Premiership and England Test matches, charity football events, rock concerts, and as a set for film and reality television. History ------- ### Early history The site of St James' Park was originally a patch of sloping grazing land, bordered by Georgian Leazes Terrace, and near the historic Town Moor, owned by the Freemen of the city, both factors that later affected development of the ground, with the local council being the landlord of the site. Leazes Terrace was built c1830 by notable Newcastle residents, architect Thomas Oliver and builder Richard Grainger. Once the residence of high society in Newcastle, it is now a Grade 1 listed building, and, recently refurbished, is currently being used as self-catering postgraduate student accommodation by Newcastle University. The site was also near the gallows of the city, last used in 1844, lending the Gallowgate End its name. The first football team to play at St James' Park was Newcastle Rangers in 1880 They moved to a ground at Byker in 1882, then returned briefly to St James' Park in 1884 before folding that year. Newcastle West End took over the ground in 1886. West End were wound up in 1892 and effectively merged into their rivals Newcastle East End, who took over the lease of St James' Park and became Newcastle United later that year. On 3 September 1892, Newcastle East End played its first game on the football ground. Local residents opposition to football being played at St James' dated back to the first games in the Football League following the building of the first small stand at the Gallowgate End. A redeveloped Gallowgate and further stands followed in 1899, bringing the first official capacity to 30,000 (standing). While the stadium is now synonymous with the *Black and Whites*, Newcastle United actually played in red and white at St James' Park until 1904. In 1905, a doubling of capacity to 60,000, with a main stand on the Barrack Road (now Milburn Stand), and major other stands, produced a state-of-the-art facility, even boasting a swimming pool. The second-ever rugby league test match, and first test victory by Great Britain, was played at the ground in 1908 against the touring Australian Kangaroos side on 23 January 1909. ### 1920–1990 Between 1920 and 1930, plans were drawn up for a double-tiered stand by notable football architect Archibald Leitch. However, after planning disputes, all that was achieved was a small roof over the Leazes Terrace side (Sir John Hall Stand). Floodlights were constructed in the 1950s, with the first match played using them held on 25 February 1953 against Celtic. Up until the 1960s planning difficulties continued, culminating in lack of development of the ground being cited as the reason for failure of Newcastle United to secure the right to host a group stage of the upcoming 1966 World Cup following political disputes. In the late 1960s further attempts were made to develop the site, and the council proposed a multi-use sports development of St. James' Park. This was rejected as not financially viable. Plans were drawn up by the club for a move to a stadium in Gosforth, or even a groundshare with Sunderland A.F.C. in a new stadium on Wearside. These plans were withdrawn in 1971 after agreement to redevelop St James' Park was finally reached, after mediation by the then Minister for Sport, Denis Howell. In 1972, work started on the East Stand, 50 years after it was last permitted to be developed. In 1978 the Leazes End was demolished, but relegation and financial difficulties meant the new stand was not built. Investigations following the Bradford City stadium fire in 1985 identified a need to replace the ageing West Stand, which was demolished in 1986. Its replacement, the Milburn Stand, was named in honour of Jackie Milburn and opened in 1987. Further development was again shelved for lack of finance. ### Sir John Hall era Until the early 1990s the ground had achieved only modest expansion under various owners, with plans dogged by disputes and lack of finance due to poor on-field performances. In January 1992 businessman Sir John Hall, who had led the *Magpie Group* consortium in a hostile takeover of the club, was installed as chairman. Sir John used his experience in property development to rapidly gain approval and invested heavily in the stadium with finances gained from success under new manager Kevin Keegan. #### 1993 expansion The Leazes End that had been demolished but not replaced was finally rebuilt, and opened as the Sir John Hall stand for Newcastle's debut season in the Premiership in 1993. The Gallowgate End was rebuilt, the Milburn Stand modified, and a new pitch, drainage and floodlights were installed. With all four corners filled in with seating, by 1995 the stadium had reached a capacity of 36,610. #### Proposed Leazes Park development As the expanded stadium still received full houses due to continuing success of the team led by the returning Kevin Keegan, in 1995, plans were submitted by the club to relocate to Leazes Park to the north. A new £65m purpose-built 55,000-seat stadium would be erected, less than two pitch lengths away from the original, but rotated, which would be similar to the San Siro in Italy. The old ground would be redeveloped to be used by Newcastle Falcons Rugby Club, as part of the wider envisaged 'Sporting Club of Newcastle', with basketball and ice-hockey teams purchased by Sir John Hall. Leazes Park was historically part of the Town Moor, owned by the Freemen of Newcastle, and protected by the Newcastle-upon-Tyne Town Moor Act 1988. The City council initially invited the planning proposal amid suggestions that the club might move to a site in Gateshead, a 75,000-seat stadium next to Gateshead International Stadium, but it led to political debate and opposition. A pressure group "No Business on the Moor" eventually gathered a 36,000-petition signature, equal to the then-current stadium capacity. Opposition also came from a conservation group *Friends of Leazes Park* led by Dolly Potter. The club proposed to mitigate the loss of the moor land with proposals for a land trade-off with landscaping of land freed up by scaling down of the existing stadium restoring the views of the historic park from Leazes Terrace. It became clear that the relocation plan would not gain planning permission without a potentially long-running public enquiry. To quickly satisfy demand, the club decided to expand the current St James' Park instead. ### Freddy Shepherd era In 1997 Sir John Hall stepped down as chairman (remaining as a director until 2007, now life president of the club), and existing shareholder and board director Freddy Shepherd became chairman. #### 1998 expansion Following the withdrawal of the Leazes Park plan, the club proposed expansion of St James' Park to over 52,000 capacity, through major construction of a second tier over the Milburn Stand, Leazes End and adjoining corner, adding to a structure that was itself just four years old. After a refusal by the Secretary of State to take the application to an enquiry, permission was obtained in July 1998. For minimal disruption to seating capacity during construction, the project required 3-day shutdowns of work on home match days. 750 seats were lost during construction. During this expansion, executive boxes in the East Stand were demolished and replaced by seating blocks from pitch level up to the existing rows, in a mirror image of the Milburn Stand. The executive boxes were transferred to the new Milburn/Leazes complex, with more added to the Gallowgate End. During development, the additional stand and roof was constructed while leaving the existing cantilever roof intact until the last possible moment These developments increased capacity to approximately 52,143. The construction was completed in July 2000 at a cost of £42 million. Ironically, after opposition from local residents to the relocation plan, the expansion of the current ground at the Leazes End has further reduced the view of Leazes Park from Leazes Terrace, although this is now student accommodation. #### Save Our Seats campaign The 1998 redevelopment caused controversy when the club informed 4,000 season-ticket-holding fans that their seat prices would be increased to corporate rates, with the option of paying these or being moved to seats in the proposed expanded sections. Half of these fans were 'bondholders', who had paid £500 in 1994 which they asserted guaranteed them an option on their specific seat for 10 years. Some fans resisted, and after two high-court cases and a Save Our Seats campaign, the club was allowed to move the fans, under an exceptional circumstances clause. As a gesture of goodwill, the club did not pursue the fans for legal costs awarded over their insured limit. #### Casino plans In late 2003, preempting the relaxation of the UK gambling laws, the club signed a deal with MGM Mirage to hand over the land above St James Metro station, behind the Gallowgate End, in return for an equity investment, to build a jointly run complex centred on a 1,000-square-foot (93 m2) Super Casino. These plans failed when the proposed number of super casinos was reduced to one in the UK, and in January 2008 £5 million was repaid by the club to MGM. #### Gallowgate additions In 2005 the Gallowgate was redeveloped, with a new bar being built beneath the upper tier of the Gallowgate End, named "*Shearer's'*" after Newcastle player Alan Shearer. During excavation underneath the stand during building work, the builders uncovered the original steps of the old Gallowgate End stand, which had simply been covered up when the stadium was fully renovated in 1993. These steps were removed for Shearer's Bar. The completion of the redevelopment of the Gallowgate saw the creation of Shearer's Bar, an expanded club shop, a club museum and a new box office. #### 2007 proposed expansion It was announced on 2 April 2007 that the club intend to submit plans for a new £300million development of the stadium and surrounding areas, to include a major conference centre, hotels and luxury apartments. The proposals also include a plan to increase the Gallowgate End, eventually taking the capacity to 60,000. This expansion would be funded by the city council and linked to the redevelopment of the land behind the stand and over the Metro Station, which had previously been earmarked for the casino project. Expansion of the Gallowgate end involves difficulties due to the proximity of a road, Strawberry Place, and issues surrounding reinforcement of the underground St James Metro station. ### Mike Ashley era The 2007 redevelopment plans announced under the previous regime were put on hold following the takeover of the club and its plc holding company by owner Mike Ashley. One of the first noticeable changes in the stadium in the new era was the removal of advertising mounted underneath the roofs (facing the crowd) for Shepherd Offshore and Cameron Hall Developments, companies associated with the previous regime. A large advertising sign for Sports Direct appeared on the lip of the roof of the Gallowgate, visible from the pitch. A full review of the club performed by the new management team concluded that stadium expansion was not a priority. For the start of the 2008–09 season, the away section was moved from the corner of the Leazes stand/Milburn stand to the other end of the Leazes stand, where it abuts the East stand, at the same upper level. The area of seats designated as the family enclosure were expanded, and certain corporate areas saw increased pricing. The first home game of the 2008–09 season, at 3 pm on a Saturday, saw the lowest-ever Premier League attendance at the expanded ground, of 47,711, resulting in cash turnstiles.[*clarification needed*] It was speculated at the time that this was due to the credit crunch; however, with the shock departure of Kevin Keegan before the next home game, future changes in attendances would be hard to attribute to this alone. The first game after Keegan's resignation, a league fixture against Hull on 13 September 2008, registered a crowd of 50,242 amid protests against Ashley and Dennis Wise. This was followed by an attendance of 44,935 on 27 September in a league fixture against Blackburn Rovers, which followed a record low attendance of 20,577 on Wednesday, 24 September in a League Cup fixture, the lowest ever attendance for a competitive first-team match since the 1993 promotion to the top flight, and a drop of over 4,000 from previous lows. Although Newcastle's crowds inevitably fell in 2009–10 as a result of their relegation and the fact that Britain was still in recession, the Magpies still attracted a modern-day record average attendance for a club at this level with their attendance for the season averaging at 43,383. They also became the first club to attract a league attendance of more than 50,000 at this level in the modern era, and ended the season promoted as champions of the Football League Championship. In October 2014, a scoreboard was installed in the far corner of the Sir John Hall Stand. The scoreboard was used for the first time on 18 October during a Premier League tie against Leicester City. However the game was delayed one hour, due to damage caused by strong wind to the paneling surrounding the scoreboard. Newcastle United later stated on their website: "Supporter safety was of paramount importance." #### Renaming of the stadium On 10 November 2011, Newcastle United announced that the stadium would officially be renamed **Sports Direct Arena**, as a temporary measure to "showcase the sponsorship opportunity to interested parties", whilst looking for a sponsor for possible future stadium re-branding. According to the club, the St James' Park title was dropped as not being "commercially attractive". Previously, in 2009, the club had announced plans to sell the naming rights for the stadium. After protests about the possible loss of the name of the stadium, which included the tabling of an early day motion in Parliament, the club clarified the following week that the move would not involve the loss of the name St James' Park altogether, citing the example of 'SportsDirect.com@StJamesPark' as a potential stadium rights package. The following day, the club announced that the stadium would be known as *sportsdirect.com @ St James' Park Stadium* temporarily until the end of the season, to showcase the idea behind the package, until the new sponsor was announced. The stadium's official renaming as the Sports Direct Arena, or SDA, caused considerable perturbation amongst supporters of the team. On 9 October 2012, payday loan company Wonga.com became Newcastle United's main commercial sponsor and purchased the stadium naming rights. They subsequently announced that the St James' Park name would be restored as part of the deal. ### Saudi-led era Following the takeover of Newcastle United, the new ownership would remove the Sports Direct sponsorship all over the stadium with co owner Amanda Staveley claiming she was "looking forward" to removing the Sports Direct branding to get new sponsors with the signs being removed on 6 December. With the removal of the sponsor in the stadium former owner Mike Ashley would take legal action against Staveley and her husband Mehrdad Ghodoussi after Ashley alleged that both Staveley and Ghodoussi breached their agreement to continue to sponsor the stadium until the end of the 2021–22 season. Stadium description ------------------- ### Name #### Official names St James' Park is spelt with *James'* featuring one *s* and an apostrophe mark, as seen on the signage of the St James' Park steps outside the entrance to the stadium, and signage inside the adjacent Metro station. The use of an apostrophe is in contrast with the name of the Metro station itself, which is signed as *St James* Metro station, and with the street signs of the nearby *St James* Street and *St James* Terrace. Further, the use of one *s* and an apostrophe mark differs from the common convention of adding a second *s* to monosyllabic possessives ending in s, as is the case with the well-known public space in London: St James's Park. The full stop after the *St* giving St. James' Park is both included and omitted by many sources, including the club's official website address information. Post-millennium it has been debated both whether the written name should include an apostrophe mark after St James, and, if it does, whether the official written form should include an extra 's' after the apostrophe. Pronunciation of the name with a second 's' sound or not differs between both the local public and journalists, and is similarly debated. In May 2008 BBC Look North examined the case for adding an extra 's', to denote the ground is "the park of St James". The club stated that the ground is named after its neighbouring street, St James Street, which predates the ground, although it was pointed out the road sign of that street, and that of the adjacent St James Terrace, did not feature apostrophes. The BBC stated that both local newspapers *The Evening Chronicle* and *The Journal* write the name with a second 's', reinstating it partially in response to reader complaints after a period of publishing stories without it. The club insisted the name is pronounced without a second 's', whilst it was asserted by the BBC that older fans, in particular, pronounce it with two. A professor of applied linguistics of Newcastle University stated that if a second 's' was added to the name, it has to ultimately be pronounced in speech. The BBC went on to state that according to the Apostrophe Protection Society, if the ground is named as the "Park of St James", the name of the ground is correctly written as St. James's Park, with the second 's' pronounced. Commenting on the written form on Radio Newcastle a week after the BBC story, a different senior lecturer in applied linguistics also of Newcastle University stated that if the name is to denote "the park of St James", the written form should feature an apostrophe, but the use of an additional 's' after it is optional and both are correct. Match-day programmes printed up until the late 1940s have written the name as *St. James's Park*. According to the club historian, the oldest memorabilia in the club museum refers to the ground as being pronounced without a second 's'. However, a match-day programme dating from 1896, reprinted in the match-day programme of a home match against Derby County (23 December 2007) depicts the stadium name as St. James's Park. Other sources also support the idea that the name should have no apostrophe as found in the name of the adjacent St James Street #### Nicknames The stadium is known by its initials, SJP, or as St James'. In reflection of the early use of the site, it is also often referred to as Gallowgate, distinct from similarly unofficially named Gallowgate End, the name of the south stand. ### Orientation The stadium has a rough pitch alignment of north easterly. The four main stands are as follows: * Gallowgate End (previously known as the Newcastle Brown Ale Stand and before that the Exhibition Stand), at the southern end of the ground, named unofficially for its proximity to the old City gallows, and officially after the long association with the club of sponsor Scottish and Newcastle Breweries; * Leazes End (previously the Sir John Hall Stand), at the northern end of the ground, named for its proximity to Leazes Park, and after the club's Life President Sir John Hall; The Singing Section was positioned in Level 7 of this stand. * Milburn Stand, the main stand, on the west side of the ground. Named after 1950s footballer Jackie Milburn * East Stand, whose name is self-explanatory, and the smallest stand of the four. Following the death of Sir Bobby Robson, a plan to rename the East Stand the Sir Bobby Robson Stand (or the Robson Stand) was drawn up. As yet, this has not been made official. The unofficial new home of the singing section is located in the "Strawberry Corner" (South East Corner, located next to the Strawberry Pub) - between the Gallowgate End & East Stand. ### Location The stadium's location is close to the city centre, 500 m roughly north of Central station, the main railway station of the city. The stadium is bordered by Strawberry Place behind the Gallowgate, Barrack Road in front of the main entrance, a car park to the north and Leazes Terrace to the East. Further south is St James station, a terminus station of the Tyne & Wear Metro line to the east, although the main Metro interchange at Monument station, is situated only 250 m to the east. ### Architecture The Milburn stand is the 'main' stand of the stadium, housing the main entrance, lifts and escalators behind a glass fronted atrium. The dugouts and player's tunnel is located in the traditional position of the middle of the main stand. Behind the seating terraces of the stands, the Milburn/Leazes structure contains four concourse levels, the Gallowgate End has three concourse levels, and the East stand has two concourse levels. The stadium has an asymmetrical appearance from the air and from some angles from ground level, due to the discrepancy in height between the sides and ends of the ground. The height difference between the Leazes/Milburn complex and the East/Gallowgate stands allows views of the city centre from many seating positions inside the ground. Further expansion of the Gallowgate End could potentially produce a more balanced horseshoe arrangement of equal height stands, similar to that of Celtic Park. The Milburn stand and Leazes end are double tiered, separated by a level of executive boxes; The East Stand and Gallowgate End are single tiered, with boxes also at the top of the Gallowgate. The three newest sides, the Milburn Stand, Leazes End and Gallowgate End are of structural steel frame and pre-cast concrete construction. In common with many new or expanded British football stadiums, the traditional box shaped 'stands' were augmented in the 1993 expansion by filling in the corners to maximise available seating, up to a uniform height. The Milburn Stand and Leazes End now rise higher than this level, covered by a one piece cantilevered glass roof. A further smaller stand section rises above this level behind the Gallowgate End. The 1998 built steel truss cantilever roof above the Milburn/Leazes complex is the largest cantilever structure in Europe at 64.5 metres (212 ft), eclipsing the 58 metres (190 ft) cantilevers of Manchester United's Old Trafford. ### Seating layout The current stadium design offers an unobstructed view of the pitch from all areas of the ground. The Milburn stand is the location of the directors box and press boxes, and the main TV camera point for televised games. Away fans for league matches were originally accommodated in the upper level, in the north west corner, which can hold a maximum of 3,000 fans. However, plans were made at the end of the 2007–2008 season to relocate the away supporters to the far end of the upper level of the Leazes End. This location has attracted criticism due to the poor view offered by being so far from the pitch due to the height of the stand, and the 14 flights of stairs to reach the upper level. For FA Cup matches the lower section of the corner is also used. The traditional home of the more vocal fans is considered the Gallowgate End, in the same vein as The Kop for Liverpool F.C. The Gallowgate End was the end that the team attacked in the second half if they win the coin toss. In recent years there has been unofficial fan movement to create a singing section in the Leazes End upper tier, partly to counter the away fans, and partly to recreate some atmosphere lost since the recent expansion over 36,000. This group of fans call themselves the 'Toon Ultras'. Level 7 of the Milburn Stand houses the official Family Enclosure. Due to the expansion of the Family Enclosure, many fans from the singing section have relocated to the Strawberry Corner. In 2013 a group began to help 'Bring Back The Noise' as St.James Park, this being branded as 'Division '92'. This group first began at home to Metalist Kharkiv in the Europea League. From that date the group began to move from strength to strength with new aims set to develop a singing section within the ground for all league games. ### Facilities As well as the normal Premiership football stadium facilities, the stadium contains conference and banqueting facilities. These comprise a total of 6 suites with a total capacity of 2,050, including the 1,000 capacity *Bamburgh Suite* containing a stage, dance floor and 3 bars, and the *New Magpie Room*, on two levels with a pitch view. The stadium houses premium priced seating areas designated into clubs, each with their own access to a bar and lounge behind the stand for use before the match and at half-time. The *Platinum Club*, *Bar 1892*, *Sovereign Club* and the *Black & White Club* are in the Milburn Stand, and the *Sports Bar* is in the Leazes End The Gallowgate End houses *Shearer's*, a sports bar and lounge, which is effectively another city centre nightspot in Newcastle, accessible only from the exterior of the ground. The bar is named after Alan Shearer. The Gallowgate also houses a large club shop, a police station. The Milburn stand houses the main box-office. In the south west corner there is also a cafe and a club museum. #### Statues and memorials | image | subject | location | date | artist | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | Jackie Milburn(1924–1988) | South-east corner of St. James' Park | 1991 | Susanna Robinson | | | Bobby Robson(1933–2009) | South-west corner of St. James' Park | 2012 | Tom Maley | | | Joe Harvey(1918–1989) | Gallowgate Wall | 2014 | John McNamee Jnr | | | Alan Shearer(1970–) | South-west corner of St. James' Park | 2016 | Tom Maley | ### Capacity The stadium has a maximum seating capacity of 52,354, making it: * the eighth-largest club football stadium in England, behind Wembley Stadium, Old Trafford, Tottenham Hotspur Stadium, Emirates Stadium, Etihad Stadium, Anfield and London Stadium; * the tenth-largest football stadium in the United Kingdom overall when including the Millennium Stadium (the national stadium of Wales), and Celtic Park (a Scottish club football ground); * the twelfth largest stadium in the United Kingdom overall when including the rugby venues of Twickenham in England, Murrayfield in Scotland. Developments since 1993 have ensured the lower tier of seating of the ground still forms a continuous bowl around the pitch, below the level of the executive boxes. The club record attendance is 68,386 set in 1930 against Chelsea, when standing was allowed on the terraces. Usage ----- ### Club football Newcastle United have played their home league matches continuously at St James' Park. The stadium had not featured a scoreboard or big screen of any kind since the 1993 expansion displaced one from The Gallowgate end, although in 2007 bright red digital time displays were installed near the corner flags at pitch level. A big screen for the stadium was mooted as a possibility as part of a proposed new stadium branding exercise for 2010. On 18 October 2014 a large scoreboard was erected onto the side of the Leazes End, adjacent to the Milburn Stand. The first day of its use in a game versus Leicester City saw a one-hour delay to kick-off over safety concerns around the screen due to high winds. ### International football The stadium hosted three matches during Euro 1996. Along with Elland Road it was assigned to Group B, which comprised France, Spain, Romania and Bulgaria. The stadium was one of several venues used as temporary home grounds for the England team while the redevelopment of Wembley Stadium took place. St James' Park also hosted some football matches in the 2012 Summer Olympics. #### Matches | Date | | Result | | Competition | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 18 March 1901 | England  | 6–0 |  Wales | British Home Championship | | 6 April 1907 | 1–1 |  Scotland | | 15 November 1933 | 1–2 |  Wales | | 9 November 1938 | 4–0 |  Norway | Friendly | | 10 June 1996 | Romania  | 0–1 |  France | Euro 1996 | | 13 June 1996 | Bulgaria  | 1–0 |  Romania | | 18 June 1996 | France  | 3–1 |  Bulgaria | | 5 September 2001 | England  | 2–0 |  Albania | World Cup 2002 Qualifying | | 18 August 2004 | 3–0 |  Ukraine | Friendly | | 30 March 2005 | 2–0 |  Azerbaijan | World Cup 2006 Qualifying | | 26 July 2012 | Mexico  | 0–0 |  South Korea | 2012 Olympics | | 26 July 2012 | Gabon  | 1–1 |  Switzerland | | 29 July 2012 | Japan  | 1–0 |  Morocco | | 29 July 2012 | Spain  | 0–1 |  Honduras | | 1 August 2012 | Brazil  | 3–0 |  New Zealand | | 4 August 2012 | Brazil  | 3–2 |  Honduras | ### Pitch For football use, the pitch has the maximum international dimensions of 105 by 68 metres. ### Rugby league On 30 and 31 May 2015, the stadium held the Super League Magic Weekend. St James' Park was chosen to host the event after the City of Manchester Stadium, which had hosted the event annually since 2012, became unavailable. The event was considered a success, with the 2015 event setting both single-day and aggregate attendance records for the event. The Magic Weekend returned to St James' Park in 2016, breaking the aggregate crowd record in the process, and returned once again for 2017 and 2018. The magic weekend is set to return to Newcastle, in April 2021, for the 2021 Season, after previously been held at Anfield for the 2019 Season and being cancelled for the 2020 season. There have been two rugby league internationals played at St James' Park. The stadium is due to host the opening ceremony and opening game of the 2021 Rugby League World Cup – Men’s tournament, the first rugby league international to be played at the stadium for 110 years. | Test# | Date | Result | Attendance | Notes | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | 23 January 1909 | United Kingdom Northern Union | 15–5 |  Australia | 22,000 | 1908–09 Ashes series | | 2 | 8 November 1911 |  Australia | 19–10 |  Great Britain | 5,317 | 1911–12 Ashes series | | 3 | 15 October 2022 |  England | 60–6 |  Samoa | 44,000 | 2021 World Cup | ### Rugby union #### England national team On Friday 6 September 2019, England defeated Italy in a warm-up match for the 2019 Rugby World Cup. This was England's first Test match in Newcastle and first away from Twickenham (outside the World Cup) since 2009. #### 2015 Rugby World Cup The stadium hosted three 2015 Rugby World Cup matches. The first was a Pool B match between South Africa and Scotland on 3 October 2015, with South Africa winning 34 - 16 with 50,900 in attendance. The second was a Pool C match between New Zealand and Tonga on 9 October 2015, with New Zealand winning 47 - 9 with 50,985 in attendance. The third and final was a Pool B match Samoa and Scotland the next day with Scotland winning a close one 36 - 33 with 51,982 in attendance. | Date | Competition | Home team | Away team | Attendance | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 3 October 2015 | 2015 Rugby World Cup Pool B |  South Africa | 34 |  Scotland | 16 | 50,900 | | 9 October 2015 | 2015 Rugby World Cup Pool C |  New Zealand | 47 |  Tonga | 9 | 50,985 | | 10 October 2015 | 2015 Rugby World Cup Pool B |  Samoa | 33 |  Scotland | 36 | 51,982 | #### European professional club rugby In April 2017 the stadium was announced as the host for the 2019 finals of the European Rugby Challenge Cup and Champions Cup. #### Newcastle Falcons On 21 November 2017 it was announced that Newcastle Falcons would take their Premiership Rugby match against Northampton Saints on 24 March 2018 to St James' Park. The match dubbed **The Big One** was the first Premiership game at the venue. The Falcons would return the following year to host Sale Sharks on 23 March 2019. ### Charity matches As well as professional matches, the stadium has been the venue for several charity football matches, including testimonial matches for Alan Shearer and Peter Beardsley. The stadium was also the venue of the final of The Prince's Trust *Challenge Trophy*, on 14 October 2007, between the Duke of Northumberland and Earl of Durham teams. On 26 July 2009 St James' Park hosted the Sir Bobby Robson Trophy match, in aid of the Sir Bobby Robson Foundation, in which the famous Italia '90 World Cup semi-final loss against West Germany, in which Robson's England team were beaten 4–3 on penalties after a 1–1 draw, would be replayed featuring players from the original World Cup squads and other special guests. ### Video games The stadium has regularly featured on the popular football game series FIFA (video game series) and appears to be included on the global front cover of FIFA 13 with Lionel Messi in the foreground. The title sequence of FIFA Football 2004 featuring Ronaldinho, Thierry Henry and Alessandro del Piero was shot at the stadium. ### Concerts The stadium has hosted concerts for many famous artists, including The Rolling Stones, Bruce Springsteen & E Street Band, Queen, Bob Dylan, Bryan Adams, Rod Stewart, Kings of Leon and Ed Sheeran. In 2023 the stadium hosted two sold out nights for Sam Fender. ### Film and television The stadium has also been used as an audition venue for the television show *The X Factor* and also reality television show *Big Brother*. St James' Park has also hosted the final celebrity matches of the Sky television reality TV show *The Match*. The stadium was used extensively as a filming location for the film *Goal!*, as the film follows a fictional player Santiago Muñez who signs for Newcastle. There is also film footage showing a game between Newcastle and Liverpool FC from 1901. ### Sir Bobby Robson tributes Sir Bobby Robson, a lifetime Newcastle fan who managed the club from 1999 to 2004, died of cancer aged 76 on 31 July 2009, five days after having been at St James' Park to watch the England v Germany charity trophy match played in his honour and in aid of his cancer foundation. Immediately after his death, St James' Park became an impromptu shrine to Sir Bobby, with thousands of fans leaving floral tributes, club shirts and scarves in the Leazes End for the following ten days. After a private funeral service on 5 August, a thanksgiving service held on 21 September at Durham Cathedral in Sir Bobby's memory was broadcast on two big screens for spectators in the Leazes End. 54°58′32″N 1°37′18″W / 54.97556°N 1.62167°W / 54.97556; -1.62167

St James' Park

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_James%27_Park

A **state religion** (also called **official religion**) is a religion or creed officially endorsed by a sovereign state. A state with an official religion (also known as **confessional state** or **religious state**), while not a secular state, is not necessarily a theocracy. State religions are official or government-sanctioned establishments of a religion, but the state does not need to be under the control of the clergy (as in a theocracy), nor is the state-sanctioned religion necessarily under the control of the state. Official religions have been known throughout human history in almost all types of cultures, reaching into the Ancient Near East and prehistory. The relation of religious cult and the state was discussed by the ancient Latin scholar Marcus Terentius Varro, under the term of *theologia civilis* (lit. 'civic theology'). The first state-sponsored Christian church was the Armenian Apostolic Church, established in 301 CE. In Christianity, as the term *church* is typically applied to a place of worship for Christians or organizations incorporating such ones, the term *state church* is associated with Christianity as sanctioned by the government, historically the state church of the Roman Empire in the last centuries of the Empire's existence, and is sometimes used to denote a specific modern national branch of Christianity. Closely related to state churches are ecclesiae, which are similar but carry a more minor connotation. In the Middle East, the majority of states with a predominantly Muslim population have Islam as their official religion, though the degree of religious restrictions on citizens' everyday lives varies by country. Rulers of Saudi Arabia use both secular and religious power, while Iran's secular presidents are supposed to follow the decisions of religious authorities since the 1979 Islamic Revolution. Turkey, which also has Muslim-majority population, became a secular country after Atatürk's Reforms, although unlike the Russian Revolution of the same time period, it did not result in the adoption of state atheism. The degree to which an official national religion is imposed upon citizens by the state in contemporary society varies considerably; from high as in Saudi Arabia and Iran to minimal or none at all as Denmark, England, Iceland, and Greece. Types ----- The degree and nature of state backing for denomination or creed designated as a state religion can vary. It can range from mere endorsement (with or without financial support) with freedom for other faiths to practice, to prohibiting any competing religious body from operating and to persecuting the followers of other sects. In Europe, competition between Catholic and Protestant denominations for state sponsorship in the 16th century evolved the principle *Cuius regio, eius religio* (states follow the religion of the ruler) embodied in the text of the treaty that marked the Peace of Augsburg, 1555. In England, Henry VIII broke with Rome in 1534, being declared the Supreme Head of the Church of England, the official religion of England continued to be "Catholicism without the Pope" until after his death in 1547, while in Scotland the Church of Scotland assested spiritual independence from the state. In some cases, an administrative region may sponsor and fund a set of religious denominations; such is the case in Alsace-Moselle in France under its local law, following the pre-1905 French concordatory legal system and patterns in Germany. In some communist states, notably in North Korea and Cuba, the state sponsors religious organizations, and activities outside those state-sponsored religious organizations are met with various degrees of official disapproval. In these cases, state religions are widely seen as efforts by the state to prevent alternate sources of authority. ### State churches There is also a difference between a "state church" and the broader term of "state religion". A "state church" is a state religion created by a state for use exclusively by that state. An example of a "state religion" that is not also a "state church" is Roman Catholicism in Costa Rica, which was accepted as the state religion in the 1949 Constitution, despite the lack of a national church. In the case of a "state church", the state has absolute control over the church, but in the case of a "state religion", the church is ruled by an exterior body; in the case of Catholicism, the Vatican has control over the church. In either case, the official state religion has some influence over the ruling of the state. As of 2012, there are only five state churches left. ### Disestablishment Disestablishment is the process of repealing a church's status as an organ of the state. In a state where an established church is in place, opposition to such a move may be described as antidisestablishmentarianism. This word is, however, most usually associated with the debate on the position of the Anglican churches in the British Isles: the Church of Ireland (disestablished in 1871), the Church of England in Wales (disestablished in 1920), and the Church of England itself (which remains established in England). Current states with a state religion ------------------------------------ ### Buddhism Governments where Buddhism, either a specific form of it, or Buddhism as a whole, has been established as an official religion: * Bhutan Bhutan: The Constitution defines Buddhism as the "spiritual heritage of Bhutan". The Constitution of Bhutan is based on Buddhist philosophy. It also mandates that the Druk Gyalpo (King) should appoint the Je Khenpo and Dratshang Lhentshog (The Commission for Monastic Affairs). * Cambodia Cambodia: The Constitution declared Buddhism as the official religion of the country. About 98% of Cambodia's population is Buddhist. * Myanmar Myanmar: Section 361 of the Constitution states that "The Union recognizes special position of Buddhism as the faith professed by the great majority of the citizens of the Union." The 1961 State Religion Promotion and Support Act requires : to teach Buddhist lessons in schools, to give priority to Buddhist monasteries in founding of primary schools, to make Uposatha days holidays during Vassa months, to broadcast Buddhist sermons by State media on Uposatha days, and other promotion and supports for Buddhism as State Religion. * Sri Lanka Sri Lanka: The constitution of Sri Lanka states under Chapter II, Article 9, "The Republic of Sri Lanka declares Buddhism as the state religion and accordingly it shall be the duty of the Head of State and Head of Government to protect and foster the Buddha Sasana". In some countries, Buddhism is not recognized as a state religion, but holds special status: * Thailand Thailand: Article 67 of the Thai constitution: "The State should support and protect Buddhism". In supporting and protecting Buddhism, the State should promote and support education and dissemination of dharmic principles of Theravada Buddhism, and shall have measures and mechanisms to prevent Buddhism from being undermined in any form. The State should also encourage Buddhists to participate in implementing such measures or mechanisms. * Laos Laos: According to the Lao Constitution, Buddhism is given special privilege in the country. The state respects and protects all the lawful activities of Buddhism. * Kalmykia Kalmykia: The Government supports Buddhism and also encourages Buddhist teachings and traditions. It also builds various Buddhist temples and sites. Various efforts are taken by the Government for the revival of Buddhism in the republic. ### Christianity The following states recognize some form of Christianity as their state or official religion or recognize a special status for it (by denomination): #### Non-denominational Christianity * Samoa: In June 2017, Parliament voted to amend the wording of Article 1 of the constitution, thereby making Christianity the state religion. Part 1, Section (1)(3) reads "Samoa is a Christian nation founded on God the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit." The status of the religion had previously only been mentioned in the preamble, which Prime Minister Tuilaepa Aiono Sailele Malielegaoi considered legally inadequate. * Zambia: The preamble to the Zambian Constitution of 1991 declares Zambia to be "a Christian nation", while also guaranteeing freedom of religion. #### Catholicism Jurisdictions where Catholicism has been established as a state or official religion: * Costa Rica: Article 75 of the Constitution of Costa Rica confirms that "The Catholic and Apostolic Religion is the religion of the State, which contributes to its maintenance, without preventing the free exercise in the Republic of other forms of worship that are not opposed to universal morality or good customs." * Holy See: It is an elective, theocratic (or sacerdotal), absolute monarchy ruled by the Pope, who is also the Vicar of Christ. The highest state functionaries are all Catholic clergy of various national origins. It is the sovereign territory of the Holy See (Latin: *Sancta Sedes*) and the location of the Pope's official residence, referred to as the Apostolic Palace. * Liechtenstein: The Constitution of Liechtenstein describes the Catholic Church as the state religion and enjoying "the full protection of the State". The constitution does however ensure that people of other faiths "shall be entitled to practice their creeds and to hold religious services to the extent consistent with morality and public order". * Malta: Article 2 of the Constitution of Malta declares that "the religion of Malta is the Catholic and Apostolic Religion". * Monaco: Article 9 of the Constitution of Monaco describes the "Catholic, and apostolic religion" as the religion of the state. Jurisdictions that give various degrees of recognition in their constitutions to Roman Catholicism without establishing it as the State religion: * Andorra * Argentina: Article 2 of the Constitution of Argentina explicitly states that the government supports the Roman Catholic Apostolic Faith, but the constitution does not establish a state religion. Before its 1994 amendment, the Constitution stated that the President of the Republic must be a Roman Catholic. * East Timor: While the Constitution of East Timor enshrines the principles of freedom of religion and separation of church and state in Section 45 Comma 1, it also acknowledges "the participation of the Catholic Church in the process of national liberation" in its preamble (although this has no legal value). * El Salvador: Although Article 3 of the Constitution of El Salvador states that "no restrictions shall be established that are based on differences of nationality, race, sex or religion", Article 26 states that the state recognizes the Catholic Church and gives it legal preference. * Guatemala: The Constitution of Guatemala recognises the juridical personality of the Catholic Church. Other churches, cults, entities, and associations of religious character will obtain the recognition of their juridical personality in accordance with the rules of their institution. * Italy: The Constitution of Italy does not establish a state religion, but recognizes the state and the Catholic Church as "independent and sovereign, each within its own sphere". The Constitution additionally reserves to the Catholic faith singular position in regard to the organization of worship, as opposed to all other confessions. * Panama: The Constitution of Panama recognizes Catholicism as "the religion of the majority" of citizens but does not designate it as the official state religion. * Paraguay: The Constitution of Paraguay recognizes the Catholic Church's role in the nation's historical and cultural formation. * Peru: The Constitution of Peru recognizes the Catholic Church as an important element in the historical, cultural, and moral formation of Peru and lends it its cooperation. * Poland * Spain: The Constitution of Spain of 1978 abolished Catholicism as the official state religion, while recognizing the role it plays in Spanish society. #### Eastern Orthodoxy * Greece: The Church of Greece is recognized by the Greek Constitution as the prevailing religion in Greece and is the only country in the world where Eastern Orthodoxy is clearly recognized as a state religion. However, this provision does not give exclusivity of worship to the Church of Greece, while all other religions are recognized as equal and may be practiced freely. The jurisdictions below give various degrees of recognition in their constitutions to Eastern Orthodoxy, but without establishing it as the state religion: * Bulgaria: In the Bulgarian Constitution, the Bulgarian Orthodox Church is recognized as ***the traditional religion*** of the Bulgarian people, but the state itself remains secular. * Cyprus: The Constitution of Cyprus states: "The Autocephalous Greek-Orthodox Church of Cyprus shall continue to have the exclusive right of regulating and administering its own internal affairs and property in accordance with the Holy Canons and its Charter in force for the time being and the Greek Communal Chamber shall not act inconsistently with such right." * Finland: Both the Finnish Orthodox Church and the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland are "national churches". * Georgia: The Georgian Orthodox Church has a constitutional agreement with the state, the constitution recognizing "the special role of the Apostolic Autocephalous Orthodox Church of Georgia in the history of Georgia and its independence from the state". (See also Concordat of 2002) #### Protestantism The following states recognize some form of Protestantism as their state or official religion: #### British Commonwealth ##### Anglicanism The Anglican Church of England is the established church in England as well as all three of the Crown Dependencies: * England: The Church of England is the established church in England, but not in the United Kingdom as a whole. It is the only established Anglican church worldwide. The Anglican Church in Wales, the Scottish Episcopal Church and the Church of Ireland are not established churches and they are independent of the Church of England. The British monarch is the titular Supreme Governor of the Church of England. The 26 most senior bishops in the Church of England are Lords Spiritual and have seats in the House of Lords of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. * Guernsey: The Church of England is the established church in the Bailiwick of Guernsey, and the leader of the Church of England in the territory is the Dean of Guernsey. * Isle of Man: The Church of England is the established church on the Isle of Man. The Bishop of Sodor and Man is an ex officio member of the Legislative Council (the upper house of Tynwald). * Jersey: The Church of England is the established church in Jersey, and the leader of the church on the island is the Dean of Jersey, a non-voting member of the States of Jersey. ##### Calvinism * Scotland: The Church of Scotland is the national church, but not the United Kingdom as a whole. Whilst it is the national church, it 'is not State controlled' and the monarch is not the 'supreme governor' as in the Church of England. * Tuvalu: The Church of Tuvalu is the state religion, although in practice this merely entitles it to "the privilege of performing special services on major national events". The Constitution of Tuvalu guarantees freedom of religion, including the freedom to practice, the freedom to change religion, the right not to receive religious instruction at school or to attend religious ceremonies at school, and the right not to "take an oath or make an affirmation that is contrary to his religion or belief". #### Nordic Countries ##### Lutheranism Jurisdictions where a Lutheran church has been fully or partially established as a state recognized religion include the Nordic States. * Denmark: Section 4 of the Constitution of Denmark confirms the Church of Denmark as the established church. + Faroe Islands: The Church of the Faroe Islands is the state church of the Faroe Islands, an autonomous administrative division within the Danish Realm. + Greenland: The Church of Denmark is the state church of Greenland, an autonomous administrative division within the Danish Realm. * Iceland: The Constitution of Iceland confirms the Church of Iceland as the state church of Iceland. * Norway: Until 2017, the Church of Norway was not a separate legal entity from the government. It was disestablished and became a national church, a legally distinct entity from the state with special constitutional status. The King of Norway is required by the Constitution to be a member of the Church of Norway, and the church is regulated by special canon law, unlike other religions. Jurisdictions that give various degrees of recognition in their constitutions to Lutheranism without establishing it as the state religion: * Finland: The Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland has a special relationship with the Finnish state, its internal structure being described in a special law, the Church Act. The Church Act can be amended only by a decision of the synod of the Evangelical Lutheran Church and subsequent ratification by the Parliament of Finland. The Church Act is protected by the Constitution of Finland and the state cannot change the Church Act without changing the constitution. The church has the power to tax its members. The state collects these taxes for the church, for a fee. On the other hand, the church is required to give a burial place for everyone in its graveyards. The President of Finland also decides the themes for intercession days. The church does not consider itself a state church, as the Finnish state does not have the power to influence its internal workings or its theology, although it has a veto in those changes of the internal structure which require changing the Church Act. Neither does the Finnish state accord any precedence to Lutherans or the Lutheran faith in its own acts. * Sweden: The Church of Sweden was the state church of Sweden between 1527 when King Gustav Vasa broke all ties with Rome and 2000 when the state officially became secular. Much like in Finland, it does have a special relation to the Swedish state unlike any other religious organizations. For example, there is a special law that regulates certain aspects of the church and the members of the royal family are required to belong to it in order to have a claim to the line of succession. A majority of the population still belongs to the Church of Sweden. #### Other/mixed * Armenia: The Armenian Apostolic Church has a constitutional agreement with the State: "The Republic of Armenia shall recognise the exclusive mission of the Armenian Apostolic Holy Church, as a national church, in the spiritual life of the Armenian people, in the development of their national culture and preservation of their national identity." * Dominican Republic: The constitution of the Dominican Republic specifies that there is no state church and provides for freedom of religion and belief. A concordat with the Holy See designates Catholicism as the official religion and extends special privileges to the Catholic Church not granted to other religious groups. These include the legal recognition of church law, use of public funds to underwrite some church expenses, and complete exoneration from customs duties. * France: The local law in Alsace-Moselle accords official status to four religions in this specific region of France: Judaism, Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism and Calvinism. The law is a remnant of the Napoleonic Concordat of 1801, which was abrogated in the rest of France by the law of 1905 on the separation of church and state. However, at the time, Alsace-Moselle had been annexed by Germany. The Concordat, therefore, remained in force in these areas, and it was not abrogated when France regained control of the region in 1918. Therefore, the separation of church and state, part of the French concept of Laïcité, does not apply in this region. * Haiti: While Catholicism has not been the state religion since 1987, a 19th-century concordat with the Holy See continues to confer preferential treatment to the Catholic Church, in the form of stipends for clergy and financial support to churches and religious schools. The Catholic Church also retains the right to appoint certain amounts of clergy in Haiti without the government's consent. * Hungary: The preamble to the Hungarian Constitution of 2011 describes Hungary as "part of Christian Europe" and acknowledges "the role of Christianity in preserving nationhood", while Article VII provides that "the State shall cooperate with the Churches for community goals." However, the constitution also guarantees freedom of religion and separation of church and state. * Nicaragua: The Nicaraguan Constitution of 1987 states that the country has no official religion, but defines "Christian values" as one of the "principles of the Nicaraguan nation". * Portugal: Although Church and State are formally separate, the Catholic Church in Portugal still receives certain privileges. ### Islam Many Muslim-majority countries have constitutionally established Islam, or a specific form of it, as a state religion. Proselytism (converting people away from Islam) is often illegal in such states. * Afghanistan Afghanistan: Officially, Afghanistan has continuously been an Islamic state under various constitutions since at least 1987. * Algeria Algeria: "Islam shall be the religion of the State." * Bahrain Bahrain: "The religion of the State is Islam." * Bangladesh Bangladesh: Article (2A) of the Constitution of Bangladesh declares: "Islam is the state religion of the republic". * Brunei Brunei: Article 3 of the Constitution of Brunei: "The official religion of Brunei Darussalam shall be the Islamic Religion ..." * Comoros Comoros: Preamble to the 2001 Constitution of the Comoros: "... to draw from Islam, the religion of the state ..." * Djibouti Djibouti: Article 1 of the Constitution of Djibouti: "Islam is the Religion of the State." * Egypt Egypt: Article 2 of the Egyptian Constitution of 2014: "Islam is the religion of the State". * Iran Iran: Article 12 of the Constitution of Iran: "The official religion of Iran is Islam and the Twelver Ja'farî school [in usul al-Dîn and fiqh], and this principle will remain eternally immutable." Islam has been Iran's state religion since 1501 dating back to the Safavid dynasty and has continued ever since, excluding the period of breaks in the Pahlavi dynasty. * Iraq Iraq: Article 2 of the Constitution of Iraq: "Islam is the official religion of the State and is a foundation source of legislation ..." * Jordan Jordan: Article 2 of the Constitution of Jordan: "Islam is the religion of the State and Arabic is its official language." * Kuwait Kuwait: Article 2 of the Constitution of Kuwait: "The religion of the State is Islam and Islamic Law shall be a main source of legislation." * Libya Libya: Article 1 of the Libyan interim Constitutional Declaration: "Islam is the Religion of the State and the principal source of legislation is Islamic Jurisprudence (Shari'a)." * Malaysia Malaysia: Article 11 of the Constitution of Malaysia: "Islam is the religion of the Federation; but other religions may be practised in peace and harmony in any part of the Federation." * Maldives Maldives: Article 10 of the Maldives's Constitution of 2008: "The religion of the State of the Maldives is Islam. Islam shall be the one of the bases of all the laws of the Maldives." * Mauritania Mauritania: Article 5 of the Constitution of Mauritania: "Islam is the religion of the people and of the State." * Morocco Morocco: Article 3 of the Constitution of Morocco: "Islam is the religion of the State, which guarantees to all the free exercise of beliefs [cultes]." * Oman Oman: Article 2 of the Constitution of Oman: "The religion of the State is Islam and Islamic Sharia is the basis for legislation." * Pakistan Pakistan: Article 2 of the Constitution of Pakistan: "Islam shall be the State religion of Pakistan." * State of Palestine Palestine: Article 4 of the Basic Law of the State of Palestine: "Islam is the official religion in Palestine. Respect and sanctity of all other heavenly religions shall be maintained." * Qatar Qatar: Article 1 of the Constitution of Qatar: "Qatar is an independent sovereign Arab State. Its religion is Islam and Shari'a law shall be a main source of its legislations." * Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia: Article 1 of the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia: "The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is a sovereign Arab Islamic State. Its religion is Islam." * Sahrawi Republic: Article 2 of Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic declares that Islam is the state religion and law origin. * Somalia Somalia: Article 2 of the Provisional Constitution of the Federal Republic of Somalia: "Islam is the religion of the State." * United Arab Emirates United Arab Emirates: Article 7 of the Constitution of the United Arab Emirates: "Islam shall be the official religion of the Union." * Yemen Yemen: Article 2 of the Constitution of Yemen: "Islam is the religion of the state, and Arabic is its official language." In some countries, Islam is not recognized as a state religion, but holds special status: * Tajikistan Tajikistan: Although there is a separation of religion from politics, certain aspects of law also privilege Islam. One such law declares "Islam to be a traditional religion of Tajikistan, with more rights and privileges given to Islamic organizations than to religious groups of non-Muslim origin". * Tunisia Tunisia: Article (2A) of the Constitution of Tunisia 2022 July 25 declares: "Tunisia is part of the Islamic nation (referring to Muslim world), and the state alone must work to achieve "the goals of pure Islam in preserving honourable life of religious freedom". Although, Islam has been given special privileges by the Tunisian New constitution, though it is no longer the state religion of the republic. Also, Article 88 says, President must be Muslim by faith. * Turkey Turkey: The Republic of Turkey is officially a secular country. Although the current governing party has a close affinity with Sunni Islam, the latest Constitution of 1982 neither recognizes an official religion nor promotes any. Islam has been referred as the country's main religion, and it plays a major dominant role in the life of the Turkish people. The Directorate of Religious Affairs, an official state institution established by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in 1924, expresses opinions on religious matters and is responsible for all administration of the Sunni institutions. The Turkish government oversees Muslim religious facilities and education through its Directorate of Religious Affairs, under the authority of the President (previously Prime Minister). The directorate regulates the operation of the country's hundreds of thousands of registered mosques and employs local and provincial imams (who are civil servants). Sunni imams are appointed and paid by the state. * Turkmenistan Turkmenistan: The Constitution claims to uphold a secular system in which religious and state institutions are separate. However, in Turkmenistan, the state actively privileges a form of traditional Islam. The culture, including Islam, is a key facet, contributes to the Turkmen national identity. The state encourages the conceptualization of "Turkmen Islam". * Uzbekistan Uzbekistan: Since independence, Islam has taken on an altogether new role in the nation-building process in Uzbekistan. The government affords Islam in special status and declared it as a national heritage and a moral guideline. ### Status of religion in Israel * Israel is defined in several of its laws as a "Jewish and democratic state" (*medina yehudit ve-demokratit*). However, the term "Jewish" is a polyseme that can describe the Jewish people as either an ethnic or a religious group. The debate about the meaning of the term "Jewish" and its legal and social applications is one of the most profound issues with which Israeli society deals. The problem of the status of religion in Israel, even though it is relevant to all religions, usually refers to the status of Judaism in Israeli society. Thus, even though from a constitutional point of view Judaism is not the state religion in Israel, its status nevertheless determines relations between religion and state and the extent to which religion influences the political center. The State of Israel supports religious institutions, particularly Orthodox Jewish ones, and recognizes the "religious communities" as carried over from those recognized under the British Mandate—in turn derived from the pre-1917 Ottoman system of *millets*. These are Jewish and Christian (Eastern Orthodox, Latin Catholic, Gregorian-Armenian, Armenian-Catholic, Syriac Catholic, Chaldean, Melkite Catholic, Maronite Catholic, and Syriac Orthodox). The fact that the Muslim population was not defined as a religious community does not affect the rights of the Muslim community to practice their faith. At the end of the period covered by the 2009 U.S. International Religious Freedom Report, several of these denominations were pending official government recognition; however, the Government has allowed adherents of not officially recognized groups the freedom to practice. In 1961, legislation gave Muslim Shari'a courts exclusive jurisdiction in matters of personal status. Three additional religious communities have subsequently been recognized by Israeli law: the Druze (prior under Islamic jurisdiction), the Evangelical Episcopal Church, and followers of the Baháʼí Faith. ### Political religions In some countries, there is a political ideology sponsored by the government that may be called political religion. ### Additional notes * China: The government of China officially espouses state atheism, and officially recognizes only five religions: Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism, and Protestantism. Despite limitations on certain forms of religious expression and assembly, religion is not banned, and religious freedom is nominally protected under the Chinese constitution. Among the general Chinese population, there are a wide variety of religious practices. The Chinese government's attitude to religion is one of skepticism and non-promotion. * Indonesia is officially a presidential republic and a unitary state that does not declare or designate a state religion. Officially, the government only recognizes six religions: Islam, Protestantism, Catholicism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Confucianism. Pancasila comes from the Jakarta Charter whose first article was changed from "Divinity, with the obligation to carry out Islamic law for its adherents" to "the One Divinity", to respect other religions. The Constitution of Indonesia guarantees freedom of religion and the practice of other religions and beliefs, including traditional animistic beliefs. Indonesians who are practicing other unrecognized religions such as Sikhs and Jains are often counted as "Hindu" while Indonesians practicing Orthodoxy are often counted as "Christian" for governmental purposes. Atheism, although not prosecuted, is discouraged by the state ideology of *Pancasila*. In addition, the province of Aceh receives a special status and a higher degree of autonomy, in which it may enact laws (*qanuns*) based on the Sharia and enforce it, especially to its Muslim residents. * Lebanon: There are 18 officially recognized religious groups in Lebanon, each with its own family law legislation and set of religious courts. Under the terms of an agreement known as the National Pact between the various political and religious leaders of Lebanon, the president of the country must be a Maronite, the Prime Minister must be a Sunni, and the Speaker of Parliament must be a Shia. * Luxembourg is a secular state, but the Grand Duchy recognizes and supports several denominations, including the Catholic Church, Greek Orthodox, Russian Orthodox, Romanian Orthodox, Serbian Orthodox, Anglican and some Protestantism denominations as well as to Jewish congregations. * Russia: Though a secular state under the constitution, Russia is often said to have Russian Orthodoxy as the *de facto* national religion, despite other minorities: "The Russian Orthodox Church is de facto privileged religion of the state, claiming the right to decide which other religions or denominations are to be granted the right of registration". * Singapore is officially a secular country and does not have a state religion, and has been named in one study as the "most religiously diverse nation in the world", with no religious group forming a majority. However, the government gives official recognition to ten different religions, namely Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Taoism, Sikhism, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Jainism, and the Baháʼí Faith, and Singapore's penal code explicitly prohibits "wounding religious feelings". The Jehovah's Witnesses and Unification Church are also banned in Singapore, as the government deems them to be a threat to national security. * Switzerland is officially secular at the federal level but 24 of the 26 cantons support both the Swiss Reformed Church and the Roman Catholic Church in various ways. * Vietnam is officially atheist (although sometimes also referred as atheist-Buddhist), but recognizes only 38 religious organizations and one *dharma* practice. Former state religions ---------------------- ### Roman religion and Christianity In Rome, the office of *Pontifex Maximus* came to be reserved for the Emperor, who was occasionally declared a god posthumously, or sometimes during his reign. Failure to worship the Emperor as a god was at times punishable by death, as the Roman government sought to link emperor worship with loyalty to the Empire. Many Christians and Jews were subject to persecution, torture and death in the Roman Empire because it was against their beliefs to worship the Emperor. In 311, Emperor Galerius, on his deathbed, declared a religious indulgence to Christians throughout the Roman Empire, focusing on the ending of anti-Christian persecution. Constantine I and Licinius, the two *Augusti*, by the Edict of Milan of 313, enacted a law allowing religious freedom to everyone within the Roman Empire. Furthermore, the Edict of Milan cited that Christians may openly practice their religion unmolested and unrestricted, and provided that properties taken from Christians be returned to them unconditionally. Although the Edict of Milan allowed religious freedom throughout the Empire, it did not abolish nor disestablish the Roman state cult (Roman polytheistic paganism). The Edict of Milan was written in such a way as to implore the blessings of the deity. Constantine called up the First Council of Nicaea in 325, although he was not a baptized Christian until years later. Despite enjoying considerable popular support, Christianity was still not the official state religion in Rome, although it was in some neighboring states such as Armenia, Iberia, and Aksum. Roman religion (Neoplatonic Hellenism) was restored for a time by the Emperor Julian from 361 to 363. Julian does not appear to have reinstated the persecutions of the earlier Roman emperors. Catholic Christianity, as opposed to Arianism and other ideologies deemed heretical, was declared to be the state religion of the Roman Empire on 27 February 380 by the decree *De fide catolica* of Emperor Theodosius I. ### Han dynasty Confucianism In China, the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) advocated Confucianism as the *de facto* state religion, establishing tests based on Confucian texts as an entrance requirement into government service—although, in fact, the "Confucianism" advocated by the Han emperors may be more properly termed a sort of Confucian Legalism or "State Confucianism". This sort of Confucianism continued to be regarded by the emperors, with a few notable exceptions, as a form of state religion from this time until the collapse of the Chinese monarchy in 1912. Note, however, there is a debate over whether Confucianism (including Neo-Confucianism) is a religion or purely a philosophical system. ### Yuan dynasty Buddhism During the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty of China (1271–1368 CE), Tibetan Buddhism was established as the *de facto* state religion by the Kublai Khan, the founder of the Yuan dynasty. The top-level department and government agency known as the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs (Xuanzheng Yuan) was set up in Khanbaliq (modern Beijing) to supervise Buddhist monks throughout the empire. Since Kublai Khan only esteemed the Sakya sect of Tibetan Buddhism, other religions became less important. Before the end of the Yuan dynasty, 14 leaders of the Sakya sect had held the post of Imperial Preceptor (Dishi), thereby enjoying special power. ### Golden Horde and Ilkhanate The Mongol rulers Ghazan of Ilkhanate and Uzbeg of Golden Horde converted to Islam in 1295 CE because of the Muslim Mongol emir Nawruz and in 1313 CE because of Sufi Bukharan sayyid and sheikh Ibn Abdul Hamid respectively. Their official favoring of Islam as the state religion coincided with a marked attempt to bring the regime closer to the non-Mongol majority of the regions they ruled. In Ilkhanate, Christian and Jewish subjects lost their equal status with Muslims and again had to pay the poll tax; Buddhists had the starker choice of conversion or expulsion. ### Former state churches in British North America ### Other states * Kingdom of Hawaii: From 1862 to 1893 the Church of Hawaii, an Anglican body, was the official state and national church of the Kingdom of Hawaii. * Netherlands: Article 133 of the 1814 Constitution stipulated the Sovereign Prince should be a member of the Reformed Church; this provision was dropped in the 1815 Constitution. The 1815 Constitution also provided for a state salary and pension for the priesthood of established religions at the time (Protestantism, Catholicism and Judaism). This settlement, nicknamed *de zilveren koorde* (the silver cord), was abolished in 1983. * Nepal was the world's only Hindu state until 2015, when the new constitution declared it a secular state. Proselytizing remains illegal. * Japanese Empire: see details in the State Shintō article. * Sudan had Islam as the official religion during the rule of Omar al-Bashir according to the Constitution of Sudan of 2005. It was declared a secular state in September 2020. * The State of Deseret was an unrecognised provisional state of the United States, proposed in 1849, by Mormon settlers in Salt Lake City. The provisional state existed for slightly over two years, but attempts to gain recognition by the United States government floundered for various reasons. The Utah Territory which was then founded was under Mormon control, and repeated attempts to gain statehood met resistance, in part due to concerns that the principle of separation of church and state conflicted with the practice of members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints placing their highest value on "following counsel" in virtually all matters relating to their church-centered lives. The state of Utah was eventually admitted to the union on 4 January 1896, after the various issues had been resolved. Established churches and former state churches ---------------------------------------------- | Country | Church | Denomination | Disestablished | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Anhalt | Evangelical State Church of Anhalt | united Protestant | 1918 | | Armenia | Armenian Apostolic Church | Oriental Orthodox | 1921 | | Austria | Roman Catholic Church | Catholic | 1918 | | Baden | Roman Catholic Church | Catholic | 1918 | | United Evangelical Protestant State Church of Baden | united Protestant | 1918 | | Bavaria | Roman Catholic Church | Catholic | 1918 | | Protestant State Church in the Kingdom of Bavaria right of the Rhine | Lutheran and Reformed | 1918 | | United Protestant Evangelical Christian Church of the Palatinate | united Protestant | 1918 | | Barbados | Church of England | Anglican | 1968 | | Bolivia | Roman Catholic Church | Catholic | 2009 | | Brazil | Roman Catholic Church | Catholic | 1890 | | Brunswick | Evangelical Lutheran State Church in Brunswick | Lutheran | 1918 | | Bulgaria | Bulgarian Orthodox Church | Eastern Orthodox | 1946 | | Central African Empire | Roman Catholic Church | Catholic | 1979 | | Chile | Roman Catholic Church | Catholic | 1925 | | Colombia | Roman Catholic Church | Catholic | 1936 | | Cuba | Roman Catholic Church | Catholic | 1902 | | Cyprus | Cypriot Orthodox Church | Eastern Orthodox | 1977, following the death of the Ethnarch Makarios III | | Czechoslovakia | Roman Catholic Church | Catholic | 1920 | | Denmark | Church of Denmark | Lutheran | Current | | England | Church of England | Anglican | Current | | Ethiopia | Ethiopian Orthodox Church | Oriental Orthodox | 1974 | | Faroe Islands | Church of the Faroe Islands | Lutheran | Elevated from a diocese of the Church of Denmark in 2007 (the two remain in close cooperation) | | Finland | Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland | Lutheran | 1867 | | Finnish Orthodox Church | Eastern Orthodox | 1917 | | France | Cult of Reason | N/A | 1794 (established 1793) | | Cult of the Supreme Being | N/A | 1794, officially banned in 1802 | | Roman Catholic Church | Catholic | 1830 | | Georgia | Georgian Orthodox Church | Eastern Orthodox | 1921 | | Greece | Greek Orthodox Church | Eastern Orthodox | The Church of Greece is recognized by the Greek Constitution as the "prevailing religion" in Greece. However, this provision does not give official status to the Church of Greece, while all other religions are recognized as equal and may be practiced freely. | | Greenland | Church of Denmark | Lutheran | Under discussion to be elevated from The Diocese of Greenland in the Church of Denmark to a state church for Greenland, along‐the‐lines the Faroese Church took in 2007 | | Guatemala | Roman Catholic Church | Catholic | 1871 | | Haiti | Roman Catholic Church | Catholic | 1987 | | Hawaii | Church of Hawaii | Anglican | 1893 | | Hesse | Evangelical Church in Hesse | united Protestant | 1918 | | Hungary | Roman Catholic Church | Catholic | 1946 | | Iceland | Lutheran Evangelical Church | Lutheran | Current | | Ireland | Church of Ireland | Anglican | 1871 | | Italy | Roman Catholic Church | Catholic | 18 February 1984 (into force 25 April 1985) | | Liechtenstein | Roman Catholic Church | Catholic | Current | | Lippe | Church of Lippe | Reformed | 1918 | | Lithuania | Roman Catholic Church | Catholic | 1940 | | Lübeck | Evangelical Lutheran Church in the State of Lübeck | Lutheran | 1918 | | Luxembourg | Roman Catholic Church | Catholic | Not an official state church | | Malta | Roman Catholic Church | Catholic | Current | | Mecklenburg-Schwerin | Evangelical Lutheran State Church of Mecklenburg-Schwerin | Lutheran | 1918 | | Mecklenburg-Strelitz | Mecklenburg-Strelitz State Church | Lutheran | 1918 | | Mexico | Roman Catholic Church | Catholic | 1857 (reestablished between 1864 and 1867) | | Monaco | Roman Catholic Church | Catholic | 1999 (reestablished again in 2020–present). | | Netherlands | Dutch Reformed Church | Reformed | 1795 | | Nicaragua | Roman Catholic Church | Catholic | 1987 | | North Macedonia | Macedonian Orthodox Church | Eastern Orthodox | 1921 | | Norway | Church of Norway | Lutheran | As of 2012 the Constitution of Norway no longer names Lutheranism as the official religion of the state and in 2017 the church became an independent legal entity, but article 16 says that "The Church of Norway [...] will remain the National Church of Norway and will as such be supported by the State." As of 1 January 2017 the Church of Norway is a legal entity independent of the state. | | Oldenburg | Evangelical Lutheran Church of Oldenburg | Lutheran | 1918 | | Panama | Roman Catholic Church | Catholic | 1904 | | Paraguay | Roman Catholic Church | Catholic | 1992 | | Peru | Roman Catholic Church | Catholic | 1993 | | Philippines | Roman Catholic Church | Catholic | 1898 | | Poland | Roman Catholic Church | Catholic | 1947 | | Portugal | Roman Catholic Church | Catholic | 1910, 1976 | | Prussiapre 1866 provinces | Evangelical State Church of Prussia's older Provinces with nine ecclesiastical provinces | united Protestant | 1918 | | PrussiaProvince of Hanover | Evangelical Reformed State Church of the Province of Hanover | Reformed | 1918 | | Prussia Province of Hanover | Evangelical Lutheran State Church of Hanover | Lutheran | 1918 | | Prussia Province of Hesse-Nassau (partially) | Evangelical State Church of Frankfurt upon Main | united Protestant | 1918 | | Prussia Province of Hesse-Nassau (partially) | Evangelical Church of Electoral Hesse | united Protestant | 1918 | | Prussia Province of Hesse-Nassau (partially) | Evangelical State Church in Nassau | united Protestant | 1918 | | Prussia Prov. of Schleswig-Holstein | Evangelical Lutheran Church of Schleswig-Holstein | Lutheran | 1918 | | Romania | Romanian Orthodox Church | Eastern Orthodox | 1947 | | Russia | Russian Orthodox Church | Eastern Orthodox | 1917 | | Thuringia | church bodies in principalities which merged in Thuringia in 1920 | Lutheran | 1918 | | Saxony | Evangelical Lutheran State Church of Saxony | Lutheran | 1918 | | Schaumburg-Lippe | Evangelical State Church of Schaumburg-Lippe | Lutheran | 1918 | | Scotland | Church of Scotland | Presbyterian | Remains the national church; state control disclaimed since 1638. Formally recognised as not an established church by the Church of Scotland Act 1921. | | Serbia | Serbian Orthodox Church | Eastern Orthodox | 1920 | | Spain | Roman Catholic Church | Catholic | 1978 | | Sweden | Church of Sweden | Lutheran | 2000 | | Tuvalu | Church of Tuvalu | Reformed | Current | | Uruguay | Roman Catholic Church | Catholic | 1918 (into effect in 1919) | | United States | none since 1776, which was made explicit in the Bill of Rights in 1792 | none | n/a; some state legislatures required all citizens in those states to be members of a church, and some had official churches, such as Congregationalism in some New England states such as Massachusetts. This eventually ended in 1833 when Massachusetts was the last state to disestablish its church. | | Waldeck | Evangelical State Church of Waldeck and Pyrmont | united Protestants | 1918 | | Wales | Church of England | Anglican | 1920 | | Württemberg | Evangelical State Church in Württemberg | Lutheran | 1918 | Former confessional states -------------------------- *Note: This only includes states that abolished their state religion themselves, not states with a state religion that were conquered, fell apart or otherwise disappeared.* ### Buddhism | Country | Denomination | Disestablished | | --- | --- | --- | | Laos | Theravada Buddhism | 1975 | | Siam | Theravada Buddhism | 1932 | | ### Hinduism | Country | Disestablished | | --- | --- | | Nepal | 2008 (*de facto*)2015 (*de jure*) | | ### Islam | Country | Denomination | Disestablished | | --- | --- | --- | | Sudan | Sunni Islam | 2020 | | Tunisia | Sunni Islam | 2022 | | Turkey | Sunni Islam | 1928 | ### Shamanism | Country | Denomination | Disestablished | | --- | --- | --- | | Silla | Korean Shamanism | 527 CE | ### Shinto | Country | Denomination | Disestablished | | --- | --- | --- | | Japan | State Shinto | 1947 (*de facto*) | See also -------- * Blasphemy law * Ceremonial deism * Church tax * Civil religion * Confessional state * Divine rule * Elite religion * Institutional theory * Major religious groups * Nonsectarian * Religious education * Religious toleration * Secular religion * Secularism * Secularity * Secularization * Separation of church and state * Sociology of religion * State atheism * Status of religious freedom by country * Secular state Further reading --------------- * Rowlands, John Henry Lewis (1989). *Church, State, and Society, 1827–1845: the Attitudes of John Keble, Richard Hurrell Froude, and John Henry Newman*. Worthing, Eng.: P. Smith [of] Churchman Publishing; Folkestone, Eng.: distr. ... by Bailey Book Distribution. ISBN 1850931321

State religion

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_religion

| Part of a series on | | --- | | | | | --- | | | | | Constitutionally recognised languages of India | | Category | | 22 Official Languages of the Indian Republic | | Assamese  **·** Bengali  **·** Bodo  **·** Dogri  **·** Gujarati Hindi  **·** Kannada  **·** Kashmiri  **·** Konkani  **·** Maithili Malayalam  **·** Marathi  **·** Meitei (Manipuri)  **·** Nepali Odia  **·** Punjabi  **·** Sanskrit  **·** Santali  **·** Sindhi Tamil  **·** Telugu  **·** Urdu | | Related | | Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India Official Languages Commission Classical Languages of India List of languages by number of native speakers in India | | icon Asia portal flag India portal icon Language portal icon Politics portal | Bengali **This article contains Bengali text.** Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols. **Bengali** (/bɛnˈɡɔːli/ *ben-GAW-lee*), generally known by its endonym **Bangla** (বাংলা, Bengali pronunciation: [ˈbaŋla]), is an Indo-Aryan language native to the Bengal region of South Asia. With approximately 300 million native speakers and another 40 million as second language speakers, Bengali is the sixth most spoken native language and the seventh most spoken language by the total number of speakers in the world. Bengali is the fifth most spoken Indo-European language. Bengali is the official, national, and most widely spoken language of Bangladesh, with 98% of Bangladeshis using Bengali as their first language. It is the second-most widely spoken of the 22 scheduled languages of India, and is the official language of the states of West Bengal and Tripura and the Barak Valley region of the state of Assam. It is also the second official language of the Indian state of Jharkhand since September 2011. It is the most widely spoken language in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal, and is spoken by significant populations in other states including Bihar, Arunachal Pradesh, Delhi, Chhattisgarh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Odisha and Uttarakhand. Bengali is also spoken by the Bengali diasporas (Bangladeshi diaspora and Indian Bengalis) in Europe, the United States, the Middle East and other countries. Bengali has developed over more than 1,300 years. Bengali literature, with its millennium-old literary history, was extensively developed during the Bengali Renaissance and is one of the most prolific and diverse literary traditions in Asia. The Bengali language movement from 1948 to 1956 demanding that Bengali be an official language of Pakistan fostered Bengali nationalism in East Bengal leading to the emergence of Bangladesh in 1971. In 1999, UNESCO recognized 21 February as International Mother Language Day in recognition of the language movement. History ------- ### Ancient Although Sanskrit was practiced by Hindu Brahmins in Bengal since the mid-first millennium BC, the local Buddhist population was speaking in some varieties of the Prakrit. These varieties are generally referred to as "eastern Magadhi Prakrit", as coined by linguist Suniti Kumar Chatterji, as the Middle Indo-Aryan dialects were influential in the first millennium when Bengal was a part of the Greater Magadhan realm. The local varieties had no official status during the Gupta Empire, and with Bengal increasingly becoming a hub of Sanskrit literature for Hindu priests, the vernacular of Bengal gained a lot of influence from Sanskrit. Magadhi Prakrit was also spoken in modern-day Bihar and Assam, and this vernacular eventually evolved into Ardha Magadhi. Ardha Magadhi began to give way to what is known as Apabhraṃśa, by the end of the first millennium. The Bengali language evolved as a distinct language over the course of time. ### Early Though some archeologists claim that some 10th-century texts were in Bengali, it is not certain whether they represent a differentiated language or whether they represent a stage when Eastern Indo-Aryan languages were differentiating. The local Apabhraṃśa of the eastern subcontinent, Purbi Apabhraṃśa or Abahatta (lit. 'meaningless sounds'), eventually evolved into regional dialects, which in turn formed three groups, the Bengali–Assamese languages, the Bihari languages, and the Odia language. The language was not static: different varieties coexisted and authors often wrote in multiple dialects in this period. For example, Ardhamagadhi is believed to have evolved into Abahatta around the 6th century, which competed with the ancestor of Bengali for some time. The ancestor of Bengali was the language of the Pala Empire and the Sena dynasty. ### Medieval During the medieval period, Middle Bengali was characterized by the elision of the word-final *অ ô* and the spread of compound verbs, which originated from the Sanskrit Schwa. Slowly, the word-final *ô* disappeared from many words influenced by the Arabic, Persian, and Turkic languages. The arrival of merchants and traders from the Middle East and Turkestan into the Buddhist-ruling Pala Empire, from as early as the 7th century, gave birth to Islamic influence in the region. In the 13th century, the subsequent Muslim expeditions to Bengal greatly encouraged the migratory movements of Arab Muslims and Turco-Persians, who heavily influenced the local vernacular by settling among the native population. Bengali acquired prominence, over Persian, in the court of the Sultans of Bengal with the ascent of Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah. Subsequent Muslim rulers actively promoted the literary development of Bengali, allowing it to become the most spoken vernacular language in the Sultanate. Bengali adopted many words from Arabic and Persian, which was a manifestation of Islamic culture on the language. Major texts of Middle Bengali (1400–1800) include Yusuf-Zulekha by Shah Muhammad Sagir and Srikrishna Kirtana by the Chandidas poets. Court support for Bengali culture and language waned when the Mughal Empire conquered Bengal in the late 16th and early 17th century. ### Modern The modern literary form of Bengali was developed during the 19th and early 20th centuries based on the west-central dialect spoken in the Nadia region. Bengali shows a high degree of diglossia, with the literary and standard form differing greatly from the colloquial speech of the regions that identify with the language. Modern Bengali vocabulary is based on words inherited from Magadhi Prakrit and Pali, along with tatsamas and reborrowings from Sanskrit and borrowings from Persian, Arabic, Austroasiatic languages and other languages with which it has historically been in contact. In the 19th and 20th centuries, there were two main forms of written Bengali: * চলিতভাষা *Chôlitôbhasha*, a colloquial form of Bengali using simplified inflections. * সাধুভাষা *Sadhubhasha*, a Sanskritised form of Bengali. In 1948, the Government of Pakistan tried to impose Urdu as the sole state language in Pakistan, giving rise to the Bengali language movement. This was a popular ethnolinguistic movement in the former East Bengal (today Bangladesh), which arose as a result of the strong linguistic consciousness of the Bengalis and their desire to promote and protect spoken and written Bengali's recognition as a state language of the then Dominion of Pakistan. On 21 February 1952, five students and political activists were killed during protests near the campus of the University of Dhaka; they were the first ever martyrs to die for their right to speak their mother tongue. In 1956, Bengali was made a state language of Pakistan. 21 February has since been observed as Language Movement Day in Bangladesh and has also been commemorated as International Mother Language Day by UNESCO every year since 2000. In 2010, the parliament of Bangladesh and the legislative assembly of West Bengal proposed that Bengali be made an official UN language. As of January 2023, no further action has been yet taken on this matter. However, in 2022, the UN did adopt Bangla as an unofficial language, after a resolution tabled by India. The Central Shaheed Minar in Dhaka, BangladeshLanguage Martyr's Memorial at Silchar Railway Station in Assam, India.Mother Language Day Monument in Kolkata, West Bengal Geographical distribution ------------------------- Approximate distribution of native Bengali speakers (assuming a rounded total of 261 million) worldwide.   Bangladesh (61.3%)  India (37.2%)  Other (1.5%) The Bengali language is native to the region of Bengal, which comprises the present-day nation of Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal. Besides the native region it is also spoken by the Bengalis living in Tripura, southern Assam and the Bengali population in the Indian union territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Bengali is also spoken in the neighbouring states of Odisha, Bihar, and Jharkhand, and sizeable minorities of Bengali speakers reside in Indian cities outside Bengal, including Delhi, Mumbai, Thane, Varanasi, and Vrindavan. There are also significant Bengali-speaking communities in the Middle East, the United States, Singapore, Malaysia, Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, and Italy. ### Official status The 3rd article of the Constitution of Bangladesh states Bengali to be the sole official language of Bangladesh. The Bengali Language Implementation Act, 1987 made it mandatory to use Bengali in all records and correspondences, laws, proceedings of court and other legal actions in all courts, government or semi-government offices, and autonomous institutions in Bangladesh. It is also the *de facto* national language of the country. In India, Bengali is one of the 23 official languages. It is the official language of the Indian states of West Bengal, Tripura and in Barak Valley of Assam. Bengali has been a second official language of the Indian state of Jharkhand since September 2011. In Pakistan, Bengali is a recognised secondary language in the city of Karachi. The Department of Bengali in the University of Karachi also offers regular programs of studies at the Bachelors and at the Masters levels for Bengali Literature. The national anthems of both Bangladesh (*Amar Sonar Bangla*) and India (*Jana Gana Mana*) were written in Bengali by the Bengali Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore. Additionally, the first two verses of *Vande Mataram*, a patriotic song written in Bengali by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, was adopted as the "national song" of India in both the colonial period and later in 1950 in independent India. Furthermore, it is believed by many that the national anthem of Sri Lanka (Sri Lanka Matha) was inspired by a Bengali poem written by Rabindranath Tagore, while some even believe the anthem was originally written in Bengali and then translated into Sinhala. After the contribution made by the Bangladesh UN Peacekeeping Force in the Sierra Leone Civil War under the United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone, the government of Ahmad Tejan Kabbah declared Bengali as an honorary official language in December 2002. In 2009, elected representatives in both Bangladesh and West Bengal called for Bengali to be made an official language of the United Nations. Dialects -------- Regional variation in spoken Bengali constitutes a dialect continuum. Linguist Suniti Kumar Chatterji grouped the dialects of Bengali language into four large clusters- Rarhi, Vangiya, Kamrupi and Varendri; but many alternative grouping schemes have also been proposed. The south-western dialects (Rarhi or Nadia dialect) form the basis of modern standard colloquial Bengali. In the dialects prevalent in much of eastern and south-eastern Bangladesh (Barisal, Chittagong, Dhaka and Sylhet Divisions of Bangladesh), many of the stops and affricates heard in West Bengal are pronounced as fricatives. Western alveolo-palatal affricates চ [tɕɔ], ছ [tɕʰɔ], জ [dʑɔ] correspond to eastern চ [tsɔ], ছ [tsʰɔ~sɔ], জ [dzɔ~zɔ]. The influence of Tibeto-Burman languages on the phonology of Eastern Bengali is seen through the lack of nasalised vowels and an alveolar articulation of what are categorised as the "cerebral" consonants (as opposed to the postalveolar articulation of West Bengal). Some variants of Bengali, particularly Chittagonian and Chakma, have contrastive tone; differences in the pitch of the speaker's voice can distinguish words. Kharia Thar and Mal Paharia are closely related to Western Bengali dialects, but are typically classified as separate languages. Similarly, Hajong is considered a separate language, although it shares similarities to Northern Bengali dialects. During the standardisation of Bengali in the 19th century and early 20th century, the cultural centre of Bengal was in Kolkata, a city founded by the British. What is accepted as the standard form today in both West Bengal and Bangladesh is based on the West-Central dialect of Nadia District, located next to the border of Bangladesh and 76 miles north of Kolkata. There are cases where speakers of Standard Bengali in West Bengal will use a different word from a speaker of Standard Bengali in Bangladesh, even though both words are of native Bengali descent. For example, the word salt is নুন *nun* in the west which corresponds to লবণ *lôbôṇ* in the east. Bengali exhibits diglossia, though some scholars have proposed triglossia or even n-glossia or heteroglossia between the written and spoken forms of the language. Two styles of writing have emerged, involving somewhat different vocabularies and syntax: 1. *Shadhu-bhasha* (সাধু ভাষা "upright language") was the written language, with longer verb inflections and more of a Pali and Sanskrit-derived *Tatsama* vocabulary. Songs such as India's national anthem *Jana Gana Mana* (by Rabindranath Tagore) were composed in this style. Its use in modern writing however is uncommon, restricted to some official signs and documents in Bangladesh as well as for achieving particular literary effects. 2. *Cholito-bhasha* (চলিত ভাষা "running language"), known by linguists as Standard Colloquial Bengali, is a written Bengali style exhibiting a preponderance of colloquial idiom and shortened verb forms and is the standard for written Bengali now. This form came into vogue towards the turn of the 19th century, promoted by the writings of Peary Chand Mitra (*Alaler Gharer Dulal*, 1857), Pramatha Chaudhuri (*Sabujpatra*, 1914) and in the later writings of Rabindranath Tagore. It is modeled on the dialect spoken in the Shantipur region in Nadia district, West Bengal. This form of Bengali is often referred to as the "Nadia standard", "Nadia dialect", "Southwestern/West-Central dialect" or "Shantipuri Bangla". Linguist Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar categorises the language as: * Madhya Rarhi dialect * Kanthi (Contai) dialect * Kolkata dialect * Shantipuriya (Nadia) dialect * Shershahabadia (Maldahiya/ Jangipuri) dialect * Barendri dialect * Rangapuriya dialect * Sylheti dialect * Dhakiya (Bikrampuri) dialect * Jashore/Jessoriya dialect * Barisal (Chandradwip) dialect * Chattal (Chittagong) dialect While most writing is in Standard Colloquial Bengali (SCB), spoken dialects exhibit a greater variety. People in southeastern West Bengal, including Kolkata, speak in SCB. Other dialects, with minor variations from Standard Colloquial, are used in other parts of West Bengal and western Bangladesh, such as the Midnapore dialect, characterized by some unique words and constructions. However, a majority in Bangladesh speaks dialects notably different from SCB. Some dialects, particularly those of the Chittagong region, bear only a superficial resemblance to SCB. The dialect in the Chittagong region is least widely understood by the general body of Bengalis. The majority of Bengalis are able to communicate in more than one variety – often, speakers are fluent in *Cholitobhasha* (SCB) and one or more regional dialects. Even in SCB, the vocabulary may differ according to the speaker's religion: Muslims are more likely to use words of Persian and Arabic origin, along with more words naturally derived from Sanskrit (tadbhava), whereas Hindus are more likely to use tatsama (words directly borrowed from Sanskrit). For example: | Predominantly Hindu usage | Origin | Predominantly Muslim usage | Origin | Translation | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | নমস্কার *nômôshkar* | Directly borrowed from Sanskrit *namaskāra* | আসসালামু আলাইকুম *Assalamu Alaikum* | Directly from Arabic *as-salāmu ʿalaykum* | hello | | নিমন্ত্রণ *nimôntrôṇ* | Directly borrowed from Sanskrit *nimantraṇa* as opposed to the native Bengali *nemôntônnô* | দাওয়াত *dawat* | Borrowed from Arabic *da`wah* via Persian | invitation | | জল *jôl* | Directly borrowed from Sanskrit *jala* | পানি *panī* | Native, compare with Sanskrit *pānīya* | water | | স্নান *snan* | Directly borrowed from Sanskrit *snāna* | গোসল *gosôl* | Borrowed from Arabic *ghusl* via Persian | bath | | দিদি *didi* | Native, from Sanskrit *devī* | আপা *apa* | From Turkic languages | sister / elder sister | | দাদা *dada* | Native, from Sanskrit *dāyāda* | ভাইয়া *bhaiya* | Native, from Sanskrit *bhrātā* | brother / elder brother | | মাসী *mashī* | Native, from Sanskrit *mātṛṣvasā* | খালা *khala* | Directly borrowed from Arabic *khālah* | maternal aunt | | পিসী *pishī* | Native, from Sanskrit *pitṛṣvasā* | ফুফু *phuphu* | Native, from Prakrit *phupphī* | paternal aunt | | কাকা *kaka* | From Persian or Dravidian *kākā* | চাচা *chacha* | From Prakrit *cācca* | paternal uncle | | প্রার্থনা *prarthona* | Directly borrowed from Sanskrit *prārthanā* | দোয়া *dua* | Borrowed from Arabic *du`āʾ* | prayer | | প্রদীপ *prodeep* | Directly borrowed from Sanskrit *pradīp* | বাতি *bati* | Native, compare with Prakrit *batti* and Sanskrit *barti* | lamp | | লঙ্কা *lonka* | Native, named after Lanka | মরিচ *morich* | Directly borrowed from Sanskrit *marica* | chilli | Phonology --------- The phonemic inventory of standard Bengali consists of 29 consonants and 7 vowels, as well as 7 nasalised vowels. The inventory is set out below in the International Phonetic Alphabet (upper grapheme in each box) and romanisation (lower grapheme). **Vowels**| | Front | Central | Back | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Close | ই~ঈii | | উ~ঊuu | | Close-mid | এee | | ওoo | | Open-mid | অ্যাæ æ | | অɔô | | Open | | আaa | | Nasalized vowels| | Front | Central | Back | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Close | ইঁ~ঈঁĩĩ | | উঁ~ঊঁũũ | | Close-mid | এঁẽẽ | | ওঁõõ | | Open-mid | এ্যাঁ / অ্যাঁæ̃ | | অঁɔ̃ | | Open | | আঁ ã | | **Consonants**| | Labial | Dental/Alveolar | Retroflex | Palato-alveolar | Velar | Glottal | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Nasal | m | n | |   | ŋ |   | | Plosive/Affricate | voiceless unaspirated | p | t | ʈ | tʃ | k | | | voiceless aspirated | pʰ | tʰ | ʈʰ | tʃʰ | kʰ | | | voiced unaspirated | b | d | ɖ | dʒ | ɡ | | | voiced aspirated | bʱ | dʱ | ɖʱ | dʒʱ | ɡʱ | | | Fricative | voiceless | (ɸ) | s | | ʃ | | (h) | | voiced | (β) | (z) | | | | ɦ | | Approximant | (w) | l | | (j) | | | | Rhotic | voiced unaspirated | | r | ɽ | | | | | voiced aspirated | | | (ɽʱ) | | | | Bengali is known for its wide variety of diphthongs, combinations of vowels occurring within the same syllable. Two of these, /oi̯/ and /ou̯/, are the only ones with representation in script, as ঐ and ঔ respectively. /e̯ i̯ o̯ u̯/ may all form the glide part of a diphthong. The total number of diphthongs is not established, with bounds at 17 and 31. An incomplete chart is given by Sarkar (1985) of the following: | | e̯ | i̯ | o̯ | u̯ | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | a | ae̯ | ai̯ | ao̯ | au̯ | | æ | æe̯ | | æo̯ | | | e | | ei̯ | | eu̯ | | i | | ii̯ | | iu̯ | | o | oe̯ | oi̯ | oo̯ | ou̯ | | u | | ui̯ | | | ### Stress In standard Bengali, stress is predominantly initial. Bengali words are virtually all trochaic; the primary stress falls on the initial syllable of the word, while secondary stress often falls on all odd-numbered syllables thereafter, giving strings such as in সহযোগিতা ***shô**-hô-**jo**-gi-**ta*** "cooperation", where the **boldface** represents primary and secondary stress. ### Consonant clusters Native Bengali words do not allow initial consonant clusters; the maximum syllabic structure is CVC (i.e., one vowel flanked by a consonant on each side). Many speakers of Bengali restrict their phonology to this pattern, even when using Sanskrit or English borrowings, such as গেরাম *geram* (CV.CVC) for গ্রাম *gram* (CCVC) "village" or ইস্কুল *iskul* (VC.CVC) for স্কুল *skul* (CCVC) "school". Writing system -------------- Bengali-Assamese script is an abugida, a script with letters for consonants, diacritics for vowels, and in which an inherent vowel (অ *ô*) is assumed for consonants if no vowel is marked. The Bengali alphabet is used throughout Bangladesh and eastern India (Assam, West Bengal, Tripura). The Bengali alphabet is believed to have evolved from a modified Brahmic script around 1000 CE (or 10th–11th century). It is a cursive script with eleven graphemes or signs denoting nine vowels and two diphthongs, and thirty-nine graphemes representing consonants and other modifiers. There are no distinct upper and lower case letter forms. The letters run from left to right and spaces are used to separate orthographic words. Bengali script has a distinctive horizontal line running along the tops of the graphemes that links them together called মাত্রা *matra*. Since the Bengali script is an abugida, its consonant graphemes usually do not represent phonetic segments, but carry an "inherent" vowel and thus are syllabic in nature. The inherent vowel is usually a back vowel, either [ɔ] as in মত [m**ɔ**t] "opinion" or [o], as in মন [m**o**n] "mind", with variants like the more open [ɒ]. To emphatically represent a consonant sound without any inherent vowel attached to it, a special diacritic, called the *hôsôntô* (্), may be added below the basic consonant grapheme (as in ম্ [m]). This diacritic, however, is not common and is chiefly employed as a guide to pronunciation. The abugida nature of Bengali consonant graphemes is not consistent, however. Often, syllable-final consonant graphemes, though not marked by a *hôsôntô*, may carry no inherent vowel sound (as in the final ন in মন [m**o**n] or the medial ম in গামলা [ɡamla]). A consonant sound followed by some vowel sound other than the inherent [ɔ] is orthographically realized by using a variety of vowel allographs above, below, before, after, or around the consonant sign, thus forming the ubiquitous consonant-vowel typographic ligatures. These allographs, called কার *kar*, are diacritical vowel forms and cannot stand on their own. For example, the graph মি [mi] represents the consonant [m] followed by the vowel [i], where [i] is represented as the diacritical allographি (called ই-কার *i-kar*) and is placed *before* the default consonant sign. Similarly, the graphs মা [ma], মী [mi], মু [mu], মূ [mu], মৃ [mri], মে [me~mɛ], মৈ [moj], মো [mo] and মৌ [mow] represent the same consonant ম combined with seven other vowels and two diphthongs. In these consonant-vowel ligatures, the so-called "inherent" vowel [ɔ] is first expunged from the consonant before adding the vowel, but this intermediate expulsion of the inherent vowel is not indicated in any visual manner on the basic consonant sign ম [mɔ]. The vowel graphemes in Bengali can take two forms: the independent form found in the basic inventory of the script and the dependent, abridged, allograph form (as discussed above). To represent a vowel in isolation from any preceding or following consonant, the independent form of the vowel is used. For example, in মই [moj] "ladder" and in ইলিশ [iliʃ] "Hilsa fish", the independent form of the vowel ই is used (cf. the dependent formি). A vowel at the beginning of a word is always realized using its independent form. In addition to the inherent-vowel-suppressing *hôsôntô*, three more diacritics are commonly used in Bengali. These are the superposed *chôndrôbindu* (ঁ), denoting a suprasegmental for nasalisation of vowels (as in চাঁদ [tʃãd] "moon"), the postposed *ônusbar* (ং) indicating the velar nasal [ŋ] (as in বাংলা [baŋla] "Bengali") and the postposed *bisôrgô* (ঃ) indicating the voiceless glottal fricative [h] (as in উঃ! [uh] "ouch!") or the gemination of the following consonant (as in দুঃখ [dukʰːɔ] "sorrow"). The Bengali consonant clusters (যুক্তব্যঞ্জন *juktôbênjôn*) are usually realized as ligatures, where the consonant which comes first is put on top of or to the left of the one that immediately follows. In these ligatures, the shapes of the constituent consonant signs are often contracted and sometimes even distorted beyond recognition. In the Bengali writing system, there are nearly 285 such ligatures denoting consonant clusters. Although there exist a few visual formulas to construct some of these ligatures, many of them have to be learned by rote. Recently, in a bid to lessen this burden on young learners, efforts have been made by educational institutions in the two main Bengali-speaking regions (West Bengal and Bangladesh) to address the opaque nature of many consonant clusters, and as a result, modern Bengali textbooks are beginning to contain more and more "transparent" graphical forms of consonant clusters, in which the constituent consonants of a cluster are readily apparent from the graphical form. However, since this change is not as widespread and is not being followed as uniformly in the rest of the Bengali printed literature, today's Bengali-learning children will possibly have to learn to recognize both the new "transparent" and the old "opaque" forms, which ultimately amounts to an increase in learning burden. Bengali punctuation marks, apart from the downstroke । *daṛi* – the Bengali equivalent of a full stop – have been adopted from Western scripts and their usage is similar. Unlike in Western scripts (Latin, Cyrillic, etc.) where the letter forms stand on an invisible baseline, the Bengali letter-forms instead hang from a visible horizontal left-to-right headstroke called মাত্রা *matra*. The presence and absence of this matra can be important. For example, the letter ত *tô* and the numeral ৩ "3" are distinguishable only by the presence or absence of the *matra*, as is the case between the consonant cluster ত্র *trô* and the independent vowel এ *e*, also the letter হ *hô* and Bengali Ôbogroho ঽ *(~ô)* and letter ও *o* and consonant cluster ত্ত *ttô*. The letter-forms also employ the concepts of letter-width and letter-height (the vertical space between the visible matra and an invisible baseline). There is yet to be a uniform standard collating sequence (sorting order of graphemes to be used in dictionaries, indices, computer sorting programs, etc.) of Bengali graphemes. Experts in both Bangladesh and India are currently working towards a common solution for this problem. ### Alternative and historic scripts Throughout history, there have been instances of the Bengali language being written in different scripts, though these employments were never popular on a large scale and were communally limited. Owing to Bengal's geographic location, Bengali areas bordering non-Bengali regions have been influenced by each other. Small numbers of people in Midnapore, which borders Odisha, have used the Odia script to write in Bengali. In the border areas between West Bengal and Bihar, some Bengali communities historically wrote Bengali in Devanagari, Kaithi and Tirhuta. In Sylhet and Bankura, modified versions of the Kaithi script had some historical prominence, mainly among Muslim communities. The variant in Sylhet was identical to the Baitali Kaithi script of Hindustani with the exception of Sylhet Nagri possessing *matra*. Sylhet Nagri was standardized for printing in c. 1869. Up until the 19th century, numerous variations of the Arabic script had been used across Bengal from Chittagong in the east to Meherpur in the west. The 14th-century court scholar of Bengal, Nur Qutb Alam, composed Bengali poetry using the Persian alphabet. After the Partition of India in the 20th century, the Pakistani government attempted to institute the Perso-Arabic script as the standard for Bengali in East Pakistan; this was met with resistance and contributed to the Bengali language movement. In the 16th century, Portuguese missionaries began a tradition of using the Roman alphabet to transcribe the Bengali language. Though the Portuguese standard did not receive much growth, a few Roman Bengali works relating to Christianity and Bengali grammar were printed as far as Lisbon in 1743. The Portuguese were followed by the English and French respectively, whose works were mostly related to Bengali grammar and transliteration. The first version of the Aesop's Fables in Bengali was printed using Roman letters based on English phonology by the Scottish linguist John Gilchrist. Consecutive attempts to establish a Roman Bengali have continued across every century since these times, and have been supported by the likes of Suniti Kumar Chatterji, Muhammad Qudrat-i-Khuda, and Muhammad Enamul Haq. The Digital Revolution has also played a part in the adoption of the English alphabet to write Bengali, with certain social media influencers publishing entire novels in Roman Bengali. ### Orthographic depth The Bengali script in general has a comparatively shallow orthography, i.e., in most cases there is a one-to-one correspondence between the sounds (phonemes) and the letters (graphemes) of Bengali. But grapheme-phoneme inconsistencies do occur in certain cases. One kind of inconsistency is due to the presence of several letters in the script for the same sound. In spite of some modifications in the 19th century, the Bengali spelling system continues to be based on the one used for Sanskrit, and thus does not take into account some sound mergers that have occurred in the spoken language. For example, there are three letters (শ, ষ, and স) for the voiceless postalveolar fricative [ʃ], although the letter স retains the voiceless alveolar sibilant [s] sound when used in certain consonant conjuncts as in স্খলন [skʰɔlon] "fall", স্পন্দন [spɔndon] "beat", etc. The letter ষ also retains the voiceless retroflex sibilant [ʂ] sound when used in certain consonant conjuncts as in কষ্ট [kɔʂʈɔ] "suffering", গোষ্ঠী [ɡoʂʈʰi] "clan", etc. Similarly, there are two letters (জ and য) for the voiced postalveolar affricate [dʒ]. Moreover, what was once pronounced and written as a retroflex nasal ণ [ɳ] is now pronounced as an alveolar [n] when in conversation (the difference is heard when reading) (unless conjoined with another retroflex consonant such as ট, ঠ, ড and ঢ), although the spelling does not reflect this change. The near-open front unrounded vowel [æ] is orthographically realised by multiple means, as seen in the following examples: এত [æto] "so much", এ্যাকাডেমী [ækademi] "academy", অ্যামিবা [æmiba] "amoeba", দেখা [dækʰa] "to see", ব্যস্ত [bæsto] "busy", ব্যাকরণ [bækorɔn] "grammar". Another kind of inconsistency is concerned with the incomplete coverage of phonological information in the script. The inherent vowel attached to every consonant can be either [ɔ] or [o] depending on vowel harmony (স্বরসঙ্গতি) with the preceding or following vowel or on the context, but this phonological information is not captured by the script, creating ambiguity for the reader. Furthermore, the inherent vowel is often not pronounced at the end of a syllable, as in কম [kɔm] "less", but this omission is not generally reflected in the script, making it difficult for the new reader. Many consonant clusters have different sounds than their constituent consonants. For example, the combination of the consonants ক্ [k] and ষ [ʂ] is graphically realized as ক্ষ and is pronounced [kkʰo] (as in রুক্ষ [rukkʰo] "coarse"), [kʰɔ] (as in ক্ষমতা [kʰɔmota] "capability") or even [kʰo] (as in ক্ষতি [kʰoti] "harm"), depending on the position of the cluster in a word. The Bengali writing system is, therefore, not always a true guide to pronunciation. ### Uses The script used for Bengali, Assamese, and other languages is known as Bengali script. The script is known as the Bengali alphabet for Bengali and its dialects and the Assamese alphabet for Assamese language with some minor variations. Other related languages in the nearby region also make use of the Bengali script like the Meitei language in the Indian state of Manipur, where the Meitei language has been written in the Bengali script for centuries, though the Meitei script has been promoted in recent times. ### Number system Bengali digits are as follows. | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | ০ | ১ | ২ | ৩ | ৪ | ৫ | ৬ | ৭ | ৮ | ৯ | There are additional digits for fractions and prices, though they are little used any longer.[*vague*] ### Romanisation There are various romanisation systems used for Bengali created in recent years which have failed to represent the true Bengali phonetic sound. The Bengali alphabet has often been included with the group of Brahmic scripts for romanisation where the true phonetic value of Bengali is never represented. Some of them are the International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration, or IAST system (based on diacritics); "Indian languages Transliteration", or ITRANS (uses upper case letters suited for ASCII keyboards); and the National Library at Kolkata romanisation. In the context of Bengali romanisation, it is important to distinguish transliteration from transcription. Transliteration is orthographically accurate (i.e. the original spelling can be recovered), whereas transcription is phonetically accurate (the pronunciation can be reproduced). Although it might be desirable to use a transliteration scheme where the original Bengali orthography is recoverable from the Latin text, Bengali words are currently romanised on Wikipedia using a phonemic transcription, where the true phonetic pronunciation of Bengali is represented with no reference to how it is written. The most recent attempt has been by publishers Mitra and Ghosh with the launch of three popular children's books, *Abol Tabol*, *Hasi Khusi* and *Sahoj Path*, in Roman script at the Kolkata Book Fair 2018. Published under the imprint of Benglish Books, these are based on phonetic transliteration and closely follow spellings used in social media but for using an underline to describe soft consonants. Grammar ------- Bengali nouns are not assigned gender, which leads to minimal changing of adjectives (inflection). However, nouns and pronouns are moderately declined (altered depending on their function in a sentence) into four cases while verbs are heavily conjugated, and the verbs do not change form depending on the gender of the nouns. ### Word order As a head-final language, Bengali follows a subject–object–verb word order, although variations on this theme are common. Bengali makes use of postpositions, as opposed to the prepositions used in English and other European languages. Determiners follow the noun, while numerals, adjectives, and possessors precede the noun. Yes-no questions do not require any change to the basic word order; instead, the low (L) tone of the final syllable in the utterance is replaced with a falling (HL) tone. Additionally, optional particles (e.g. কি *-ki*, না *-na*, etc.) are often encliticised onto the first or last word of a yes-no question. Wh-questions are formed by fronting the wh-word to focus position, which is typically the first or second word in the utterance. ### Nouns Nouns and pronouns are inflected for case, including nominative, objective, genitive (possessive), and locative. The case marking pattern for each noun being inflected depends on the noun's degree of animacy. When a definite article such as -টা *-ṭa* (singular) or -গুলো *-gulo* (plural) is added, as in the tables below, nouns are also inflected for number. In most of Bengali grammar books, cases are divided into 6 categories and an additional possessive case (the possessive form is not recognized as a type of case by Bengali grammarians). But in terms of usage, cases are generally grouped into only 4 categories. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Singular noun inflection| | Animate | Inanimate | | --- | --- | --- | | Nominative | ছাত্রটিchatrô-ṭiছাত্রটিchatrô-ṭithe student | জুতোটিjuto-ṭaজুতোটিjuto-ṭathe shoe | | Objective | ছাত্রটি**কে**chatrô-ṭi-**ke**ছাত্রটি**কে**chatrô-ṭi-**ke**the student | জুতোটাjuto-ṭaজুতোটাjuto-ṭathe shoe | | Genitive | ছাত্রটি**র**chatrô-ṭi-**r**ছাত্রটি**র**chatrô-ṭi-**r**the student's | জুতোটা**র**juto-ṭa-**r**জুতোটা**র**juto-ṭa-**r**the shoe's | | Locative | – | জুতোটা**য়**juto-ṭa-**y**জুতোটা**য়**juto-ṭa-**y**on/in the shoe | | Plural noun inflection| | Animate | Inanimate | | --- | --- | --- | | Nominative | ছাত্র**রা**chatrô-**ra**/ ছাত্রগণ ছাত্র**রা** / ছাত্রগণchatrô-**ra** {} {}the students | জুতাগুলাjuta-gula//জুতোগুলোjuto-guloজুতাগুলা / জুতোগুলোjuta-gula / juto-gulothe shoes | | Objective | ছাত্র**দের(কে)**chatrô-**der(ke)**ছাত্র**দের(কে)**chatrô-**der(ke)**the students | জুতাগুলাjuta-gula//জুতোগুলোjuto-guloজুতাগুলা / জুতোগুলোjuta-gula / juto-gulothe shoes | | Genitive | ছাত্র**দের**chatrô-**der**ছাত্র**দের**chatrô-**der**the students' | জুতাগুলাjuta-gula//জুতোগুলো**র**juto-gulo-**r**জুতাগুলা / জুতোগুলো**র**juta-gula / juto-gulo-**r**the shoes' | | Locative | – | জুতাগুলাjuta-gula//জুতোগুলো**তে**juto-gulo-**te**জুতাগুলা / জুতোগুলো**তে**juta-gula / juto-gulo-**te**on/in the shoes | | When counted, nouns take one of a small set of measure words. Nouns in Bengali cannot be counted by adding the numeral directly adjacent to the noun. An appropriate measure word (**MW**), a classifier, must be used between the numeral and the noun (most languages of the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area are similar in this respect). Most nouns take the generic measure word -টা *-ṭa*, though other measure words indicate semantic classes (e.g. -জন *-jôn* for humans). There is also the classifier *-khana,* and its diminutive form *-khani*, which attaches only to nouns denoting something flat, long, square, or thin. These are the least common of the classifiers. | | | Measure words| Example | | --- | | নয়**টা**Nôy-**ṭa**nine-**MW**গরুgorucowনয়**টা** গরুNôy-**ṭa** gorunine-**MW** cowNine cows | | কয়**টা**Kôy-**ṭa**how many-**MW**বালিশbalishpillowকয়**টা** বালিশKôy-**ṭa** balish{how many}-**MW** pillowHow many pillows | | অনেক**জন**Ônek-**jôn**many-**MW**লোকlokpersonঅনেক**জন** লোকÔnek-**jôn** lokmany-**MW** personMany people | | চার-পাঁচ**জন**Ĉar-pãc-**jôn**four-five-**MW**শিক্ষকshikkhôkteacherচার-পাঁচ**জন** শিক্ষকĈar-pãc-**jôn** shikkhôkfour-five-**MW** teacherFour to five teachers | Measuring nouns in Bengali without their corresponding measure words (e.g. আট বিড়াল *aṭ biṛal* instead of আট**টা** বিড়াল *aṭ-**ṭa** biṛal* "eight cats") would typically be considered ungrammatical. However, when the semantic class of the noun is understood from the measure word, the noun is often omitted and only the measure word is used, e.g. শুধু এক**জন** থাকবে। *Shudhu êk-**jôn** thakbe.* (lit. "Only one-**MW** will remain.") would be understood to mean "Only one **person** will remain.", given the semantic class implicit in -জন *-jôn*. In this sense, all nouns in Bengali, unlike most other Indo-European languages, are similar to mass nouns. ### Verbs There are two classes of verbs: finite and non-finite. Non-finite verbs have no inflection for tense or person, while finite verbs are fully inflected for person (first, second, third), tense (present, past, future), aspect (simple, perfect, progressive), and honour (intimate, familiar, and formal), but *not* for number. Conditional, imperative, and other special inflections for mood can replace the tense and aspect suffixes. The number of inflections on many verb roots can total more than 200. Inflectional suffixes in the morphology of Bengali vary from region to region, along with minor differences in syntax. Bengali differs from most Indo-Aryan Languages in the zero copula, where the copula or connective *be* is often missing in the present tense. Thus, "he is a teacher" is সে শিক্ষক *se shikkhôk*, (literally "he teacher"). In this respect, Bengali is similar to Russian and Hungarian. Romani grammar is also the closest to Bengali grammar. Vocabulary ---------- Sources of modern literary Bengali words   Native (67%)  Sanskrit borrowings (25%)  Indigenous and foreign loans (8%) Bengali has as many as 100,000 separate words, of which 50,000 are considered Tadbhavas, 21,100 are Tatsamas and the remainder loanwords from Austroasiatic and other foreign languages. However, these figures do not take into account the large proportion of archaic or highly technical words that are very rarely used. Furthermore, different dialects use more Persian and Arabic vocabulary, especially in different areas of Bangladesh and Muslim majority areas of West Bengal. Hindus, on the other hand, use more Sanskrit vocabulary than Muslims. Standard Bengali is based on the Nadia dialect spoken in the Hindu-majority states of West Bengal and parts of the Muslim-majority division of Khulna in Bangladesh. About 90% of Bengalis in Bangladesh (ca. 148 million) and 27% of Bengalis in West Bengal and 10% in Assam (ca. 36 million) are Muslim and the Bangladeshi Muslims and some of the Indian Bengali Muslims speak a more "persio-arabised" version of Bengali instead of the more Sanskrit influenced Standard Nadia dialect although the majority of the Indian Bengalis of West Bengal speaks in Rarhi dialect irrespective of religion. The productive vocabulary used in modern literary works, in fact, is made up mostly (67%) of Tadbhavas, while Tatsamas make up only 25% of the total. Loanwords from non-Indic languages account for the remaining 8% of the vocabulary used in modern Bengali literature. According to Suniti Kumar Chatterji, dictionaries from the early 20th century attributed a little more than 50% of the Bengali vocabulary to native words (i.e., naturally modified Sanskrit words, corrupted forms of Sanskrit words, and loanwords non-Indo-European languages). About 45% percent of Bengali words are unmodified Sanskrit, and the remaining words are from foreign languages. Dominant in the last group was Persian, which was also the source of some grammatical forms. More recent studies suggest that the use of native and foreign words has been increasing, mainly because of the preference of Bengali speakers for the colloquial style. Because of centuries of contact with Europeans, Turkic peoples, and Persians, Bengali has absorbed numerous words from foreign languages, often totally integrating these borrowings into the core vocabulary. The most common borrowings from foreign languages come from three different kinds of contact. After close contact with several indigenous Austroasiatic languages, and later the Mughal conquest whose court language was Persian, numerous Chagatai, Arabic, and Persian words were absorbed into the lexicon. Later, East Asian travelers and lately European colonialism brought words from Portuguese, French, Dutch, and most significantly English during the colonial period. Sample text ----------- The following is a sample text in Bengali of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights: সমস্ত Sômôstô ʃɔmosto All মানুষ manush manuʃ human স্বাধীনভাবে shadhinbhabe ʃadʱinbʱabe free-manner-in সমান sôman ʃoman equal মর্যাদা môrjada mɔɾdʒada dignity এবং ebông eboŋ and অধিকার ôdhikar odʱikaɾ right নিয়ে niye nie̯e taken জন্মগ্রহণ jônmôgrôhôn dʒɔnmoɡrohon birth-take করে। kôre. kɔɾe do. তাঁদের Tãder tãdeɾ Their বিবেক bibek bibek reason এবং ebông eboŋ and বুদ্ধি buddhi budʱːi intelligence আছে; achhe; atʃʰe exist; সুতরাং sutôrang ʃutoraŋ therefore সকলেরই sôkôleri ʃɔkoleɾi everyone-indeed একে êke ɛke one অপরের ôpôrer ɔporeɾ another's প্রতি prôti proti towards ভ্রাতৃত্বসুলভ bhratrittôsulôbh bʱratritːoʃulɔbʱ brotherhood-ly মনোভাব mônobhab monobʱab attitude নিয়ে niye nie̯e taken আচরণ achôrôn atʃorɔn conduct করা kôra kɔra do উচিত। uchit. utʃit should. সমস্ত মানুষ স্বাধীনভাবে সমান মর্যাদা এবং অধিকার নিয়ে জন্মগ্রহণ করে। তাঁদের বিবেক এবং বুদ্ধি আছে; সুতরাং সকলেরই একে অপরের প্রতি ভ্রাতৃত্বসুলভ মনোভাব নিয়ে আচরণ করা উচিত। Sômôstô manush shadhinbhabe sôman môrjada ebông ôdhikar niye jônmôgrôhôn kôre. Tãder bibek ebông buddhi achhe; sutôrang sôkôleri êke ôpôrer prôti bhratrittôsulôbh mônobhab niye achôrôn kôra uchit. ʃɔmosto manuʃ ʃadʱinbʱabe ʃoman mɔɾdʒada eboŋ odʱikaɾ nie̯e dʒɔnmoɡrohon kɔɾe tãdeɾ bibek eboŋ budʱːi atʃʰe ʃutoraŋ ʃɔkoleɾi ɛke ɔporeɾ proti bʱratritːoʃulɔbʱ monobʱab nie̯e atʃorɔn kɔra utʃit All human free-manner-in equal dignity and right taken birth-take do. Their reason and intelligence exist; therefore everyone-indeed one another's towards brotherhood-ly attitude taken conduct do should. All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They possess conscience and reason. Therefore, everyone should act in a spirit of brotherhood towards each other. See also -------- * Bangla Academy * Bengali dialects * Bengali numerals * Bengali-language newspapers * Chittagonian language * Languages of Bangladesh * List countries by Bengali speakers * Rangpuri language * Romani people * Sylheti language References ---------- | | | | --- | --- | | * Alam, M (2000). *Bhasha Shourôbh: Bêkorôn O Rôchona (The Fragrance of Language: Grammar and Rhetoric)*. S.N. Printers, Dhaka. * Ali, Shaheen Sardar; Rehman, Javaid (2001). *Indigenous Peoples and Ethnic Minorities of Pakistan: Constitutional and Legal Perspectives*. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7007-1159-8. * Asiatic Society of Bangladesh (2003). *Banglapedia, the national encyclopedia of Bangladesh*. Dhaka: Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. * Bhattacharya, T (2000). "Bengali" (PDF). In Gary, J. and Rubino. C. (ed.). *Encyclopedia of World's Languages: Past and Present (Facts About the World's Languages)*. WW Wilson, New York. ISBN 978-0-8242-0970-4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 June 2006. * Bonazzi, Eros (2008). "Bengali". *Dizionario Bengali*. Avallardi (Italy). ISBN 978-88-7887-168-7. * Cardona, George; Jain, Danesh (2007). *The Indo-Aryan Languages*. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9. * Chakraborty, Byomkes, A Comparative Study of Santali and Bengali, K.P. Bagchi & Co., Kolkata, 1994, ISBN 81-7074-128-9. * Chatterji, SK (1921). "Bengali Phonetics". *Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies*. **2**: 1. doi:10.1017/S0041977X0010179X. S2CID 246637825. * Chatterji, SK (1926). *The Origin and Development of the Bengali Language*. Calcutta Univ. Press. OCLC 4700363. * Dasgupta, Probal (2003), "Bangla", in Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh (eds.), *The Indo-Aryan Languages*, Routledge, pp. 386–428 * Eaton, Richard M. (1993). *The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760*. University of California. ISBN 978-0-520-20507-9. Retrieved 13 July 2017. * Ferguson, CA; Chowdhury, M (1960). "The Phonemes of Bengali". *Language*. **36** (1): 22–59. doi:10.2307/410622. JSTOR 410622. * Grierson, George Abraham (1911). "Bengali". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). *Encyclopædia Britannica*. Vol. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 733–736. * Haldar, Gopal (2000). *Languages of India*. National Book Trust, India. ISBN 978-81-237-2936-7. | * Hayes, B; Lahiri, A (1991). "Bengali intonational phonology". *Natural Language & Linguistic Theory*. **9**: 47. doi:10.1007/BF00133326. S2CID 170109876. * Keith, Arthur Berriedale (1998). *The Sanskrit Drama*. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ISBN 978-81-208-0977-2. * Khan, Sameer ud Dowla (2010). "Bengali (Bangladeshi Standard)". *Journal of the International Phonetic Association*. **40** (2): 221–225. doi:10.1017/S0025100310000071. * Klaiman, MH (1987). "Bengali". In Comrie, Bernard (ed.). *The World's Major Languages*. Croon Helm, London and Sydney. ISBN 978-0-19-506511-4. * Masica, Colin P. (1991). *The Indo-Aryan Languages*. Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-521-23420-7. * Radice, W (1994). *Teach Yourself Bengali: A Complete Course for Beginners*. NTC/Contemporary Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-8442-3752-7. * Ray, P; Hai, MA; Ray, L (1966). *Bengali language handbook*. Center for Applied Linguistics, Washington. ASIN B000B9G89C. * Shah, Natubhai (1998). *Jainism: The World of Conquerors*. Sussex Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-898723-31-8. * Tagore, Rabindranath; Das, Sisir Kumar (1996). *The English Writings of Rabindranath Tagore*. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 978-81-260-0094-4. * Wilson, A.J.; Dalton, D. (1982). *The States of South Asia: Problems of National Integration. Essays in Honour of W.H. Morris-Jones*. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1183-9. * Bonazzi, E (2008). *Grammatica Bengali*. Bologna: Libreria Bonomo Editrice. ISBN 978-88-6071-017-8. * Shaw, Rameswar *Sadharan Bhasabigna O Bangal Bhasa*, Pustak Bipani, Kolkata, 1997. * Haldar, Narayan *Bengali Bhasa Prsanga: Banan Kathan Likhanriti*, Pustak Bipani, Kolkata, 2007. * Toulmin, Mathew W S (2009), *From Linguistic to Sociolinguistic Reconstruction: The Kamta Historical Subgroup of Indo-Aryan*, Pacific Linguistics | Further reading --------------- * Thompson, Hanne-Ruth (2012). *Bengali*. Volume 18 of London Oriental and African Language Library. John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 90-272-7313-8.

Bengali language

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengali_language

The **coyote** (***Canis latrans***) is a species of canine native to North America. It is smaller than its close relative, the wolf, and slightly smaller than the closely related eastern wolf and red wolf. It fills much of the same ecological niche as the golden jackal does in Eurasia. The coyote is larger and more predatory and was once referred to as the **American jackal** by a behavioral ecologist. Other historical names for the species include the **prairie wolf** and the **brush wolf**. The coyote is listed as least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, due to its wide distribution and abundance throughout North America. The species is versatile, able to adapt to and expand into environments modified by humans; urban coyotes are common in many cities. The coyote was sighted in eastern Panama (across the Panama Canal from their home range) for the first time in 2013. The coyote has 19 recognized subspecies. The average male weighs 8 to 20 kg (18 to 44 lb) and the average female 7 to 18 kg (15 to 40 lb). Their fur color is predominantly light gray and red or fulvous interspersed with black and white, though it varies somewhat with geography. It is highly flexible in social organization, living either in a family unit or in loosely knit packs of unrelated individuals. Primarily carnivorous, its diet consists mainly of deer, rabbits, hares, rodents, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, and invertebrates, though it may also eat fruits and vegetables on occasion. Its characteristic vocalization is a howl made by solitary individuals. Humans are the coyote's greatest threat, followed by cougars and gray wolves. In spite of this, coyotes sometimes mate with gray, eastern, or red wolves, producing "coywolf" hybrids. In the northeastern regions of North America, the eastern coyote (a larger subspecies, though still smaller than wolves) is the result of various historical and recent matings with various types of wolves. Genetic studies show that most North American wolves contain some level of coyote DNA. The coyote is a prominent character in Native American folklore, mainly in Aridoamerica, usually depicted as a trickster that alternately assumes the form of an actual coyote or a man. As with other trickster figures, the coyote uses deception and humor to rebel against social conventions. The animal was especially respected in Mesoamerican cosmology as a symbol of military might. After the European colonization of the Americas, it was seen in Anglo-American culture as a cowardly and untrustworthy animal. Unlike wolves, which have seen their public image improve, attitudes towards the coyote remain largely negative. Description ----------- Coyote males average 8 to 20 kg (18 to 44 lb) in weight, while females average 7 to 18 kg (15 to 40 lb), though size varies geographically. Northern subspecies, which average 18 kg (40 lb), tend to grow larger than the southern subspecies of Mexico, which average 11.5 kg (25 lb). Total length ranges on average from 1.0 to 1.35 m (3 ft 3 in to 4 ft 5 in); comprising a tail length of 40 cm (16 in), with females being shorter in both body length and height. The largest coyote on record was a male killed near Afton, Wyoming, on November 19, 1937, which measured 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) from nose to tail, and weighed 34 kg (75 lb). Scent glands are located at the upper side of the base of the tail and are a bluish-black color. The color and texture of the coyote's fur vary somewhat geographically. The hair's predominant color is light gray and red or fulvous, interspersed around the body with black and white. Coyotes living at high elevations tend to have more black and gray shades than their desert-dwelling counterparts, which are more fulvous or whitish-gray. The coyote's fur consists of short, soft underfur and long, coarse guard hairs. The fur of northern subspecies is longer and denser than in southern forms, with the fur of some Mexican and Central American forms being almost hispid (bristly). Generally, adult coyotes (including coywolf hybrids) have a sable coat color, dark neonatal coat color, bushy tail with an active supracaudal gland, and a white facial mask. Albinism is extremely rare in coyotes. Out of a total of 750,000 coyotes killed by federal and cooperative hunters between March 1938, and June 1945, only two were albinos. The coyote is typically smaller than the gray wolf, but has longer ears and a relatively larger braincase, as well as a thinner frame, face, and muzzle. The scent glands are smaller than the gray wolf's, but are the same color. Its fur color variation is much less varied than that of a wolf. The coyote also carries its tail downwards when running or walking, rather than horizontally as the wolf does. Coyote tracks can be distinguished from those of dogs by their more elongated, less rounded shape. Unlike dogs, the upper canines of coyotes extend past the mental foramina. Taxonomy and evolution ---------------------- ### History At the time of the European colonization of the Americas, coyotes were largely confined to open plains and arid regions of the western half of the continent. In early post-Columbian historical records, determining whether the writer is describing coyotes or wolves is often difficult. One record from 1750 in Kaskaskia, Illinois, written by a local priest, noted that the "wolves" encountered there were smaller and less daring than European wolves. Another account from the early 1800's in Edwards County mentioned wolves howling at night, though these were likely coyotes. This species was encountered several times during the Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804–1806), though it was already well known to European traders on the upper Missouri. Meriwether Lewis, writing on 5 May 1805, in northeastern Montana, described the coyote in these terms: > The small wolf or burrowing dog of the prairies are the inhabitants almost invariably of the open plains; they usually associate in bands of ten or twelve sometimes more and burrow near some pass or place much frequented by game; not being able alone to take deer or goat they are rarely ever found alone but hunt in bands; they frequently watch and seize their prey near their burrows; in these burrows, they raise their young and to them they also resort when pursued; when a person approaches them they frequently bark, their note being precisely that of the small dog. They are of an intermediate size between that of the fox and dog, very active fleet and delicately formed; the ears large erect and pointed the head long and pointed more like that of the fox; tale long ... the hair and fur also resembles the fox, tho' is much coarser and inferior. They are of a pale reddish-brown colour. The eye of a deep sea green colour small and piercing. Their [claws] are rather longer than those of the ordinary wolf or that common to the Atlantic states, none of which are to be found in this quarter, nor I believe above the river Plat. > > The coyote was first scientifically described by naturalist Thomas Say in September 1819, on the site of Lewis and Clark's Council Bluffs, 24 km (15 mi) up the Missouri River from the mouth of the Platte during a government-sponsored expedition with Major Stephen Long. He had the first edition of the Lewis and Clark journals in hand, which contained Biddle's edited version of Lewis's observations dated 5 May 1805. His account was published in 1823. Say was the first person to document the difference between a "*prairie wolf*" (coyote) and on the next page of his journal a wolf which he named *Canis nubilus* (Great Plains wolf). Say described the coyote as: > *Canis latrans*. Cinereous or gray, varied with black above, and dull fulvous, or cinnamon; *hair* at base dusky plumbeous, in the middle of its length dull cinnamon, and at tip gray or black, longer on the vertebral line; *ears* erect, rounded at tip, cinnamon behind, the hair dark plumbeous at base, inside lined with gray hair; *eyelids* edged with black, superior eyelashes black beneath, and at tip above; supplemental lid margined with black-brown before, and edged with black brown behind; *iris* yellow; *pupil* black-blue; spot upon the lachrymal sac black-brown; *rostrum* cinnamon, tinctured with grayish on the nose; *lips* white, edged with black, three series of black seta; *head* between the ears intermixed with gray, and dull cinnamon, hairs dusky plumbeous at base; *sides* paler than the back, obsoletely fasciate with black above the legs; *legs* cinnamon on the outer side, more distinct on the posterior hair: a dilated black abbreviated line on the anterior ones near the wrist; *tail* bushy, fusiform, straight, varied with gray and cinnamon, a spot near the base above, and tip black; the tip of the trunk of the tail, attains the tip of the os calcis, when the leg is extended; *beneath* white, immaculate, tail cinnamon towards the tip, tip black; posterior feet four toed, anterior five toed. > > ### Naming and etymology The earliest written reference to the species comes from the naturalist Francisco Hernández's *Plantas y Animales de la Nueva España* (1651), where it is described as a "Spanish fox" or "jackal". The first published usage of the word "coyote" (which is a Spanish borrowing of its Nahuatl name *coyōtl* ) comes from the historian Francisco Javier Clavijero's *Historia de México* in 1780. The first time it was used in English occurred in William Bullock's *Six months' residence and travels in Mexico* (1824), where it is variously transcribed as *cayjotte* and *cocyotie*. The word's spelling was standardized as "coyote" by the 1880s. Alternative English names for the coyote include "prairie wolf", "brush wolf", "cased wolf", "little wolf" and "American jackal". Its binomial name *Canis latrans* translates to "barking dog", a reference to the many vocalizations they produce. Local and indigenous names for *Canis latrans*| Linguistic group or area | Indigenous name | | --- | --- | | Arikara | *Stshirits pukatsh* | | Canadian French | *Coyote* | | Chinook | *Italipas* | | Chipewyan | *Nu-ní-yĕ=̑ts!ế-lĕ* | | Cocopah | *Ṭxpa**Xṭpa* | | Northern CreePlains Cree | ᒣᐢᒐᒑᑲᓂᐢ (*Mîscacâkanis*) ᒣᐢᒐᒑᑲᓂᐢ (*Mescacâkanis*) | | Creek | *Yv•hu•ce* (archaic)*Yv•hv•la•nu•ce* (modern) | | Dakota | *Mica**Micaksica* | | Flathead | *Sinchlep* | | Hidatsa | *Motsa* | | Hopi | 𐐀𐑅𐐰𐐶𐐳 *Iisawu*𐐀𐑅𐐰𐐶 *Isaw* | | Karuk | *Pihnêefich* | | Klamath | *Ko-ha-a* | | Mandan | *Scheke* | | Mayan | *Pek'i'cash* | | Nez Perce | *ʔiceyé•ye* | | Nahuatl | *Coyōtl* | | Navajo | *Ma'ii* | | Ogallala Sioux | *Mee-yah-slay'-cha-lah* | | Ojibwe | ᒣᔅᑕᒐᐦᑲᓀᔅ *Mes-ta-cha'-gan-es* | | Omaha | *Mikasi* | | Osage | 𐓇ó𐓨𐓣͘𐓡𐓤𐓘𐓮𐓣 *Šómįhkasi* | | Pawnee | *Ckirihki* | | Piute | *Eja-ah* | | Spanish | *Coyote* *Perro de monte* | | Yakama | *Telipa* | | Timbisha | *Isa(ppü)* *Isapaippü* *Itsappü* | | Wintu | *Ćarawa* *Sedet* | | Yankton Sioux | *Song-toke-cha* | | Yurok | *Segep* | ### Evolution | | | --- | | Phylogenetic tree of the wolf-like canids with timing in millions of years | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Caninae 3.5 Ma | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 3.0 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 2.5 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 2.0 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 0.96 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 0.6 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 0.38 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Domestic dog | | | | | Gray wolf | | | | | | | | | | | **Coyote** | | | | | | | | African wolf | | | | | | | | Golden jackal | | | | | | | | Ethiopian wolf | | | | | | | | Dhole | | | | | | | | African wild dog | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 2.6 | | | | | --- | --- | | | Side-striped jackal | | | | | Black-backed jackal | | | | | | | | | | | | | #### Fossil record Xiaoming Wang and Richard H. Tedford, one of the foremost authorities on carnivore evolution, proposed that the genus *Canis* was the descendant of the coyote-like *Eucyon davisi* and its remains first appeared in the Miocene 6 million years ago (Mya) in the southwestern US and Mexico. By the Pliocene (5 Mya), the larger *Canis lepophagus* appeared in the same region and by the early Pleistocene (1 Mya) *C. latrans* (the coyote) was in existence. They proposed that the progression from *Eucyon davisi* to *C. lepophagus* to the coyote was linear evolution. *C. latrans* and *C.  aureus* are closely related to *C. edwardii*, a species that appeared earliest spanning the mid-Blancan (late Pliocene) to the close of the Irvingtonian (late Pleistocene), and coyote remains indistinguishable from *C. latrans* were contemporaneous with *C. edwardii* in North America. Johnston describes *C. lepophagus* as having a more slender skull and skeleton than the modern coyote. Ronald Nowak found that the early populations had small, delicate, narrowly proportioned skulls that resemble small coyotes and appear to be ancestral to *C. latrans*. *C. lepophagus* was similar in weight to modern coyotes, but had shorter limb bones that indicate a less cursorial lifestyle. The coyote represents a more primitive form of *Canis* than the gray wolf, as shown by its relatively small size and its comparatively narrow skull and jaws, which lack the grasping power necessary to hold the large prey in which wolves specialize. This is further corroborated by the coyote's sagittal crest, which is low or totally flattened, thus indicating a weaker bite than the wolves. The coyote is not a specialized carnivore as the wolf is, as shown by the larger chewing surfaces on the molars, reflecting the species' relative dependence on vegetable matter. In these respects, the coyote resembles the fox-like progenitors of the genus more so than the wolf. The oldest fossils that fall within the range of the modern coyote date to 0.74–0.85 Ma (million years) in Hamilton Cave, West Virginia; 0.73 Ma in Irvington, California; 0.35–0.48 Ma in Porcupine Cave, Colorado, and in Cumberland Cave, Pennsylvania. Modern coyotes arose 1,000 years after the Quaternary extinction event. Compared to their modern Holocene counterparts, Pleistocene coyotes (*C. l. orcutti*) were larger and more robust, likely in response to larger competitors and prey. Pleistocene coyotes were likely more specialized carnivores than their descendants, as their teeth were more adapted to shearing meat, showing fewer grinding surfaces suited for processing vegetation. Their reduction in size occurred within 1,000 years of the Quaternary extinction event, when their large prey died out. Furthermore, Pleistocene coyotes were unable to exploit the big-game hunting niche left vacant after the extinction of the dire wolf (*Aenocyon dirus*), as it was rapidly filled by gray wolves, which likely actively killed off the large coyotes, with natural selection favoring the modern gracile morph. #### DNA evidence In 1993, a study proposed that the wolves of North America display skull traits more similar to the coyote than wolves from Eurasia. In 2010, a study found that the coyote was a basal member of the clade that included the Tibetan wolf, the domestic dog, the Mongolian wolf and the Eurasian wolf, with the Tibetan wolf diverging early from wolves and domestic dogs. In 2016, a whole-genome DNA study proposed, based on the assumptions made, that all of the North American wolves and coyotes diverged from a common ancestor about 51,000 years ago. However, the proposed timing of the wolf / coyote divergence conflicts with the discovery of a coyote-like specimen in strata dated to 1 Mya. The study also indicated that all North American wolves have a significant amount of coyote ancestry and all coyotes some degree of wolf ancestry, and that the red wolf and eastern wolf are highly admixed with different proportions of gray wolf and coyote ancestry. Genetic studies relating to wolves or dogs have inferred phylogenetic relationships based on the only reference genome available, that of the Boxer dog. In 2017, the first reference genome of the wolf *Canis lupus lupus* was mapped to aid future research. In 2018, a study looked at the genomic structure and admixture of North American wolves, wolf-like canids, and coyotes using specimens from across their entire range that mapped the largest dataset of nuclear genome sequences against the wolf reference genome. The study supports the findings of previous studies that North American gray wolves and wolf-like canids were the result of complex gray wolf and coyote mixing. A polar wolf from Greenland and a coyote from Mexico represented the purest specimens. The coyotes from Alaska, California, Alabama, and Quebec show almost no wolf ancestry. Coyotes from Missouri, Illinois, and Florida exhibit 5–10% wolf ancestry. There was 40% wolf to 60% coyote ancestry in red wolves, 60% wolf to 40% coyote in Eastern timber wolves, and 75% wolf to 25% coyote in the Great Lakes wolves. There was 10% coyote ancestry in Mexican wolves and the Atlantic Coast wolves, 5% in Pacific Coast and Yellowstone wolves, and less than 3% in Canadian archipelago wolves. If a third canid had been involved in the admixture of the North American wolf-like canids, then its genetic signature would have been found in coyotes and wolves, which it has not. In 2018, whole genome sequencing was used to compare members of the genus *Canis*. The study indicates that the common ancestor of the coyote and gray wolf has genetically admixed with a ghost population of an extinct, unidentified canid. The "ghost" canid was genetically close to the dhole, and had evolved after the divergence of the African wild dog from the other canid species. The basal position of the coyote compared to the wolf is proposed to be due to the coyote retaining more of the mitochondrial genome from the unknown extinct canid. ### Subspecies As of 2005[update], 19 subspecies are recognized. Geographic variation in coyotes is not great, though taken as a whole, the eastern subspecies (*C. l. thamnos* and *C. l. frustor*) are large, dark-colored animals, with a gradual paling in color and reduction in size westward and northward (*C. l. texensis*, *C. l. latrans*, *C. l. lestes*, and *C. l. incolatus*), a brightening of 'ochraceous' tones – deep orange or brown – towards the Pacific coast (*C. l. ochropus*, *C. l. umpquensis*), a reduction in size in Aridoamerica (*C. l. microdon*, *C. l. mearnsi*) and a general trend towards dark reddish colors and short muzzles in Mexican and Central American populations. | Subspecies | Trinomial authority[Synonyms] | Description & Image | Range | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **Plains coyote***C. l. latrans*nominate subspecies | Say, 1823[syn: *C. l. nebracensis* (Merriam, 1898)*C. l. pallidus* (Merriam, 1897)] | The largest subspecies; it has rather pale fur and bears large molars and carnassials. | The Great Plains from Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan south to New Mexico and the Texas Panhandle | | **Mexican coyote***C. l. cagottis* | C.E.H. Smith, 1839 | Similar to *C. l. peninsulae*, but larger and redder in color; it has shorter ears, larger teeth, and a broader muzzle. | States of Oaxaca, San Luis Potosi, Puebla, and Veracruz in Mexico | | **San Pedro Martir coyote***C. l. clepticus* | Elliot, 1903 | A small subspecies, it has reddish summer fur and a short, broad skull. | Northern Baja California and southwestern California | | **El Salvador coyote***C. l. dickeyi* | Nelson, 1932 | A large subspecies, it equals *C. l. lestes* in size, but has smaller teeth and darker fur. | Originally only known from Cerro Mogote, 3.2 km (2 mi) west of the Goascorán River in La Unión, El Salvador; in January 2013, it expanded its range southward into southern Panama. | | **Southeastern coyote***C. l. frustor* | Woodhouse, 1851 | This subspecies is similar to *C. l. peninsulae*, but larger and paler, with shorter ears and a longer muzzle. | Southeastern and extreme eastern Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, Missouri, and Arkansas | | **Belize coyote***C. l. goldmani* | Merriam, 1904 | The largest of the Mexican coyotes, it approaches *C. l. latrans* in size, but has a shorter muzzle. | Known only from San Vicente, Chiapas, Mexico, near the Guatemalan border, though it could be the coyote of western Guatemala. | | **Honduras coyote***C. l. hondurensis* | Goldman, 1936 | A small, rufous-colored subspecies, it has coarse, thin fur and a broad skull. | Known only from the open country northeast of Archaga, north of Tegucigalpa | | **Durango coyote***C. l. impavidus* | Allen, 1903 | This canid is similar to *C. l. cagottis* in color, but much larger. | Southern Sonora, extreme southwestern Chihuahua, western Durango, western Zacatecas, and Sinaloa | | **Northern coyote***C. l. incolatus* | Hall, 1934 | A medium-sized subspecies, it has cinnamon-colored fur and a more concave skull than *C. l. latrans*. | Boreal forests of Alaska, the Yukon, the Northwest Territories, northern British Columbia, and northern Alberta | | **Tiburón Island coyote***C. l. jamesi* | Townsend, 1912 | Much paler than *C. l. mearnsi*, it has heavier teeth, a large skull, and long ears. | Tiburón Island | | **Mountain coyote***C. l. lestes* | Merriam, 1897 | Similar in size and color to *C. l. latrans*, this subspecies has a large tail and ears. | Southern British Columbia and southeastern Alberta, Washington east of the Cascade Range, Oregon, northern California, western Montana, Wyoming, Colorado (except the southeastern corner), north-central Nevada, and north-central Utah | | **Mearns' coyote***C. l. mearnsi* | Merriam, 1897[syn: *C. l. estor* (Merriam, 1897)] | A small subspecies with medium-sized ears, a small skull and small teeth; its fur is richly and brightly colored. The fulvous tints are exceedingly bright, and cover the hindfeet and forefeet. | Southwestern Colorado, extreme southern Utah and Nevada, southeastern California, northeastern Baja California, Arizona, west of the Rio Grande in New Mexico, northern Sonora and Chihuahua | | **Lower Rio Grande coyote***C. l. microdon* | Merriam, 1897 | A small subspecies, it has small teeth and rather dark fur. The upper surface of the hind foot is whitish, while the belly is sprinkled with black-tipped hairs. | Southern Texas and northern Tamaulipas | | **California Valley coyote***C. l. ochropus* | von Eschscholtz, 1829 | Similar to *C. l. latrans* and *C. l. lestes*, but smaller, darker, more brightly colored; it has larger ears and smaller skull and teeth. | California west of the Sierra Nevada | | **Peninsula coyote***C. l. peninsulae* | Merriam, 1897 | It is similar to *C. l. ochropus* in size and features, but has darker, redder fur. The underside of the tail is blacker than that of *C. l. ochropus*, and the belly has more black-tipped hairs. | Baja California | | **Eastern coyote***C. l.* var. | Lawrence & Bossert, 1969[syn: *C. l. oriens*, *C. l. virginiensis*] | It is a hybrid of *C. lupus*/*C. lycaon* and *C. latrans*; smaller than the eastern wolf and holds smaller territories, but larger and holds more extensive home ranges than the typical western coyote. | New England, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, West Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, and Virginia, and the eastern Canadian provinces of Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland and Labrador | | **Texas plains coyote***C. l. texensis* | Bailey, 1905 | Smaller than *C. l. latrans*, it has brighter, more fulvous fur closely approaching the richness found in *C. l. ochropus*, though *C. l. texensis* lacks that subspecies' large ears. | Most of Texas, eastern New Mexico, and northeastern Mexico | | **Northeastern coyote***C. l. thamnos* | Jackson, 1949 | About the same size as *C. l. latrans*, or larger, but darker in color, it has a broader skull. | North-central Saskatchewan, Manitoba (except the extreme southwestern corner), east to southern Quebec, south to eastern North Dakota, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri (north of the Missouri River), Michigan, Wisconsin, Illinois (except the extreme southern portion), and northern Indiana | | **Northwest Coast coyote***C. l. umpquensis* | Jackson, 1949 | A small subspecies, it has dark, rufous-tinged fur, a comparatively small skull, and weak dentition. | Coasts of British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon | | **Colima coyote***C. l. vigilis* | Merriam, 1897 | Similar to *C. l. peninsulae*, but darker and more extensively colored; it has more black on the forearms, and no black on the underside of the tail (excepting the tip). | Pacific coast of Mexico from Jalisco south to Guerrero | ### Hybridization Coyotes occasionally mate with domestic dogs, sometimes producing crosses colloquially known as "coydogs". Such matings are rare in the wild, as the mating cycles of dogs and coyotes do not coincide, and coyotes are usually antagonistic towards dogs. Hybridization usually only occurs when coyotes are expanding into areas where conspecifics are few, and dogs are the only alternatives. Even then, pup survival rates are lower than normal, as dogs do not form pair bonds with coyotes, thus making the rearing of pups more difficult. In captivity, F1 hybrids (first generation) tend to be more mischievous and less manageable as pups than dogs, and are less trustworthy on maturity than wolf-dog hybrids. Hybrids vary in appearance, but generally retain the coyote's usual characteristics. F1 hybrids tend to be intermediate in form between dogs and coyotes, while F2 hybrids (second generation) are more varied. Both F1 and F2 hybrids resemble their coyote parents in terms of shyness and intrasexual aggression. Hybrids are fertile and can be successfully bred through four generations. Melanistic coyotes owe their black pelts to a mutation that first arose in domestic dogs. A population of non-albino white coyotes in Newfoundland owe their coloration to a melanocortin 1 receptor mutation inherited from Golden Retrievers. Coyotes have hybridized with wolves to varying degrees, particularly in eastern North America. The so-called "eastern coyote" of northeastern North America probably originated in the aftermath of the extermination of gray and eastern wolves in the northeast, thus allowing coyotes to colonize former wolf ranges and mix with the remnant wolf populations. This hybrid is smaller than either the gray or eastern wolf, and holds smaller territories, but is in turn larger and holds more extensive home ranges than the typical western coyote. As of 2010[update], the eastern coyote's genetic makeup is fairly uniform, with minimal influence from eastern wolves or western coyotes. Adult eastern coyotes are larger than western coyotes, with female eastern coyotes weighing 21% more than male western coyotes. Physical differences become more apparent by the age of 35 days, with eastern coyote pups having longer legs than their western counterparts. Differences in dental development also occurs, with tooth eruption being later, and in a different order in the eastern coyote. Aside from its size, the eastern coyote is physically similar to the western coyote. The four color phases range from dark brown to blond or reddish blond, though the most common phase is gray-brown, with reddish legs, ears, and flanks. No significant differences exist between eastern and western coyotes in aggression and fighting, though eastern coyotes tend to fight less, and are more playful. Unlike western coyote pups, in which fighting precedes play behavior, fighting among eastern coyote pups occurs after the onset of play. Eastern coyotes tend to reach sexual maturity at two years of age, much later than in western coyotes. Eastern and red wolves are also products of varying degrees of wolf-coyote hybridization. The eastern wolf probably was a result of a wolf-coyote admixture, combined with extensive backcrossing with parent gray wolf populations. The red wolf may have originated during a time of declining wolf populations in the Southeastern Woodlands, forcing a wolf-coyote hybridization, as well as backcrossing with local parent coyote populations to the extent that about 75–80% of the modern red wolf's genome is of coyote derivation. Behavior -------- ### Social and reproductive behaviors Like the Eurasian golden jackal, the coyote is gregarious, but not as dependent on conspecifics as more social canid species like wolves are. This is likely because the coyote is not a specialized hunter of large prey as the latter species is. The basic social unit of a coyote pack is a family containing a reproductive female. However, unrelated coyotes may join forces for companionship, or to bring down prey too large to attack singly. Such "nonfamily" packs are only temporary, and may consist of bachelor males, nonreproductive females and subadult young. Families are formed in midwinter, when females enter estrus. Pair bonding can occur 2–3 months before actual copulation takes place. The copulatory tie can last 5–45 minutes. A female entering estrus attracts males by scent marking and howling with increasing frequency. A single female in heat can attract up to seven reproductive males, which can follow her for as long as a month. Although some squabbling may occur among the males, once the female has selected a mate and copulates, the rejected males do not intervene, and move on once they detect other estrous females. Unlike the wolf, which has been known to practice both monogamous and bigamous matings, the coyote is strictly monogamous, even in areas with high coyote densities and abundant food. Females that fail to mate sometimes assist their sisters or mothers in raising their pups, or join their siblings until the next time they can mate. The newly mated pair then establishes a territory and either constructs their own den or cleans out abandoned badger, marmot, or skunk earths. During the pregnancy, the male frequently hunts alone and brings back food for the female. The female may line the den with dried grass or with fur pulled from her belly. The gestation period is 63 days, with an average litter size of six, though the number fluctuates depending on coyote population density and the abundance of food. Coyote pups are born in dens, hollow trees, or under ledges, and weigh 200 to 500 g (0.44 to 1.10 lb) at birth. They are altricial, and are completely dependent on milk for their first 10 days. The incisors erupt at about 12 days, the canines at 16, and the second premolars at 21. Their eyes open after 10 days, by which point the pups become increasingly more mobile, walking by 20 days, and running at the age of six weeks. The parents begin supplementing the pup's diet with regurgitated solid food after 12–15 days. By the age of four to six weeks, when their milk teeth are fully functional, the pups are given small food items such as mice, rabbits, or pieces of ungulate carcasses, with lactation steadily decreasing after two months. Unlike wolf pups, coyote pups begin seriously fighting (as opposed to play fighting) prior to engaging in play behavior. A common play behavior includes the coyote "hip-slam". By three weeks of age, coyote pups bite each other with less inhibition than wolf pups. By the age of four to five weeks, pups have established dominance hierarchies, and are by then more likely to play rather than fight. The male plays an active role in feeding, grooming, and guarding the pups, but abandons them if the female goes missing before the pups are completely weaned. The den is abandoned by June to July, and the pups follow their parents in patrolling their territory and hunting. Pups may leave their families in August, though can remain for much longer. The pups attain adult dimensions at eight months and gain adult weight a month later. ### Territorial and sheltering behaviors Individual feeding territories vary in size from 0.4 to 62 km2 (0.15 to 24 sq mi), with the general concentration of coyotes in a given area depending on food abundance, adequate denning sites, and competition with conspecifics and other predators. The coyote generally does not defend its territory outside of the denning season, and is much less aggressive towards intruders than the wolf is, typically chasing and sparring with them, but rarely killing them. Conflicts between coyotes can arise during times of food shortage. Coyotes mark their territories by raised-leg urination and ground-scratching. Like wolves, coyotes use a den, usually the deserted holes of other species, when gestating and rearing young, though they may occasionally give birth under sagebrushes in the open. Coyote dens can be located in canyons, washouts, coulees, banks, rock bluffs, or level ground. Some dens have been found under abandoned homestead shacks, grain bins, drainage pipes, railroad tracks, hollow logs, thickets, and thistles. The den is continuously dug and cleaned out by the female until the pups are born. Should the den be disturbed or infested with fleas, the pups are moved into another den. A coyote den can have several entrances and passages branching out from the main chamber. A single den can be used year after year. ### Hunting and feeding behaviors While the popular consensus is that olfaction is very important for hunting, two studies that experimentally investigated the role of olfactory, auditory, and visual cues found that visual cues are the most important ones for hunting in red foxes and coyotes. When hunting large prey, the coyote often works in pairs or small groups. Success in killing large ungulates depends on factors such as snow depth and crust density. Younger animals usually avoid participating in such hunts, with the breeding pair typically doing most of the work. The coyote pursues large prey, typically hamstringing the animal, and subsequently then harassing it until the prey falls. Like other canids, the coyote caches excess food. Coyotes catch mouse-sized rodents by pouncing, whereas ground squirrels are chased. Although coyotes can live in large groups, small prey is typically caught singly. Coyotes have been observed to kill porcupines in pairs, using their paws to flip the rodents on their backs, then attacking the soft underbelly. Only old and experienced coyotes can successfully prey on porcupines, with many predation attempts by young coyotes resulting in them being injured by their prey's quills. Coyotes sometimes urinate on their food, possibly to claim ownership over it. Recent evidence demonstrates that at least some coyotes have become more nocturnal in hunting, presumably to avoid humans. Coyotes may occasionally form mutualistic hunting relationships with American badgers, assisting each other in digging up rodent prey. The relationship between the two species may occasionally border on apparent "friendship", as some coyotes have been observed laying their heads on their badger companions or licking their faces without protest. The amicable interactions between coyotes and badgers were known to pre-Columbian civilizations, as shown on a jar found in Mexico dated to 1250–1300 CE depicting the relationship between the two. Food scraps, pet food, and animal feces may attract a coyote to a trash can. ### Communication #### Body language Being both a gregarious and solitary animal, the variability of the coyote's visual and vocal repertoire is intermediate between that of the solitary foxes and the highly social wolf. The aggressive behavior of the coyote bears more similarities to that of foxes than it does that of wolves and dogs. An aggressive coyote arches its back and lowers its tail. Unlike dogs, which solicit playful behavior by performing a "play-bow" followed by a "play-leap", play in coyotes consists of a bow, followed by side-to-side head flexions and a series of "spins" and "dives". Although coyotes will sometimes bite their playmates' scruff as dogs do, they typically approach low, and make upward-directed bites. Pups fight each other regardless of sex, while among adults, aggression is typically reserved for members of the same sex. Combatants approach each other waving their tails and snarling with their jaws open, though fights are typically silent. Males tend to fight in a vertical stance, while females fight on all four paws. Fights among females tend to be more serious than ones among males, as females seize their opponents' forelegs, throat, and shoulders. #### Vocalizations The coyote has been described as "the most vocal of all [wild] North American mammals". Its loudness and range of vocalizations was the cause for its binomial name *Canis latrans*, meaning "barking dog". At least 11 different vocalizations are known in adult coyotes. These sounds are divided into three categories: agonistic and alarm, greeting, and contact. Vocalizations of the first category include woofs, growls, huffs, barks, bark howls, yelps, and high-frequency whines. Woofs are used as low-intensity threats or alarms and are usually heard near den sites, prompting the pups to immediately retreat into their burrows. Growls are used as threats at short distances but have also been heard among pups playing and copulating males. Huffs are high-intensity threat vocalizations produced by rapid expiration of air. Barks can be classed as both long-distance threat vocalizations and alarm calls. Bark howls may serve similar functions. Yelps are emitted as a sign of submission, while high-frequency whines are produced by dominant animals acknowledging the submission of subordinates. Greeting vocalizations include low-frequency whines, 'wow-oo-wows', and group yip howls. Low-frequency whines are emitted by submissive animals and are usually accompanied by tail wagging and muzzle nibbling. The sound known as 'wow-oo-wow' has been described as a "greeting song". The group yip howl is emitted when two or more pack members reunite and may be the final act of a complex greeting ceremony. Contact calls include lone howls and group howls, as well as the previously mentioned group yip howls. The lone howl is the most iconic sound of the coyote and may serve the purpose of announcing the presence of a lone individual separated from its pack. Group howls are used as both substitute group yip howls and as responses to either lone howls, group howls, or group yip howls. Ecology ------- ### Habitat Prior to the near extermination of wolves and cougars, the coyote was most numerous in grasslands inhabited by bison, pronghorn, elk, and other deer, doing particularly well in short-grass areas with prairie dogs, though it was just as much at home in semiarid areas with sagebrush and jackrabbits or in deserts inhabited by cactus, kangaroo rats, and rattlesnakes. As long as it was not in direct competition with the wolf, the coyote ranged from the Sonoran Desert to the alpine regions of adjoining mountains or the plains and mountainous areas of Alberta. With the extermination of the wolf, the coyote's range expanded to encompass broken forests from the tropics of Guatemala and the northern slope of Alaska. Coyotes walk around 5–16 kilometres (3–10 mi) per day, often along trails such as logging roads and paths; they may use iced-over rivers as travel routes in winter. They are often crepuscular, being more active around evening and the beginning of the night than during the day. However, in urban areas coyotes are known to be more nocturnal, likely to avoid encounters with humans. Like many canids, coyotes are competent swimmers, reported to be able to travel at least 0.8 kilometres (0.5 mi) across water. ### Diet The coyote is ecologically the North American equivalent of the Eurasian golden jackal. Likewise, the coyote is highly versatile in its choice of food, but is primarily carnivorous, with 90% of its diet consisting of meat. Prey species include bison (largely as carrion), white-tailed deer, mule deer, moose, elk, bighorn sheep, pronghorn, rabbits, hares, rodents, birds (especially galliformes, roadrunners, young water birds and pigeons and doves), amphibians (except toads), lizards, snakes, turtles and tortoises, fish, crustaceans, and insects. Coyotes may be picky over the prey they target, as animals such as shrews, moles, and brown rats do not occur in their diet in proportion to their numbers. Terrestrial animals and/or burrowing small mammals such as ground squirrels and associated species (marmots, prairie dogs, chipmunks) as well as voles, pocket gophers, kangaroo rats and other ground-favoring rodents may be quite common foods, especially for lone coyotes. Examples of specific, primary mammal prey include eastern cottontail rabbits, thirteen-lined ground squirrels, and white-footed mice. More unusual prey include fishers, young black bear cubs, harp seals and rattlesnakes. Coyotes kill rattlesnakes mostly for food, but also to protect their pups at their dens, by teasing the snakes until they stretch out and then biting their heads and snapping and shaking the snakes. Birds taken by coyotes may range in size from thrashers, larks and sparrows to adult wild turkeys and, rarely, brooding adult swans and pelicans. If working in packs or pairs, coyotes may have access to larger prey than lone individuals normally take, such as various prey weighing more than 10 kg (22 lb). In some cases, packs of coyotes have dispatched much larger prey such as adult *Odocoileus* deer, cow elk, pronghorns and wild sheep, although the young fawn, calves and lambs of these animals are considerably more often taken even by packs, as well as domestic sheep and domestic cattle. In some cases, coyotes can bring down prey weighing up to 100 to 200 kg (220 to 440 lb) or more. When it comes to adult ungulates such as wild deer, they often exploit them when vulnerable such as those that are infirm, stuck in snow or ice, otherwise winter-weakened or heavily pregnant, whereas less wary domestic ungulates may be more easily exploited. Although coyotes prefer fresh meat, they will scavenge when the opportunity presents itself. Excluding the insects, fruit, and grass eaten, the coyote requires an estimated 600 g (1.3 lb) of food daily, or 250 kg (550 lb) annually. The coyote readily cannibalizes the carcasses of conspecifics, with coyote fat having been successfully used by coyote hunters as a lure or poisoned bait. The coyote's winter diet consists mainly of large ungulate carcasses, with very little plant matter. Rodent prey increases in importance during the spring, summer, and fall. The coyote feeds on a variety of different produce, including strawberries, blackberries, blueberries, sarsaparillas, peaches, pears, apples, prickly pears, chapotes, persimmons, peanuts, watermelons, cantaloupes, and carrots. During the winter and early spring, the coyote eats large quantities of grass, such as green wheat blades. It sometimes eats unusual items such as cotton cake, soybean meal, domestic animal droppings, beans, and cultivated grain such as maize, wheat, and sorghum. In coastal California, coyotes now consume a higher percentage of marine-based food than their ancestors, which is thought to be due to the extirpation of the grizzly bear from this region. In Death Valley, coyotes may consume great quantities of hawkmoth caterpillars or beetles in the spring flowering months. ### Enemies and competitors In areas where the ranges of coyotes and gray wolves overlap, interference competition and predation by wolves has been hypothesized to limit local coyote densities. Coyote ranges expanded during the 19th and 20th centuries following the extirpation of wolves, while coyotes were driven to extinction on Isle Royale after wolves colonized the island in the 1940s. One study conducted in Yellowstone National Park, where both species coexist, concluded that the coyote population in the Lamar River Valley declined by 39% following the reintroduction of wolves in the 1990s, while coyote populations in wolf inhabited areas of the Grand Teton National Park are 33% lower than in areas where they are absent. Wolves have been observed to not tolerate coyotes in their vicinity, though coyotes have been known to trail wolves to feed on their kills. Coyotes may compete with cougars in some areas. In the eastern Sierra Nevada, coyotes compete with cougars over mule deer. Cougars normally outcompete and dominate coyotes, and may kill them occasionally, thus reducing coyote predation pressure on smaller carnivores such as foxes and bobcats. Coyotes that are killed are sometimes not eaten, perhaps indicating that these comprise competitive interspecies interactions, however there are multiple confirmed cases of cougars also eating coyotes. In northeastern Mexico, cougar predation on coyotes continues apace but coyotes were absent from the prey spectrum of sympatric jaguars, apparently due to differing habitat usages. Other than by gray wolves and cougars, predation on adult coyotes is relatively rare but multiple other predators can be occasional threats. In some cases, adult coyotes have been preyed upon by both American black and grizzly bears, American alligators, large Canada lynx and golden eagles. At kill sites and carrion, coyotes, especially if working alone, tend to be dominated by wolves, cougars, bears, wolverines and, usually but not always, eagles (i.e., bald and golden). When such larger, more powerful and/or more aggressive predators such as these come to a shared feeding site, a coyote may either try to fight, wait until the other predator is done or occasionally share a kill, but if a major danger such as wolves or an adult cougar is present, the coyote will tend to flee. Coyotes rarely kill healthy adult red foxes, and have been observed to feed or den alongside them, though they often kill foxes caught in traps. Coyotes may kill fox kits, but this is not a major source of mortality. In southern California, coyotes frequently kill gray foxes, and these smaller canids tend to avoid areas with high coyote densities. In some areas, coyotes share their ranges with bobcats. These two similarly-sized species rarely physically confront one another, though bobcat populations tend to diminish in areas with high coyote densities. However, several studies have demonstrated interference competition between coyotes and bobcats, and in all cases coyotes dominated the interaction. Multiple researchers reported instances of coyotes killing bobcats, whereas bobcats killing coyotes is more rare. Coyotes attack bobcats using a bite-and-shake method similar to what is used on medium-sized prey. Coyotes, both single individuals and groups, have been known to occasionally kill bobcats. In most cases, the bobcats were relatively small specimens, such as adult females and juveniles. Coyote attacks, by an unknown number of coyotes, on adult male bobcats have occurred. In California, coyote and bobcat populations are not negatively correlated across different habitat types, but predation by coyotes is an important source of mortality in bobcats. Biologist Stanley Paul Young noted that in his entire trapping career, he had never successfully saved a captured bobcat from being killed by coyotes, and wrote of two incidents wherein coyotes chased bobcats up trees. Coyotes have been documented to directly kill Canada lynx on occasion, and compete with them for prey, especially snowshoe hares. In some areas, including central Alberta, lynx are more abundant where coyotes are few, thus interactions with coyotes appears to influence lynx populations more than the availability of snowshoe hares. Range ----- Due to the coyote's wide range and abundance throughout North America, it is listed as Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The coyote's pre-Columbian range was limited to the Southwest and Plains regions of North America, and northern and central Mexico. By the 19th century, the species expanded north and east, expanding further after 1900, coinciding with land conversion and the extirpation of wolves. By this time, its range encompassed the entire North American continent, including all of the contiguous United States and Mexico, southward into Central America, and northward into most of Canada and Alaska. This expansion is ongoing, and the species now occupies the majority of areas between 8°N (Panama) and 70°N (northern Alaska). Although it was once widely believed that coyotes are recent immigrants to southern Mexico and Central America, aided in their expansion by deforestation, Pleistocene and Early Holocene records, as well as records from the pre-Columbian period and early European colonization show that the animal was present in the area long before modern times. Range expansion occurred south of Costa Rica during the late 1970s and northern Panama in the early 1980s, following the expansion of cattle-grazing lands into tropical rain forests. The coyote is predicted to appear in northern Belize in the near future, as the habitat there is favorable to the species. Concerns have been raised of a possible expansion into South America through the Panamanian Isthmus, should the Darién Gap ever be closed by the Pan-American Highway. This fear was partially confirmed in January 2013, when the species was recorded in eastern Panama's Chepo District, beyond the Panama Canal. A 2017 genetic study proposes that coyotes were originally not found in the area of the eastern United States. From the 1890s, dense forests were transformed into agricultural land and wolf control implemented on a large scale, leaving a niche for coyotes to disperse into. There were two major dispersals from two populations of genetically distinct coyotes. The first major dispersal to the northeast came in the early 20th century from those coyotes living in the northern Great Plains. These came to New England via the northern Great Lakes region and southern Canada, and to Pennsylvania via the southern Great Lakes region, meeting together in the 1940s in New York and Pennsylvania. These coyotes have hybridized with the remnant gray wolf and eastern wolf populations, which has added to coyote genetic diversity and may have assisted adaptation to the new niche. The second major dispersal to the southeast came in the mid-20th century from Texas and reached the Carolinas in the 1980s. These coyotes have hybridized with the remnant red wolf populations before the 1970s when the red wolf was extirpated in the wild, which has also added to coyote genetic diversity and may have assisted adaptation to this new niche as well. Both of these two major coyote dispersals have experienced rapid population growth and are forecast to meet along the mid-Atlantic coast. The study concludes that for coyotes the long range dispersal, gene flow from local populations, and rapid population growth may be inter-related. Diseases and parasites ---------------------- Among large North American carnivores, the coyote probably carries the largest number of diseases and parasites, likely due to its wide range and varied diet. Viral diseases known to infect coyotes include rabies, canine distemper, infectious canine hepatitis, four strains of equine encephalitis, and oral papillomatosis. By the late 1970s, serious rabies outbreaks in coyotes had ceased to be a problem for over 60 years, though sporadic cases every 1–5 years did occur. Distemper causes the deaths of many pups in the wild, though some specimens can survive infection. *Tularemia*, a bacterial disease, infects coyotes from tick bites and through their rodent and lagomorph prey, and can be deadly for pups. Coyotes can be infected by both demodectic and sarcoptic mange, the latter being the most common. Mite infestations are rare and incidental in coyotes, while tick infestations are more common, with seasonal peaks depending on locality (May–August in the Northwest, March–November in Arkansas). Coyotes are only rarely infested with lice, while fleas infest coyotes from puphood, though they may be more a source of irritation than serious illness. *Pulex simulans* is the most common species to infest coyotes, while *Ctenocephalides canis* tends to occur only in places where coyotes and dogs (its primary host) inhabit the same area. Although coyotes are rarely host to flukes, they can nevertheless have serious effects on coyotes, particularly *Nanophyetus salmincola*, which can infect them with salmon poisoning disease, a disease with a 90% mortality rate. Trematode *Metorchis conjunctus* can also infect coyotes. Tapeworms have been recorded to infest 60–95% of all coyotes examined. The most common species to infest coyotes are *Taenia pisiformis* and *Taenia crassiceps*, which uses cottontail rabbits as intermediate hosts. The largest species known in coyotes is *T. hydatigena*, which enters coyotes through infected ungulates, and can grow to lengths of 80 to 400 cm (31 to 157 in). Although once largely limited to wolves, *Echinococcus granulosus* has expanded to coyotes since the latter began colonizing former wolf ranges. The most frequent ascaroid roundworm in coyotes is *Toxascaris leonina*, which dwells in the coyote's small intestine and has no ill effects, except for causing the host to eat more frequently. Hookworms of the genus *Ancylostoma* infest coyotes throughout their range, being particularly prevalent in humid areas. In areas of high moisture, such as coastal Texas, coyotes can carry up to 250 hookworms each. The blood-drinking *A. caninum* is particularly dangerous, as it damages the coyote through blood loss and lung congestion. A 10-day-old pup can die from being host to as few as 25 *A. caninum* worms. Relationships with humans ------------------------- ### In folklore and mythology Coyote features as a trickster figure and skin-walker in the folktales of some Native Americans, notably several nations in the Southwestern and Plains regions, where he alternately assumes the form of an actual coyote or that of a man. As with other trickster figures, Coyote acts as a picaresque hero who rebels against social convention through deception and humor. Folklorists such as Harris believe coyotes came to be seen as tricksters due to the animal's intelligence and adaptability. After the European colonization of the Americas, Anglo-American depictions of Coyote are of a cowardly and untrustworthy animal. Unlike the gray wolf, which has undergone a radical improvement of its public image, Anglo-American cultural attitudes towards the coyote remain largely negative. In the Maidu creation story, Coyote introduces work, suffering, and death to the world. Zuni lore has Coyote bringing winter into the world by stealing light from the kachinas. The Chinook, Maidu, Pawnee, Tohono O'odham, and Ute portray the coyote as the companion of The Creator. A Tohono O'odham flood story has Coyote helping Montezuma survive a global deluge that destroys humanity. After The Creator creates humanity, Coyote and Montezuma teach people how to live. The Crow creation story portrays Old Man Coyote as The Creator. In The Dineh creation story, Coyote was present in the First World with First Man and First Woman, though a different version has it being created in the Fourth World. The Navajo Coyote brings death into the world, explaining that without death, too many people would exist, thus no room to plant corn. Prior to the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, Coyote played a significant role in Mesoamerican cosmology. The coyote symbolized military might in Classic era Teotihuacan, with warriors dressing up in coyote costumes to call upon its predatory power. The species continued to be linked to Central Mexican warrior cults in the centuries leading up to the post-Classic Aztec rule. In Aztec mythology, Huehuecóyotl (meaning "old coyote"), the god of dance, music and carnality, is depicted in several codices as a man with a coyote's head. He is sometimes depicted as a womanizer, responsible for bringing war into the world by seducing Xochiquetzal, the goddess of love. Epigrapher David H. Kelley argued that the god Quetzalcoatl owed its origins to pre-Aztec Uto-Aztecan mythological depictions of the coyote, which is portrayed as mankind's "Elder Brother", a creator, seducer, trickster, and culture hero linked to the morning star. ### Attacks on humans Coyote attacks on humans are uncommon and rarely cause serious injuries, due to the relatively small size of the coyote, but have been increasingly frequent, especially in California. There have been only two confirmed fatal attacks: one on a three-year-old named Kelly Keen in Glendale, California and another on a nineteen-year-old named Taylor Mitchell in Nova Scotia, Canada. In the 30 years leading up to March 2006, at least 160 attacks occurred in the United States, mostly in the Los Angeles County area. Data from United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Wildlife Services, the California Department of Fish and Game, and other sources show that while 41 attacks occurred during the period of 1988–1997, 48 attacks were verified from 1998 through 2003. The majority of these incidents occurred in Southern California near the suburban-wildland interface. In the absence of the harassment of coyotes practiced by rural people, urban coyotes are losing their fear of humans, which is further worsened by people intentionally or unintentionally feeding coyotes. In such situations, some coyotes have begun to act aggressively toward humans, chasing joggers and bicyclists, confronting people walking their dogs, and stalking small children. Non-rabid coyotes in these areas sometimes target small children, mostly under the age of 10, though some adults have been bitten. Although media reports of such attacks generally identify the animals in question as simply "coyotes", research into the genetics of the eastern coyote indicates those involved in attacks in northeast North America, including Pennsylvania, New York, New England, and eastern Canada, may have actually been coywolves, hybrids of *Canis latrans* and *C. lupus,* not fully coyotes. ### Livestock and pet predation As of 2007[update], coyotes were the most abundant livestock predators in western North America, causing the majority of sheep, goat, and cattle losses. For example, according to the National Agricultural Statistics Service, coyotes were responsible for 60.5% of the 224,000 sheep deaths attributed to predation in 2004.[*failed verification*] The total number of sheep deaths in 2004 comprised 2.22% of the total sheep and lamb population in the United States, which, according to the National Agricultural Statistics Service USDA report, totaled 4.66 million and 7.80 million heads respectively as of July 1, 2005. Because coyote populations are typically many times greater and more widely distributed than those of wolves, coyotes cause more overall predation losses. United States government agents routinely shoot, poison, trap, and kill about 90,000 coyotes each year to protect livestock. An Idaho census taken in 2005 showed that individual coyotes were 5% as likely to attack livestock as individual wolves. In Utah, more than 11,000 coyotes were killed for bounties totaling over $500,000 in the fiscal year ending June 30, 2017. Livestock guardian dogs are commonly used to aggressively repel predators and have worked well in both fenced pasture and range operations. A 1986 survey of sheep producers in the USA found that 82% reported the use of dogs represented an economic asset. Re-wilding cattle, which involves increasing the natural protective tendencies of cattle, is a method for controlling coyotes discussed by Temple Grandin of Colorado State University. This method is gaining popularity among producers who allow their herds to calve on the range and whose cattle graze open pastures throughout the year. Coyotes typically bite the throat just behind the jaw and below the ear when attacking adult sheep or goats, with death commonly resulting from suffocation. Blood loss is usually a secondary cause of death. Calves and heavily fleeced sheep are killed by attacking the flanks or hindquarters, causing shock and blood loss. When attacking smaller prey, such as young lambs, the kill is made by biting the skull and spinal regions, causing massive tissue and bone damage. Small or young prey may be completely carried off, leaving only blood as evidence of a kill. Coyotes usually leave the hide and most of the skeleton of larger animals relatively intact, unless food is scarce, in which case they may leave only the largest bones. Scattered bits of wool, skin, and other parts are characteristic where coyotes feed extensively on larger carcasses. Tracks are an important factor in distinguishing coyote from dog predation. Coyote tracks tend to be more oval-shaped and compact than those of domestic dogs, and their claw marks are less prominent and the tracks tend to follow a straight line more closely than those of dogs. With the exception of sighthounds, most dogs of similar weight to coyotes have a slightly shorter stride. Coyote kills can be distinguished from wolf kills by less damage to the underlying tissues in the former. Also, coyote scat tends to be smaller than wolf scat. Coyotes are often attracted to dog food and animals that are small enough to appear as prey. Items such as garbage, pet food, and sometimes feeding stations for birds and squirrels attract coyotes into backyards. About three to five pets attacked by coyotes are brought into the Animal Urgent Care hospital of South Orange County (California) each week, the majority of which are dogs, since cats typically do not survive the attacks. Scat analysis collected near Claremont, California, revealed that coyotes relied heavily on pets as a food source in winter and spring. At one location in Southern California, coyotes began relying on a colony of feral cats as a food source. Over time, the coyotes killed most of the cats and then continued to eat the cat food placed daily at the colony site by people who were maintaining the cat colony. Coyotes usually attack smaller-sized dogs, but they have been known to attack even large, powerful breeds such as the Rottweiler in exceptional cases. Dogs larger than coyotes, such as greyhounds, are generally able to drive them off and have been known to kill coyotes. Smaller breeds are more likely to suffer injury or death. ### Hunting Coyote hunting is one of the most common forms of predator hunting that humans partake in. There are not many regulations with regard to the taking of the coyote which means there are many different methods that can be used to hunt the animal. The most common forms are trapping, calling, and hound hunting. Since coyotes are colorblind, seeing only in shades of gray and subtle blues, open camouflages, and plain patterns can be used. As the average male coyote weighs 8 to 20 kg (18 to 44 lbs) and the average female coyote 7 to 18 kg (15 to 40 lbs), a universal projectile that can perform between those weights is the .223 Remington, so that the projectile expands in the target after entry, but before the exit, thus delivering the most energy. Coyotes being the light and agile animals they are, they often leave a very light impression on terrain. The coyote's footprint is oblong, approximately 6.35 cm (2.5-inches) long and 5.08 cm (2-inches) wide. There are four claws in both their front and hind paws. The coyote's center pad is relatively shaped like that of a rounded triangle. Like the domestic dog the coyote's front paw is slightly larger than the hind paw. The coyote's paw is most similar to that of the domestic dog. ### Fur uses Prior to the mid-19th century, coyote fur was considered worthless. This changed with the diminution of beavers, and by 1860, the hunting of coyotes for their fur became a great source of income (75 cents to $1.50 per skin) for wolfers in the Great Plains. Coyote pelts were of significant economic importance during the early 1950s, ranging in price from $5 to $25 per pelt, depending on locality. The coyote's fur is not durable enough to make rugs, but can be used for coats and jackets, scarves, or muffs. The majority of pelts are used for making trimmings, such as coat collars and sleeves for women's clothing. Coyote fur is sometimes dyed black as imitation silver fox. Coyotes were occasionally eaten by trappers and mountain men during the western expansion. Coyotes sometimes featured in the feasts of the Plains Indians, and coyote pups were eaten by the indigenous people of San Gabriel, California. The taste of coyote meat has been likened to that of the wolf and is more tender than pork when boiled. Coyote fat, when taken in the fall, has been used on occasion to grease leather or eaten as a spread. ### Tameability Coyotes were likely semidomesticated by various pre-Columbian cultures. Some 19th-century writers wrote of coyotes being kept in native villages in the Great Plains. The coyote is easily tamed as a pup, but can become destructive as an adult. Both full-blooded and hybrid coyotes can be playful and confiding with their owners, but are suspicious and shy of strangers, though coyotes being tractable enough to be used for practical purposes like retrieving and pointing have been recorded. A tame coyote named "Butch", caught in the summer of 1945, had a short-lived career in cinema, appearing in *Smoky* (1946) and *Ramrod* (1947) before being shot while raiding a henhouse. ### In popular media * Wile E. Coyote features prominently in the *Looney Tunes* and *Merrie Melodies* series of animated short films. * The NHL team in Arizona is named the Arizona Coyotes to pay tribute to the large population of coyotes in the region. * The famous *oo-wee-oo-wee-oo wah-wah-wah* scream in *The Good, The Bad and The Ugly* (1966) was inspired by the howl of the coyote. Explanatory notes ----------------- 1. ↑ The name "cased wolf" originates from the fact that the coyote's skin was historically cased like that of the muskrat, whereas the wolf's was spread out flat like the beaver's. 2. ↑ For a full set of supporting references refer to the note (a) in the phylotree at Evolution of the wolf#Wolf-like canids General and cited sources ------------------------- * Cartaino, Carol (2011). *Myths & Truths about Coyotes: What You Need to Know about America's Most Misunderstood Predator*. Readhowyouwant.com. ISBN 978-1-4587-2668-1. OCLC 876517032. * Fox, M. W. (1978). *The Dog: Its Domestication and Behavior*. Garland STPM Press. ISBN 978-0-8240-9858-2. OCLC 3223381. * Johnston, C. S. (1938). "Preliminary report on the vertebrate type locality of Cita Canyon and the description of an ancestral coyote". *American Journal of Science*. 5. **35** (209): 383–390. Bibcode:1938AmJS...35..383J. doi:10.2475/ajs.s5-35.209.383. * Nowak, R. M. (1979). "History and Statistical Analysis of Recent Populations". In Wiley, E. O. (ed.). *North American Quaternary* Canis. Vol. 6. Lawrence, Kansas: University of Kansas Printing Service. ISBN 0-89338-007-5. * Nowak, R. M. (2003). "Wolf evolution and taxonomy". In Mech, L. David; Boitani, Luigi (eds.). *Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation*. University of Chicago Press. pp. 239–258. ISBN 978-0-226-51696-7. * Seton, E. T. (1909). *Life-histories of northern animals : an account of the mammals of Manitoba*. New York: Scribner. * Tedford, Richard H.; Wang, Xiaoming; Taylor, Beryl E. (2009). "Phylogenetic Systematics of the North American Fossil Caninae (Carnivora: Canidae)" (PDF). *Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History*. **325**: 1–218. doi:10.1206/574.1. hdl:2246/5999. S2CID 83594819. Archived (PDF) from the original on April 6, 2012. * Wang, Xiaoming; Tedford, Richard H. (2008). *Dogs: Their Fossil Relatives and Evolutionary History*. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-13528-3. OCLC 185095648. * Young, S. P.; Jackson, H. H. T. (1978). *The Clever Coyote*. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-5893-8. OCLC 3294630. Further reading --------------- ### Books * Dixon, J. S. (1920). *Control of the coyote in California*. Berkeley, Cal. : Agricultural Experiment Station * Flores, D. (2016). *Coyote America: A Natural and Supernatural History*. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-05299-8 * Harding, A. R. (1909). *Wolf and coyote trapping; an up-to-date wolf hunter's guide, giving the most successful methods of experienced "wolfers" for hunting and trapping these animals, also gives their habits in detail*. Columbus, Ohio, A. R. Harding pub. co. * Kurtén, B (1974). "A history of coyote-like dogs (Canidae, Mammalia)". *Acta Zoologica Fennica*. **140**: 1–38. * Leydet, François (1988). *The Coyote: Defiant Songdog of the West*. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-2123-9. OCLC 17106424. * Morey, Paul (2004). *Landscape use and diet of coyotes, Canis latrans, in the Chicago metropolitan area* (Thesis). Utah State University. * Murie, A. (1940). *Ecology of the coyote in the Yellowstone*. Washington, D.C. : U.S. G.P.O. * Parker, Gerry. (1995). "Eastern Coyote: Story of Its Success", Nimbus Publishing, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. * Van Nuys, Frank (2015). *Varmints and Victims: Predator Control in the American West.* Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. * Wagner, M. M. (c. 1920). *The autobiography of a tame coyote*. San Francisco, Harr Wagner pub. co. ### Video * Shelly, Priya (June 2016). *Living with Coyote* (18 minutes). *Aeon*. ### Audiobooks * Olson, Jack (May 2015). *The Last Coyote* (8 hours). Narrated by Gary MacFadden. Originally published as *Slaughter the Animals, Poison the Earth*, Simon & Schuster, Oct. 11, 1971. ASIN B00WGUA5HK.

Coyote

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coyote

The **Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic** (Azerbaijani: *Naxçıvan Muxtar Respublikası*, pronounced [nɑxtʃɯˈvɑn muxˈtɑɾ ɾesˈpublikɑsɯ]), is a landlocked exclave of the Republic of Azerbaijan. The region covers 5,502.75 km2 (2,124.62 sq mi) with a population of 459,600. It is bordered by Armenia to the east and north, Iran to the southwest, and Turkey to the west. It is the sole autonomous republic of Azerbaijan, governed by its own elected legislature. The republic, especially the capital city of Nakhchivan, has a long history dating back to about 1500 BC. *Nakhijevan* was one the cantons of the historical Armenian province of Vaspurakan in the Kingdom of Armenia. Historically, the Persians, Armenians, Mongols, and Turks all competed for the region. The area that is now Nakhchivan became part of Safavid Iran in the 16th century. The semi-autonomous Nakhchivan Khanate was established there in the mid-18th century. In 1828, after the last Russo-Persian War and the Treaty of Turkmenchay, the Nakhchivan Khanate passed from Iranian into Imperial Russian possession. After the 1917 February Revolution, Nakhchivan and its surrounding region were under the authority of the Special Transcaucasian Committee of the Russian Provisional Government and subsequently of the short-lived Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic. When the TDFR was dissolved in May 1918, Nakhchivan, Nagorno-Karabakh, Syunik, and Qazakh were heavily contested between the newly formed and short-lived states of the First Republic of Armenia and the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic (ADR). In June 1918, the region came under Ottoman occupation. Under the terms of the Armistice of Mudros, the Ottomans agreed to pull their troops out of the Transcaucasus to make way for British occupation at the close of the First World War. The British placed Nakhchivan under Armenian administration in April 1919, although an Azerbaijani revolt prevented Armenia from establishing full control over the territory. In July 1920, the Bolsheviks occupied the region. In November of that year, Bolshevik Russia and Azerbaijan both promised that Nakhchivan, alongside neighboring Nagorno-Karabakh and Zangezur, was an "integral part" of Armenia. However, on March 16, 1921, in accordance with the results of a referendum, the Bolshevik government declared the Nakhchivan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, which went on to become an autonomous republic *within* the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic in 1924. In January 1990, Nakhchivan declared independence from the USSR to protest against the suppression of the national movement in Azerbaijan and became the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic within the newly independent Republic of Azerbaijan a year later. Though a mixed Armenian–Azerbaijani region as late as a century ago, Nakhchivan is homogeneously Azerbaijani today besides a small population of Russians. Etymology --------- Variations of the name Nakhchivan include **Nakhichevan**, **Naxcivan**, **Naxçivan**, **Nachidsheuan**, **Nakhijevan**, **Nuhișvân**,[*self-published source*] **Nakhchawan**, **Nakhitchevan**, **Nakhjavan**, and **Nakhdjevan**. Nakhchivan is mentioned in Ptolemy's *Geography* and by other classical writers as "Naxuana". The older form of the name is *Naxčawan* (Armenian: Նախճաւան). According to philologist Heinrich Hübschmann, the name was originally borne by the namesake city (modern Nakhchivan) and later given to the region. Hübschmann believed the name to be composed of *Naxič* or *Naxuč* (probably a personal name) and *awan*, an Armenian word (ultimately of Iranian origin) meaning "place, town". In the Armenian tradition, the name of the region and its namesake city is connected with the Biblical narrative of Noah's Ark and interpreted as meaning "place of the first descent" or "first resting place" (as if deriving from նախ, *nax*, 'first' and իջեւան, *ijewan*, 'abode, resting place') due to it being regarded as the site where Noah descended and settled after the landing of the Ark on nearby Mount Ararat. It was probably under the influence of this tradition that the name changed in Armenian from the older *Naxčawan* to *Naxijewan*. Although this is a folk etymology, William Whiston believed Nakhchivan/Nakhijevan to be the *Apobatērion* ("place of descent") mentioned by the first-century Jewish historian Flavius Josephus in connection with Noah's Ark, which would make the tradition connecting the name with the Biblical figure Noah very old, predating Armenia's conversion to Christianity in the early fourth century. History ------- ### Early history The oldest material culture artifacts found in the region date back to the Neolithic Age. On the other hand, Azerbaijani archaeologists have found that the history of Nakhchivan dates back to the Stone Age (Paleolithic). As a result of archaeological diggings, archaeologists discovered a great number of Stone-Age materials in different regions of Nakhchivan. These materials were useful to study the Paleolithic age in Azerbaijan. Pollen analysis conducted in Gazma Cave (Sharur District) suggests that humans in the Middle Palaeolithic (Mousterian) lived not only in the mountain forests but also in the dry woodlands found in Nakhchivan. Several archaeological sites dating from the Neolithic have also been found in Nakhchivan, including the ancient town of Ovchular Tepesi, which also includes some of the oldest salt mines in the world. The region was part of the states of Urartu and later Media. It became part of the Satrapy of Armenia under Achaemenid Persia c. 521 BC. After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC several generals of the Macedonian army, including Neoptolemus, attempted but failed to take control of the region, and it was ruled by the native Armenian dynasty of Orontids until Armenia was conquered by Antiochus III the Great (ruled 222–187 BC). In 189 BC, Nakhchivan became part of the new Kingdom of Armenia established by Artaxias I. Within the kingdom, the region of present-day Nakhchivan was part of the Ayrarat, Vaspurakan and Syunik provinces. According to the early medieval Armenian historian Movses Khorenatsi, from the third to second centuries, the region belonged to the Muratsyan *nakharar* family but after disputes with central power, King Artavazd I massacred the family and seized the lands and formally attached it to the kingdom. The area's status as a major trade center allowed it to prosper; as a result, many foreign powers coveted it. According to the Armenian historian Faustus of Byzantium (5th century), when the Sassanid Persians invaded Armenia, Sassanid King Shapur II (310–380) removed 2,000 Armenian and 16,000 Jewish families in 360–370. In 428, the Armenian Arshakuni monarchy was abolished and Nakhchivan was annexed by Sassanid Persia. In 623, possession of the region passed to the Byzantine Empire but was soon left to its own rule. Sebeos referred to the area as Tachkastan. According to the 5th-century Armenian author Koriun, Nakhchivan was the place where the Armenian scholar Mesrop Mashtots finished the creation of the Armenian alphabet and opened the first Armenian schools. This occurred in the province of Goghtan, which corresponds to Nakhchivan's modern Ordubad district. From 640 on, the Arabs invaded Nakhchivan and undertook many campaigns in the area, crushing all resistance and attacking Armenian nobles who remained in contact with the Byzantines or who refused to pay tribute. In 705, after suppressing an Armenian revolt, Arab viceroy Muhammad ibn Marwan decided to eliminate the Armenian nobility. In Nakhchivan, several hundred Armenian nobles were locked up in churches and burnt, while others were crucified. The violence caused many Armenian princes to flee to the neighboring Kingdom of Georgia or the Byzantine Empire. Meanwhile, Nakhchivan itself became part of the autonomous Principality of Armenia under Arab control. In the eighth century, Nakhchivan was one of the scenes of an uprising against the Arabs led by Persian revolutionary Babak Khorramdin of the Iranian Khorram-Dinān ("those of the joyous religion" in Persian). Nakhchivan was finally released from Arab rule in the tenth century by Bagratuni King Smbat I and handed over to the princes of Syunik. This region also was taken by Sajids in 895 and between 909 and 929, Sallarid between 942 and 971 and Shaddadid between 971 and 1045. About 1055, the Seljuk Turks took over the region. In the 12th century, the city of Nakhchivan became the capital of the state of Atabegs of Azerbaijan, also known as Ildegizid state, which included most of Iranian Azerbaijan and a significant part of the South Caucasus. The magnificent 12th-century mausoleum of Momine Khatun, the wife of Ildegizid ruler, Great Atabeg Jahan Pehlevan, is the main attraction of modern Nakhchivan. At its heyday, the Ildegizid authority in Nakhchivan and some other areas of South Caucasus was contested by Georgia. The Armeno-Georgian princely house of Zacharids frequently raided the region when the Atabeg state was in decline in the early years of the 13th century. It was then plundered by invading Mongols in 1220 and Khwarezmians in 1225 and became part of Mongol Empire in 1236 when the Caucasus was invaded by Chormaqan. In the 13th century during the reign of the Mongol horde ruler Güyük Khan Christians were allowed to build churches in the strongly Muslim town of Nakhchivan, however the conversion to Islam of Gazan khan brought about a reversal of this favor. The 14th century saw the rise of Armenian Catholicism in Nakhchivan, though by the 15th century the territory became part of the states of Kara Koyunlu and Ak Koyunlu. ### Iranian rule In the 16th century, control of Nakhchivan passed to the Safavid dynasty. Until the demise of the Safavids, it remained as an administrative jurisdiction of the Erivan Province (also known as Chokhur-e Sa'd). Because of its geographic position, it frequently suffered during the wars between the Safavids and the Ottoman Empire, from the 16th to 18th centuries. Turkish historian İbrahim Peçevi described the passing of the Ottoman army from the Ararat plain to Nakhchivan: > On the twenty-seventh day they reached the plain of Nakhichevan. Out of fear of the victorious army, the people deserted the cities, villages, houses, and places of dwelling, which were so desolate that they were occupied by owls and crows and struck the onlooker with terror. Moreover, they [the Ottomans] ruined and laid waste all of the villages, towns, fields, and buildings along the road over a distance of four or five days' march so that there was no sign of any buildings or life. > > In 1604, Shah Abbas I of Iran, concerned that the skilled peoples of Nakhchivan, its natural resources, and the surrounding areas could get in danger due to its relatively close proximity to the Ottoman-Persian frontline, decided to institute a scorched earth policy. He forced the entire hundreds of thousands of local population—Muslims, Jews, and Armenians alike—to leave their homes and move to the provinces south of the Aras River. Many of the Armenian deportees were settled in the neighborhood of Isfahan that was named New Julfa since most of the residents were from the original Julfa. The Turkic Kangerli tribe was later permitted to move back under Shah Abbas II (1642–1666) to repopulate the frontier region of his realm. In the 17th century, Nakhchivan was the scene of a peasant movement led by Köroğlu against foreign invaders and "native exploiters". In 1747, the Nakhchivan Khanate emerged in the region after the death of Nader Shah Afshar. ### Passing to Imperial Russian rule After the last Russo-Persian War and the Treaty of Turkmenchay, the Nakhchivan Khanate passed into Russian possession in 1828 due to Iran's forced ceding as a result of the outcome of the war and treaty. With the onset of Russian rule, the Tsarist authorities encouraged resettlement of Armenians to Nakhchivan and other areas of the Caucasus from the Persian and Ottoman Empires. Special clauses of the Turkmenchay and Adrianople treaties allowed for this. Alexandr Griboyedov, the Russian envoy to Persia, stated that by the time Nakhchivan came under Russian rule, there had been 290 native Armenians families in the province excluding the city of Nakhchivan, the number of Muslim families was 1,632, and the number of the Armenian immigrant families was 943. The same numbers in the city of Nakhchivan were 114, 392, and 285 respectively. With such a dramatic influx of Armenian immigrants, Griboyedov noted friction arising between the Armenian and Muslim populations. He requested Russian army commander Count Ivan Paskevich to give orders on resettlement of some of the arriving people further to the region of Daralayaz to quiet the tensions. The Nakhchivan Khanate was dissolved in 1828 the same year it came into Russian possession, and its territory was merged with the territory of the Erivan khanate and the area became the Nakhichevan uezd of the new Armenian oblast, which later became the Erivan Governorate in 1849. According to official statistics of the Russian Empire, by the turn of the 20th century Tatars (later known as Azerbaijanis) made up roughly 57% of the *uezd*'s population, while Armenians constituted roughly 42%. At the same time in the western half of the Sharur-Daralayaz uezd, the territory of which would form the northern part of modern-day Nakhchivan (Sharur District), Tatars constituted 70.5% of the population, while Armenians made up 27.5%. During the Russian Revolution of 1905, conflict erupted between the Armenians and the Tatars, culminating in the Armenian-Tatar massacres which saw violence in Nakhchivan in May of that year. ### War and revolution In the final year of World War I, Nakhchivan was the scene of more bloodshed between Armenians and Azerbaijanis, who both laid claim to the area. By 1914, the Armenian population had decreased slightly to 40% while the Azeri population increased to roughly 60%. After the February Revolution, the region was under the authority of the Special Transcaucasian Committee of the Russian Provisional Government and subsequently of the short-lived Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic. When the TDFR was dissolved in May 1918, Nakhchivan, Nagorno-Karabakh, Zangezur (today the Armenian province of Syunik), and Qazakh were heavily contested between the newly formed and short-lived states of the Republic of Armenia and the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic (ADR). In June 1918, the region came under Ottoman occupation. The Ottomans proceeded to massacre 10,000 Armenians and razed 45 of their villages. Under the terms of the Armistice of Mudros, the Ottomans agreed to pull their troops out of the Transcaucasus to make way for the forthcoming British military presence. Under British occupation, Sir Oliver Wardrop, British Chief Commissioner in the South Caucasus, made a border proposal to solve the conflict. According to Wardrop, Armenian claims against Azerbaijan should not go beyond the administrative borders of the former Erivan Governorate (which under prior Imperial Russian rule encompassed Nakhchivan), while Azerbaijan was to be limited to the governorates of Baku and Elizavetpol. This proposal was rejected by both Armenians (who did not wish to give up their claims to Qazakh, Zangezur and Karabakh) and Azeris (who found it unacceptable to give up their claims to Nakhchivan). As disputes between both countries continued, it soon became apparent that the fragile peace under British occupation would not last. In December 1918, with the support of Azerbaijan's Musavat Party, Jafargulu Khan Nakhchivanski declared the Republic of Aras in the Nakhchivan uyezd of the former Erivan Governorate assigned to Armenia by Wardrop. The Armenian government did not recognize the new state and sent its troops into the region to take control of it. The conflict soon erupted into the violent Aras War. British journalist C. E. Bechhofer Roberts described the situation in April 1920: > You cannot persuade a party of frenzied nationalists that two blacks do not make a white; consequently, no day went by without a catalogue of complaints from both sides, Armenians and Tartars [Azeris], of unprovoked attacks, murders, village burnings and the like. Specifically, the situation was a series of vicious cycles. > > By mid-June 1919, however, Armenia succeeded in establishing control over Nakhchivan and the whole territory of the self-proclaimed republic. The fall of the Aras republic triggered an invasion by the regular Azerbaijani army and by the end of July, the Armenian administration was ousted from Nakhchivan. Again, more violence erupted leaving some ten thousand Armenians dead and forty-five Armenian villages destroyed. Meanwhile, feeling the situation to be hopeless and unable to maintain any control over the area, the British decided to withdraw from the region in mid-1919. Still, fighting between Armenians and Azeris continued and after a series of skirmishes that took place throughout the Nakhchivan district, a cease-fire agreement was concluded. However, the cease-fire lasted only briefly, and by early March 1920, more fighting broke out, primarily in Karabakh between Karabakh Armenians and Azerbaijan's regular army. This triggered conflicts in other areas with mixed populations, including Nakhchivan. Following the adoption of the name of "Azerbaijan" by the newly established Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, a naming dispute arose with Qajar Iran, with the latter protesting this decision. In tandem with this naming controversy however, the young Azerbaijan Republic also faced a threat from the nascent Soviets in Moscow and the Armenians. In order to escape the possibility of a Soviet invasion and an even greater imminent threat of an Armenian invasion, Muslim Nakhchivan proprosed annexing to Iran. The then pro-British government in Tehran led by Vossug ed Dowleh made endeavours amongst Baku's leadership to join Iran. In order to promote this idea, Vosugh ed Dowleh dispatched two separate Iranian delegations; one to Baku and one to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. The delegation at Baku, at the behest of Zia ol Din Tabatabaee, held intensive negotiations with the leadership of the Musavat party during the increasing chaos and instability in the city. During the closing stages, an accord was reached between them; however, before the idea was presented to Vossug ed Dowleh in Tehran, the Communists took over Baku and terminated the Musavat-Ottoman rule. The Iranian delegation at Paris, which was headed by foreign minister Firouz Nosrat-ed-Dowleh III, reached a unity negotiation with the delegation from Baku and signed a confederation agreement. In the end, these efforts proved to be of no avail, with the Soviets taking over the entirety of Transcaucasia. ### Sovietization In July 1920, the 11th Soviet Red Army invaded and occupied the region and on July 28, declared the Nakhchivan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic with "close ties" to the Azerbaijan SSR. In November, on the verge of taking over Armenia, the Bolsheviks, to attract public support, promised they would allot Nakhchivan to Armenia, along with Karabakh and Zangezur. Nariman Narimanov, leader of Bolshevik Azerbaijan, issued a declaration celebrating the "victory of Soviet power in Armenia" and proclaimed that both Nakhchivan and Zangezur should be awarded to the Armenian people as a sign of the Azerbaijani people's support for Armenia's fight against the former Armenian government: > As of today, the old frontiers between Armenia and Azerbaijan are declared to be non-existent. Mountainous Karabagh, Zangezur and Nakhchivan are recognised to be integral parts of the Socialist Republic of Armenia. > > Vladimir Lenin, while welcoming this act of "great Soviet fraternity" where "boundaries had no meaning among the family of Soviet peoples", did not agree with the motion and instead called for the people of Nakhchivan to be consulted in a referendum. According to the formal figures of this referendum, held at the beginning of 1921, 90% of Nakhchivan's population wanted to be included in the Azerbaijan SSR "with the rights of an autonomous republic". The decision to make Nakhchivan a part of modern-day Azerbaijan was cemented on March 16, 1921, in the Treaty of Moscow between Soviet Russia and the newly founded Republic of Turkey. The agreement between Soviet Russia and Turkey also called for attachment of the former Sharur-Daralagezsky Uyezd (which had a solid Azeri majority) to Nakhchivan, thus allowing Turkey to share a border with the Azerbaijan SSR. This deal was reaffirmed on October 13, in the Treaty of Kars. Article V of the treaty stated the following: > The Turkish Government and the Soviet Governments of Armenia and Azerbaijan are agreed that the region of Nakhchivan, within the limits specified by Annex III to the present Treaty, constitutes an autonomous territory under the protection of Azerbaijan. > > So, on February 9, 1924, the Soviet Union officially established the Nakhchivan ASSR. Its constitution was adopted on April 18, 1926. ### In the Soviet Union As a constituent part of the Soviet Union, tensions lessened over the ethnic composition of Nakhchivan or any territorial claims regarding it. Instead, it became an important point of industrial production with particular emphasis on the mining of minerals such as salt. Under Soviet rule, it was once a major junction on the Moscow-Tehran railway line as well as the Baku-Yerevan railway. It also served as an important strategic area during the Cold War, sharing borders with both Turkey (a NATO member state) and Iran (a close ally of the West until the Iranian Revolution of 1979). Facilities improved during Soviet times. Education and public health especially began to see some major changes. In 1913, Nakhchivan only had two hospitals with a total of 20 beds. The region was plagued by widespread diseases including trachoma and typhus. Malaria, which mostly came from the adjoining Aras River, brought serious harm to the region. At any one time, between 70% and 85% of Nakhchivan's population was infected with malaria, and in the region of Norashen (present-day Sharur) almost 100% were struck with the disease. This situation improved dramatically under Soviet rule. Malaria was sharply reduced and trachoma, typhus, and relapsing fever were eliminated. During the Soviet era, Nakhchivan saw a great demographic shift. In 1926, 15% of the region's population was Armenian, but by 1979, this number had shrunk to 1.4%. Azeris made up 85% in 1926, but 96% in 1979 (leaving the small remainder mixed or other). Three factors were involved: the emigration of Armenians to the Armenian SSR, the immigration of Azeris from Armenia, and the birth rate of Azeris being higher than that of Armenians. Armenians in Nagorno-Karabakh noted similar though slower demographic trends and feared an eventual "de-Armenianization" of the area. When tensions between Armenians and Azeris were reignited in the late-1980s by the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, Azerbaijan's Popular Front managed to pressure the Azerbaijan SSR to instigate a partial railway and air blockade against Armenia, while another reason for the disruption of rail service to Armenia were attacks of Armenian forces on the trains entering the Armenian territory from Azerbaijan, which resulted in railroad personnel refusing to enter Armenia. This effectively crippled Armenia's economy, as 85% of the cargo and goods arrived through rail traffic. In response, Armenia closed the railway to Nakhchivan, thereby strangling the exclave's only link to the rest of the Soviet Union. December 1989 saw unrest in Nakhchivan as its Azeri inhabitants moved to physically dismantle the Soviet border with Iran to flee the area and meet their ethnic Azeri cousins in northern Iran. This action was angrily denounced by the Soviet leadership and the Soviet media accused the Azeris of "embracing Islamic fundamentalism". #### Declaring independence On Saturday, January 20, 1990, the Supreme Soviet of the Nakhchivan ASSR issued a declaration stating the intention for Nakhchivan to secede from the USSR to protest the Soviet Union's actions during Black January. Iranian Press Agency, IRNA, reported that upon its independence, Nakhchivan asked Turkey, Iran, and the United Nations to come to its aid. It was the first part of the Soviet Union to declare independence, preceding Lithuania's declaration by only a few weeks. Subsequently, Nakhchivan was independent from Moscow and Baku but was then brought under control by the clan of Heydar Aliyev. ### In the post-Soviet era Heydar Aliyev, the future president of Azerbaijan, returned to his birthplace of Nakhchivan in 1990, after being ousted from his position in the Politburo by Mikhail Gorbachev in 1987. Soon after returning to Nakhchivan, Aliyev was elected to the Supreme Soviet by an overwhelming majority. Aliyev subsequently resigned from the CPSU, and after the failed August 1991 coup against Gorbachev, he called for complete independence for Azerbaijan and denounced Ayaz Mütallibov for supporting the coup. In late 1991, Aliyev consolidated his power base as chairman of the Nakhchivan Supreme Soviet and asserted Nakhchivan's near-total independence from Baku. Nakhchivan became a scene of conflict during the First Nagorno-Karabakh War. On May 4, 1992, Armenian forces shelled the raion of Sadarak. The Armenians claimed that the attack was in response to cross-border shelling of Armenian villages by Azeri forces from Nakhchivan. David Zadoyan, a 42-year-old Armenian physicist and mayor of the region, said that the Armenians lost patience after months of firing by the Azeris. "If they were sitting on our hilltops and harassing us with gunfire, what do you think our response should be?" he asked. The government of Nakhchivan denied these charges and instead asserted that the Armenian assault was unprovoked and specifically targeted the site of a bridge between Turkey and Nakhchivan. "The Armenians do not react to diplomatic pressure," Nakhchivan foreign minister Rza Ibadov told the ITAR-Tass news agency, "It's vital to speak to them in a language they understand." Speaking to the agency from the Turkish capital Ankara, Ibadov said that Armenia's aim in the region was to seize control of Nakhchivan. According to Human Rights Watch, hostilities broke out after three people were killed when Armenian forces began shelling the region. The heaviest fighting took place on May 18, when the Armenians captured Nakhchivan's exclave of Karki, a tiny territory through which Armenia's main north–south highway passes. The exclave presently remains under Armenian control. After the fall of Shusha, the Mütallibov government of Azerbaijan accused Armenia of moving to take the whole of Nakhchivan (a claim that was denied by Armenian government officials). However, Heydar Aliyev declared a unilateral ceasefire on May 23 and sought to conclude a separate peace with Armenia. Armenian President Levon Ter-Petrossian expressed his willingness to sign a cooperation treaty with Nakhchivan to end the fighting, and subsequently a cease-fire was agreed upon. The conflict in the area caused a harsh reaction from Turkey. Turkish Prime Minister Tansu Çiller announced that any Armenian advance on the main territory of Nakhchivan would result in a declaration of war against Armenia. Russian military leaders declared that "third party intervention into the dispute could trigger a Third World War". Thousands of Turkish troops were sent to the border between Turkey and Armenia in early September. Russian military forces in Armenia countered their movements by increasing troop levels along the Armenian-Turkish frontier and bolstering defenses in a tense period where war between the two seemed inevitable. The tension reached its peak, when Turkish heavy artillery shelled the Nakhchivan side of the Nakhchivan-Armenian border, from the Turkish border for two hours. Iran also reacted to Armenia's attacks by conducting military maneuvers along its border with Nakhchivan in a move widely interpreted as a warning to Armenia. However, Armenia did not launch any further attacks on Nakhchivan and the presence of Russia's military warded off any possibility that Turkey might play a military role in the conflict. After a period of political instability, the Parliament of Azerbaijan turned to Heydar Aliyev and invited him to return from exile in Nakhchivan to lead the country in 1993. ### Recent times Today, Nakhchivan retains its autonomy as the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic, and is internationally recognized as a constituent part of Azerbaijan governed by its own elected legislative assembly. A new constitution for Nakhchivan was approved in a referendum on November 12, 1995. The constitution was adopted by the republic's assembly on April 28, 1998, and has been in force since January 8, 1999. However, the republic remains isolated, not only from the rest of Azerbaijan, but practically from the entire South Caucasus region. From 1995 until his resignation in December 2022, the region was ruled by Vasif Talibov, who is related by marriage to Azerbaijan's ruling family, the Aliyevs. He was known for his authoritarian and largely corrupt rule of the region. Most residents prefer to watch Turkish television as opposed to Nakhchivan television, which one Azerbaijani journalist criticised as "a propaganda vehicle for Talibov and the Aliyevs." Economic hardships and energy shortages plague the area. There have been many cases of migrant workers seeking jobs in neighboring Turkey. "Emigration rates to Turkey," one analyst said, "are so high that most of the residents of the Besler district in Istanbul are Nakhchivanis." In 2007, an agreement was struck with Iran to obtain more gas exports, and a new bridge on the Aras River between the two countries was inaugurated in October 2007; the Azerbaijani president, Ilham Aliyev and the first vice-president of Iran, Parviz Davoodi also attended the opening ceremony. As part of the ceasefire agreement which ended the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war, Armenia, in the context of all economic and transport connections in the region to be unblocked, agreed "to guarantee the security of transport connections between the western regions of the Republic of Azerbaijan and the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic in order to arrange unobstructed movement of persons, vehicles and cargo in both directions". As part of the agreement, these transport communications are to be patrolled by Border Service of the Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation. Administrative divisions ------------------------ Nakhchivan is subdivided into eight administrative divisions. Seven of these are *raions*. The capital city (şəhər) of Nakhchivan City is treated separately. | Map ref. | Administrative division | Capital | Type | Area (km2) | Population (August 1, 2011, estimate) | Notes | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **1** | Babek (Babək) | Babek | District | 749,81 | 66,200 | Formerly known as Nakhchivan; renamed after Babak Khorramdin in 1991 | | **2** | Julfa (Culfa) | Julfa | District | 1012,75 | 43,000 | Also spelled Jugha or Dzhulfa. | | **3** | Kangarli (Kəngərli) | Givraq | District | 711,86 | 28,900 | Split from Babek in March 2004 | | **4** | Nakhchivan City (Naxçıvan Şəhər) | n/a | Municipality | 191,82 | 85,700 | Split from Nakhchivan (Babek) in 1991 | | **5** | Ordubad | Ordubad | District | 994,88 | 46,500 | Split from Julfa during Sovietization | | **6** | Sadarak (Sədərək) | Heydarabad | District | 153,49 | 14,500 | Split from Sharur in 1990; *de jure* includes the Karki exclave in Armenia, which is *de facto* under Armenian control | | **7** | Shahbuz (Şahbuz) | Shahbuz | District | 838,04 | 23,400 | Split from Nakhchivan (Babek) during Sovietization Territory roughly corresponds to the Čahuk (Չահւք) district of the historic Syunik region within the Kingdom of Armenia | | **8** | Sharur (Şərur) | Sharur | District | 847,35 | 106,600 | Formerly known as Bashnorashen during its incorporation into the Soviet Union and Ilyich (after Vladimir *Ilyich* Lenin) from the post-Sovietization period to 1990 | | | **Total** | | | 5,500 | 414,900 | | | Demographics ------------ As of January 1, 2018, Nakhchivan's population was estimated to be 452,831. Most of the population are Azerbaijanis, who constituted 99% of the population in 1999, while ethnic Russians (0.15%) and a minority of Kurds (0.6%) constituted the remainder of the population. The Kurds of Nakhchivan are mainly found in the districts of Sadarak and Teyvaz. The remaining Armenians were expelled by Azerbaijani forces during the conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh as part of the forceful exchange of population between Armenia and Azerbaijan. According to a 1932 Soviet estimate, 85% of the area's population was rural, while only 15% was urban. This urban percentage increased to 18% by 1939 and 27% by 1959. As of 2011, 127,200 people of Nakhchivan's total population of 435,400 live in urban areas, making the urban percentage 29.2%. Nakhchivan enjoys a high Human Development Index; its socio-economic prowess far exceeds that of the neighbouring countries except for Turkey, as well as Azerbaijan itself. According to the report of Nakhchivan AR Committee of Statistics on June 30, 2014, for the end of 2013, some socio-economical data, including the following, are unveiled: | Variable | Value | | --- | --- | | Population | 452,831 | | GNI (PPP) per Capita | $15,300 | | Life Expectancy at Birth | 76.1 years | | Mean Years of Schooling | 11.2 years | | Expected Years of Schooling | 11.8 years | Making use of the Human Development Index calculation method according to the new UNHD 2014 method, the above values change into these: | Variable | Value | | --- | --- | | Income Index | 0.7599 | | Life Expectancy Index | 0.8630 | | Education Index | 0.7011 | Further, the value of the HDI becomes to ( 0.7599 ⋅ 0.8630 ⋅ 0.7011 ) 1 3 = 0.772. {\displaystyle (0.7599\cdot 0.8630\cdot 0.7011)^{\frac {1}{3}}=0.772.} (0.7599\cdot 0.8630\cdot 0.7011)^{{\frac {1}{3}}}=0.772. Were it a country, Nakhchivan would be ranked between Malaysia (62nd) and Mauritius (63rd) for its HDI. Also, compare it to Iran with HDI 0.749 (75th), Turkey with 0.759 (69th), or Azerbaijan with 0.747 (76th). Geography --------- Nakhchivan is a semi-desert region that is separated from the main portion of Azerbaijan by Armenia. The Zangezur Mountains make up its border with Armenia while the Aras River defines its border with Iran. The Araz reservoir located on that river supplies water for agricultural needs and the hydroelectric dam generates power for both Azerbaijan and Iran. Nakhchivan is arid and mountainous. Its highest peak is Mount Kapudzhukh 3,904 m (12,808 ft) and its most distinctive is İlandağ (Snake Mountain) 2,415 m (7,923 ft), which is visible from Nakhchivan City. According to legend, the cleft in its summit was formed by the keel of Noah's Ark as the floodwaters abated. Qazangödağ 3,829 m (12,562 ft) is another major peak. Both the absolute minimum temperature (−33 °C or −27.4 °F) and the absolute maximum temperature (46 °C or 114.8 °F) were observed in Julfa and Ordubad. a vast green plain with isolated mountains in the distanceNakchivan landscape Economy ------- ### Industry Nakhchivan's major industries include the mining of minerals such as salt, molybdenum, and lead. Dryland farming, developed during the Soviet years, has allowed the region to expand into the growing of wheat (mostly cultivated on the plains of the Aras River), barley, cotton, tobacco, orchard fruits, mulberries, and grapes for producing wine. Other industries include cotton ginning/cleaning, silk spinning, fruit canning, meatpacking, and, in the drier regions, sheep farming. Processing of minerals, salt, radio engineering, farm ginning, preserving, silk products, meat, and dairy, bottling of mineral waters, clothing, and furniture are the principal branches of Nakhchivan's industry. The Nakhchivan Automobile Plant (Azerbaijani: *Naxçıvan Avtomobil Zavodu*, abbr. NAZ), is a prominent automobile manufacturer in the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic. The economy suffered a severe blow in 1988 with the loss of access to both raw materials and markets, due to the First Nagorno-Karabakh War. Although new markets are emerging in Iran and Turkey, this isolation still persists to this day, impairing development. The economy of Nakhchivan is based on agriculture, mining, and food processing, however, 75% of the republic's budget is supplied by the central government in Baku. The Republic is rich in minerals. Nakhchivan possesses deposits of marble, lime, and gypsum. The deposits of the rock salt are exhausted in Nehram, Nakhchivan, and Sustin. The important molybdenum mines are currently closed as a consequence of the exclave's isolation. There are a lot of mineral springs such as Badamli, Sirab, Nagajir, Kiziljir where water contains arsenic. About 90% of the agricultural land is now in private hands. However, agriculture has become a poorly capitalized, backyard activity. Production has dropped sharply and large-scale commercial agriculture has declined. Over two-thirds of the land are rocky slopes and deserts, therefore the area of arable lands is quite limited. The main crops – cotton and tobacco – are cultivated in the PriAraz plain, near Sharur and Nakhchivan City. Three-quarters of the grain production, especially winter wheat is concentrated on the irrigated lands of the Sharur plain and in the basin of the Nakhchivan river. Vine growing in Nakhchivan has an ancient tradition, in the Araz valley and foothills. Very hot summers and long warm autumns make it possible to grow such highly saccharine grapes as bayan-shiraz, tebrizi, shirazi. Wines such as "Nakhchivan" "Shahbuz", "Abrakunis", at "Aznaburk" are of reasonable quality and very popular. Fruit production is quite important, mainly of quince, pear, peach, apricot, fig, almonds, and pomegranate. Cattle ranching is another traditional branch of Nakhchivan farming. Due to the dry climate, pastures in Nakhchivan are unproductive, therefore sheep breeding prevails over other livestock production. Winter pastures stretch on the PriAraz plain, on the foothills and mountainsides to the altitude of 1,200 metres (3,900 ft). But the summer pastures go up on the high-mountain area to an altitude of 2,300–3,200 metres (7,500–10,500 ft). The most widespread sheep variety is "balbas". These sheep are distinguished by their productivity and snow-white silky wool which is widely used in the manufacture of carpets. Horned and small cattle are bred everywhere, especially in the environs of Sharur and Nakhchivan. Buffaloes are also bred here. Although intentions to facilitate tourism have been declared by the government, it is still at best incipient. Until 1997 tourists needed special permission to visit, which has now been abolished, making travel easier. Facilities are very basic and heating fuel is hard to find in the winter, but the arid mountains bordering Armenia and Iran are magnificent. In terms of services, Nakhchivan offers very basic facilities and lacks heating fuel during the winter. In 2007 the Poldasht-Shah Takhti Bridge, which connects Poldasht, West Azerbaijan Province, Iran, and Shah Takhti in Nakhchivan, was completed, allowing residents of the republic to access Azerbaijan proper via Iran without having to cross Armenian territory. International issues -------------------- ### Destruction of Armenian cultural monuments The number of named Armenian churches known to have existed in the Nakhchivan region is over 280. As early as 1648, French traveller Alexandre de Rhodes reported seeing more than ten thousand Armenian tombstones made of marble in Julfa. The number of ecclesiastical monuments still standing in Nakhchivan in the 1980s is estimated to be between 59 and 100. The author and journalist Sylvain Besson believe them to have all been subsequently destroyed as part of a campaign by the Government of Azerbaijan to erase all traces of Armenian culture on its soil. When the 14th-century church of St. Stephanos at Abrakunis was visited [*by whom?*] in 2005, it was found to have been recently destroyed, with its site reduced to a few bricks sticking out of loose, bare earth. Similar complete destruction had happened to the 16th century St. Hakop-Hayrapet church in Shurut. The Armenian churches in Norashen, Kırna and Gah that were standing in the 1980s had also vanished. The most publicised case of mass destruction concerns gravestones at a medieval cemetery in Julfa, with photographic, video and satellite evidence supporting the charges. In April 2006 British *The Times* wrote about the destruction of the cemetery in the following way: > A Medieval cemetery regarded as one of the wonders of the Caucasus has been erased from the Earth in an act of cultural vandalism likened to the Taleban blowing up the Bamiyan Buddhas in Afghanistan in 2001. The Jugha cemetery was a unique collection of several thousand carved stone crosses on Azerbaijan's southern border with Iran. But after 18 years of conflict between Azerbaijan and its western neighbour, Armenia, it has been confirmed that the cemetery has vanished." > > Armenians have long sounded the alarm that the Azerbaijanis intend to eliminate all evidence of Armenian presence in Nakhchivan and to this end, have been carrying out massive and irreversible destruction of Armenian cultural traces. "The irony is that this destruction has taken place not during a time of war but at a time of peace," Armenian Foreign Minister Vartan Oskanian told The Times. Azerbaijan has consistently denied these accusations. For example, according to the Azerbaijani ambassador to the US, Hafiz Pashayev, the videos and photographs "show some unknown people destroying mid-size stones", and "it is not clear of what nationality those people are", and the reports are Armenian propaganda designed to divert attention from what he claimed was a "state policy (by Armenia) to destroy the historical and cultural monuments in the occupied Azeri territories". A number of international organizations have confirmed the complete destruction of the cemetery. The Institute for War and Peace Reporting reported on April 19, 2006, that "there is nothing left of the celebrated stone crosses of Jugha." According to the International Council on Monuments and Sites (Icomos), the Azerbaijan government removed 800 khachkars in 1998. Though the destruction was halted following protests from UNESCO, it resumed four years later. By January 2003 "the 1,500-year-old cemetery had completely been flattened" according to Icomos. On December 8, 2010, the American Association for the Advancement of Science released a report entitled "Satellite Images Show Disappearance of Armenian Artifacts in Azerbaijan". The report contained the analysis of high resolution satellite images of the Julfa cemetery, which verified the destruction of the khachkars. The European Parliament has formally called on Azerbaijan to stop the demolition as a breach of the UNESCO World Heritage Convention. According to its resolution regarding cultural monuments in the South Caucasus, the European Parliament "condemns strongly the destruction of the Julfa cemetery as well as the destruction of all sites of historical importance that has taken place on Armenian or Azerbaijani territory, and condemns any such action that seeks to destroy cultural heritage." In 2006, Azerbaijan barred a Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE) mission from inspecting and examining the ancient burial site, stating that it would only accept a delegation if it also visited Armenian-occupied territory. "We think that if a comprehensive approach is taken to the problems that have been raised," said Azerbaijani foreign ministry spokesman Tahir Tagizade, "it will be possible to study Christian monuments on the territory of Azerbaijan, including in the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic." A renewed attempt was planned by PACE inspectors for August 29 – September 6, 2007, led by British MP Edward O'Hara. As well as Nakhchivan, the delegation would visit Baku, Yerevan, Tbilisi, and Nagorno Karabakh. The inspectors planned to visit Nagorno Karabakh via Armenia; however, on August 28, the head of the Azerbaijani delegation to PACE released a demand that the inspectors must enter Nagorno Karabakh via Azerbaijan. On August 29, PACE Secretary-General Mateo Sorinas announced that the visit had to be cancelled because of the difficulty in accessing Nagorno Karabakh using the route required by Azerbaijan. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Armenia issued a statement saying that Azerbaijan had stopped the visit "due solely to their intent to veil the demolition of Armenian monuments in Nakhijevan". In 2022, the Cornell University-led monitoring group Caucasus Heritage Watch released a report detailing the "complete destruction of Armenian cultural heritage" in Nakhchivan starting the 1990s. According the report, out of 110 medieval and early modern Armenian monasteries, churches and cemeteries identified from archival sources, 108 were deliberately and systematically destroyed between 1997 and 2011. In some cases, such as the Saint Thomas Monastery in Yukhari Aylis (Agulis), mosques or other civic buildings were built on the site of the destroyed buildings. ### Recognition of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus In the late 1990s the Supreme Assembly issued a non-binding declaration recognising the sovereignty of the self-proclaimed Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) and calling upon Azerbaijan to do so. While sympathetic to the TRNC, Azerbaijan has not followed suit because doing so could prompt the Republic of Cyprus to recognise the self-proclaimed Nagorno-Karabakh Republic. Close relations between Nakhchivan and Turkey probably initiated this recognition. Culture ------- Nakhchivan is one of the cultural centers of Azerbaijan.[*neutrality is disputed*] In 1923, a musical subgroup was organized at the State Drama Theater (renamed the Nakhchivan Music and Drama Theater in 1965). The Aras Song and Dance Ensemble (established in 1959) is another famous group. Dramatic performances staged by an amateur dance troupe were held in Nakhchivan in the late 19th century. Theatrical art also greatly contributed to Nakhchivan's culture. The creative work of Jalil Mammadguluzadeh, Huseyn Javid, and Huseyn Arablinski (the first Azerbaijani theatre director) stemmed from Nakhchivan. The region has also produced noteworthy Armenian artists, too, such as Soviet actress Hasmik Agopyan. Nakhchivan has also at times been mentioned in works of literature. World-renowned Soviet composer Aram Khatchaturian, the Armenian Hovnatanian painter family, as well as the actor Yervand Manaryan, have shaped the cultural wealth of Nakchivan, too. Nizami, the Persian poet, once wrote: که تا جایگه یافتی نخچوان *Oh Nakhchivan, respect you've attained,* بدین شاه شد بخت پیرت جوان *With this King in luck you'll remain.* * Garabaghlar MausoleumGarabaghlar Mausoleum * Palace of Nakhchivan KhansPalace of Nakhchivan Khans * Juma Mosque, OrdubadJuma Mosque, Ordubad * Momine Khatun MausoleumMomine Khatun Mausoleum * Yusif ibn Kuseyir MausoleumYusif ibn Kuseyir Mausoleum * Juma Mosque, OrdubadJuma Mosque, Ordubad * Khanegah tombKhanegah tomb Archaeology ----------- The very early Kura-Araxes culture flourished in Nakhchivan before spreading to many other areas, as far as Israel. This region reveals the genesis and chronology of this Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age culture. Kültəpə is an important early Chalcolithic site in Nakhchivan. Another such site is Makhta Kultepe. Recent excavations at Ovcular Tepesi allow the dating of the initial stage of formation of Kura-Araxes culture to 4200–3400 BC. The Naxçivan Archaeological Project is the first-ever joint American-Azerbaijani program of surveys and excavations, that was active since 2006. In 2010–11, they have excavated the large Iron Age fortress of Oğlanqala. In Nakhchivan, there are also numerous archaeological monuments of the early Iron Age, and they shed a lot of light on the cultural, archaeological and agricultural developments of that era. There are important sites such as Ilikligaya, Irinchoy, and the Sanctuary of Iydali Piri in Kangarli region. Notable people -------------- ### Political leaders * Heydar Aliyev, former President of Azerbaijan (1993–2003). * Abulfaz Elchibey, former President of Azerbaijan (1992–1993). * Rasul Guliyev, former speaker of the National Assembly of Azerbaijan (1993–1996) and opposition leader. * Christapor Mikaelian, founding member of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation. * Stepan Sapah-Gulian, leader of the Armenian Social Democrat Hunchakian Party (19th–20th century). * Jafar Kuli Khan Nakhchivanski, the founder of the short-lived Republic of Aras. * Ibrahim Abilov, first and only ambassador of Azerbaijan SSR to Turkey. * Garegin Nzhdeh, famous Armenian revolutionary, military leader and political thinker. * Alirza Rasizade (1884–1923), educator, revolutionary, statesman, Azrevcom commissar for Nakhchivan's Sovietization. * Vasif Talibov, is the current chairman of the Supreme Assembly of the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic. ### Religious leaders * Alexander Jughaetsi (Alexander I of Jugha), Catholicos of All Armenians (1706–1714). * Hakob Jughaetsi (Jacob IV of Jugha), Armenian Catholicos (1655–1680). * Azaria I Jughaetsi, Armenian Catholicos of the Holy See of Cilicia (1584–1601). ### Military leaders * Abdurahman Fatalibeyli, Soviet army major who defected to the German forces during World War II. * Ehsan Khan Nakhchivanski, Russian military general. * Huseyn Khan Nakhchivanski, Russian cavalry general and the only Muslim to serve as General-Adjutant of the Russian Tsar. * Ismail Khan Nakhchivanski, Russian military general. * Kelbali Khan Nakhchivanski, Russian military general. * Jamshid Khan Nakhchivanski, Soviet and Azerbaijani military general. * Yusif Mirzayev, National Hero of Azerbaijan. * Maharram Seyidov, National Hero of Azerbaijan. * Kerim Kerimov, National Hero of Azerbaijan. * Sayavush Hasanov, National Hero of Azerbaijan. * Mirasgar Seyidov, National Hero of Azerbaijan. * Ali Mammadov, National Hero of Azerbaijan. * Ibrahim Mammadov, National Hero of Azerbaijan. * Amiraslan Aliyev, National Hero of Azerbaijan. ### Writers and poets * M.S. Gulubekov, writer. * Huseyn Javid Rasizade, poet and playwright. * Jalil Mammadguluzadeh, writer and satirist. * Ekmouladdin Nakhchivani, medieval literary figure. * Hindushah Nakhchivani, medieval literary figure. * Abdurrakhman en-Neshevi, medieval literary figure. * Mammed Said Ordubadi, writer. * Heyran Khanum, late medieval poet. * Elşen Hudiyev, contemporary poet and writer. * Mammad Araz, poet. ### Scientists * Alec (Alirza) Rasizade, an American professor of history and political science, the author of the **Rasizade's algorithm**. * Ruben Orbeli, Soviet archaeologist, historian and jurist, who was renowned as the founder of Soviet underwater archaeology. ### Others * Bahruz Kangarli, Azerbaijani painter. * Haji Aliyev, Wrestling, World and European champion. * Vladimir Makogonov, chess International Master and Grandmaster. * Ajami Nakhchivani, architect and founder of the Nakhchivan school of architecture. * Gaik Ovakimian, Soviet Armenian spy. * Ibrahim Safi, Turkish artist. * Natavan Gasimova, volleyball player * Rza Tahmasib, Azerbaijani film director. Gallery ------- * Momine Khatun Mausoleum in Nakhchivan CityMomine Khatun Mausoleum in Nakhchivan City * Brickwork and faience pattern on the Momine Khatun mausoleumBrickwork and faience pattern on the Momine Khatun mausoleum * Another view of the mausoleumAnother view of the mausoleum * Medieval-period ram-shaped grave monuments collected near the Momine Khatun mausoleumMedieval-period ram-shaped grave monuments collected near the Momine Khatun mausoleum * Ram-shaped grave monument embedded in concreteRam-shaped grave monument embedded in concrete * The Batabat region of ShakhbuzThe Batabat region of Shakhbuz * General view of Ordubad with a range of high mountains in neighboring Iran in the distanceGeneral view of Ordubad with a range of high mountains in neighboring Iran in the distance * Houses in Ordubad photographed near the east bank of Ordubad-chay (also known as the Dubendi stream)Houses in Ordubad photographed near the east bank of Ordubad-chay (also known as the Dubendi stream) * Narrow streets in OrdubadNarrow streets in Ordubad * A mosque in a quarter of OrdubadA mosque in a quarter of Ordubad * Aras River on the Iranian border near JulfaAras River on the Iranian border near Julfa * Mountainous terrain of NakhchivanMountainous terrain of Nakhchivan * Armenian khachkar cemetery at JulfaArmenian khachkar cemetery at Julfa * Yusuf ibn Kuseir Mausoleum in Nakhchivan CityYusuf ibn Kuseir Mausoleum in Nakhchivan City See also -------- * List of Chairmen of the Supreme Majlis of Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic * Nakhchivan Memorial Museum * Nakhchivan culture * Thamanin in southeast Turkey Notes References 1. ↑ Xəlilzadə, elgunkh, Elgun Xelilzade, Elgun Khalilzadeh, Elgün. "Naxçıvan Muxtar Respublikası Dövlət Statistika Komitəsi". Retrieved June 12, 2016. 2. 1 2 3 "Naxcivan, | History & Geography | Britannica". *www.britannica.com*. Retrieved December 22, 2021. 3. ↑ Official portal of Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic :Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic Archived December 9, 2012, at archive.today 4. ↑ "Population of Azerbaijan". *stat.gov.az*. State Statistics Committee. Retrieved February 22, 2021. 5. 1 2 De Waal. *Black Garden*, p. 129. 6. ↑ Tim Potier, "Conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh, Abkhazia, and South Ossetia: A Legal Appraisal" (2001), p. 4. 7. ↑ Michael P. Croissant, "The Armenia–Azerbaijan Conflict: Causes and Implications" (1998), p. 18. 8. 1 2 Ian Bremmer and Ray Taras. *New States, New Politics: Building Post-Soviet Nations*, p. 484. ISBN 0-521-57799-3 9. 1 2 3 Armenia: A Country Study: The New Nationalism, The Library of Congress 10. ↑ Dr Andrew Andersen, PhD Atlas of Conflicts: Armenia: Nation Building and Territorial Disputes: 1918–1920 11. ↑ Croissant. *Armenia–Azerbaijan Conflict*, p. 16. 12. ↑ "Naxcivan – republic, Azerbaijan". Retrieved June 12, 2016. 13. ↑ "." *Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary*, 11th ed. 2003. (ISBN 0-87779-809-5) New York: Merriam-Webster, Inc. 14. ↑ "Azerbaijan – history – geography". Retrieved June 12, 2016. 15. ↑ "Plant Genetic Resources in Central Asia and Caucasus: History of Armenia". Archived from the original on February 28, 2007. 16. ↑ Tabrizi, Yusuf S (2011). *The Yazeris: The People, Their History and Culture*. Tabriz: Self. 17. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Hewsen, Robert H (2001). *Armenia: A Historical Atlas*. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 266. ISBN 0-226-33228-4. 18. 1 2 Elisabeth Bauer, *Armenia: Past and Present*, p.99 (ISBN B0006EXQ9C). 19. ↑ Kazemzadeh, Firuz. *The Struggle For Transcaucasia: 1917–1921*. p. 255 (ISBN 0-8305-0076-6). 20. ↑ *Ibid.* p.267. 21. 1 2 (in Russian) "Nakhichevan" in the *Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary*, St. Petersburg, Russia: 1890–1907. 22. ↑ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Nakhichevan". *Encyclopædia Britannica*. Vol. 19 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 156. 23. 1 2 3 Hiwbshman, H. (1907). *Hin Hayotsʻ Teghwoy Anunnerě* [*Ancient Armenian Place Names*] (in Armenian). Translated by Pilējikchean, H. B. Vienna: Mkhitʻarean Tparan. pp. 222–223, 385. 24. ↑ Hakobyan, T. Kh.; Melik-Bakhshyan, St. T.; Barseghyan, H. Kh. (1991). "Nakhijevan". *Hayastani ev harakitsʻ shrjanneri teghanunneri baṛaran* [*Dictionary of toponymy of Armenia and adjacent territories*] (in Armenian). Vol. 3. Yerevan State University. pp. 951–953. 25. 1 2 3 Hewsen, Robert H. (1992). *The Geography of Ananias of Širak (Ašxarhacʻoycʻ): The Long and the Short Recensions*. Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag. p. 189. ISBN 3-88226-485-3. 26. ↑ "Chapter 3". Retrieved June 12, 2016. 27. ↑ *Noah's Ark: Its Final Berth* Archived March 12, 2008, at the Wayback Machine by Bill Crouse 28. 1 2 "Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic". *nakhchivan.preslib.az*. Retrieved June 14, 2017. 29. ↑ Zeinalov, A.A.; Valiev, S.S.; Tagieva, E.N. (June 2010). "Human environment in the Nakhchivan region during the Mousterian (Based on the Gazma Cave Site, Azerbaijan)". *Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia*. **38** (2): 2–6. doi:10.1016/j.aeae.2010.08.002. 30. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Нахичеванская Автономная Советская Социалистическая Республика, Great Soviet Encyclopedia 31. ↑ "Early Indo-European Online: Introduction to the Language Lessons". Archived from the original on April 10, 2016. Retrieved June 12, 2016. 32. 1 2 3 Ayvazyan, Argam. *The Historical Monuments Of Nakhichevan*, pp. 10–12. ISBN 0-8143-1896-7 33. ↑ Hewsen. *Armenia: A Historical Atlas*, p. 100. 34. ↑ (in Armenian) Ter-Ghevondyan, Aram. *"Մուրացյան"* (Muratsyan). Soviet Armenian Encyclopedia. vol. viii. Yerevan, Armenian SSR: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1982, p. 98. 35. ↑ "ARMENIA". Retrieved June 12, 2016. 36. ↑ Կորյուն, Վարք Մաշտոցի, աշխարհաբար թարգմանությունը, ներածական ուսումնասիրությամբ, առաջաբանով և ծանոթագրություններով՝ Մ. Աբեղյանի, Եր., 1962, էջ 98։ 37. ↑ Koryun: Life of Mashtots Koryun, The Life of Mashtots 38. 1 2 3 David Marshall Lang, *Armenia: Cradle of Civilization*, p. 178 ISBN 0-04-956009-3. 39. ↑ Mark Whittow. *The Making of Byzantium, 600–1025*. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996, p. 210. ISBN 0-520-20497-2 40. ↑ M. Whittow, *"The Making of Byzantium: 600–1025"*, pp. 195, 203, 215: Excerpts:*[Iranian] Azerbaijan was the scene of frequent anti-Caliphate and anti-Arab revolts during the eighth and ninth centuries, and Byzantine sources talk of Persian warriors seeking refuge in the 830s from the caliph's armies by taking service under the Byzantine emperor Theophilos. [...] Azerbaijan had a Persian population and was a traditional centre of the Zoroastrian religion. [...] The Khurramites were a [...] Persian sect, influenced by Shiite doctrines, but with their roots in a pre-Islamic Persian religious movement.* 41. ↑ Armenian historian Vardan Areveltsi, c. 1198 – 1271 notes: In these days, a man of the PERSIAN race, named Bab, who had went from Baltat killed many of the race of Ismayil (what Armenians called Arabs) by sword and took many slaves and thought himself to be immortal. ..Ma'mun for 7 years was battling in the Greek territories and ..came back to Mesopotamia. See: La domination arabe en Armènie, extrait de l’ histoire universelle de Vardan, traduit de l’armènian et annotè, J. Muyldermans, Louvain et Paris, 1927, pg 119: *En ces jours-lá, un homme de la race PERSE, nomm é Bab, sortant de Baltat, faiser passer par le fil de l’épée beaucoup de la race d’Ismayēl tandis qu’il..* Original Grabar: Havoursn haynosig ayr mi hazkes Barsitz Pap anoun yelyal i Baghdada, arganer zpazoums i sour suseri hazken Ismayeli, zpazoums kerelov. yev anser zinkn anmah. yev i mium nvaki sadager yeresoun hazar i baderazmeln youroum ent Ismayeli 42. ↑ Ibn Hazm (994–1064), the Arab historian mentions the different Iranian revolts against the Caliphate in his book Al-fasl fil al-Milal wal-Nihal. He writes: *The Persians had the great land expanse and were greater than all other people and thought of themselves as better... after their defeat by Arabs, they rose up to fight against Islam, but God did not give them victory. Among their leaders were Sanbadh, Muqanna', Ostadsis and Babak and others. Full original Arabic:* «أن الفرس كانوا من سعة الملك وعلو اليد على جميع الأمم وجلالة الخطير في أنفسهم حتى أنهم كانوا يسمون أنفسهم الأحرار والأبناء وكانوا يعدون سائر الناس عبيداً لهم فلما امتحنوا بزوال الدولة عنهم على أيدي العرب وكانت العرب أقل الأمم عند الفرس خطراً تعاظمهم الأمر وتضاعفت لديهم المصيبة وراموا كيد الإسلام بالمحاربة في أوقات شتى ففي كل ذلك يظهر الله سبحانه وتعالى الحق وكان من قائمتهم سنبادة واستاسيس والمقنع وبابك وغيرهم ». See: al-Faṣl fī al-milal wa-al-ahwāʾ wa-al-niḥal / taʾlīf Abī Muḥammad ʻAlī ibn Aḥmad al-maʻrūf bi-Ibn Ḥazm al-Ẓāhirī; taḥqīq Muḥammad Ibrāhīm Naṣr, ʻAbd al-Raḥmān ʻUmayrah. Jiddah : Sharikat Maktabāt ʻUkāẓ, 1982. 43. ↑ "Babak". *Encyclopædia Britannica*. Retrieved June 7, 2007. 44. ↑ Encyclopedia Iranica, "Atabakan-e Adarbayjan" Archived October 16, 2007, at the Wayback Machine, Saljuq rulers of Azerbaijan, 12th–13th, Luther, K. pp. 890–894. 45. ↑ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "The mausoleum of Nakhichevan (#) – UNESCO World Heritage Centre". Retrieved June 12, 2016. 46. ↑ Encyclopedia Iranica. C. Bosworth. History of Azerbaijan, Islamic period to 1941, page 225 47. ↑ Floor 2008, p. 171. 48. ↑ The Status of Religious Minorities in Safavid Iran 1617–61, Vera B. Moreen, Journal of Near Eastern Studies Vol. 40, No. 2 (April 1981), pp.128–129 49. ↑ The history and conquests of the Saracens, 6 lectures, Edward Augustus Freeman, Macmillan (1876) p. 229 50. ↑ Lang. *Armenia: Cradle of Civilization*, pp. 210–1. 51. ↑ Encyclopedia Iranica. Kangarlu Archived October 6, 2007, at the Wayback Machine. 52. ↑ Timothy C. Dowling *Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond* pp 728 ABC-CLIO, December 2, 2014 ISBN 1598849484 53. ↑ Туркманчайский договор 1828, Great Soviet Encyclopedia 54. ↑ (in Russian) A.S. Griboyedov. Letter to Count I.F.Paskevich. 55. ↑ (in Russian) Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. "Sharur-Daralagyoz uyezd". St. Petersburg, Russia, 1890–1907 56. ↑ Michael P. Croissant. *The Armenia-Azerbaijan Conflict: Causes and Implications*, p. 9. ISBN 0-275-96241-5 57. ↑ Croissant. *Armenia-Azerbaijan Conflict*, p. 15. 58. 1 2 3 Dr. Andrew Andersen, PhD Atlas of Conflicts: Armenia: Nation Building and Territorial Disputes: 1918–1920 59. ↑ Thomas de Waal. *Black Garden: Armenia And Azerbaijan Through Peace and War*. New York: New York University Press, pp. 128–129. ISBN 0-8147-1945-7 60. ↑ Croissant. *Armenia-Azerbaijan Conflict*, p. 16. 61. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Ahmadi, Hamid (2017). "The Clash of Nationalisms: Iranian response to Baku's irredentism". In Kamrava, Mehran (ed.). *The Great Game in West Asia: Iran, Turkey and the South Caucasus*. Oxford University Press. p. 108. ISBN 978-0190869663. 62. ↑ Ahmadi, Hamid (2017). "The Clash of Nationalisms: Iranian response to Baku's irredentism". In Kamrava, Mehran (ed.). *The Great Game in West Asia: Iran, Turkey and the South Caucasus*. Oxford University Press. pp. 108–109. ISBN 978-0190869663. 63. 1 2 Tim Potier. *Conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh, Abkhazia, and South Ossetia: A Legal Appraisal*, p. 4. ISBN 90-411-1477-7 64. ↑ Croissant. *Armenia-Azerbaijan Conflict*, p. 18. 65. 1 2 Ian Bremmer and Ray Taras. *New States, New Politics: Building Post-Soviet Nations*, p. 444. ISBN 0-521-57799-3 66. ↑ "ANN/Groong – Treaty of Berlin – 07/13/1878". Retrieved June 12, 2016. 67. ↑ De Waal. *Black Garden*, p. 271. 68. ↑ Thomas Ambrosio. Irredentism: Ethnic Conflict and International Politics. ISBN 0-275-97260-7 69. ↑ Stuart J. Kaufman. Modern Hatreds: The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War. ISBN 0-8014-8736-6 70. ↑ De Waal, *Black Garden*, p. 88-89. 71. ↑ Vogt-Downey, Marilyn, ed. (1993). *The USSR 1987–1991: Marxist Perspectives*. London: Humanities Press. p. 190. ISBN 9780391037724. 72. ↑ William, Nick B. Jr. (January 21, 1990). "Soviet Enclave Declares Independence". *Los Angeles Times*. Retrieved April 22, 2022. 73. ↑ Gwertzman, Bernard M.; Kaufman, Michael T., eds. (1992). *The Decline and Fall of the Soviet Empire*. New York: Times Books. p. 229. ISBN 9780812920468. 74. ↑ "Asian Event/USSR". *Asian Bulletin*. Vol. 15, no. 1–6. Taiwan: APACL Publications. 1990. p. 73. Retrieved April 22, 2022. 75. ↑ Kanet, R., ed. (2007). *Russia:Re-Emerging Great Power*. Studies in Central and Eastern Europe. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 140. ISBN 9780230590489. 76. ↑ "Iranian Influence in Nakhchivan: Impact on Azerbaijani-Armenian Conflict". *Jamestown*. 77. ↑ Azerbaijan: A Country Study: Aliyev and the Presidential Election of October 1993, The Library of Congress 78. ↑ Contested Borders in the Caucasus: Chapter VII: Iran's Role as Mediator in the Nagorno-Karabakh Crisis Archived February 7, 2012, at the Wayback Machine by Abdollah Ramezanzadeh 79. ↑ Russia Plans Leaner, More Open Military. The Washington Post. May 23, 1992 80. ↑ Background Paper on the Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict. Council of Europe. 81. ↑ The Toronto Star. May 20, 1992 82. 1 2 "US Department of State Daily Briefing #78: Tuesday, 5/19/92". Archived from the original on September 8, 2006. Retrieved January 12, 2007. 83. ↑ Armenian Siege of Azeri Town Threatens Turkey, Russia, Iran. The Baltimore Sun. June 3, 1992 84. ↑ Reuters News Agency Archived January 12, 2007, at the Wayback Machine, wire carried by the Globe and Mail (Canada) on May 20, 1992. pg. A.10 85. 1 2 Overview of Areas of Armed Conflict in the former Soviet Union, Human Rights Watch, Helsinki Report 86. ↑ Azerbaijan: Seven Years Of Conflict In Nagorno-Karabakh, Human Rights Watch, Helsinki Report 87. 1 2 Turkey Orders Armenians to Leave Azerbaijan, Moves Troops to the Border. The Salt Lake Tribune. September 4, 1993. pg. A1. 88. ↑ Azerbaijan: A Country Study: Efforts to Resolve the Nagorno-Karabakh Crisis, 1993, The Library of Congress 89. ↑ Richard Plunkett and Tom Masters. *Lonely Planet: Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan*, p. 243. ISBN 1-74059-138-0 90. ↑ "State Structure of Nakhchivan". Archived from the original on January 17, 2008. Retrieved April 10, 2007. 91. 1 2 3 4 "Nakhichevan: Disappointment and Secrecy". Institute for War and Peace Reporting. May 19, 2004. Retrieved May 19, 2004. 92. ↑ "Nakhichevan: From Despair to Where?". Axis News. July 21, 2005. Archived from the original on January 12, 2008. Retrieved July 21, 2005. 93. ↑ "Azerbaijani President attends opening of bridge uniting Iran with Azerbaijan". Azeri Press Agency. October 17, 2007. Archived from the original on October 21, 2007. Retrieved January 3, 2008. 94. ↑ "Statement by President of the Republic of Azerbaijan, Prime Minister of the Republic of Armenia and President of the Russian Federation". *Kremlin.ru*. 95. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Official portal of Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic :Cities and regions Archived May 19, 2014, at the Wayback Machine 96. ↑ Hewsen. *Armenia: A Historical Atlas*, p. 123. 97. ↑ Alexander Griboyedov (1828). Рапорт А.С.Грибоедова графу И.Ф.Паскевичу (in Russian). Moscow: А.С.Грибоедов. Сочинения. Москва, Художественная литература, 1988 г., сс. 611–614. 98. ↑ Ivan Shopen (1852). Шопен И. Исторический памятник состояния Армянской области в эпоху её присоединения к Российской Империи. [*Ethnic Processes in the South Cacucasus in 19th–20th centuries*] (in Russian). Saint Petersburg: Имп. Академия наук (Imperial Academy of Sciences). 99. ↑ (in Russian) *Нахичевань*. Энциклопедический словарь Брокгауза и Ефрона Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary 100. ↑ (in Russian) Демокоп Weekly Нахичеванский уезд 101. ↑ *Кавказский календарь на 1917 год* [*Caucasian calendar for 1917*] (in Russian) (72nd ed.). Tiflis: Tipografiya kantselyarii Ye.I.V. na Kavkaze, kazenny dom. 1917. pp. 214–221. Archived from the original on November 4, 2021. 102. ↑ Christopher J. Walker, ed., Armenia and Karabakh, op. cit., pp. 64–65 103. ↑ "Нахичеванская ССР 1926". *www.ethno-kavkaz.narod.ru* (in Russian). 104. 1 2 3 4 5 (in Russian) Население Азербайджана 105. ↑ "The State Statistical Committee of the Republic of Azerbaijan – Regions of Azerbaijan- Nakchivan economic district – Ethnic Structure". Archived from the original on February 13, 2012. 106. ↑ "Ethnic composition of Azerbaijan 2009". Retrieved June 12, 2016. 107. ↑ "Naxçıvan əhalisinin sayı açıqlandı". May 22, 2018. Retrieved January 23, 2018 – via qafqazinfo.az. 108. ↑ "The State Statistical Committee of the Republic of Azerbaijan: Nakhchivan Economic Region". Archived from the original on February 13, 2012. 109. ↑ "Kurdish people – Kurds in Azerbaijan – Azerb.com". 110. 1 2 "Naxçıvan Muxtar Respublikası üzrə əhalinin sayı və cins üzrə bölgüsü 1)". Retrieved December 5, 2014. 111. ↑ "Makroiqtisadi göstəricilər". statistika.nmr.az. Retrieved December 5, 2014. 112. ↑ "Naxçıvan Muxtar Respublikası üzrə cins bölgüsündə doğulanda gözlənilən ömür uzunluğu". Retrieved December 5, 2014. 113. 1 2 "Naxçıvan Muxtar Respublikası üzrə təhsilin əsas göstəriciləri". Retrieved December 5, 2014. 114. 1 2 3 4 "Technical notes: Calculating the human development indices – graphical presentation" (PDF). June 24, 2014. Retrieved December 5, 2014. 115. ↑ Plunkett and Masters. *Lonely Planet*, p. 246. 116. ↑ Mahmudov, Rza. "Water Resources of the Azerbaijan Republic". Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources of Azerbaijan Republic. Archived from the original on May 24, 2007. Retrieved November 27, 2016. 117. ↑ "USACC Newsletter". *usacc.org*. Archived from the original on March 16, 2018. Retrieved March 16, 2018. 118. ↑ Alexande de Rhodes, Divers Voyages et Missions du P. A. de Rhodes en la Chine, &AutresRoyaumes avec son Retour en Europe par la Perse et I’Armenie (Paris: Sebastian Cramoisy, 1653), Part 3, 63. Second edition (Paris: 1854), 416. "Out of the walls of this city [Julfa] which now is only a desert, I saw a beautiful monument to the ancient piety of the Armenians. It is a vast site, where there are at the very least ten thousand tombstones of marble, all marvellously well carved." 119. ↑ Sylvain Besson, "L'Azerbaidjian Face au Desastre Culturel", Le Temps (Switzerland), November 4, 2006. 120. ↑ Switzerland-Armenia Parliamentary Group (ed.) "The destruction of Jugha and the Entire Armenian Cultural Heritage in Nakhchivan", Bern, 2006. p73-77. 121. ↑ *Monumental Effort: Scotsman wants to prove Azeri policy of cultural destruction in Nakhijevan*, Gayane Mkrtchyan, ArmeniaNow, September 2, 2005.Archived March 5, 2016, at the Wayback Machine Quote: "But a special state policy of destruction is being implemented in Azerbaijan. In Turkey, after 90 years of staying empty, there are still standing churches today, meanwhile in Nakhijevan, all have been destroyed within just 10 years." 122. ↑ The Switzerland-Armenia Association (SAA), for consideration at the 49th session of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (Pre-Sessional Working Group, 21–25 May 2012) 123. ↑ "World Watches in Silence As Azerbaijan Wipes Out Armenian Culture". The Art Newspaper. May 25, 2006. Archived from the original on September 11, 2006. Retrieved May 25, 2006. 124. ↑ "Tragedy on the Araxes". *Archaeology*. June 30, 2006. Retrieved June 30, 2006. 125. ↑ "Armenica: Destruction of Armenian Khatchkars in Old Jougha (Nakhichevan)". Retrieved June 12, 2016. 126. 1 2 "Historic graveyard is victim of war – The Times". *The Times*. Archived from the original on June 27, 2015. Retrieved June 12, 2016. 127. ↑ "Will the arrested minister become new leader of opposition? Azerbaijani press digest". REGNUM News Agency. January 20, 2006. Retrieved January 20, 2006. 128. ↑ "Azerbaijan: Famous Medieval Cemetery Vanishes". Institute for War and Peace Reporting. April 19, 2006. Retrieved April 19, 2006. 129. ↑ ICOMOS World Report 2006/2007 on Monuments and Sites in Danger 130. ↑ "Azerbaijan 'flattened' sacred Armenian site". *Independent.co.uk*. May 29, 2006. Archived from the original on June 18, 2022. Retrieved June 12, 2016. 131. ↑ "Satellite Images Show Disappearance of Armenian Artifacts in Azerbaijan". December 8, 2010. Retrieved June 12, 2016. 132. ↑ "European Parliament Resolution on the European Neighbourhood Policy – January 2006". Retrieved June 12, 2016. 133. ↑ "Texts adopted – Thursday, 16 February 2006 – Cultural heritage in Azerbaijan – P6\_TA(2006)0069". Retrieved June 12, 2016. 134. ↑ Castle, Stephen (May 30, 2006). "Azerbaijan 'Flattened' Sacred Armenian Site". *The Independent*. London. Archived from the original on June 15, 2006. Retrieved May 30, 2006. 135. ↑ "Pace Mission to Monitor Cultural Monuments", S. Agayeva, Trend News Agency, Azerbaijan, August 22, 2007. 136. ↑ Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Armenia, Press Release August 29, 2007. 137. 1 2 3 Nutt, David (September 12, 2022). "Report shows near-total erasure of Armenian heritage sites". *Cornell Chronicle*. Retrieved September 17, 2022. 138. ↑ "iExplore.com – Cyprus Overview". Archived from the original on January 15, 2012. Retrieved March 10, 2007. 139. ↑ "Europe, the US, Turkey and Azerbaijan recognize the "unrecognized" Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus". REGNUM News Agency. September 22, 2006. Retrieved September 22, 2006. 140. ↑ "Teatrlar". *imp.nakhchivan.az*. Retrieved July 8, 2019. 141. ↑ "Family tree". Virtual Museum of Aram Khachaturian. Retrieved September 25, 2012. 142. ↑ Akopian, Aram (2001). *Armenians and the World: Yesterday and Today*. Yerevan: Noyan Tapan. p. 131. ISBN 9789993051299. 143. ↑ Bakhshaliev V.B. (2013), Proto Kura-Araxes ceramics of Nakhchivan 144. ↑ Nakhchivan Archaeological Project oglanqala.net 145. ↑ 2010 / 2011 Season oglanqala.net 146. ↑ Archaeological Treasures Of Nakhchivan – OpEd – Eurasia Review 2016 Further reading --------------- * Dan, Roberto (2014). "Inside the Empire: Some Remarks on the Urartian and Achaemenid Presence in the Autonomous Republic of Nakhchivan". *Iran and the Caucasus*. **18** (4): 327–344. doi:10.1163/1573384X-20140402. 39°20′N 45°30′E / 39.333°N 45.500°E / 39.333; 45.500

Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nakhchivan_Autonomous_Republic

A **set** is the mathematical model for a collection of different things; a set contains *elements* or *members*, which can be mathematical objects of any kind: numbers, symbols, points in space, lines, other geometrical shapes, variables, or even other sets. The set with no element is the empty set; a set with a single element is a singleton. A set may have a finite number of elements or be an infinite set. Two sets are equal if they have precisely the same elements. Sets are ubiquitous in modern mathematics. Indeed, set theory, more specifically Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory, has been the standard way to provide rigorous foundations for all branches of mathematics since the first half of the 20th century. History ------- The concept of a set emerged in mathematics at the end of the 19th century. The German word for set, *Menge*, was coined by Bernard Bolzano in his work *Paradoxes of the Infinite*. Georg Cantor, one of the founders of set theory, gave the following definition at the beginning of his *Beiträge zur Begründung der transfiniten Mengenlehre*: > A set is a gathering together into a whole of definite, distinct objects of our perception or our thought—which are called elements of the set. > > Bertrand Russell introduced the distinction between a set and a class (a set is a class, but some classes, such as the class of all sets, are not sets; see Russel's paradox): > When mathematicians deal with what they call a manifold, aggregate, *Menge*, *ensemble*, or some equivalent name, it is common, especially where the number of terms involved is finite, to regard the object in question (which is in fact a class) as defined by the enumeration of its terms, and as consisting possibly of a single term, which in that case *is* the class. > > ### Naive set theory The foremost property of a set is that it can have elements, also called *members*. Two sets are equal when they have the same elements. More precisely, sets *A* and *B* are equal if every element of *A* is an element of *B*, and every element of *B* is an element of *A*; this property is called the *extensionality of sets*. The simple concept of a set has proved enormously useful in mathematics, but paradoxes arise if no restrictions are placed on how sets can be constructed: * Russell's paradox shows that the "set of all sets that *do not contain themselves*", i.e., {*x* | *x* is a set and *x* ∉ *x*}, cannot exist. * Cantor's paradox shows that "the set of all sets" cannot exist. Naïve set theory defines a set as any *well-defined* collection of distinct elements, but problems arise from the vagueness of the term *well-defined*. ### Axiomatic set theory In subsequent efforts to resolve these paradoxes since the time of the original formulation of naïve set theory, the properties of sets have been defined by axioms. Axiomatic set theory takes the concept of a set as a primitive notion. The purpose of the axioms is to provide a basic framework from which to deduce the truth or falsity of particular mathematical propositions (statements) about sets, using first-order logic. According to Gödel's incompleteness theorems however, it is not possible to use first-order logic to prove any such particular axiomatic set theory is free from paradox. How sets are defined and set notation ------------------------------------- Mathematical texts commonly denote sets by capital letters in italic, such as A, B, C. A set may also be called a *collection* or *family*, especially when its elements are themselves sets. ### Roster notation **Roster** or **enumeration notation** defines a set by listing its elements between curly brackets, separated by commas: *A* = {4, 2, 1, 3} *B* = {blue, white, red}. In a set, all that matters is whether each element is in it or not, so the ordering of the elements in roster notation is irrelevant (in contrast, in a sequence, a tuple, or a permutation of a set, the ordering of the terms matters). For example, {2, 4, 6} and {4, 6, 4, 2} represent the same set. For sets with many elements, especially those following an implicit pattern, the list of members can be abbreviated using an ellipsis '...'. For instance, the set of the first thousand positive integers may be specified in roster notation as {1, 2, 3, ..., 1000}. #### Infinite sets in roster notation An infinite set is a set with an endless list of elements. To describe an infinite set in roster notation, an ellipsis is placed at the end of the list, or at both ends, to indicate that the list continues forever. For example, the set of nonnegative integers is {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ...}, and the set of all integers is {..., −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}. ### Semantic definition Another way to define a set is to use a rule to determine what the elements are: Let A be the set whose members are the first four positive integers. Let B be the set of colors of the French flag. Such a definition is called a *semantic description*. ### Set-builder notation Set-builder notation specifies a set as a selection from a larger set, determined by a condition on the elements. For example, a set F can be defined as follows: F = { n ∣ n  is an integer, and  0 ≤ n ≤ 19 } . {\displaystyle F=\{n\mid n{\text{ is an integer, and }}0\leq n\leq 19\}.} {\displaystyle F=\{n\mid n{\text{ is an integer, and }}0\leq n\leq 19\}.} In this notation, the vertical bar "|" means "such that", and the description can be interpreted as "F is the set of all numbers n such that n is an integer in the range from 0 to 19 inclusive". Some authors use a colon ":" instead of the vertical bar. ### Classifying methods of definition Philosophy uses specific terms to classify types of definitions: * An *intensional definition* uses a *rule* to determine membership. Semantic definitions and definitions using set-builder notation are examples. * An *extensional definition* describes a set by *listing all its elements*. Such definitions are also called *enumerative*. * An *ostensive definition* is one that describes a set by giving *examples* of elements; a roster involving an ellipsis would be an example. Membership ---------- If B is a set and x is an element of B, this is written in shorthand as *x* ∈ *B*, which can also be read as "*x* belongs to *B*", or "*x* is in *B*". The statement "*y* is not an element of *B*" is written as *y* ∉ *B*, which can also be read as "*y* is not in *B*". For example, with respect to the sets *A* = {1, 2, 3, 4}, *B* = {blue, white, red}, and *F* = {*n* | *n* is an integer, and 0 ≤ *n* ≤ 19}, 4 ∈ *A* and 12 ∈ *F*; and 20 ∉ *F* and green ∉ *B*. The empty set ------------- The *empty set* (or *null set*) is the unique set that has no members. It is denoted ∅ or ∅ {\displaystyle \emptyset } \emptyset or { } or ϕ (or ϕ). Singleton sets -------------- A *singleton set* is a set with exactly one element; such a set may also be called a *unit set*. Any such set can be written as {*x*}, where *x* is the element. The set {*x*} and the element *x* mean different things; Halmos draws the analogy that a box containing a hat is not the same as the hat. Subsets ------- If every element of set *A* is also in *B*, then *A* is described as being a *subset of B*, or *contained in B*, written *A* ⊆ *B*, or *B* ⊇ *A*. The latter notation may be read *B contains A*, *B includes A*, or *B is a superset of A*. The relationship between sets established by ⊆ is called *inclusion* or *containment*. Two sets are equal if they contain each other: *A* ⊆ *B* and *B* ⊆ *A* is equivalent to *A* = *B*. If *A* is a subset of *B*, but *A* is not equal to *B*, then *A* is called a *proper subset* of *B*. This can be written *A* ⊊ *B*. Likewise, *B* ⊋ *A* means *B is a proper superset of A*, i.e. *B* contains *A*, and is not equal to *A*. A third pair of operators ⊂ and ⊃ are used differently by different authors: some authors use *A* ⊂ *B* and *B* ⊃ *A* to mean *A* is any subset of *B* (and not necessarily a proper subset), while others reserve *A* ⊂ *B* and *B* ⊃ *A* for cases where *A* is a proper subset of *B*. Examples: * The set of all humans is a proper subset of the set of all mammals. * {1, 3} ⊂ {1, 2, 3, 4}. * {1, 2, 3, 4} ⊆ {1, 2, 3, 4}. The empty set is a subset of every set, and every set is a subset of itself: * ∅ ⊆ *A*. * *A* ⊆ *A*. Euler and Venn diagrams ----------------------- An Euler diagram is a graphical representation of a collection of sets; each set is depicted as a planar region enclosed by a loop, with its elements inside. If A is a subset of B, then the region representing A is completely inside the region representing B. If two sets have no elements in common, the regions do not overlap. A Venn diagram, in contrast, is a graphical representation of n sets in which the n loops divide the plane into 2*n* zones such that for each way of selecting some of the n sets (possibly all or none), there is a zone for the elements that belong to all the selected sets and none of the others. For example, if the sets are A, B, and C, there should be a zone for the elements that are inside A and C and outside B (even if such elements do not exist). Special sets of numbers in mathematics -------------------------------------- There are sets of such mathematical importance, to which mathematicians refer so frequently, that they have acquired special names and notational conventions to identify them. Many of these important sets are represented in mathematical texts using bold (e.g. Z {\displaystyle \mathbf {Z} } {\displaystyle \mathbf {Z} }) or blackboard bold (e.g. Z {\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} } \mathbb {Z} ) typeface. These include * N {\displaystyle \mathbf {N} } {\displaystyle \mathbf {N} } or N {\displaystyle \mathbb {N} } \mathbb N, the set of all natural numbers: N = { 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , . . . } {\displaystyle \mathbf {N} =\{0,1,2,3,...\}} {\displaystyle \mathbf {N} =\{0,1,2,3,...\}} (often, authors exclude 0); * Z {\displaystyle \mathbf {Z} } {\displaystyle \mathbf {Z} } or Z {\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} } \mathbb {Z} , the set of all integers (whether positive, negative or zero): Z = { . . . , − 2 , − 1 , 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , . . . } {\displaystyle \mathbf {Z} =\{...,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,...\}} {\displaystyle \mathbf {Z} =\{...,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,...\}}; * Q {\displaystyle \mathbf {Q} } {\displaystyle \mathbf {Q} } or Q {\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} } \mathbb {Q} , the set of all rational numbers (that is, the set of all proper and improper fractions): Q = { a b ∣ a , b ∈ Z , b ≠ 0 } {\displaystyle \mathbf {Q} =\left\{{\frac {a}{b}}\mid a,b\in \mathbf {Z} ,b\neq 0\right\}} {\displaystyle \mathbf {Q} =\left\{{\frac {a}{b}}\mid a,b\in \mathbf {Z} ,b\neq 0\right\}}. For example, −7/4 ∈ **Q** and 5 = 5/1 ∈ **Q**; * R {\displaystyle \mathbf {R} } {\displaystyle \mathbf {R} } or R {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } \mathbb {R} , the set of all real numbers, including all rational numbers and all irrational numbers (which include algebraic numbers such as 2 {\displaystyle {\sqrt {2}}} {\sqrt {2}} that cannot be rewritten as fractions, as well as transcendental numbers such as π and *e*); * C {\displaystyle \mathbf {C} } {\displaystyle \mathbf {C} } or C {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} } \mathbb {C} , the set of all complex numbers: **C** = {*a* + *bi* | *a*, *b* ∈ **R**}, for example, 1 + 2*i* ∈ **C**. Each of the above sets of numbers has an infinite number of elements. Each is a subset of the sets listed below it. Sets of positive or negative numbers are sometimes denoted by superscript plus and minus signs, respectively. For example, Q + {\displaystyle \mathbf {Q} ^{+}} {\displaystyle \mathbf {Q} ^{+}} represents the set of positive rational numbers. Functions --------- A *function* (or *mapping*) from a set A to a set B is a rule that assigns to each "input" element of A an "output" that is an element of B; more formally, a function is a special kind of relation, one that relates each element of A to *exactly one* element of B. A function is called * injective (or one-to-one) if it maps any two different elements of A to *different* elements of B, * surjective (or onto) if for every element of B, there is at least one element of A that maps to it, and * bijective (or a one-to-one correspondence) if the function is both injective and surjective — in this case, each element of A is paired with a unique element of B, and each element of B is paired with a unique element of A, so that there are no unpaired elements. An injective function is called an *injection*, a surjective function is called a *surjection*, and a bijective function is called a *bijection* or *one-to-one correspondence*. Cardinality ----------- The cardinality of a set *S*, denoted |*S*|, is the number of members of *S*. For example, if *B* = {blue, white, red}, then |B| = 3. Repeated members in roster notation are not counted, so |{blue, white, red, blue, white}| = 3, too. More formally, two sets share the same cardinality if there exists a one-to-one correspondence between them. The cardinality of the empty set is zero. ### Infinite sets and infinite cardinality The list of elements of some sets is endless, or *infinite*. For example, the set N {\displaystyle \mathbb {N} } \mathbb {N} of natural numbers is infinite. In fact, all the special sets of numbers mentioned in the section above are infinite. Infinite sets have *infinite cardinality*. Some infinite cardinalities are greater than others. Arguably one of the most significant results from set theory is that the set of real numbers has greater cardinality than the set of natural numbers. Sets with cardinality less than or equal to that of N {\displaystyle \mathbb {N} } \mathbb {N} are called *countable sets*; these are either finite sets or *countably infinite sets* (sets of the same cardinality as N {\displaystyle \mathbb {N} } \mathbb {N} ); some authors use "countable" to mean "countably infinite". Sets with cardinality strictly greater than that of N {\displaystyle \mathbb {N} } \mathbb {N} are called *uncountable sets*. However, it can be shown that the cardinality of a straight line (i.e., the number of points on a line) is the same as the cardinality of any segment of that line, of the entire plane, and indeed of any finite-dimensional Euclidean space. ### The continuum hypothesis The continuum hypothesis, formulated by Georg Cantor in 1878, is the statement that there is no set with cardinality strictly between the cardinality of the natural numbers and the cardinality of a straight line. In 1963, Paul Cohen proved that the continuum hypothesis is independent of the axiom system ZFC consisting of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory with the axiom of choice. (ZFC is the most widely-studied version of axiomatic set theory.) Power sets ---------- The power set of a set *S* is the set of all subsets of *S*. The empty set and *S* itself are elements of the power set of *S*, because these are both subsets of *S*. For example, the power set of {1, 2, 3} is {∅, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}}. The power set of a set *S* is commonly written as *P*(*S*) or 2*S*. If *S* has *n* elements, then *P*(*S*) has 2*n* elements. For example, {1, 2, 3} has three elements, and its power set has 23 = 8 elements, as shown above. If *S* is infinite (whether countable or uncountable), then *P*(*S*) is uncountable. Moreover, the power set is always strictly "bigger" than the original set, in the sense that any attempt to pair up the elements of *S* with the elements of *P*(*S*) will leave some elements of *P*(*S*) unpaired. (There is never a bijection from *S* onto *P*(*S*).) Partitions ---------- A partition of a set *S* is a set of nonempty subsets of *S*, such that every element *x* in *S* is in exactly one of these subsets. That is, the subsets are pairwise disjoint (meaning any two sets of the partition contain no element in common), and the union of all the subsets of the partition is *S*. Basic operations ---------------- Suppose that a universal set U (a set containing all elements being discussed) has been fixed, and that A is a subset of U. * The complement of A is the set of all elements (of U) that do *not* belong to A. It may be denoted *A*c or *A*′. In set-builder notation, A c = { a ∈ U : a ∉ A } {\displaystyle A^{\text{c}}=\{a\in U:a\notin A\}} {\displaystyle A^{\text{c}}=\{a\in U:a\notin A\}}. The complement may also be called the *absolute complement* to distinguish it from the relative complement below. Example: If the universal set is taken to be the set of integers, then the complement of the set of even integers is the set of odd integers. Given any two sets A and B, * their union *A* ∪ *B* is the set of all things that are members of *A* or *B* or both. * their intersection *A* ∩ *B* is the set of all things that are members of both *A* and *B*. If *A* ∩ *B* = ∅, then A and B are said to be *disjoint*. * the set difference *A* \ *B* (also written *A* − *B*) is the set of all things that belong to A but not B. Especially when B is a subset of A, it is also called the relative complement of B in A. With *B*c as the absolute complement of *B* (in the universal set U), *A* \ *B* = *A* ∩ *B*c . * their symmetric difference *A* Δ *B* is the set of all things that belong to A or B but not both. One has A Δ B = ( A ∖ B ) ∪ ( B ∖ A ) {\displaystyle A\,\Delta \,B=(A\setminus B)\cup (B\setminus A)} {\displaystyle A\,\Delta \,B=(A\setminus B)\cup (B\setminus A)}. * their cartesian product *A* × *B* is the set of all ordered pairs (*a*,*b*) such that a is an element of A and b is an element of B. Examples: * {1, 2, 3} ∪ {3, 4, 5} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. * {1, 2, 3} ∩ {3, 4, 5} = {3}. * {1, 2, 3} − {3, 4, 5} = {1, 2}. * {1, 2, 3} Δ {3, 4, 5} = {1, 2, 4, 5}. * {*a*, *b*} × {1, 2, 3} = {(*a*,1), (*a*,2), (*a*,3), (*b*,1), (*b*,2), (*b*,3)}. The operations above satisfy many identities. For example, one of De Morgan's laws states that **(*A* ∪ *B*)′ = *A*′ ∩ *B*′** (that is, the elements outside the union of A and B are the elements that are outside A *and* outside B). The cardinality of *A* × *B* is the product of the cardinalities of A and B. (This is an elementary fact when A and B are finite. When one or both are infinite, multiplication of cardinal numbers is defined to make this true.) The power set of any set becomes a Boolean ring with symmetric difference as the addition of the ring and intersection as the multiplication of the ring. Applications ------------ Sets are ubiquitous in modern mathematics. For example, structures in abstract algebra, such as groups, fields and rings, are sets closed under one or more operations. One of the main applications of naive set theory is in the construction of relations. A relation from a domain *A* to a codomain *B* is a subset of the Cartesian product *A* × *B*. For example, considering the set *S* = {rock, paper, scissors} of shapes in the game of the same name, the relation "beats" from *S* to *S* is the set *B* = {(scissors,paper), (paper,rock), (rock,scissors)}; thus *x* beats *y* in the game if the pair (*x*,*y*) is a member of *B*. Another example is the set *F* of all pairs (*x*, *x*2), where *x* is real. This relation is a subset of **R** × **R**, because the set of all squares is subset of the set of all real numbers. Since for every *x* in **R**, one and only one pair (*x*,...) is found in *F*, it is called a function. In functional notation, this relation can be written as *F*(*x*) = *x*2. Principle of inclusion and exclusion ------------------------------------ The inclusion–exclusion principle is a technique for counting the elements in a union of two finite sets in terms of the sizes of the two sets and their intersection. It can be expressed symbolically as | A ∪ B | = | A | + | B | − | A ∩ B | . {\displaystyle |A\cup B|=|A|+|B|-|A\cap B|.} {\displaystyle |A\cup B|=|A|+|B|-|A\cap B|.} A more general form of the principle gives the cardinality of any finite union of finite sets: | A 1 ∪ A 2 ∪ A 3 ∪ … ∪ A n | = ( | A 1 | + | A 2 | + | A 3 | + … | A n | ) − ( | A 1 ∩ A 2 | + | A 1 ∩ A 3 | + … | A n − 1 ∩ A n | ) + … + ( − 1 ) n − 1 ( | A 1 ∩ A 2 ∩ A 3 ∩ … ∩ A n | ) . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\left|A\_{1}\cup A\_{2}\cup A\_{3}\cup \ldots \cup A\_{n}\right|=&\left(\left|A\_{1}\right|+\left|A\_{2}\right|+\left|A\_{3}\right|+\ldots \left|A\_{n}\right|\right)\\&{}-\left(\left|A\_{1}\cap A\_{2}\right|+\left|A\_{1}\cap A\_{3}\right|+\ldots \left|A\_{n-1}\cap A\_{n}\right|\right)\\&{}+\ldots \\&{}+\left(-1\right)^{n-1}\left(\left|A\_{1}\cap A\_{2}\cap A\_{3}\cap \ldots \cap A\_{n}\right|\right).\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\left|A_{1}\cup A_{2}\cup A_{3}\cup \ldots \cup A_{n}\right|=&\left(\left|A_{1}\right|+\left|A_{2}\right|+\left|A_{3}\right|+\ldots \left|A_{n}\right|\right)\\&{}-\left(\left|A_{1}\cap A_{2}\right|+\left|A_{1}\cap A_{3}\right|+\ldots \left|A_{n-1}\cap A_{n}\right|\right)\\&{}+\ldots \\&{}+\left(-1\right)^{n-1}\left(\left|A_{1}\cap A_{2}\cap A_{3}\cap \ldots \cap A_{n}\right|\right).\end{aligned}}} See also -------- * Algebra of sets * Alternative set theory * Category of sets * Class (set theory) * Dense set * Family of sets * Fuzzy set * Internal set * Mereology * Multiset * Principia Mathematica * Rough set

Set (mathematics)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_(mathematics)

<?> You may need rendering support to display the uncommon Unicode characters in this article correctly. **Hindustani** (/ˌhɪndʊˈstɑːni/; Devanagari: हिन्दुस्तानी, *Hindustānī*; Perso-Arabic: ہندوستانی, *Hindūstānī*, lit. 'of Hindustan') is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in Northern and Central India and Pakistan, and used as a *lingua franca* in both countries. Hindustani is a pluricentric language with two standard registers, known as Hindi and Urdu. Thus, it is also called **Hindi–Urdu**. Colloquial registers of the language fall on a spectrum between these standards. The concept of a Hindustani language as a "unifying language" or "fusion language" was endorsed by Mahatma Gandhi. The conversion from Hindi to Urdu (or vice versa) is generally achieved just by transliteration between the two scripts, instead of translation which is generally only required for religious and literary texts. Some scholars trace the language's first written poetry, in the form of Old Hindi, to as early as 769 AD. However this view is not generally accepted. During the period of the Delhi Sultanate, which covered most of today's India, eastern Pakistan, southern Nepal and Bangladesh and which resulted in the contact of Hindu and Muslim cultures, the Sanskrit and Prakrit base of Old Hindi became enriched with loanwords from Persian, evolving into the present form of Hindustani. The Hindustani vernacular became an expression of Indian national unity during the Indian Independence movement, and continues to be spoken as the common language of the people of the northern Indian subcontinent, which is reflected in the Hindustani vocabulary of Bollywood films and songs. The language's core vocabulary is derived from Prakrit (a descendant of Sanskrit), with substantial loanwords from Persian and Arabic (via Persian). As of 2022, Hindi and Urdu together constitute the 3rd-most-spoken language in the world after English and Mandarin, with 833.5 million native and second-language speakers, according to *Ethnologue*, though this includes millions who self-reported their language as 'Hindi' on the Indian census but speak a number of other Hindi languages than Hindustani. The total number of Hindi–Urdu speakers was reported to be over 300 million in 1995, making Hindustani the third- or fourth-most spoken language in the world. History ------- Early forms of present-day Hindustani developed from the Middle Indo-Aryan *apabhraṃśa* vernaculars of present-day North India in the 7th–13th centuries, chiefly the Dehlavi dialect of the Western Hindi category of Indo-Aryan languages that is known as Old Hindi. Hindustani emerged as a contact language around Delhi, a result of the increasing linguistic diversity that occurred due to Muslim rule, while the use of its southern dialect, Dakhani, was promoted by Muslim rulers in the Deccan. Amir Khusrow, who lived in the thirteenth century during the Delhi Sultanate period in North India, used these forms (which was the *lingua franca* of the period) in his writings and referred to it as *Hindavi* (Persian: ھندوی, lit. 'of *Hind* or *India*'). The Delhi Sultanate, which comprised several Turkic and Afghan dynasties that ruled much of the subcontinent from Delhi, was succeeded by the Mughal Empire in 1526. Ancestors of the language were known as *Hindui*, *Hindavi*, *Zabān-e Hind* (transl. 'Language of India'), *Zabān-e Hindustan* (transl. 'Language of Hindustan'), *Hindustan ki boli* (transl. 'Language of Hindustan'), Rekhta, and Hindi. Its regional dialects became known as *Zabān-e Dakhani* in southern India, *Zabān-e Gujari* (transl. 'Language of Gujars') in Gujarat, and as *Zabān-e Dehlavi* or Urdu around Delhi. It is an Indo-Aryan language, deriving its base primarily from the Western Hindi dialect of Delhi, also known as Khariboli. Although the Mughals were of Timurid (*Gurkānī*) Turco-Mongol descent, they were Persianised, and Persian had gradually become the state language of the Mughal empire after Babur, a continuation since the introduction of Persian by Central Asian Turkic rulers in the Indian Subcontinent, and the patronisation of it by the earlier Turko-Afghan Delhi Sultanate. The basis in general for the introduction of Persian into the subcontinent was set, from its earliest days, by various Persianised Central Asian Turkic and Afghan dynasties. Hindustani began to take shape as a Persianised vernacular during the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 AD) and Mughal Empire (1526–1858 AD) in South Asia. Hindustani retained the grammar and core vocabulary of the local Delhi dialect. However, as an emerging common dialect, Hindustani absorbed large numbers of Persian, Arabic, and Turkic loanwords, and as Mughal conquests grew it spread as a lingua franca across much of northern India; this was a result of the contact of Hindu and Muslim cultures in Hindustan that created a composite Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb. The language was also known as *Rekhta*, or 'mixed', which implies that it was mixed with Persian. Written in the Perso-Arabic, Devanagari, and occasionally Kaithi or Gurmukhi scripts, it remained the primary lingua franca of northern India for the next four centuries, although it varied significantly in vocabulary depending on the local language. Alongside Persian, it achieved the status of a literary language in Muslim courts and was also used for literary purposes in various other settings such as Sufi, Nirgun Sant, Krishna Bhakta circles, and Rajput Hindu courts. Its majors centres of development included the Mughal courts of Delhi, Lucknow, Agra and Lahore as well as the Rajput courts of Amber and Jaipur. In the 18th century, towards the end of the Mughal period, with the fragmentation of the empire and the elite system, a variant of Hindustani, one of the successors of apabhraṃśa vernaculars at Delhi, and nearby cities, came to gradually replace Persian as the lingua franca among the educated elite upper class particularly in northern India, though Persian still retained much of its pre-eminence for a short period. The term *Hindustani* was given to that language. The Perso-Arabic script form of this language underwent a standardisation process and further Persianisation during this period (18th century) and came to be known as Urdu, a name derived from Persian: *Zabān-e Urdū-e Mualla* ('language of the court') or *Zabān-e Urdū* (زبان اردو, 'language of the camp'). The etymology of the word *Urdu* is of Chagatai origin, *Ordū* ('camp'), cognate with English *horde*, and known in local translation as *Lashkari Zabān* (لشکری زبان), which is shorted to *Lashkari* (لشکری). This is all due to its origin as the common speech of the Mughal army. As a literary language, Urdu took shape in courtly, elite settings. Along with English, it became the first official language of British India in 1850. Hindi as a standardised literary register of the Delhi dialect arose in the 19th century; the Braj dialect was the dominant literary language in the Devanagari script up until and through the 19th century. While the first literary works (mostly translations of earlier works) in Sanskritised Hindustani were already written in the early 19th century as part of a literary project that included both Hindu and Muslim writers (e.g. Lallu Lal, Insha Allah Khan), the call for a distinct Sanskritised standard of the Delhi dialect written in Devanagari under the name of Hindi became increasingly politicised in the course of the century and gained pace around 1880 in an effort to displace Urdu's official position. John Fletcher Hurst in his book published in 1891 mentioned that the Hindustani or camp language of the Mughal Empire's courts at Delhi was not regarded by philologists as a distinct language but only as a dialect of Hindi with admixture of Persian. He continued: "But it has all the magnitude and importance of separate language. It is linguistic result of Muslim rule of eleventh & twelfth centuries and is spoken (except in rural Bengal) by many Hindus in North India and by Musalman population in all parts of India." Next to English it was the official language of British Raj, was commonly written in Arabic or Persian characters, and was spoken by approximately 100,000,000 people. The process of hybridization also led to the formation of words in which the first element of the compound was from Khari Boli and the second from Persian, such as *rajmahal* 'palace' (*raja* 'royal, king' + *mahal* 'house, place') and *rangmahal* 'fashion house' (*rang* 'colour, dye' + *mahal* 'house, place'). As Muslim rule expanded, Hindustani speakers traveled to distant parts of India as administrators, soldiers, merchants, and artisans. As it reached new areas, Hindustani further hybridized with local languages. In the Deccan, for instance, Hindustani blended with Telugu and came to be called Dakhani. In Dakhani, aspirated consonants were replaced with their unaspirated counterparts; for instance, *dekh* 'see' became *dek*, *ghula* 'dissolved' became *gula*, *kuch* 'some' became *kuc*, and *samajh* 'understand' became *samaj*. When the British colonised the Indian subcontinent from the late 18th through to the late 19th century, they used the words 'Hindustani', 'Hindi', and 'Urdu' interchangeably. They developed it as the language of administration of British India, further preparing it to be the official language of modern India and Pakistan. However, with independence, use of the word 'Hindustani' declined, being largely replaced by 'Hindi' and 'Urdu', or 'Hindi-Urdu' when either of those was too specific. More recently, the word 'Hindustani' has been used for the colloquial language of Bollywood films, which are popular in both India and Pakistan and which cannot be unambiguously identified as either Hindi or Urdu. Registers --------- Although, at the spoken level, Hindi and Urdu are considered registers of a single language, Hindustani or Hindi-Urdu, as they share a common grammar and core vocabulary, they differ in literary and formal vocabulary; where literary Hindi draws heavily on Sanskrit and to a lesser extent Prakrit, literary Urdu draws heavily on Persian and Arabic loanwords. The grammar and base vocabulary (most pronouns, verbs, adpositions, etc.) of both Hindi and Urdu, however, are the same and derive from a Prakritic base, and both have Persian/Arabic influence. The standardised registers Hindi and Urdu are collectively known as *Hindi-Urdu*. Hindustani is the *lingua franca* of the north and west of the Indian subcontinent, though it is understood fairly well in other regions also, especially in the urban areas. This has led it to be characterised as a continuum that ranges between Hindi and Urdu. A common vernacular sharing characteristics with Sanskritised Hindi, regional Hindi and Urdu, Hindustani is more commonly used as a vernacular than highly Sanskritised Hindi or highly Persianised Urdu. This can be seen in the popular culture of Bollywood or, more generally, the vernacular of North Indians and Pakistanis, which generally employs a lexicon common to both Hindi and Urdu speakers. Minor subtleties in region will also affect the 'brand' of Hindustani, sometimes pushing the Hindustani closer to Urdu or to Hindi. One might reasonably assume that the Hindustani spoken in Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh (known for its usage of Urdu) and Varanasi (a holy city for Hindus and thus using highly Sanskritised Hindi) is somewhat different. ### Modern Standard Hindi Standard Hindi, one of the 22 officially recognized languages of India and the official language of the Union, is usually written in the indigenous Devanagari script of India and exhibits less Persian and Arabic influence than Urdu. It has a literature of 500 years, with prose, poetry, religion and philosophy. One could conceive of a wide spectrum of dialects and registers, with the highly Persianised Urdu at one end of the spectrum and a heavily Sanskritised variety spoken in the region around Varanasi, at the other end. In common usage in India, the term *Hindi* includes all these dialects except those at the Urdu spectrum. Thus, the different meanings of the word *Hindi* include, among others: 1. standardized Hindi as taught in schools throughout India (except some states such as Tamil Nadu), 2. formal or official Hindi advocated by Purushottam Das Tandon and as instituted by the post-independence Indian government, heavily influenced by Sanskrit, 3. the vernacular dialects of Hindustani as spoken throughout India, 4. the neutralized form of Hindustani used in popular television and films (which is nearly identical to colloquial Urdu), or 5. the more formal neutralized form of Hindustani used in television and print news reports. ### Modern Standard Urdu Urdu is the national language and state language of Pakistan and one of the 22 officially recognised languages of India. It is written, except in some parts of India, in the Nastaliq style of the Urdu alphabet, an extended Perso-Arabic script incorporating Indic phonemes. It is heavily influenced by Persian vocabulary and was historically also known as Rekhta. As Dakhini (or Deccani) where it also draws words from local languages, it survives and enjoys a rich history in the Deccan and other parts of South India, with the prestige dialect being Hyderabadi Urdu spoken in and around the capital of the Nizams and the Deccan Sultanates. Earliest forms of the language's literature may be traced back to the 13th-14th century works of Amīr Khusrau Dehlavī, often called the "father of Urdu literature" while Walī Deccani is seen as the progenitor of Urdu poetry. ### Bazaar Hindustani The term *bazaar Hindustani*, in other words, the 'street talk' or literally 'marketplace Hindustani', has arisen to denote a colloquial register of the language that uses vocabulary common to both Hindi and Urdu while eschewing high-register and specialized Arabic or Sanskrit derived words. It has emerged in various South Asian cities where Hindustani is not the main language, in order to facilitate communication across language barriers. It is characterized by loanwords from local languages. Names ----- Amir Khusro c. 1300 referred to this language of his writings as *Dehlavi* (देहलवी / دہلوی, 'of Delhi') or *Hindavi* (हिन्दवी / ہندوی). During this period, Hindustani was used by Sufis in promulgating their message across the Indian subcontinent. After the advent of the Mughals in the subcontinent, Hindustani acquired more Persian loanwords. *Rekhta* ('mixture'), *Hindi* ('Indian'), Hindustani, Hindvi, Lahori, and Dakni (amongst others) became popular names for the same language until the 18th century. The name *Urdu* (from *Zabān-i-Ordu*, or *Orda*) appeared around 1780. It is believed to have been coined by the poet Mashafi. In local literature and speech, it was also known as the *Lashkari Zabān* (military language) or *Lashkari*. Mashafi was the first person to simply modify the name *Zabān-i-Ordu* to *Urdu*. During the British Raj, the term *Hindustani* was used by British officials. In 1796, John Borthwick Gilchrist published a "A Grammar of the Hindoostanee Language". Upon partition, India and Pakistan established national standards that they called *Hindi* and *Urdu,* respectively, and attempted to make distinct, with the result that *Hindustani* commonly, but mistakenly, came to be seen as a "mixture" of Hindi and Urdu. Grierson, in his highly influential *Linguistic Survey of India*, proposed that the names *Hindustani, Urdu,* and *Hindi* be separated in use for different varieties of the Hindustani language, rather than as the overlapping synonyms they frequently were: > We may now define the three main varieties of Hindōstānī as follows:—Hindōstānī is primarily the language of the Upper Gangetic Doab, and is also the *lingua franca* of India, capable of being written in both Persian and Dēva-nāgarī characters, and without purism, avoiding alike the excessive use of either Persian or Sanskrit words when employed for literature. The name 'Urdū' can then be confined to that special variety of Hindōstānī in which Persian words are of frequent occurrence, and which hence can only be written in the Persian character, and, similarly, 'Hindī' can be confined to the form of Hindōstānī in which Sanskrit words abound, and which hence can only be written in the Dēva-nāgarī character. > > Literature ---------- Official status --------------- Prior to 1947, Hindustani was officially recognised by the British Raj. In the post-independence period however, the term Hindustani has lost currency and is not given any official recognition by the Indian or Pakistani governments. The language is instead recognised by its standard forms, Hindi and Urdu. ### Hindi Hindi is declared by Article 343(1), Part 17 of the Indian Constitution as the "official language (राजभाषा, *rājabhāṣā*) of the Union." (In this context, "Union" means the Federal Government and not the entire country—India has 23 official languages.) At the same time, however, the definitive text of federal laws is officially the English text and proceedings in the higher appellate courts must be conducted in English. At the state level, Hindi is one of the official languages in 10 of the 29 Indian states and three Union Territories, respectively: Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal; Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, and Delhi. In the remaining states, Hindi is not an official language. In states like Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, studying Hindi is not compulsory in the state curriculum. However, an option to take the same as second or third language does exist. In many other states, studying Hindi is usually compulsory in the school curriculum as a third language (the first two languages being the state's official language and English), though the intensiveness of Hindi in the curriculum varies. ### Urdu Urdu is the national language (قومی زبان, *qaumi zabān*) of Pakistan, where it shares official language status with English. Although English is spoken by many, and Punjabi is the native language of the majority of the population, Urdu is the *lingua franca*. In India, Urdu is one of the languages recognised in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India and is an official language of the Indian states of Bihar, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, and also the Union Territories of Delhi and Jammu and Kashmir. Although the government school system in most other states emphasises Modern Standard Hindi, at universities in cities such as Lucknow, Aligarh and Hyderabad, Urdu is spoken and learnt, and *Saaf* or *Khaalis* Urdu is treated with just as much respect as *Shuddha* Hindi. Geographical distribution ------------------------- Besides being the *lingua franca* of North India and Pakistan in South Asia, Hindustani is also spoken by many in the South Asian diaspora and their descendants around the world, including North America (e.g., in Canada, Hindustani is one of the fastest growing languages), Europe, and the Middle East. * A sizeable population in Afghanistan, especially in Kabul, can also speak and understand Hindi-Urdu due to the popularity and influence of Bollywood films and songs in the region, as well as the fact that many Afghan refugees spent time in Pakistan in the 1980s and 1990s. * Fiji Hindi was derived from the Hindustani linguistic group and is spoken widely by Fijians of Indian origin. * Hindustani was also one of the languages that was spoken widely during British rule in Burma. Many older citizens of Myanmar, particularly Anglo-Indians and the Anglo-Burmese, still know it, although it has had no official status in the country since military rule began. * Hindustani is also spoken in the countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council, where migrant workers from various countries live and work for several years. Phonology --------- Grammar ------- Vocabulary ---------- Hindi-Urdu's core vocabulary has an Indic base, being derived from Prakrit, which in turn derives from Sanskrit, as well as a substantial amount of loanwords from Persian and Arabic (via Persian). Hindustani contains around 5,500 words of Persian and Arabic origin. Hindustani also borrowed Persian prefixes to create new words. Persian affixes became so assimilated that they were used with original Khari Boli words as well. Writing system -------------- Historically, Hindustani was written in the Kaithi, Devanagari, and Urdu alphabets. Kaithi and Devanagari are two of the Brahmic scripts native to India, whereas the Urdu alphabet is a derivation of the Perso-Arabic script written in Nastaʿlīq, which is the preferred calligraphic style for Urdu. Today, Hindustani continues to be written in the Urdu alphabet in Pakistan. In India, the Hindi register is officially written in Devanagari, and Urdu in the Urdu alphabet, to the extent that these standards are partly defined by their script. However, in popular publications in India, Urdu is also written in Devanagari, with slight variations to establish a Devanagari Urdu alphabet alongside the Devanagari Hindi alphabet. Devanagari| अ | आ | इ | ई | उ | ऊ | ए | ऐ | ओ | औ | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | ə | aː | ɪ | iː | ʊ | uː | eː | ɛː | oː | ɔː | | क | क़ | ख | ख़ | ग | ग़ | घ | ङ | | k | q | kʰ | x | ɡ | ɣ | ɡʱ | ŋ | | च | छ | ज | ज़ | झ | झ़ | ञ | | t͡ʃ | t͡ʃʰ | d͡ʒ | z | d͡ʒʱ | ʒ | ɲ | | ट | ठ | ड | ड़ | ढ | ढ़ | ण | | ʈ | ʈʰ | ɖ | ɽ | ɖʱ | ɽʱ | ɳ | | त | थ | द | ध | न | | t | tʰ | d | dʱ | n | | प | फ | फ़ | ब | भ | म | | p | pʰ | f | b | bʱ | m | | य | र | ल | व | श | ष | स | ह | | j | ɾ | l | ʋ | ʃ | ʂ | s | ɦ | Urdu alphabet| Letter | Name of letter | Transliteration | IPA | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | ا | *alif* | a, ā, i, or u | /ə/, /aː/, /ɪ/, or /ʊ/ | | ب | *be* | b | /b/ | | پ | *pe* | p | /p/ | | ت | *te* | t | /t/ | | ٹ | *ṭe* | ṭ | /ʈ/ | | ث | *se* | s | /s/ | | ج | *jīm* | j | /d͡ʒ/ | | چ | *che* | c | /t͡ʃ/ | | ح | *baṛī he* | h̤ | /h ~ ɦ/ | | خ | khe | k͟h | /x/ | | د | *dāl* | d | /d/ | | ڈ | *ḍāl* | ḍ | /ɖ/ | | ذ | *zāl* | z | /z/ | | ر | *re* | r | /r ~ ɾ/ | | ڑ | *ṛe* | ṛ | /ɽ/ | | ز | *ze* | z | /z/ | | ژ | *zhe* | ž | /ʒ/ | | س | *sīn* | s | /s/ | | ش | *shīn* | sh | /ʃ/ | | ص | *su'ād* | s̤ | /s/ | | ض | *zu'ād* | ż | /z/ | | ط | *to'e* | t̤ | /t/ | | ظ | *zo'e* | ẓ | /z/ | | ع | *‘ain* | ‘ | – | | غ | *ghain* | ġ | /ɣ/ | | ف | *fe* | f | /f/ | | ق | *qāf* | q | /q/ | | ک | *kāf* | k | /k/ | | گ | *gāf* | g | /ɡ/ | | ل | *lām* | l | /l/ | | م | *mīm* | m | /m/ | | ن | *nūn* | n | /n/ | | ں | *nūn ghunna* | ṁ or m̐ | /◌̃/ | | و | *wā'o* | w, v, ō, or ū | /ʋ/, /oː/, /ɔ/ or /uː/ | | ہ | *choṭī he* | h | /h ~ ɦ/ | | ھ | *do chashmī he* | h | /ʰ/ or /ʱ/ | | ء | *hamza* | ' | /ʔ/ | | ی | *ye* | y or ī | /j/ or /iː/ | | ے | *baṛī ye* | ai or ē | /ɛː/, or /eː/ | Because of anglicisation in South Asia and the international use of the Latin script, Hindustani is occasionally written in the Latin script. This adaptation is called Roman Urdu or Romanised Hindi, depending upon the register used. Since Urdu and Hindi are mutually intelligible when spoken, Romanised Hindi and Roman Urdu (unlike Devanagari Hindi and Urdu in the Urdu alphabet) are mostly mutually intelligible as well. Sample text ----------- ### Colloquial Hindustani An example of colloquial Hindustani: * **Devanagari**: यह कितने का है? * **Urdu**: یہ کتنے کا ہے؟ * **Romanisation**: *Yah kitnē kā hai?* * **English**: How much is this? The following is a sample text, Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, in the two official registers of Hindustani, Hindi and Urdu. Because this is a formal legal text, differences in vocabulary are most pronounced. ### Literary Hindi अनुच्छेद १ — सभी मनुष्यों को गौरव और अधिकारों के विषय में जन्मजात स्वतन्त्रता और समानता प्राप्त हैं। उन्हें बुद्धि और अन्तरात्मा की देन प्राप्त है और परस्पर उन्हें भाईचारे के भाव से बर्ताव करना चाहिए। | Urdu transliteration | | --- | | انُچھید ١ : سبھی منُشیوں کو گورو اور ادھکاروں کے وِشئے میں جنمجات سوَتنتْرتا پراپت ہیں۔ اُنہیں بدھی اور انتراتما کی دین پراپت ہے اور پرسپر اُنہیں بھائی چارے کے بھاؤ سے برتاؤ کرنا چاہئے۔ | | Transliteration (ISO 15919) | | *Anucchēd 1: Sabhī manuṣyō̃ kō gaurav aur adhikārō̃ kē viṣay mē̃ janmajāt svatantratā aur samāntā prāpt haĩ. Unhē̃ buddhi aur antarātmā kī dēn prāpt hai aur paraspar unhē̃ bhāīcārē kē bhāv sē bartāv karnā cāhiē.* | | Transcription (IPA) | | səbʰiː mənʊʂjõː koː ɡɔːɾəʋ ɔːɾ ədʰɪkɑːɾõː keː ʋɪʂəj mẽː dʒənmədʒɑːt sʋətəntɾətɑː ɔːɾ səmɑːntɑː pɾɑːpt ɦɛ̃ː ‖ ʊnʰẽː bʊdːʰɪ ɔːɾ əntəɾɑːtmɑː kiː deːn pɾɑːpt ɦɛː ɔːɾ pəɾəspəɾ ʊnʰẽː bʰɑːiːtʃɑːɾeː keː bʰɑːʋ seː bəɾtɑːʋ kəɾnɑː tʃɑːɦɪeː ‖] | | Gloss (word-to-word) | | Article 1—*All* human-beings to dignity and rights' matter in from-birth freedom acquired is. Them to reason and conscience's endowment acquired is and always them to brotherhood's spirit with behaviour to do should. | | Translation (grammatical) | | Article 1—All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. | ### Literary Urdu :دفعہ ١: تمام اِنسان آزاد اور حُقوق و عِزت کے اعتبار سے برابر پَیدا ہُوئے ہَیں۔ انہیں ضمِیر اور عقل ودِیعت ہوئی ہَیں۔ اِس لئے انہیں ایک دُوسرے کے ساتھ بھائی چارے کا سُلُوک کرنا چاہئے۔ | Devanagari transliteration | | --- | | दफ़ा १ — तमाम इनसान आज़ाद और हुक़ूक़ ओ इज़्ज़त के ऐतबार से बराबर पैदा हुए हैं। उन्हें ज़मीर और अक़्ल वदीयत हुई हैं। इसलिए उन्हें एक दूसरे के साथ भाई चारे का सुलूक करना चाहीए। | | Transliteration (ISO 15919) | | *Dafʻah 1: Tamām insān āzād aur ḥuqūq ō ʻizzat kē iʻtibār sē barābar paidā hu’ē haĩ. Unhē̃ żamīr aur ʻaql wadīʻat hu’ī haĩ. Isli’ē unhē̃ ēk dūsrē kē sāth bhā’ī cārē kā sulūk karnā cāhi’ē.* | | Transcription (IPA) | | dəfaː eːk təmaːm ɪnsaːn aːzaːd ɔːɾ hʊquːq oː izːət keː ɛːtəbaːɾ seː bəɾaːbəɾ pɛːdaː hʊeː hɛ̃ː ʊnʱẽː zəmiːɾ ɔːɾ əql ʋədiːət hʊiː hɛ̃ː ɪs lɪeː ʊnʱẽː eːk duːsɾeː keː saːtʰ bʱaːiː tʃaːɾeː kaː sʊluːk kəɾnaː tʃaːhɪeː | | Gloss (word-to-word) | | Article 1: All humans free[,] and rights and dignity's consideration from equal born are. To them conscience and intellect endowed is. Therefore, they one another's with brotherhood's treatment do must. | | Translation (grammatical) | | Article 1—All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience. Therefore, they should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. | Hindustani and Bollywood ------------------------ The predominant Indian film industry Bollywood, located in Mumbai, Maharashtra uses Modern Standard Hindi, colloquial Hindustani, Bombay Hindi, Urdu, Awadhi, Rajasthani, Bhojpuri, and Braj Bhasha, along with Punjabi and with the liberal use of English or Hinglish in scripts and soundtrack lyrics. Film titles are often screened in three scripts: Latin, Devanagari and occasionally Perso-Arabic. The use of Urdu or Hindi in films depends on the film's context: historical films set in the Delhi Sultanate or Mughal Empire are almost entirely in Urdu, whereas films based on Hindu mythology or ancient India make heavy use of Hindi with Sanskrit vocabulary. See also -------- * Hindustan (Indian subcontinent) * Languages of India * Languages of Pakistan * List of Hindi authors * List of Urdu writers * Hindi–Urdu transliteration * Uddin and Begum Hindustani Romanisation Bibliography ------------ * Asher, R. E. 1994. "Hindi." Pp. 1547–49 in *The Encyclopedia of language and linguistics*, edited by R. E. Asher. Oxford: Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-08-035943-4. * Bailey, Thomas G. 1950. *Teach yourself Hindustani*. London: English Universities Press. * Chatterji, Suniti K. 1960. *Indo-Aryan and Hindi* (rev. 2nd ed.). Calcutta: Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyay. * Dua, Hans R. 1992. "Hindi-Urdu as a pluricentric language." In *Pluricentric languages: Differing norms in different nations*, edited by M. G. Clyne. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-012855-1. * Dua, Hans R. 1994a. "Hindustani." Pp. 1554 in *The Encyclopedia of language and linguistics*, edited by R. E. Asher. Oxford: Pergamon Press. * —— 1994b. "Urdu." Pp. 4863–64 in *The Encyclopedia of language and linguistics*, edited by R. E. Asher. Oxford: Pergamon Press. * Rai, Amrit. 1984. *A house divided: The origin and development of Hindi-Hindustani*. Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-561643-X Further reading --------------- * Henry Blochmann (1877). *English and Urdu dictionary, romanized* (8 ed.). Calcutta: Printed at the Baptist mission press for the Calcutta school-book society. p. 215. Retrieved 6 July 2011.the University of Michigan * John Dowson (1908). *A grammar of the Urdū or Hindūstānī language* (3 ed.). London: K. Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., ltd. p. 264. Retrieved 6 July 2011.the University of Michigan * Duncan Forbes (1857). *A dictionary, Hindustani and English, accompanied by a reversed dictionary, English and Hindustani*. *archive.org* (2nd ed.). London: Sampson Low, Marston & Company. p. 1144. OCLC 1043011501. Archived from the original on 19 October 2018. Retrieved 18 October 2018. * John Thompson Platts (1874). *A grammar of the Hindūstānī or Urdū language*. Vol. 6423 of Harvard College Library preservation microfilm program. London: W.H. Allen. p. 399. Retrieved 6 July 2011.Oxford University * —— (1892). *A grammar of the Hindūstānī or Urdū language*. London: W.H. Allen. p. 399. Retrieved 6 July 2011.the New York Public Library * —— (1884). *A dictionary of Urdū, classical Hindī, and English* (reprint ed.). London: H. Milford. p. 1259. Retrieved 6 July 2011.Oxford University * Shakespear, John. A Dictionary, Hindustani and English. 3rd ed., much enl. London: Printed for the author by J.L. Cox and Son: Sold by Parbury, Allen, & Co., 1834. * Taylor, Joseph. *A dictionary, Hindoostanee and English*. Available at Hathi Trust. (A dictionary, Hindoostanee and English / abridged from the quarto edition of Major Joseph Taylor; as edited by the late W. Hunter; by William Carmichael Smyth.)

Hindustani language

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindustani_language

**Capital punishment**, also known as the **death penalty** and formerly called **judicial homicide**, is the state-sanctioned practice of killing a person as a punishment for a crime, usually following an authorized, rule-governed process to conclude that the person is responsible for violating norms that warrant said punishment. The sentence ordering that an offender be punished in such a manner is known as a **death sentence**, and the act of carrying out the sentence is known as an **execution**. A prisoner who has been sentenced to death and awaits execution is *condemned* and is commonly referred to as being "on death row". Etymologically, the term *capital* (lit. "of the head", derived via the Latin **capitalis** from **caput**, "head") refers to execution by beheading, but executions are carried out by many methods, including hanging, shooting, lethal injection, stoning, electrocution, and gassing. Crimes that are punishable by death are known as *capital crimes*, *capital offences*, or *capital felonies*, and vary depending on the jurisdiction, but commonly include serious crimes against the person, such as murder, mass murder, aggravated cases of rape (often including child sexual abuse), terrorism, aircraft hijacking, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide, along with crimes against the state such as attempting to overthrow government, treason, espionage, sedition, and piracy. Also, in some cases, acts of recidivism, aggravated robbery, and kidnapping, in addition to drug trafficking, drug dealing, and drug possession, are capital crimes or enhancements. However, states have also imposed punitive executions, for an expansive range of conduct, for political or religious beliefs and practices, for a status beyond one's control, or without employing any significant due process procedures. Judicial murder is the intentional and premeditated killing of an innocent person by means of capital punishment. For example, the executions following the show trials in Russia during the Great Purge of 1937–1938 were an instrument of political repression. As of the end of 2022, 53 countries retain capital punishment, 111 countries have completely abolished it *de jure* for all crimes, seven have abolished it for ordinary crimes (while maintaining it for special circumstances such as war crimes), and 24 are abolitionist in practice. Although the majority of nations have abolished capital punishment, over 60% of the world's population live in countries where the death penalty is retained, such as China, India, the United States, Singapore, Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nigeria, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Japan, and Taiwan. Capital punishment is controversial, with many people, organizations, and religious groups holding differing views on whether or not it is ethically permissible. Amnesty International declares that the death penalty breaches human rights, stating "the right to life and the right to live free from torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment." These rights are protected under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the United Nations in 1948. In the European Union (EU), Article 2 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union prohibits the use of capital punishment. The Council of Europe, which has 46 member states, has sought to abolish the use of the death penalty by its members absolutely, through Protocol 13 of the European Convention on Human Rights. However, this only affects those member states which have signed and ratified it, and they do not include Armenia and Azerbaijan. The United Nations General Assembly has adopted, throughout the years from 2007 to 2020, eight non-binding resolutions calling for a global moratorium on executions, with a view to eventual abolition. History ------- Execution of criminals and dissidents has been used by nearly all societies since the beginning of civilizations on Earth. Until the nineteenth century, without developed prison systems, there was frequently no workable alternative to ensure deterrence and incapacitation of criminals. In pre-modern times the executions themselves often involved torture with cruel and painful methods, such as the breaking wheel, keelhauling, sawing, hanging, drawing, and quartering, burning at the stake, flaying, slow slicing, boiling alive, impalement, mazzatello, blowing from a gun, schwedentrunk, and scaphism. Other methods which appear only in legend include the blood eagle and brazen bull. The use of formal execution extends to the beginning of recorded history. Most historical records and various primitive tribal practices indicate that the death penalty was a part of their justice system. Communal punishments for wrongdoing generally included blood money compensation by the wrongdoer, corporal punishment, shunning, banishment and execution. In tribal societies, compensation and shunning were often considered enough as a form of justice. The response to crimes committed by neighbouring tribes, clans or communities included a formal apology, compensation, blood feuds, and tribal warfare. A blood feud or vendetta occurs when arbitration between families or tribes fails, or an arbitration system is non-existent. This form of justice was common before the emergence of an arbitration system based on state or organized religion. It may result from crime, land disputes or a code of honour. "Acts of retaliation underscore the ability of the social collective to defend itself and demonstrate to enemies (as well as potential allies) that injury to property, rights, or the person will not go unpunished." In most countries that practice capital punishment, it is now reserved for murder, terrorism, war crimes, espionage, treason, or as part of military justice. In some countries sexual crimes, such as rape, fornication, adultery, incest, sodomy, and bestiality carry the death penalty, as do religious crimes such as Hudud, Zina, and Qisas crimes, such as apostasy (formal renunciation of the state religion), blasphemy, moharebeh, hirabah, Fasad, Mofsed-e-filarz and witchcraft. In many countries that use the death penalty, drug trafficking and often drug possession is also a capital offence. In China, human trafficking and serious cases of corruption and financial crimes are punished by the death penalty. In militaries around the world courts-martial have imposed death sentences for offences such as cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny. ### Ancient history Elaborations of tribal arbitration of feuds included peace settlements often done in a religious context and compensation system. Compensation was based on the principle of *substitution* which might include material (for example, cattle, slaves, land) compensation, exchange of brides or grooms, or payment of the blood debt. Settlement rules could allow for animal blood to replace human blood, or transfers of property or blood money or in some case an offer of a person for execution. The person offered for execution did not have to be an original perpetrator of the crime because the social system was based on tribes and clans, not individuals. Blood feuds could be regulated at meetings, such as the Norsemen *things*. Systems deriving from blood feuds may survive alongside more advanced legal systems or be given recognition by courts (for example, trial by combat or blood money). One of the more modern refinements of the blood feud is the duel. In certain parts of the world, nations in the form of ancient republics, monarchies or tribal oligarchies emerged. These nations were often united by common linguistic, religious or family ties. Moreover, expansion of these nations often occurred by conquest of neighbouring tribes or nations. Consequently, various classes of royalty, nobility, various commoners and slaves emerged. Accordingly, the systems of tribal arbitration were submerged into a more unified system of justice which formalized the relation between the different "social classes" rather than "tribes". The earliest and most famous example is Code of Hammurabi which set the different punishment and compensation, according to the different class or group of victims and perpetrators. The Torah/Old Testament lays down the death penalty for murder, kidnapping, practicing magic, violation of the Sabbath, blasphemy, and a wide range of sexual crimes, although evidence[*specify*] suggests that actual executions were exceedingly rare, if they occurred at all.[*page needed*] A further example comes from Ancient Greece, where the Athenian legal system replacing customary oral law was first written down by Draco in about 621 BC: the death penalty was applied for a particularly wide range of crimes, though Solon later repealed Draco's code and published new laws, retaining capital punishment only for intentional homicide, and only with victim's family permission. The word draconian derives from Draco's laws. The Romans also used the death penalty for a wide range of offences. ### Ancient Greece Protagoras (whose thought is reported by Plato) criticizes the principle of revenge, because once the damage is done it cannot be canceled by any action. So, if the death penalty is to be imposed by society, it is only to protect the latter against the criminal or for a dissuasive purpose. "The only right that Protagoras knows is therefore human right, which, established and sanctioned by a sovereign collectivity, identifies itself with positive or the law in force of the city. In fact, it finds its guarantee in the death penalty which threatens all those who do not respect it." Plato, for his part, saw the death penalty as a means of purification, because crimes are a "defilement". Thus, in the Laws, he considered necessary the execution of the animal or the destruction of the object which caused the death of a Man by accident. For the murderers, he considered that the act of homicide is not natural and is not fully consented by the criminal. Homicide is thus a disease of the soul, which must be reeducated as much as possible, and, as a last resort, sentence to death if no rehabilitation is possible. According to Aristotle, for whom free will is proper to man, the citizen is responsible for his acts. If there was a crime, a judge must define the penalty allowing the crime to be annulled by compensating it. This is how pecuniary compensation appeared for criminals the least recalcitrant and whose rehabilitation is deemed possible. But for others, the death penalty is necessary according to Aristotle. This philosophy aims on the one hand to protect society and on the other hand to compensate to cancel the consequences of the crime committed. It inspired Western criminal law until the 17th century, a time when the first reflections on the abolition of the death penalty appeared. ### Ancient Rome In ancient Rome, the application of the death penalty against Roman citizens was unusual and considered exceptional. They preferred alternative sentences ranging, depending on the crime and the criminal, from private or public reprimand to exile, including the confiscation of his property, or torture, or even prison, and as a last resort, death. A historic debate, followed by a vote, took place in the Roman Senate to decide the fate of Catiline's allies when he tried to take power in December −63. Then Roman consul, argued in favor of the killing of conspirators without judgment by decision of the Senate (Senatus consultum ultimum) and was supported by the majority of senators; among the minority voices opposed to the execution, most notable was that of Julius Caesar. The custom was quite different for foreigners who were considered inferior to Roman citizens, and especially for slaves, who were considered transferrable property. ### China Although many are executed in the People's Republic of China each year in the present day, there was a time in the Tang dynasty (618–907) when the death penalty was abolished. This was in the year 747, enacted by Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (r. 712–756). When abolishing the death penalty Xuanzong ordered his officials to refer to the nearest regulation by analogy when sentencing those found guilty of crimes for which the prescribed punishment was execution. Thus, depending on the severity of the crime a punishment of severe scourging with the thick rod or of exile to the remote Lingnan region might take the place of capital punishment. However, the death penalty was restored only 12 years later in 759 in response to the An Lushan Rebellion. At this time in the Tang dynasty only the emperor had the authority to sentence criminals to execution. Under Xuanzong capital punishment was relatively infrequent, with only 24 executions in the year 730 and 58 executions in the year 736. The two most common forms of execution in the Tang dynasty were strangulation and decapitation, which were the prescribed methods of execution for 144 and 89 offences respectively. Strangulation was the prescribed sentence for lodging an accusation against one's parents or grandparents with a magistrate, scheming to kidnap a person and sell them into slavery and opening a coffin while desecrating a tomb. Decapitation was the method of execution prescribed for more serious crimes such as treason and sedition. Despite the great discomfort involved, most of the Tang Chinese preferred strangulation to decapitation, as a result of the traditional Tang Chinese belief that the body is a gift from the parents and that it is, therefore, disrespectful to one's ancestors to die without returning one's body to the grave intact. Some further forms of capital punishment were practiced in the Tang dynasty, of which the first two that follow at least were extralegal.[*clarification needed*] The first of these was scourging to death with the thick rod[*clarification needed*] which was common throughout the Tang dynasty especially in cases of gross corruption. The second was truncation, in which the convicted person was cut in two at the waist with a fodder knife and then left to bleed to death. A further form of execution called Ling Chi (slow slicing), or death by/of a thousand cuts, was used from the close of the Tang dynasty (around 900) to its abolition in 1905. When a minister of the fifth grade or above received a death sentence the emperor might grant him a special dispensation allowing him to commit suicide in lieu of execution. Even when this privilege was not granted, the law required that the condemned minister be provided with food and ale by his keepers and transported to the execution ground in a cart rather than having to walk there. Nearly all executions under the Tang dynasty took place in public as a warning to the population. The heads of the executed were displayed on poles or spears. When local authorities decapitated a convicted criminal, the head was boxed and sent to the capital as proof of identity and that the execution had taken place. ### Middle Ages In medieval and early modern Europe, before the development of modern prison systems, the death penalty was also used as a generalized form of punishment for even minor offences. In early modern Europe, a massive moral panic regarding witchcraft swept across Europe and later the European colonies in North America. During this period, there were widespread claims that malevolent Satanic witches were operating as an organized threat to Christendom. As a result, tens of thousands of women were prosecuted for witchcraft and executed through the witch trials of the early modern period (between the 15th and 18th centuries). The death penalty also targeted sexual offences such as sodomy. In the early history of Islam (7th–11th centuries), there is a number of "purported (but mutually inconsistent) reports" (*athar*) regarding the punishments of sodomy ordered by some of the early caliphs. Abu Bakr, the first caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate, apparently recommended toppling a wall on the culprit, or else burning him alive, while Ali ibn Abi Talib is said to have ordered death by stoning for one sodomite and had another thrown head-first from the top of the highest building in the town; according to Ibn Abbas, the latter punishment must be followed by stoning. Other medieval Muslim leaders, such as the Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad (most notably al-Mu'tadid), were often cruel in their punishments.[*page needed*] In early modern England, the Buggery Act 1533 stipulated hanging as punishment for "buggery". James Pratt and John Smith were the last two Englishmen to be executed for sodomy in 1835. In 1636 the laws of Puritan governed Plymouth Colony included a sentence of death for sodomy and buggery. The Massachusetts Bay Colony followed in 1641. Throughout the 19th century, U.S. states repealed death sentences from their sodomy laws, with South Carolina being the last to do so in 1873. Historians recognize that during the Early Middle Ages, the Christian populations living in the lands invaded by the Arab Muslim armies between the 7th and 10th centuries suffered religious discrimination, religious persecution, religious violence, and martyrdom multiple times at the hands of Arab Muslim officials and rulers. As People of the Book, Christians under Muslim rule were subjected to *dhimmi* status (along with Jews, Samaritans, Gnostics, Mandeans, and Zoroastrians), which was inferior to the status of Muslims. Christians and other religious minorities thus faced religious discrimination and religious persecution in that they were banned from proselytising (for Christians, it was forbidden to evangelize or spread Christianity) in the lands invaded by the Arab Muslims on pain of death, they were banned from bearing arms, undertaking certain professions, and were obligated to dress differently in order to distinguish themselves from Arabs. Under *sharia*, Non-Muslims were obligated to pay *jizya* and *kharaj* taxes, together with periodic heavy ransom levied upon Christian communities by Muslim rulers in order to fund military campaigns, all of which contributed a significant proportion of income to the Islamic states while conversely reducing many Christians to poverty, and these financial and social hardships forced many Christians to convert to Islam. Christians unable to pay these taxes were forced to surrender their children to the Muslim rulers as payment who would sell them as slaves to Muslim households where they were forced to convert to Islam. Many Christian martyrs were executed under the Islamic death penalty for defending their Christian faith through dramatic acts of resistance such as refusing to convert to Islam, repudiation of the Islamic religion and subsequent reconversion to Christianity, and blasphemy towards Muslim beliefs. Despite the wide use of the death penalty, calls for reform were not unknown. The 12th-century Jewish legal scholar Moses Maimonides wrote: "It is better and more satisfactory to acquit a thousand guilty persons than to put a single innocent man to death." He argued that executing an accused criminal on anything less than absolute certainty would lead to a slippery slope of decreasing burdens of proof, until we would be convicting merely "according to the judge's caprice". Maimonides's concern was maintaining popular respect for law, and he saw errors of commission as much more threatening than errors of omission. ### Enlightenment philosophy While during the Middle Ages the expiatory aspect of the death penalty was taken into account, this is no longer the case under the Lumières. These define the place of man within society no longer according to a divine rule, but as a contract established at birth between the citizen and the society, it is the social contract. From that moment on, capital punishment should be seen as useful to society through its dissuasive effect, but also as a means of protection of the latter vis-à-vis criminals. ### Modern era In the last several centuries, with the emergence of modern nation states, justice came to be increasingly associated with the concept of natural and legal rights. The period saw an increase in standing police forces and permanent penitential institutions. Rational choice theory, a utilitarian approach to criminology which justifies punishment as a form of deterrence as opposed to retribution, can be traced back to Cesare Beccaria, whose influential treatise *On Crimes and Punishments* (1764) was the first detailed analysis of capital punishment to demand the abolition of the death penalty. In England Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832), the founder of modern utilitarianism, called for the abolition of the death penalty. Beccaria, and later Charles Dickens and Karl Marx noted the incidence of increased violent criminality at the times and places of executions. Official recognition of this phenomenon led to executions being carried out inside prisons, away from public view. In England in the 18th century, when there was no police force, Parliament drastically increased the number of capital offences to more than 200. These were mainly property offences, for example cutting down a cherry tree in an orchard. In 1820, there were 160, including crimes such as shoplifting, petty theft or stealing cattle. The severity of the so-called Bloody Code was often tempered by juries who refused to convict, or judges, in the case of petty theft, who arbitrarily set the value stolen at below the statutory level for a capital crime. ### 20th century In Nazi Germany there were three types of capital punishment; hanging, decapitation and death by shooting. Also, modern military organisations employed capital punishment as a means of maintaining military discipline. In the past, cowardice, absence without leave, desertion, insubordination, shirking under enemy fire and disobeying orders were often crimes punishable by death (see decimation and running the gauntlet). One method of execution, since firearms came into common use, has also been firing squad, although some countries use execution with a single shot to the head or neck. Various authoritarian states—for example those with Fascist or Communist governments—employed the death penalty as a potent means of political oppression. According to Robert Conquest, the leading expert on Joseph Stalin's purges, more than one million Soviet citizens were executed during the Great Purge of 1937–38, almost all by a bullet to the back of the head. Mao Zedong publicly stated that "800,000" people had been executed in China during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976). Partly as a response to such excesses, civil rights organizations started to place increasing emphasis on the concept of human rights and an abolition of the death penalty. ### Contemporary era By continent, all European states but one have abolished capital punishment; many Oceanian states have abolished it; most states in the Americas have abolished its use, while a few actively retain it; less than half of countries in Africa retain it; and the majority of countries in Asia retain it. Abolition was often adopted due to political change, as when countries shifted from authoritarianism to democracy, or when it became an entry condition for the EU. The United States is a notable exception: some states have had bans on capital punishment for decades, the earliest being Michigan where it was abolished in 1846, while other states still actively use it today. The death penalty in the United States remains a contentious issue which is hotly debated. In retentionist countries, the debate is sometimes revived when a miscarriage of justice has occurred though this tends to cause legislative efforts to improve the judicial process rather than to abolish the death penalty. In abolitionist countries, the debate is sometimes revived by particularly brutal murders though few countries have brought it back after abolishing it. However, a spike in serious, violent crimes, such as murders or terrorist attacks, has prompted some countries to effectively end the moratorium on the death penalty. One notable example is Pakistan which in December 2014 lifted a six-year moratorium on executions after the Peshawar school massacre during which 132 students and 9 members of staff of the Army Public School and Degree College Peshawar were killed by Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan terrorists, a group distinct from the Afghan Taliban, who condemned the attack. Since then, Pakistan has executed over 400 convicts. In 2017, two major countries, Turkey and the Philippines, saw their executives making moves to reinstate the death penalty. In the same year, passage of the law in the Philippines failed to obtain the Senate's approval. On 29 December 2021, after a 20-year moratorium, the Kazakhstan government enacted the 'On Amendments and Additions to Certain Legislative Acts of the Republic of Kazakhstan on the Abolition of the Death Penalty' signed by President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev as part of series of Omnibus reformations of the Kazak legal system 'Listening State' initiative. History of abolition -------------------- In 724 AD in Japan, the death penalty was banned during the reign of Emperor Shōmu but the abolition only lasted a few years. In 818, Emperor Saga abolished the death penalty under the influence of Shinto and it lasted until 1156. In China, the death penalty was banned by Emperor Xuanzong of Tang in 747, replacing it with exile or scourging. However, the ban only lasted 12 years. Following his conversion to Christianity in 988, Vladimir the Great abolished the death penalty in Kievan Rus', along with torture and mutilation; corporal punishment was also seldom used. In England, a public statement of opposition was included in The Twelve Conclusions of the Lollards, written in 1395. Sir Thomas More's *Utopia*, published in 1516, debated the benefits of the death penalty in dialogue form, coming to no firm conclusion. More was himself executed for treason in 1535. More recent opposition to the death penalty stemmed from the book of the Italian Cesare Beccaria *Dei Delitti e Delle Pene* ("On Crimes and Punishments"), published in 1764. In this book, Beccaria aimed to demonstrate not only the injustice, but even the futility from the point of view of social welfare, of torture and the death penalty. Influenced by the book, Grand Duke Leopold II of Habsburg, the future Emperor of Austria, abolished the death penalty in the then-independent Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the first permanent abolition in modern times. On 30 November 1786, after having *de facto* blocked executions (the last was in 1769), Leopold promulgated the reform of the penal code that abolished the death penalty and ordered the destruction of all the instruments for capital execution in his land. In 2000, Tuscany's regional authorities instituted an annual holiday on 30 November to commemorate the event. The event is commemorated on this day by 300 cities around the world celebrating Cities for Life Day. In the United Kingdom, it was abolished for murder (leaving only treason, piracy with violence, arson in royal dockyards and a number of wartime military offences as capital crimes) for a five-year experiment in 1965 and permanently in 1969, the last execution having taken place in 1964. It was abolished for all offences in 1998. Protocol 13 to the European Convention on Human Rights, first entering into force in 2003, prohibits the death penalty in all circumstances for those states that are party to it, including the United Kingdom from 2004. In the post-classical Republic of Poljica, life was ensured as a basic right in its Poljica Statute of 1440. The short-lived revolutionary Roman Republic banned capital punishment in 1849. Venezuela followed suit and abolished the death penalty in 1863 and San Marino did so in 1865. The last execution in San Marino had taken place in 1468. In Portugal, after legislative proposals in 1852 and 1863, the death penalty was abolished in 1867. The last execution in Brazil was 1876; from then on all the condemnations were commuted by the Emperor Pedro II until its abolition for civil offences and military offences in peacetime in 1891. The penalty for crimes committed in peacetime was then reinstated and abolished again twice (1938–1953 and 1969–1978), but on those occasions it was restricted to acts of terrorism or subversion considered "internal warfare" and all sentences were commuted and not carried out. Abolition occurred in Canada in 1976 (except for some military offences, with complete abolition in 1998); in France in 1981; and in Australia in 1973 (although the state of Western Australia retained the penalty until 1984). In South Australia, under the premiership of then-Premier Dunstan, the *Criminal Law Consolidation Act 1935* (SA) was modified so that the death sentence was changed to life imprisonment in 1976. In 1977, the United Nations General Assembly affirmed in a formal resolution that throughout the world, it is desirable to "progressively restrict the number of offences for which the death penalty might be imposed, with a view to the desirability of abolishing this punishment". In the United States, Michigan was the first state to ban the death penalty, on 18 May 1846. The death penalty was declared unconstitutional between 1972 and 1976 based on the *Furman v. Georgia* case, but the 1976 *Gregg v. Georgia* case once again permitted the death penalty under certain circumstances. Further limitations were placed on the death penalty in *Atkins v. Virginia* (2002; death penalty unconstitutional for people with an intellectual disability) and *Roper v. Simmons* (2005; death penalty unconstitutional if defendant was under age 18 at the time the crime was committed). In the United States, 23 states and the District of Columbia ban capital punishment. Many countries have abolished capital punishment either in law or in practice. Since World War II, there has been a trend toward abolishing capital punishment. Capital punishment has been completely abolished by 108 countries, a further seven have done so for all offences except under special circumstances and 26 more have abolished it in practice because they have not used it for at least 10 years and are believed to have a policy or established practice against carrying out executions. Contemporary use ---------------- ### By country Most nations, including almost all developed countries, have abolished capital punishment either in law or in practice; notable exceptions are the United States, Japan, Taiwan, Singapore and South Korea. Additionally, capital punishment is also carried out in China, India, and most Islamic states. Since World War II, there has been a trend toward abolishing the death penalty. 53 countries retain the death penalty in active use, 111 countries have abolished capital punishment altogether, 7 have done so for all offences except under special circumstances, and 24 more have abolished it in practice because they have not used it for at least 10 years and are believed to have a policy or established practice against carrying out executions. According to Amnesty International, 18 countries are known to have performed executions in 2020. There are countries which do not publish information on the use of capital punishment, most significantly China and North Korea. According to Amnesty International, around 1,000 prisoners were executed in 2017. Amnesty reported in 2004 and 2009 that Singapore and Iraq respectively had the world's highest per capita execution rate. According to Al Jazeera and UN Special Rapporteur Ahmed Shaheed, Iran has had the world's highest per capita execution rate. A 2012 EU report from the Directorate-General for External Relations' policy department pointed to Gaza as having the highest per capita execution rate in the MENA region. | Country | Total executed(2022) | | --- | --- | |  Iran | 596 | |  Saudi Arabia | 146 | |  Somalia | 19 | |  United States | 18 | |  Egypt | 13 | |  Singapore | 11 | |  Kuwait | 7 | |  Palestine | 5 | |  Bangladesh | 4 | |  Iraq | 4 | |  Myanmar | 4 | |  South Sudan | 2 | |  Jordan | 1 | |  Japan | 1 | |  Syria | 1 | |  Yemen | 1 | |  China | Unknown | |  Vietnam | Unknown | The use of the death penalty is becoming increasingly restrained in some retentionist countries including Taiwan and Singapore. Indonesia carried out no executions between November 2008 and March 2013. Singapore, Japan and the United States are the only developed countries that are classified by Amnesty International as 'retentionist' (South Korea is classified as 'abolitionist in practice'). Nearly all retentionist countries are situated in Asia, Africa and the Caribbean. The only retentionist country in Europe is Belarus. During the 1980s, the democratisation of Latin America swelled the ranks of abolitionist countries. This was soon followed by the fall of Communism in Europe. Many of the countries which restored democracy aspired to enter the EU. The EU and the Council of Europe both strictly require member states not to practice the death penalty (see Capital punishment in Europe). Public support for the death penalty in the EU varies. The last execution in a member state of the present-day Council of Europe took place in 1997 in Ukraine. In contrast, the rapid industrialization in Asia has seen an increase in the number of developed countries which are also retentionist. In these countries, the death penalty retains strong public support, and the matter receives little attention from the government or the media; in China there is a small but significant and growing movement to abolish the death penalty altogether. This trend has been followed by some African and Middle Eastern countries where support for the death penalty remains high. Some countries have resumed practicing the death penalty after having previously suspended the practice for long periods. The United States suspended executions in 1972 but resumed them in 1976; there was no execution in India between 1995 and 2004; and Sri Lanka declared an end to its moratorium on the death penalty on 20 November 2004, although it has not yet performed any further executions. The Philippines re-introduced the death penalty in 1993 after abolishing it in 1987, but again abolished it in 2006. The United States and Japan are the only developed countries to have recently carried out executions. The U.S. federal government, the U.S. military, and 27 states have a valid death penalty statute, and over 1,400 executions have been carried in the United States since it reinstated the death penalty in 1976. Japan has 105 inmates with finalized death sentences as of January 14, 2023[update], after Miyuki Ueta, who was convicted of murdering two men in Tottori Prefecture in 2009, died of asphyxiation after choking on food at the Hiroshima Detention House. The most recent country to abolish the death penalty was Kazakhstan on 2 January 2021 after a moratorium dating back 2 decades. According to an Amnesty International report released in April 2020, Egypt ranked regionally third and globally fifth among the countries that carried out most executions in 2019. The country increasingly ignored international human rights concerns and criticism. In March 2021, Egypt executed 11 prisoners in a jail, who were convicted in cases of "murder, theft, and shooting". According to Amnesty International's 2021 report, at least 483 people were executed in 2020 despite the COVID-19 pandemic. The figure excluded the countries that classify death penalty data as state secret. The top five executioners for 2020 were China, Iran, Egypt, Iraq and Saudi Arabia. ### Modern-day public opinion The public opinion on the death penalty varies considerably by country and by the crime in question. Countries where a majority of people are against execution include Norway, where only 25% are in favour. Most French, Finns, and Italians also oppose the death penalty. A 2020 Gallup poll shows that 55% of Americans support the death penalty for an individual convicted of murder, down from 60% in 2016, 64% in 2010, 65% in 2006, and 68% in 2001. In 2020, 43% of Italians expressed support for the death penalty. In Taiwan, polls and research have consistently shown strong support for the death penalty at 80%. This includes a survey conducted by the National Development Council of Taiwan in 2016, showing that 88% of Taiwanese people disagree with abolishing the death penalty. Its continuation of the practice drew criticism from local rights groups. The support and sentencing of capital punishment has been growing in India in the 2010s due to anger over several recent brutal cases of rape, even though actual executions are comparatively rare. While support for the death penalty for murder is still high in China, executions have dropped precipitously, with 3,000 executed in 2012 versus 12,000 in 2002. A poll in South Africa, where capital punishment is abolished, found that 76% of millennial South Africans support re-introduction of the death penalty due to increasing incidents of rape and murder. A 2017 poll found younger Mexicans are more likely to support capital punishment than older ones. 57% of Brazilians support the death penalty. The age group that shows the greatest support for execution of those condemned is the 25 to 34-year-old category, in which 61% say they are in favor. A 2023 poll by Research Co. found that 54 percent of Canadians are in favour of reinstating the death penalty for murder in their country. In April 2021 a poll found that 54% of Britons said they would support reinstating the death penalty for those convicted of terrorism in the UK. About a quarter (23%) of respondents said they would be opposed. In 2020, a Ipsos/Sopra Steria survey showed that 55% of the French people support re-introduction of the death penalty. this was an increase. ### Juvenile offenders The death penalty for juvenile offenders (criminals aged under 18 years at the time of their crime although the legal or accepted definition of *juvenile offender* may vary from one jurisdiction to another) has become increasingly rare. Considering the age of majority is not 18 in some countries or has not been clearly defined in law, since 1990 ten countries have executed offenders who were considered juveniles at the time of their crimes: The People's Republic of China (PRC), Bangladesh, Democratic Republic of Congo, Iran, Iraq, Japan, Nigeria, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, the United States, and Yemen. China, Pakistan, the United States, Yemen and Saudi Arabia have since raised the minimum age to 18. Amnesty International has recorded 61 verified executions since then, in several countries, of both juveniles and adults who had been convicted of committing their offences as juveniles. The PRC does not allow for the execution of those under 18, but child executions have reportedly taken place. One of the youngest children ever to be executed was the infant son of Perotine Massey on or around 18 July 1556. His mother was one of the Guernsey Martyrs who was executed for heresy, and his father had previously fled the island. At less than one day old, he was ordered to be burned by Bailiff Hellier Gosselin, with the advice of priests nearby who said the boy should burn due to having inherited moral stain from his mother, who had given birth during her execution. Starting from 1642 in Colonial America until the present day in the United States, an estimated 365 juvenile offenders were executed by various colonial authorities and (after the American Revolution) the federal government. The U.S. Supreme Court abolished capital punishment for offenders under the age of 16 in *Thompson v. Oklahoma* (1988), and for all juveniles in *Roper v. Simmons* (2005). In Prussia, children under the age of 14 were exempted from the death penalty in 1794. Capital punishment was cancelled by the Electorate of Bavaria in 1751 for children under the age of 11 and by the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1813 for children and youth under 16 years. In Prussia, the exemption was extended to youth under the age of 16 in 1851. For the first time, all juveniles were excluded for the death penalty by the North German Confederation in 1871, which was continued by the German Empire in 1872. In Nazi Germany, capital punishment was reinstated for juveniles between 16 and 17 years in 1939. This was broadened to children and youth from age 12 to 17 in 1943. The death penalty for juveniles was abolished by West Germany, also generally, in 1949 and by East Germany in 1952. In the Hereditary Lands, Austrian Silesia, Bohemia and Moravia within the Habsburg monarchy, capital punishment for children under the age of 11 was no longer foreseen by 1770. The death penalty was, also for juveniles, nearly abolished in 1787 except for emergency or military law, which is unclear in regard of those. It was reintroduced for juveniles above 14 years by 1803, and was raised by general criminal law to 20 years in 1852 and this exemption and the alike one of military law in 1855, which may have been up to 14 years in wartime, were also introduced into all of the Austrian Empire. In the Helvetic Republic, the death penalty for children and youth under the age of 16 was abolished in 1799 yet the country was already dissolved in 1803 whereas the law could remain in force if it was not replaced on cantonal level. In the canton of Bern, all juveniles were exempted from the death penalty at least in 1866. In Fribourg, capital punishment was generally, including for juveniles, abolished by 1849. In Ticino, it was abolished for youth and young adults under the age of 20 in 1816. In Zurich, the exclusion from the death penalty was extended for juveniles and young adults up to 19 years of age by 1835. In 1942, the death penalty was almost deleted in criminal law, as well for juveniles, but since 1928 persisted in military law during wartime for youth above 14 years. If no earlier change was made in the given subject, by 1979 juveniles could no longer be subject to the death penalty in military law during wartime. Between 2005 and May 2008, Iran, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan and Yemen were reported to have executed child offenders, the largest number occurring in Iran. During Hassan Rouhani's tenure as president of Iran from 2013 until 2021, at least 3,602 death sentences have been carried out. This includes the executions of 34 juvenile offenders. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, which forbids capital punishment for juveniles under article 37(a), has been signed by all countries and subsequently ratified by all signatories with the exception of the United States (despite the US Supreme Court decisions abolishing the practice). The UN Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights maintains that the death penalty for juveniles has become contrary to a jus cogens of customary international law. A majority of countries are also party to the U.N. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (whose Article 6.5 also states that "Sentence of death shall not be imposed for crimes committed by persons below eighteen years of age..."). Iran, despite its ratification of the Convention on the Rights of the Child and International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, was the world's largest executioner of juvenile offenders, for which it has been the subject of broad international condemnation; the country's record is the focus of the Stop Child Executions Campaign. But on 10 February 2012, Iran's parliament changed controversial laws relating to the execution of juveniles. In the new legislation the age of 18 (solar year) would be applied to accused of both genders and juvenile offenders must be sentenced pursuant to a separate law specifically dealing with juveniles. Based on the Islamic law which now seems to have been revised, girls at the age of 9 and boys at 15 of lunar year (11 days shorter than a solar year) are deemed fully responsible for their crimes. Iran accounted for two-thirds of the global total of such executions, and currently[*needs update*] has approximately 140 people considered as juveniles awaiting execution for crimes committed (up from 71 in 2007). The past executions of Mahmoud Asgari, Ayaz Marhoni and Makwan Moloudzadeh became the focus of Iran's child capital punishment policy and the judicial system that hands down such sentences. Saudi Arabia also executes criminals who were minors at the time of the offence. In 2013, Saudi Arabia was the center of an international controversy after it executed Rizana Nafeek, a Sri Lankan domestic worker, who was believed to have been 17 years old at the time of the crime. Saudi Arabia banned execution for minors, except for terrorism cases, in April 2020. Japan has not executed juvenile criminals after August 1997, when they executed Norio Nagayama, a spree killer who had been convicted of shooting four people dead in the late 1960s. Nagayama's case created the eponymously named *Nagayama standards*, which take into account factors such as the number of victims, brutality and social impact of the crimes. The standards have been used in determining whether to apply the death sentence in murder cases. Teruhiko Seki, convicted of murdering four family members including a 4-year-old daughter and raping a 15-year-old daughter of a family in 1992, became the second inmate to be hanged for a crime committed as a minor in the first such execution in 20 years after Nagayama on 19 December 2017. Takayuki Otsuki, who was convicted of raping and strangling a 23-year-old woman and subsequently strangling her 11-month-old daughter to death on 14 April 1999, when he was 18, is another inmate sentenced to death, and his request for retrial has been rejected by the Supreme Court of Japan. There is evidence that child executions are taking place in the parts of Somalia controlled by the Islamic Courts Union (ICU). In October 2008, a girl, Aisha Ibrahim Dhuhulow was buried up to her neck at a football stadium, then stoned to death in front of more than 1,000 people. Somalia's established Transitional Federal Government announced in November 2009 (reiterated in 2013) that it plans to ratify the Convention on the Rights of the Child. This move was lauded by UNICEF as a welcome attempt to secure children's rights in the country. ### Methods The following methods of execution have been used by various countries: * Hanging (Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, Nigeria, Sudan, Pakistan, Palestinian National Authority, Israel, Yemen, Egypt, India, Myanmar, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Syria, the UAE, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Liberia) * Shooting (the People's Republic of China, Republic of China, Vietnam, Belarus, Ethiopia, Nigeria, Somalia, North Korea, Indonesia, the UAE, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, Yemen, and in the US states of Oklahoma and Utah). * Lethal injection (United States, Guatemala, Thailand, the People's Republic of China, Vietnam) * Beheading (Saudi Arabia) * Stoning (Nigeria, Sudan) * Electrocution and gas inhalation (some U.S. states, but only if the prisoner requests it or if lethal injection is unavailable) * Inert gas asphyxiation (Some U.S. states, Oklahoma, Mississippi, Alabama) ### Public execution A public execution is a form of capital punishment which "members of the general public may voluntarily attend". This definition excludes the presence of a small number of witnesses randomly selected to assure executive accountability. While today the great majority of the world considers public executions to be distasteful and most countries have outlawed the practice, throughout much of history executions were performed publicly as a means for the state to demonstrate "its power before those who fell under its jurisdiction be they criminals, enemies, or political opponents". Additionally, it afforded the public a chance to witness "what was considered a great spectacle". Social historians note that beginning in the 20th century in the U.S. and western Europe, death in general became increasingly shielded from public view, occurring more and more behind the closed doors of the hospital. Executions were likewise moved behind the walls of the penitentiary. The last formal public executions occurred in 1868 in Britain, in 1936 in the U.S. and in 1939 in France. According to Amnesty International, in 2012, "public executions were known to have been carried out in Iran, North Korea, Saudi Arabia and Somalia". There have been reports of public executions carried out by state and non-state actors in Hamas-controlled Gaza, Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan, and Yemen. Executions which can be classified as public were also carried out in the U.S. states of Florida and Utah as of 1992[update]. Capital crime ------------- ### Crimes against humanity Crimes against humanity such as genocide are usually punishable by death in countries retaining capital punishment. Death sentences for such crimes were handed down and carried out during the Nuremberg Trials in 1946 and the Tokyo Trials in 1948, but the current International Criminal Court does not use capital punishment. The maximum penalty available to the International Criminal Court is life imprisonment. ### Murder Intentional homicide is punishable by death in most countries retaining capital punishment, but generally provided it involves an aggravating factor required by statute or judicial precedents. Some countries, including Singapore and Malaysia, made the death penalty mandatory for murder, though Singapore later changed its laws since 2013 to reserve the mandatory death sentence for intentional murder while providing an alternative sentence of life imprisonment with/without caning for murder with no intention to cause death, which allowed some convicted murderers on death row in Singapore (including Kho Jabing) to apply for the reduction of their death sentences after the courts in Singapore confirmed that they committed murder without the intention to kill and thus eligible for re-sentencing under the new death penalty laws in Singapore. In October 2018 the Malaysian Government imposed a moratorium on all executions until the passage of a new law that would abolish the death penalty. In April 2023, legislation abolishing the mandatory death penalty was passed in Malaysia. The death penalty would be retained, but courts have the discretion to replace it with other punishments, including whipping and imprisonment of 30–40 years. ### Drug trafficking In 2018, at least 35 countries retained the death penalty for drug trafficking, drug dealing, drug possession and related offences. People had been regularly sentenced to death and executed for drug-related offences in China, Indonesia, Iran, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Singapore and Vietnam. Other countries may retain the death penalty for symbolic purposes. The death penalty was mandated for drug trafficking in Singapore and Malaysia. Since 2013, Singapore ruled that those who were certified to have diminished responsibility (e.g. Major depressive disorder) or acting as drug couriers and had assisted the authorities in tackling drug-related activities, would be sentenced to life imprisonment instead of death, with the offender liable to at least 15 strokes of the cane if he was not sentenced to death and was simultaneously sentenced to caning as well. Drug courier Yong Vui Kong's death sentence was replaced with a life sentence and 15 strokes of the cane in November 2013. In April 2023, legislation abolishing the mandatory death penalty was passed in Malaysia. ### Other offences Other crimes that are punishable by death in some countries include: * Terrorism * Treason (a capital crime in most countries that retain capital punishment) * Espionage * Crimes against the state, such as attempting to overthrow government (most countries with the death penalty) * Political protests (Saudi Arabia) * Rape (China, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Iran, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Qatar, Brunei, etc.) * Economic crimes (China, Iran) * Human trafficking (China) * Corruption (China, Iran) * Kidnapping (China, Bangladesh, the US states of Georgia and Idaho, etc.) * Separatism (China) * Unlawful sexual behaviour (Saudi Arabia, Iran, UAE, Qatar, Brunei, Nigeria, etc.) * Religious Hudud offences such as apostasy (Saudi Arabia, Iran, Afghanistan etc.) * Blasphemy (Saudi Arabia, Iran, Pakistan, certain states in Nigeria) * Moharebeh (Iran) * Drinking alcohol (Iran) * Witchcraft and sorcery (Saudi Arabia) * Arson (Algeria, Tunisia, Mali, Mauritania, etc.) * Hirabah; brigandage; armed or aggravated robbery (Algeria, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Kenya, Zambia, Ghana, Ethiopia, the US state of Georgia etc.) Controversy and debate ---------------------- Death penalty opponents regard the death penalty as inhumane and criticize it for its irreversibly. They argue also that capital punishment lacks deterrent effect, or has a brutalization effect, discriminates against minorities and the poor, and that it encourages a "culture of violence". There are many organizations worldwide, such as Amnesty International, and country-specific, such as the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), that have abolition of the death penalty as its main purpose. Advocates of the death penalty argue that it deters crime, is a good tool for police and prosecutors in plea bargaining, makes sure that convicted criminals do not offend again, and that it ensures justice for crimes such as homicide, where other penalties will not inflict the desired retribution demanded by the crime itself. Capital punishment for non-lethal crimes is usually considerably more controversial, and abolished in many of the countries that retain it. ### Retribution Supporters of the death penalty argued that death penalty is morally justified when applied in murder especially with aggravating elements such as for murder of police officers, child murder, torture murder, multiple homicide and mass killing such as terrorism, massacre and genocide. This argument is strongly defended by New York Law School's Professor Robert Blecker, who says that the punishment must be painful in proportion to the crime. Eighteenth-century philosopher Immanuel Kant defended a more extreme position, according to which every murderer deserves to die on the grounds that loss of life is incomparable to any penalty that allows them to remain alive, including life imprisonment. Some abolitionists argue that retribution is simply revenge and cannot be condoned. Others while accepting retribution as an element of criminal justice nonetheless argue that life without parole is a sufficient substitute. It is also argued that the punishing of a killing with another death is a relatively unusual punishment for a violent act, because in general violent crimes are not punished by subjecting the perpetrator to a similar act (e.g. rapists are, typically, not punished by corporal punishment, although it may be inflicted in Singapore, for example). ### Human rights Abolitionists believe capital punishment is the worst violation of human rights, because the right to life is the most important, and capital punishment violates it without necessity and inflicts to the condemned a psychological torture. Human rights activists oppose the death penalty, calling it "cruel, inhuman and degrading punishment". Amnesty International considers it to be "the ultimate irreversible denial of Human Rights". Albert Camus wrote in a 1956 book called *Reflections on the Guillotine, Resistance, Rebellion & Death*: > An execution is not simply death. It is just as different from the privation of life as a concentration camp is from prison. [...] For there to be an equivalency, the death penalty would have to punish a criminal who had warned his victim of the date at which he would inflict a horrible death on him and who, from that moment onward, had confined him at his mercy for months. Such a monster is not encountered in private life. > > In the classic doctrine of natural rights as expounded by for instance Locke and Blackstone, on the other hand, it is an important idea that the right to life can be forfeited, as most other rights can be given due process is observed, such as the right to property and the right to freedom, including provisionally, in anticipation of an actual verdict. As John Stuart Mill explained in a speech given in Parliament against an amendment to abolish capital punishment for murder in 1868: > And we may imagine somebody asking how we can teach people not to inflict suffering by ourselves inflicting it? But to this I should answer – all of us would answer – that to deter by suffering from inflicting suffering is not only possible, but the very purpose of penal justice. Does fining a criminal show want of respect for property, or imprisoning him, for personal freedom? Just as unreasonable is it to think that to take the life of a man who has taken that of another is to show want of regard for human life. We show, on the contrary, most emphatically our regard for it, by the adoption of a rule that he who violates that right in another forfeits it for himself, and that while no other crime that he can commit deprives him of his right to live, this shall. > > In one of the most recent cases relating to the death penalty in Singapore, activists like Jolovan Wham, Kirsten Han and Kokila Annamalai and even the international groups like the United Nations and European Union argued for Malaysian drug trafficker Nagaenthran K. Dharmalingam, who has been on death row at Singapore's Changi Prison since 2010, should not be executed due to an alleged intellectual disability, as they argued that Nagaenthran has low IQ of 69 and a psychiatrist has assessed him to be mentally impaired to an extent that he should not be held liable to his crime and execution. They also cited international law where a country should be prohibiting the execution of mentally and intellectually impaired people in order to push for Singapore to commute Nagaenthran's death penalty to life imprisonment based on protection of human rights. However, the Singapore government and both Singapore's High Court and Court of Appeal maintained their firm stance that despite his certified low IQ, it is confirmed that Nagaenthran is not mentally or intellectually disabled based on the joint opinion of three government psychiatrists as he is able to fully understand the magnitude of his actions and has no problem in his daily functioning of life. Despite the international outcry, Nagaenthran was executed on 27 April 2022. ### Non-painful execution Trends in most of the world have long been to move to private and less painful executions. France developed the guillotine for this reason in the final years of the 18th century, while Britain banned hanging, drawing, and quartering in the early 19th century. Hanging by turning the victim off a ladder or by kicking a stool or a bucket, which causes death by strangulation, was replaced by long drop "hanging" where the subject is dropped a longer distance to dislocate the neck and sever the spinal cord. Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar, Shah of Persia (1896–1907) introduced throat-cutting and blowing from a gun (close-range cannon fire) as quick and relatively painless alternatives to more torturous methods of executions used at that time. In the United States, electrocution and gas inhalation were introduced as more humane alternatives to hanging, but have been almost entirely superseded by lethal injection. A small number of countries, for example Iran and Saudi Arabia, still employ slow hanging methods, decapitation, and stoning. A study of executions carried out in the United States between 1977 and 2001 indicated that at least 34 of the 749 executions, or 4.5%, involved "unanticipated problems or delays that caused, at least arguably, unnecessary agony for the prisoner or that reflect gross incompetence of the executioner". The rate of these "botched executions" remained steady over the period of the study. A separate study published in *The Lancet* in 2005 found that in 43% of cases of lethal injection, the blood level of hypnotics was insufficient to guarantee unconsciousness. However, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in 2008 (*Baze v. Rees*) and again in 2015 (*Glossip v. Gross*) that lethal injection does not constitute cruel and unusual punishment. In *Bucklew v. Precythe*, the majority verdict – written by Judge Neil Gorsuch – further affirmed this principle, stating that while the ban on cruel and unusual punishment affirmatively bans penalties that *deliberately inflict* pain and degradation, it does in no sense limit the possible infliction of pain in the execution of a capital verdict. ### Wrongful execution It is frequently argued that capital punishment leads to miscarriage of justice through the wrongful execution of innocent persons. Many people have been proclaimed innocent victims of the death penalty. Some have claimed that as many as 39 executions have been carried out in the face of compelling evidence of innocence or serious doubt about guilt in the US from 1992 through 2004. Newly available DNA evidence prevented the pending execution of more than 15 death row inmates during the same period in the US, but DNA evidence is only available in a fraction of capital cases. As of 2017[update], 159 prisoners on death row have been exonerated by DNA or other evidence, which is seen as an indication that innocent prisoners have almost certainly been executed. The National Coalition to Abolish the Death Penalty claims that between 1976 and 2015, 1,414 prisoners in the United States have been executed while 156 sentenced to death have had their death sentences vacated. It is impossible to assess how many have been wrongly executed, since courts do not generally investigate the innocence of a dead defendant, and defense attorneys tend to concentrate their efforts on clients whose lives can still be saved; however, there is strong evidence of innocence in many cases. Improper procedure may also result in unfair executions. For example, Amnesty International argues that in Singapore "the Misuse of Drugs Act contains a series of presumptions which shift the burden of proof from the prosecution to the accused. This conflicts with the universally guaranteed right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty". Singapore's Misuse of Drugs Act presumes one is guilty of possession of drugs if, as examples, one is found to be present or escaping from a location "proved or presumed to be used for the purpose of smoking or administering a controlled drug", if one is in possession of a key to a premises where drugs are present, if one is in the company of another person found to be in possession of illegal drugs, or if one tests positive after being given a mandatory urine drug screening. Urine drug screenings can be given at the discretion of police, without requiring a search warrant. The onus is on the accused in all of the above situations to prove that they were not in possession of or consumed illegal drugs. ### Volunteers Some prisoners have volunteered or attempted to expedite capital punishment, often by waiving all appeals. Prisoners have made requests or committed further crimes in prison as well. In the United States, execution volunteers constitute approximately 11% of prisoners on death row. Volunteers often bypass legal procedures which are designed to designate the death penalty for the "worst of the worst" offenders. Opponents of execution volunteering cited the prevalence of mental illness among volunteers comparing it to suicide. Execution volunteers have received considerably less attention and effort at legal reform than those who were exonerated after execution. ### Racial, ethnic and social class bias Opponents of the death penalty argue that this punishment is being used more often against perpetrators from racial and ethnic minorities and from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, than against those criminals who come from a privileged background; and that the background of the victim also influences the outcome. Researchers have shown that white Americans are more likely to support the death penalty when told that it is mostly applied to black Americans, and that more stereotypically black-looking or dark-skinned defendants are more likely to be sentenced to death if the case involves a white victim. However, a study published in 2018 failed to replicate the findings of earlier studies that had concluded that white Americans are more likely to support the death penalty if informed that it is largely applied to black Americans; according to the authors, their findings "may result from changes since 2001 in the effects of racial stimuli on white attitudes about the death penalty or their willingness to express those attitudes in a survey context." In Alabama in 2019, a death row inmate named Domineque Ray was denied his imam in the room during his execution, instead only offered a Christian chaplain. After filing a complaint, a federal court of appeals ruled 5–4 against Ray's request. The majority cited the "last-minute" nature of the request, and the dissent stated that the treatment went against the core principle of denominational neutrality. In July 2019, two Shiite men, Ali Hakim al-Arab, 25, and Ahmad al-Malali, 24, were executed in Bahrain, despite the protests from the United Nations and rights group. Amnesty International stated that the executions were being carried out on confessions of "terrorism crimes" that were obtained through torture. On 30 March 2022, despite the appeals by the United Nations and rights activists, 68-year-old Malay Singaporean Abdul Kahar Othman was hanged at Singapore's Changi Prison for illegally trafficking diamorphine, which marked the first execution in Singapore since 2019 as a result of an informal moratorium caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. Earlier, there were appeals made to advocate for Abdul Kahar's death penalty be commuted to life imprisonment on humanitarian grounds, as Abdul Kahar came from a poor family and has struggled with drug addiction. He was also revealed to have been spending most of his life going in and out of prison, including a ten-year sentence of preventive detention from 1995 to 2005, and has not been given much time for rehabilitation, which made the activists and groups arguing that Abdul Kahar should be given a chance for rehabilitation instead of subjecting him to execution. Both the European Union (EU) and Amnesty International criticised Singapore for finalizing and carrying out Abdul Kahar's execution, and about 400 Singaporeans protested against the government's use of the death penalty merely days after Abdul Kahar's death sentence was authorised. Still, over 80% of the public supported the use of the death penalty in Singapore. ### International views The United Nations introduced a resolution during the General Assembly's 62nd sessions in 2007 calling for a universal ban. The approval of a draft resolution by the Assembly's third committee, which deals with human rights issues, voted 99 to 52, with 33 abstentions, in favour of the resolution on 15 November 2007 and was put to a vote in the Assembly on 18 December. Again in 2008, a large majority of states from all regions adopted, on 20 November in the UN General Assembly (Third Committee), a second resolution calling for a moratorium on the use of the death penalty; 105 countries voted in favour of the draft resolution, 48 voted against and 31 abstained. The moratorium resolution has been presented for a vote each year since 2007. On December 15, 2022, 125 countries voted in favor of the moratorium, with 37 countries opposing, and 22 abstentions. The countries voting against the moratorium included the United States, People's Republic of China, North Korea, and Iran. A range of amendments proposed by a small minority of pro-death penalty countries were overwhelmingly defeated. It had in 2007 passed a non-binding resolution (by 104 to 54, with 29 abstentions) by asking its member states for "a moratorium on executions with a view to abolishing the death penalty". A number of regional conventions prohibit the death penalty, most notably, the Protocol 6 (abolition in time of peace) and Protocol 13 (abolition in all circumstances) to the European Convention on Human Rights. The same is also stated under Protocol 2 in the American Convention on Human Rights, which, however, has not been ratified by all countries in the Americas, most notably Canada and the United States. Most relevant operative international treaties do not require its prohibition for cases of serious crime, most notably, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. This instead has, in common with several other treaties, an optional protocol prohibiting capital punishment and promoting its wider abolition. Several international organizations have made abolition of the death penalty (during time of peace, or in all circumstances) a requirement of membership, most notably the EU and the Council of Europe. The Council of Europe are willing to accept a moratorium as an interim measure. Thus, while Russia was a member of the Council of Europe, and the death penalty remains codified in its law, it has not made use of it since becoming a member of the council – Russia has not executed anyone since 1996. With the exception of Russia (abolitionist in practice) and Belarus (retentionist), all European countries are classified as abolitionist. Latvia abolished *de jure* the death penalty for war crimes in 2012, becoming the last EU member to do so. Protocol 13 to the European Convention on Human Rights calls for the abolition of the death penalty in all circumstances (including for war crimes). The majority of European countries have signed and ratified it. Some European countries have not done this, but all of them except Belarus have now abolished the death penalty in all circumstances (*de jure*, and Russia *de facto*). Poland is the most recent country to ratify the protocol, on 28 August 2013. Protocol 6, which prohibits the death penalty during peacetime, has been ratified by all members of the Council of Europe. It had been signed but not ratified by Russia at the time of its expulsion in 2022. There are also other international abolitionist instruments, such as the Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which has 90 parties; and the Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights to Abolish the Death Penalty (for the Americas; ratified by 13 states). In Turkey, over 500 people were sentenced to death after the 1980 Turkish coup d'état. About 50 of them were executed, the last one 25 October 1984. Then there was a *de facto* moratorium on the death penalty in Turkey. As a move towards EU membership, Turkey made some legal changes. The death penalty was removed from peacetime law by the National Assembly in August 2002, and in May 2004 Turkey amended its constitution to remove capital punishment in all circumstances. It ratified Protocol13 to the European Convention on Human Rights in February 2006. As a result, Europe is a continent free of the death penalty in practice, all states , having ratified Protocol 6 to the European Convention on Human Rights, with the exceptions of Russia (which has entered a moratorium) and Belarus, which are not members of the Council of Europe. The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe has been lobbying for Council of Europe observer states who practice the death penalty, the U.S. and Japan, to abolish it or lose their observer status. In addition to banning capital punishment for EU member states, the EU has also banned detainee transfers in cases where the receiving party may seek the death penalty. Sub-Saharan African countries that have recently abolished the death penalty include Burundi, which abolished the death penalty for all crimes in 2009, and Gabon which did the same in 2010. On 5 July 2012, Benin became part of the Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), which prohibits the use of the death penalty. The newly created South Sudan is among the 111 UN member states that supported the resolution passed by the United Nations General Assembly that called for the removal of the death penalty, therefore affirming its opposition to the practice. South Sudan, however, has not yet abolished the death penalty and stated that it must first amend its Constitution, and until that happens it will continue to use the death penalty. Among non-governmental organizations (NGOs), Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch are noted for their opposition to capital punishment. A number of such NGOs, as well as trade unions, local councils, and bar associations, formed a World Coalition Against the Death Penalty in 2002. An open letter led by Danish Member of the European Parliament, Karen Melchior was sent to the European Commission ahead of the 26 January 2021 meeting of the Bahraini Minister of Foreign Affairs, Abdullatif bin Rashid Al Zayani with the members of the European Union for the signing of a Cooperation Agreement. A total of 16 MEPs undersigned the letter expressing their grave concern towards the extended abuse of human rights in Bahrain following the arbitrary arrest and detention of activists and critics of the government. The attendees of the meeting were requested to demand from their Bahraini counterparts to take into consideration the concerns raised by the MEPs, particularly for the release of Abdulhadi Al-Khawaja and Sheikh Mohammed Habib Al-Muqdad, the two European-Bahraini dual citizens on death row. ### Religious views The world's major faiths have differing views depending on the religion, denomination, sect and the individual adherent. The Catholic Church considers the death penalty as "inadmissible" in any circumstance and denounces it an "attack" on the "inviolability and dignity of the person." Both the Baháʼí and Islamic faiths support capital punishment. See also -------- * Death in custody * Execution chamber * Executioner * Judicial dissolution, sometimes referred to as the "corporate death penalty" * *The Death Penalty: Opposing Viewpoints* (book) * Shame culture * Last meal * Capital punishment in Judaism Notes and references -------------------- ### Notes #### Explanatory notes 1. ↑ Belarus 2. ↑ including Australia and New Zealand. 3. ↑ Most Latin American states and Canada have completely abolished capital punishment, while a few such as Brazil and Guatemala allow for it only in exceptional situations (such as treason committed during wartime). 4. ↑ The United States and some Caribbean countries. 5. ↑ For example South Africa abolished the death penalty in 1995, while Botswana and Zambia retain it. 6. ↑ For example, China, Japan and India actively retain it. Further reading --------------- * Bellarmine, Robert (1902). "Seventh Sunday: Capital Punishment". *Sermons from the Latins*. Benziger Brothers. * Bohm, Robert M. (2016). *Death* Quest. doi:10.4324/9781315673998. ISBN 9781315673998. * Curry, Tim. "Cutting the Hangman's Noose: African Initiatives to Abolish the Death Penalty Archived 20 July 2012 at the Wayback Machine." () American University Washington College of Law. * Davis, David Brion. "The movement to abolish capital punishment in America, 1787–1861." *American Historical Review* 63.1 (1957): 23–46. online * Gaie, Joseph B. R (2004). *The ethics of medical involvement in capital punishment : a philosophical discussion*. Kluwer Academic. ISBN 978-1-4020-1764-3. * Hammel, A. *Ending the Death Penalty: The European Experience in Global Perspective* (2014). * Hood, Roger (2001). "Capital Punishment". *Punishment & Society*. **3** (3): 331–354. doi:10.1177/1462474501003003001. S2CID 143875533. * Johnson, David T.; Zimring, Franklin E. (2009). *The Next Frontier: National Development, Political Change, and the Death Penalty in Asia*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533740-2. * McCafferty, James A (2010). *Capital Punishment*. AldineTransaction. ISBN 978-0-202-36328-8. * Mandery, Evan J (2005). *Capital punishment: a balanced examination*. Jones and Bartlett Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7637-3308-7. * Marzilli, Alan (2008). *Capital Punishment – Point-counterpoint* (2nd ed.). Chelsea House. ISBN 978-0-7910-9796-0. * O'Brien, Doireann. "Investigating the Origin of Europe and America's Diverging Positions on the Issue of Capital Punishment." *Social and Political Review* (2018): 98+. online Archived 21 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine * Rakoff, Jed S., "The Last of His Kind" (review of John Paul Stevens, *The Making of a Justice: Reflections on My First 94 Years*, Little, Brown, 549 pp.), *The New York Review of Books*, vol. LXVI, no. 14 (26 September 2019), pp. 20, 22, 24. John Paul Stevens, "a throwback to the postwar liberal Republican [U.S. Supreme Court] appointees", questioned the validity of "the doctrine of sovereign immunity, which holds that you cannot sue any state or federal government agency, or any of its officers or employees, for any wrong they may have committed against you, unless the state or federal government consents to being sued" (p. 20); the propriety of "the increasing resistance of the U.S. Supreme Court to most meaningful forms of gun control" (p. 22); and "the constitutionality of the death penalty... because of incontrovertible evidence that innocent people have been sentenced to death." (pp. 22, 24.) * Sarat, Austin and Juergen Martschukat, eds. *Is the Death Penalty Dying?: European and American Perspectives* (2011) * Woolf, Alex (2004). *World issues – Capital Punishment*. Chrysalis Education. ISBN 978-1-59389-155-8. for middle school students * Simon, Rita (2007). *A comparative analysis of capital punishment : statutes, policies, frequencies, and public attitudes the world over*. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-2091-0. * Slater S.J., Thomas (1925). "Book 6: On Capital Punishment". *A manual of moral theology for English-speaking countries*. Burns Oates & Washbourne Ltd. * Steiker, Carol S. "Capital punishment and American exceptionalism." *Oregon Law Review*. 81 (2002): 97+ online * Willis, John Wiley (1911). "Capital Punishment". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). *Catholic Encyclopedia*. Vol. 12. New York: Robert Appleton Company. External links -------------- * About.com's Pros & Cons of the Death Penalty and Capital Punishment Archived 18 January 2006 at the Wayback Machine * Capital Punishment article in the *Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy*. * 1000+ Death Penalty links all in one place * Updates on the death penalty generally and capital punishment law specifically * Texas Department of Criminal Justice: list of executed offenders and their last statements * Death Penalty Worldwide: Archived 13 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine Academic research database on the laws, practice, and statistics of capital punishment for every death penalty country in the world. * Answers.com entry on capital punishment * "How to Kill a Human Being", BBC Horizon TV programme documentary, 2008 * U.S. and 50 State death penalty/capital punishment law and other relevant links Megalaw * Two audio documentaries covering execution in the United States: Witness to an Execution The Execution Tapes ### In favour * Studies showing the death penalty saves lives * Criminal Justice Legal Foundation * Keep life without parole and death penalty intact Archived 16 December 2011 at the Wayback Machine * Why the death penalty is needed * Pro Death Penalty.com * Pro Death Penalty Resource Page * 119 Pro DP Links * The Death Penalty is Constitutional * The Paradoxes of a Death Penalty Stance by Charles Lane in *The Washington Post* * Clark County, Indiana, Prosecutor's Page on capital punishment * In Favor of Capital Punishment – Famous Quotes supporting Capital Punishment * Studies spur new death penalty debate ### Opposing * World Coalition Against the Death Penalty * Death Watch International International anti-death penalty campaign group * Campaign to End the Death Penalty * Anti-Death Penalty Information: includes a monthly watchlist of upcoming executions and death penalty statistics for the United States. * The Death Penalty Information Center: Statistical information and studies * Amnesty International – Abolish the death penalty Campaign: Human Rights organisation * European Union: Information on anti-death penalty policies * IPS Inter Press Service International news on capital punishment * Death Penalty Focus: American group dedicated to abolishing the death penalty * Reprieve.org: United States-based volunteer program for foreign lawyers, students, and others to work at death penalty defense offices * American Civil Liberties Union: Demanding a Moratorium on the Death Penalty * National Coalition to Abolish the Death Penalty * NSW Council for Civil Liberties Archived 15 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine: an Australian organisation opposed to the Death Penalty in the Asian region * Winning a war on terror: eliminating the death penalty * Electric Chair at Sing Sing, a 1900 photograph by William M. Vander Weyde, accompanied by a poem by Jared Carter. * Lead prosecutor apologizes for role in sending man to death row Shreveport Times, 2015 * James Haughton (1850). "On death punishments: a paper read before the Dublin Statistical Society". *Journal of the Statistical and Social Inquiry Society of Ireland*. Dublin: Statistical and Social Inquiry Society of Ireland. hdl:2262/7759. ISSN 0081-4776. Wikidata Q28925851. ### Religious views * Message supporting the moratorium on the death penalty The Dalai Lama * Buddhism & Capital Punishment from The Engaged Zen Society * Orthodox Union website: Rabbi Yosef Edelstein: Parshat Beha'alotcha: A Few Reflections on Capital Punishment * Lists several Catholic links Priests for Life * The Death Penalty: Why the Church Speaks a Countercultural Message by Kenneth R. Overberg, S.J., from AmericanCatholic.org * Wrestling with the Death Penalty by Andy Prince, from *Youth Update* on AmericanCatholic.org * Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Capital Punishment". *Catholic Encyclopedia*. New York: Robert Appleton Company. * Catholics Against Capital Punishment: offers a Catholic perspective and provides resources and links * Kashif Shahzada 2010: Why The Death Penalty Is un-Islamic?

Capital punishment

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_punishment

**Hajj** (/hɑːdʒ/; Arabic: حَجّ **Ḥajj**; sometimes also spelled **Hadj**, **Hadji** or **Haj** in English) is an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holiest city for Muslims. Hajj is a mandatory religious duty for Muslims that must be carried out at least once in their lifetime by all adult Muslims who are physically and financially capable of undertaking the journey, and of supporting their family during their absence from home. In Islamic terminology, Hajj is a pilgrimage made to the Kaaba, the "House of Allah", in the sacred city of Mecca in Saudi Arabia. It is one of the Five Pillars of Islam, alongside *Shahadah* (oath that one believes there is no god but Allah (God)), *salat* (prayer), *zakat* (almsgiving) and *sawm* (fasting of Ramadan). The Hajj is an annual practice when Muslim brotherhood is on display and their solidarity with fellow Muslim people, and submission to God (Allah) is fulfilled. The word Hajj means "pilgrimage made to the Kaaba", a long pious journey taken by Muslims to cleanse their souls of all worldly sins, which connotes both the outward act of a journey after death and the inward act of good intentions. The rites of pilgrimage are performed over five to six days, extending from the 8th to the 12th or 13th of Dhu al-Hijjah, the last month of the Islamic calendar. Because the Islamic calendar is lunar and the Islamic year is about eleven days shorter than the Gregorian year, the Gregorian date of Hajj changes from year to year. In 2023 AD (1444 AH), Dhu al-Hijjah extends from 19 June to 18 July. The Hajj is associated with the life of Islamic prophet Muhammad from the 7th century AD, but the ritual of pilgrimage to Mecca stated in Muslim sources stretches back to the time of Abraham. During Hajj, pilgrims join processions of millions of Muslim people, who simultaneously converge on Mecca for the week of the Hajj, and perform a series of pre-Islamic rituals (reformed by Muhammad): each person wears a single piece of unstitched white clothing (Ihram), walks counter-clockwise seven times around the Kaaba (a cube-shaped building and the direction of prayer for Muslims), kiss the black stone mounted on the corner wall of Kaaba, walks briskly back and forth between the hills of Safa and Marwah seven times, then drinks from the Zamzam Well, goes to the plains of Mount Arafat to stand in vigil, spends a night in the plain of Muzdalifa, and performs symbolic Stoning of the Devil by throwing stones at three pillars. After the sacrifice of cattle (which can be accomplished by using a voucher), the pilgrims then are required to either shave or trim their heads (if male) or trim the ends of their hair (if female). A celebration of the four-day global festival of Eid al-Adha proceeds afterwards. Muslims may also undertake an Umrah (Arabic: عُمرَة), or "lesser pilgrimage" to Mecca at other times of the year. However, the Umrah is not a substitute for the Hajj and Muslims are still obligated to perform the Hajj at some other point in their lifetime if they have the means to do so. According to the official published statistics between 2000 and 2019, the average number of attendees is 2,269,145 per year, of which 1,564,710 come from outside Saudi Arabia and 671,983 are local. The year 2012 marks the highest number of participants with 3,161,573. In June 2020, while not cancelling the Hajj outright, the Saudi Government announced that they would only welcome "very limited numbers" of pilgrims who are residents of Saudi Arabia due to the global COVID-19 pandemic. Similar restrictions applied in 2021, but women were permitted to attend without a male guardian (*mehrem*) provided they went in a trustworthy group. Etymology --------- The letter in Arabic: حج [ħædʒ, ħæɡ] is similar to the Hebrew: חג **ḥag** [χaɡ], which means "*holiday*", from the triliteral Semitic root ح-ج-ج. In the Temple, every festival would bring a sacrificial feast. Similarly in Islam, the person who commits the Hajj to Mecca has to circle around the Kaaba and offer sacrifices. History ------- The present pattern of Hajj was established by Muhammad. However, according to the Quran, elements of Hajj trace back to the time of Abraham. According to Islamic tradition, Abraham was ordered by God to leave his wife Hajar and his son Ishmael alone in the desert of ancient Mecca. In search of water, Hajar desperately ran seven times between the two hills of Safa and Marwah but found none. Returning in despair to Ishmael, she saw the baby scratching the ground with his leg and a water fountain sprang forth underneath his foot. Later, Abraham was commanded to build the Kaaba (which he did with the help of Ishmael) and to invite people to perform pilgrimage there. The Quran refers to these incidents in verses 2:124–127 and 22:27–30. It is said that the archangel Gabriel brought the Black Stone from Heaven to be attached to the Kaaba. In pre-Islamic Arabia, a time known as *Age of Ignorance*, the Kaaba became surrounded by pagan idols. In 630 AD, Muhammad led his followers from Medina to Mecca, cleansed the Kaaba by destroying all the pagan idols, and then consecrated the building to God. In 632 AD, Muhammad performed his only and last pilgrimage with a large number of followers, and instructed them on the rites of Hajj. It was from this point that Hajj became one of the five pillars of Islam. During medieval times, pilgrims would gather in the big cities of Syria, Egypt, and Iraq to go to Mecca in groups and caravans comprising tens of thousands of pilgrims, often under state patronage. Hajj caravans, particularly with the advent of the Mamluk Sultanate and its successor, the Ottoman Empire, were escorted by a military force accompanied by physicians under the command of an *amir al-hajj*. This was done to protect the caravan from Bedouin robbers or natural hazards, and to ensure that the pilgrims were supplied with the necessary provisions. Muslim travelers like Ibn Jubayr and Ibn Battuta have recorded detailed accounts of Hajj journeys in medieval times. The caravans followed well-established routes called in Arabic *darb al-hajj*, lit. "pilgrimage road", which usually followed ancient routes such as the King's Highway. Timing of Hajj -------------- The date of Hajj is determined by the Islamic calendar (known as the Hijri calendar or AH), which is based on the lunar year. Every year, the events of Hajj take place in a ten-day period, starting on 1 and ending on 10 Dhu al-Hijjah, the twelfth and last month of the Islamic calendar. Among these ten days, the 9th Dhul-Hijjah is known as Day of Arafah, and this day is called the day of Hajj. Because the Islamic calendar is lunar and the Islamic year is about eleven days shorter than the Gregorian year, the Gregorian date for Hajj changes from year to year. Thus, each year in the Gregorian calendar, the pilgrimage starts eleven days (sometimes ten days) earlier. This makes it possible for the Hajj season to fall twice in one Gregorian year, and it does so every 33 years. The last time this phenomenon occurred was in 2006. The table below shows the Gregorian dates of Hajj in recent years (the dates correspond to 9 Dhul-Hijjah of the Hijri calendar). Prospective dates are approximate: | AH | Gregorian date | | --- | --- | | 1432 | 2011, 5 November | | 1433 | 2012, 25 October | | 1434 | 2013, 14 October | | 1435 | 2014, 3 October | | 1436 | 2015, 23 September | | 1437 | 2016, 11 September | | 1438 | 2017, 31 August | | 1439 | 2018, 20 August | | 1440 | 2019, 10 August | | 1441 | 2020, 30 July | | 1442 | 2021, 19 July | | 1443 | 2022, 8 July | | 1444 | **2023, 27 June** | Rites ----- *Fiqh* literature describes in detail the manners of carrying out the rites of Hajj, and pilgrims generally follow handbooks and expert guides to successfully fulfill the requirements of Hajj. In performing the rites of Hajj, the pilgrims not only follow the model of Muhammad, but also commemorate the events associated with Abraham. ### *Ihram* Ihram is the name given to the special spiritual state, state of holiness, which marks the start of the ritual of Hajj for each person. Ihram is initiated upon the arrival to the *Miqat* or prior to reaching it, depending on where they have come from. When pilgrims enter into the state of Ihram, they are required to abstain from certain actions. While in ihram, males are required to wear two white seamless cloths, with one wrapped around the waist reaching below the knee and the other draped over the left shoulder and tied at the right side. For females this involves wearing ordinary dress that fulfills the Islamic condition of public dress with hands and face uncovered;[*page needed*]. Other prohibitions include refraining from clipping nails, shaving any part of the body, having sexual relations; using perfumes, damaging plants, killing animals, covering the head (for men) or the face and hands (for women); getting married; or carrying weapons. The *Ihram* is meant to show equality of all pilgrims in front of God, with no difference between the rich and the poor. Donning such unsewn white garments entirely is believed to distance man from material ostentation, and engross him in a world of purity and spirituality, since clothes are believed to show individuality and distinction and create superficial barriers that separate individuals. The garments of Ihram are seen as the antithesis of that individualism. *Ihram* clothing is also a reminder of shrouds worn after death. ### *Tawaf* and *sa'ay* The ritual of *tawaf* involves walking seven times counterclockwise around the Kaaba. Upon arriving at *Al-Masjid Al-Ḥarām*, pilgrims perform an arrival *tawaf* either as part of Umrah or as a welcome *tawaf*. During *tawaf*, pilgrims also include Hateem – an area at the north side of the Kaaba – inside their path. Each circuit starts and ends with the kissing or touching of the Black Stone. Pilgrims also point to the stone and recite a prayer known as Talbiyah. If kissing or touching the stone is not possible because of crowds, pilgrims may simply point towards the stone with their right hand on each circuit. Eating is not permitted but the drinking of water is permitted and encouraged, because of the risk of dehydration. Men are encouraged to perform the first three circuits at a hurried pace, known as *Ramal*, and the following four at a more leisurely pace.[*page needed*] The completion of *Tawaf* is followed by two Rakaat prayers at the Place of Abraham (Muqam Ibrahim), a site near the Kaaba inside the mosque. However, again because of large crowds during the days of Hajj, they may instead pray anywhere in the mosque. After prayer, pilgrims also drink water from the Zamzam well, which is made available in coolers throughout the Mosque. Although the circuits around the Kaaba are traditionally done on the ground level, *tawaf* is now also performed on the first floor and roof of the mosque because of the large crowds. This rite is said to be the manifestation of *Tawhid*, the Oneness of God. The heart and soul of the pilgrim should move around Kaaba, the symbol of the House of God, in a way that no worldly attraction distracts him from this path. Only Tawhid should attract him. *Tawaf* also represents Muslims' unity. During *tawaf*, everyone encircles Kaaba collectively. *Tawaf* is followed by *sa'ay*, running or walking seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwah, located near the Kaaba. Previously in the open air, the place is now entirely enclosed by the Sacred Mosque, and can be accessed via air-conditioned tunnels. Pilgrims are advised to walk the circuit, though two green pillars mark a short section of the path where they run. There is also an internal "express lane" for elderly or disabled people. After *sa'ay*, male pilgrims shave or trim their hair and women generally clip a portion of their hair, which completes the Umrah. * Sa'yee towards SafaSa'yee towards Safa * Central section reserved for the elderly and the disabled. It is also divided into two directions of travel.Central section reserved for the elderly and the disabled. It is also divided into two directions of travel. * Sa'yee returning from SafaSa'yee returning from Safa ### First day of Hajj: 8th Dhu al-Hijjah (Tarwiyah Day) On the 8th Dhu al-Hijjah, the pilgrims are reminded of their duties. They again don the Ihram garments and confirm their intention to make the pilgrimage. The prohibitions of Ihram start now. The name of Tarwiyah refers to a narration of Ja'far al-Sadiq. He described the reason that there was no water at Mount Arafat on the 8th day of Dhu al-Hijjah. If pilgrims wanted to stay at Arafat, they would have prepared water from Mecca and carried it by themselves there. So they told each other to drink enough. Finally, this day called Tarwiyah that means to quench thirst in the Arabic language. Tarwiyah Day is the first day of Hajj ritual. Also on this day, Husayn ibn Ali began to go to Karbala from Mecca. Muhammad nominated to Tarwiyah Day as one of the four chosen days. #### Mina After the morning prayer on the 8th of Dhu al-Hijjah, the pilgrims proceed to Mina where they spend the whole day and offer noon (Note: On Friday, Friday Prayer is Offered, instead of Dhuhr Prayer, at Mina), afternoon, evening, and night prayers. The next morning after morning prayer, they leave Mina to go to Arafat. ### Second day: 9th Dhu al-Hijjah (Arafah Day) The 9th Dhul-Hijjah is known as Day of Arafah, and this day is called the Day of Hajj. #### Arafat On 9th Dhu al-Hijjah before noon, pilgrims arrive at Arafat, a barren and plain land some 20 kilometres (12 mi) east of Mecca, where they stand in contemplative vigil: they offer supplications, repent on and atone for their past sins, and seek the mercy of God, and listen to the sermon from the Islamic scholars who deliver it from near Jabal al-Rahmah (The Mount of Mercy) from where Muhammad is said to have delivered his last sermon. Lasting from noon through sunset, this is known as 'standing before God' (wuquf), one of the most significant rites of Hajj. At *Masjid al-Namirah*, pilgrims offer noon and afternoon prayers together at noontime. A pilgrim's Hajj is considered invalid if they do not spend the afternoon on Arafat. #### Muzdalifah Pilgrims must leave Arafat for Muzdalifah after sunset without performing their maghrib (sunset) prayer at Arafat. Muzdalifah is an area between Arafat and Mina. Upon reaching there, pilgrims perform Maghrib and Isha prayer jointly, spend the night praying and sleeping on the ground with open sky, and gather pebbles for the next day's ritual of the stoning of the Devil (Shaytan). ### Third day: 10th Dhu al-Hijjah (Qurban Day) After the morning prayer, the Pilgrims move from Muzdalifah to Mina. #### Ramy al-Jamarat At Mina, the pilgrims perform symbolic Stoning of the Devil (Ramy al-Jamarat) by throwing seven stones from sunrise to sunset at only the largest of the three pillars, known as Jamrat al-Aqabah.[*self-published source?*] The remaining two pillars (jamarah) are not stoned on this day. These pillars are said to represent Satan. Pilgrims climb ramps to the multi-levelled Jamaraat Bridge, from which they can throw their pebbles at the jamarat. Because of safety reasons, in 2004 the pillars were replaced by long walls, with catch basins below to collect the pebbles. #### Animal Sacrificing After the stoning of the Devil, cattle (Surah 22:34-36) are sacrificed to commemorate the story of Ibrahim and Ismael. Traditionally the pilgrims slaughtered the animal themselves or oversaw the slaughtering. Today many pilgrims buy a sacrifice voucher in Mecca before the greater Hajj begins, which allows an animal to be slaughtered in the name of God (Allah) on the 10th, without the pilgrim being physically present. Modern abattoirs complete the processing of the meat, which is then sent as a charity to poor people around the world. At the same time as the sacrifices occur at Mecca, Muslims worldwide perform similar sacrifices, in a three-day global festival called *Eid al-Adha*. #### Hair removal After sacrificing an animal, another important rite of Hajj is the shaving or trimming of head hair (known as Halak). All male pilgrims shave their head or trim their hair on the day of Eid al Adha and female pilgrims cut the tips of their hair. #### Tawaf Ziyarat/Ifadah On the same or the following day, the pilgrims re-visit the Sacred Mosque in Mecca for another *tawaf*, known as *Tawaf al-Ifadah*, an essential part of Hajj. It symbolizes being in a hurry to respond to God and show love for Him, an obligatory part of Hajj. The night of the 10th is spent back at Mina. ### Fourth day: 11th Dhu al-Hijjah Starting from noon to sunset on the 11 Dhu al-Hijjah (and again the following day), the pilgrims again throw seven pebbles at each of the three pillars in Mina. This is commonly known as the "Stoning of the Devil". ### Fifth day: 12th Dhu al-Hijjah On 12 Dhu al-Hijjah, the same process of the stoning of the pillars as of 11 Dhu al-Hijjah takes place. Pilgrims may leave Mina for Mecca before sunset on the 12th. ### Last day at Mina: 13th Dhu al-Hijjah If unable to leave on the 12th before sunset or opt to stay longer, they must perform the stoning ritual again on the 13th before returning to Mecca. #### Tawaf al-Wadaa Finally, before leaving Mecca, pilgrims perform a farewell tawaf called the Tawaf al-Wadaa. 'Wadaa' means 'to bid farewell'. The pilgrims circle the Kaaba seven times counter-clockwise, and if they can, attempt to touch or kiss the Kaaba. Journey to Medina ----------------- During their journey for Hajj, pilgrims traditionally also travel to the city of Medina (approximately 450 kilometres (280 mi) to the northeast), in particular to pray at the Al-Masjid an-Nabawi (Mosque of the Prophet), which contains the tomb of prophet Muhammad. The Quba Mosque and Masjid al-Qiblatayn are also usually visited. Significance ------------ To Muslims, Hajj is associated with religious as well as social significance. The obligation for performing this pilgrimage is only fulfilled if it is done on the eighth to twelfth day of the last month of the Islamic calendar. If in a given year, an adult Muslim is in good health and their life and wealth are safe, they must perform the Hajj in the same year. Delaying it is considered sinful unless the delay is caused by reasons beyond their control. Apart from being an obligatory religious duty, the Hajj is seen to have a spiritual merit that provides Muslims with an opportunity of self-renewal. Hajj serves as a reminder of the Day of Judgment when Muslims believe people will stand before God. Hadith literature (sayings of Muhammad) articulates various merits a pilgrim achieves upon successful completion of their Hajj. After successful pilgrimage, pilgrims can prefix their names with the title 'Al-Hajji', and are held with respect in Muslim society. However, Islamic scholars suggest Hajj should signify a Muslim's religious commitment, and should not be a measurement of their social status. Hajj brings together and unites the Muslims from different parts of the world irrespective of their race, colour, and culture, which acts as a symbol of equality. A 2008 study on the impact of participating in the Islamic pilgrimage found that Muslim communities become more positive and tolerant after Hajj. Titled *Estimating the Impact of the Hajj: Religion and Tolerance in Islam's Global Gathering* and conducted in conjunction with Harvard University's John F. Kennedy School of Government, the study noted that the Hajj "increases belief in equality and harmony among ethnic groups and Islamic sects and leads to more favourable attitudes toward women, including greater acceptance of female education and employment" and that "Hajjis show increased belief in peace, equality and harmony among adherents of different religions." Malcolm X, an American activist during the Civil Rights Movement, describes the sociological atmosphere he experienced at his Hajj in the 1960s as follows: > There were tens of thousands of pilgrims, from all over the world. They were of all colours, from blue-eyed blondes to black-skinned Africans. But we were all participating in the same ritual, displaying a spirit of unity and brotherhood that my experiences in America had led me to believe never could exist between the white and the non-white. America needs to understand Islam because this is the one religion that erases from its society the race problem. You may be shocked by these words coming from me. But on this pilgrimage, what I have seen, and experienced, has forced me to rearrange much of my thought-patterns previously held. > > Differences between Hajj and Umrah ---------------------------------- * Both are Islamic pilgrimages, the main difference is their level of importance and the method of observance. * Hajj is one of the Five Pillars of Islam. It is obligatory for every Muslim once in their lifetime, provided they are physically fit and financially capable. * Hajj is performed over specific days during a designated Islamic month. However, Umrah can be performed at any time. * Although they share common rites, Umrah can be performed in less than a few hours while Hajj is more time-consuming, and involves more rituals. Arrangement and facilities -------------------------- Most of the Hajj related issues are handled by Ministry of Hajj and Umrah. Making necessary arrangements each year for the growing number of pilgrims poses a logistic challenge for the government of Saudi Arabia, which has, since the 1950s, spent more than $100 billion to increase pilgrimage facilities. Major issues like housing, transportation, sanitation, and health care have been addressed and improved greatly by the government by introducing various development programs, with the result that pilgrims now enjoy modern facilities and perform various rites at ease. The Saudi government often sets quotas for various countries to keep the pilgrims' number at a manageable level, and arranges huge security forces and CCTV cameras to maintain overall safety during Hajj. Various institutions and government programs, such as the Haj subsidy offered in Pakistan or the Tabung Haji based in Malaysia assist pilgrims in covering the costs of the journey. For the 2014 Hajj, special Hajj information desks were set up at Pakistani airports to assist the pilgrims. For the benefit of pilgrims from India and Pakistan, Urdu signs were also introduced at the mosques. ### Technology solutions The Saudi government employs technology to protect the safety, and enhance the experience, of the pilgrim's journey. Recently, the Ministry of Hajj and Umrah has introduced the Hajj pilgrims' e-bracelet program that stores pilgrims' essential data and which helps to provide them with the necessary support. In 2018, SAFCSP organized the Hajj Hackathon event in Jeddah, with 2,950 participants from over 100 countries. The event aims at exploring the use of technology to provide solutions for Hajj pilgrims. In 2019, the "Fatwa Robot" service was launched to provide pilgrims with fatwas and other religious advice. Two interactive apps were launched by Hajj authorities to provide pilgrims with a range of services through their smartphones. The services, which are available in nine languages, help pilgrims in finding emergency service centres, holy sites, currency exchanges, restaurants, and accommodation. ### Visa requirements To enter Saudi Arabia to participate in the Hajj as a Muslim, visa requirements have to be satisfied. Saudi Arabia's Ministry of Hajj and Umrah is planning to ease visas issuance by enabling Hajj and Umrah pilgrims to obtain e-visa within minutes through campaigns and companies. For the upcoming Umrah season, visas can be electronically issued within 24 hours via a special platform established by the Ministry of Hajj and Umrah. For passengers traveling from the United States, they must purchase a package from a licensed Hajj agency. People from Gulf Cooperation Council countries do not need a visa to enter Saudi Arabia and vice versa. People with Saudi visas are not allowed to enter the site unless they are Muslim. ### Makkah Route Initiative Makkah Route Initiative is an initiative made by the Saudi government to facilitate the pilgrims entries to Saudi Arabia by completing it in the airports of their countries. The initiative has been implemented since 2018 by The Saudi Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In 2019, the initiative is planned to provide service to around 225,000 pilgrims from airports in Malaysia, Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Tunisia. The provided services include: 1. Issuance of visas. 2. Making sure that the pilgrims' health conditions comply with the requirements and to make certain that the potential pilgrims have taken preventive measures related to the epidemiological situation in the world. 3. Codifying and sorting luggage at the pilgrims' airports and delivering them to the pilgrims' hotels directly upon arrival. ### Transportation Traditionally, the pilgrimage to Mecca was mainly an overland journey using camels as a means of transport. During the second half of the nineteenth century (after the 1850s), steamships began to be used in the pilgrimage journey to Mecca, and the number of pilgrims traveling on sea routes increased. This continued for some time, until air travel came to predominate; Egypt introduced the first airline service for Hajj pilgrims in 1937. Today, many airlines and travel agents offer Hajj packages, and arrange for transportation and accommodation for the pilgrims. King Abdulaziz International Airport in Jeddah and Prince Mohammad Bin Abdulaziz Airport in Medina have dedicated pilgrim terminals to assist with the large numbers of pilgrims. Other international airports around the world, such as Indira Gandhi Airport in New Delhi, Rajiv Gandhi International Airport in Hyderabad, Jinnah in Karachi and Soekarno-Hatta in Jakarta also have dedicated terminals or temporary facilities to service pilgrims as they depart for the Hajj and return home. During Hajj, many airlines run extra flights to accommodate the large number of pilgrims. During official Hajj days, pilgrims travel between the different locations by metro, bus or on foot. The Saudi government strictly controls vehicles access into these heavily congested areas. However, the journey can take many hours due to heavy vehicular and pedestrian traffic. In 2010, the Saudi government started operating the Al Mashaaer Al Mugaddassah Metro line as an exclusive shuttle train for pilgrims between Arafat, Muzdalifa and Mina. The service, which operates only during the days of Hajj, shortens the travel time during the critical "Nafrah" from Arafat to Muzdalifah to minutes. Due to its limited capacity, the use of the metro is not open to all pilgrims. Climate crisis -------------- Hajj has a considerable environmental impact, with the average pilgrim contributing about 60.5 kg CO2-eq per day. Transport, lodging, food, and waste generated an estimated 3.0 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent during the 2011 Hajj season. Most pilgrims travel to Mecca by air and long-haul air travel accounts for 60% of greenhouse gas emissions created by Hajj. Rising global temperatures mean that in the future, people undertaking Hajj could face "extreme danger" due to heat and humidity. Projected temperature rises of 1.5° to 2° could have significant impacts on the health of participants, many of whom are elderly. In 2021 Ummah for Earth and Greenpeace Middle East published research which suggested climate actions which included adapting the Great Mosque for solar power. ### Green Hajj Camp In 2011, Husna Ahmad created the first green guide to Hajj. In 2019, Saudi Arabia launched an environment-friendly Hajj initiative under the auspices of the environmental technologist Magda Abu Ras. One aspect discouraged the consumption of plastics and was entitled *Hajj without Plastic.* The project is implemented in 30 camps in Mina where pilgrims are encouraged to sort out their wastes. Moreover, the proceeds are used for charitable purposes. The project has a number of objectives as follows: 1. Decreasing environmental harms. 2. Improving the management system of solid waste. 3. Preserving pilgrims' and camps' safety. Modern crowd-control problems ----------------------------- Pilgrim numbers have greatly increased in recent years, which has led to numerous accidents and deaths due to overcrowding. The first major accident during Hajj in modern times occurred in 1990, when a tunnel stampede led to the death of 1,462 people. Afterwards, various crowd-control techniques were adopted to improve safety. Because of large crowds, some of the rituals have become more symbolic. For example, it is no longer necessary to kiss the Black Stone. Instead, pilgrims simply point at it on each circuit around the Kaaba. Also, the large pillars used for pebble throwing were changed into long walls in 2004 with basins below to catch the stones. Another example is that animal sacrifice is now done at slaughterhouses appointed by the Saudi authorities, without the pilgrims being present there. In the 70s and 80s, a number of deaths occurred, this was because of a stampede or a siege. Despite safety measures, incidents may happen during the Hajj as pilgrims are trampled or ramps collapse under the weight of the many visitors. During 2015 Hajj, a stampede resulted in 769 deaths and injuries to 934 others, according to the Saudi authorities. A report from Associated Press totalled at least 2,411 deaths from official reports from other countries, making it the most deadly such episode to date. Concerns were raised in 2013 and 2014 about the spread of MERS because of mass gatherings during the Hajj. Saudi Health Minister Abdullah Al-Rabia said authorities have detected no cases of MERS among the pilgrims so far. He also said that, despite few cases of MERS, Saudi Arabia was ready for the 2014 pilgrimage.[*needs update*] In November 2017, Saudi authorities banned selfies at the two holy sites. In February 2020, Saudi Arabia temporarily banned foreign pilgrims from entering Mecca and Medina to prevent the spread of COVID-19 in the Kingdom. It later temporarily suspended the pilgrimage of Umrah. In June, the Saudi government announced that only "very limited numbers" of pilgrims already resident in Saudi Arabia would be permitted to participate in the Hajj. Hajj and the Saudi economy -------------------------- In 2014, Saudi Arabia was expected to have earned up to $8.5 billion from Hajj. Saudi Arabia's highest source of revenue after oil and gas is Hajj and the country is expected to depend more on Hajj as the amounts of available oil and gas for sale decline. Furthermore, the increase of religious tourism from about 12 million Muslims annually to almost 17 million by 2025 has given rise to increasing luxury hotel businesses in the area to accommodate pilgrims. The Abraj al-Bait firm intends to build hotels, shopping malls and apartments which is claimed to be an estimated value of three billion dollars. According to The Embassy of Saudi Arabia, the Saudi government are working towards establishing programs which promote sanitation, housing, transportation, and welfare as the number of visiting pilgrims increases. Most pilgrims, from countries such as the United States, Australia and the United Kingdom decide to purchase packages from licensed Hajj agencies in their countries. This helps direct the flow of traffic into the Kingdom and allows for pilgrims to work directly with a business responsible for their services instead of dealing directly with Saudi Arabia's government. In July 2020, the WSJ reported that following the COVID-19 pandemic, the Saudi authorities have curtailed the five-day event in Mecca to fewer than 10,000 people, already residing in the country. It also said that the hospitality and housing industries that rely entirely on Hajj revenue, will face severe loss of revenue. (See also: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Hajj.) In 2022, the Hajj revenues exceeded US$150 billion dollars. Hajj revenues are expected to cross US$350 billion dollars by 2032, according to report published by The Moodie Davitt. Number of pilgrims per year --------------------------- Pictographic world map comparing the largest periodic human migration events There has been a substantial increase in the number of pilgrims during the last 92 years, and the number of foreign pilgrims has increased by approximately 2,824 percent, from 58,584 in 1920 to 1,712,962 in 2012. Because of development and expansion work at Masjid al-Haram, the authority restricted the number of pilgrims in 2013. Between 1940 and 1945, foreign pilgrims were restricted from arriving in Saudi Arabia as a result of World War II; all pilgrimages from 2020 onwards will be severely restricted as the country deals with the COVID-19 pandemic.As of 2023 Close to 1.3 Million Pilgrims reached mecca till june reported by saudi ministry The following number of pilgrims arrived in Saudi Arabia each year to perform Hajj: | Gregorian year | Hijri year | Local pilgrims | Foreign pilgrims | Total | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1920 | 1338 | | 58,584 | | | 1921 | 1339 | | 57,255 | | | 1922 | 1340 | | 56,319 | | | 1950 | 1369 | | 100,000 (approx.) | | | 1950s | | | 150,000 (approx.) | | | 1960s | | | 300,000 (approx.) | | | 1970s | | | 700,000 (approx.) | | | 1980s | | | 900,000 (approx.) | | | 1989 | 1409 | | 774,600 | | | 1990 | 1410 | | 827,200 | | | 1991 | 1411 | | 720,100 | | | 1992 | 1412 | | 1,015,700 | | | 1993 | 1413 | | 992,800 | | | 1994 | 1414 | | 997,400 | | | 1995 | 1415 | | 1,046,307 | | | 1996 | 1416 | 784,769 | 1,080,465 | 1,865,234 | | 1997 | 1417 | 774,260 | 1,168,591 | 1,942,851 | | 1998 | 1418 | 699,770 | 1,132,344 | 1,832,114 | | 1999 | 1419 | 775,268 | 1,056,730 | 1,831,998 | | 2000 | 1420 | 466,430 | 1,267,355 | 1,733,785 | | 2001 | 1421 | 440,808 | 1,363,992 | 1,804,800 | | 2002 | 1422 | 590,576 | 1,354,184 | 1,944,760 | | 2003 | 1423 | 493,230 | 1,431,012 | 1,924,242 | | 2004 | 1424 | 473,004 | 1,419,706 | 1,892,710 | | 2005 | 1425 | 1,030,000 (approx.) | 1,534,769 | 2,560,000 (approx.) | | 2006 | 1426 | 573,147 | 1,557,447 | 2,130,594 | | 2006 | 1427 | 724,229 | 1,654,407 | 2,378,636 | | 2007 | 1428 | 746,511 | 1,707,814 | 2,454,325 | | 2008 | 1429 | | 1,729,841 | | | 2009 | 1430 | 154,000 | 1,613,000 | 2,521,000 | | 2010 | 1431 | 989,798 | 1,799,601 | 2,854,345 | | 2011 | 1432 | 1,099,522 | 1,828,195 | 2,927,717 | | 2012 | 1433 | 1,408,641 | 1,752,932 | 3,161,573 | | 2013 | 1434 | 600,718 | 1,379,531 | 1,980,249 | | 2014 | 1435 | 696,185 | 1,389,053 | 2,085,238 | | 2015 | 1436 | 567,876 | 1,384,941 | 1,952,817 | | 2016 | 1437 | 537,537 | 1,325,372 | 1,862,909 | | 2017 | 1438 | 600,108 | 1,752,014 | 2,352,122 | | 2018 | 1439 | 612,953 | 1,758,722 | 2,371,675 | | 2019 | 1440 | 634,379 | 1,855,027 | 2,489,406 | | 2020 | 1441 | | | 1,000 | | 2021 | 1442 | 58,745 | 0 | 58,745 | | 2022 | 1443 | 119,434 | 779,919 | 899,353 | | 2023 | 1444 | 100,000 | 1,200,000 | 1,300,000 | Gallery ------- * Pilgrim in supplication at the Al-Masjid Al-Haram in Mecca.Pilgrim in supplication at the Al-Masjid Al-Haram in Mecca. * The largest Jamarah (pillar) these pillars depict the evils in Islam and are stoned by the devotees.The largest Jamarah (pillar) these pillars depict the evils in Islam and are stoned by the devotees. * Pilgrims visiting the well of Zamzam.Pilgrims visiting the well of Zamzam. * Mount Safa within the Al-Masjid Al-Haram in Mecca.Mount Safa within the Al-Masjid Al-Haram in Mecca. * Mount Marwah within the Al-Masjid Al-Haram in Mecca.Mount Marwah within the Al-Masjid Al-Haram in Mecca. * Tents at Mina.Tents at Mina. * Mount Arafat during Ḥajj with Pilgrims supplicating.Mount Arafat during *Ḥajj* with Pilgrims supplicating. * Mount Arafat, a few miles away from Mecca.Mount Arafat, a few miles away from Mecca. See also -------- * Disavowal of Polytheists in Hajj * Glossary of Islam * Hajj: Journey to the Heart of Islam * Hajj and Pilgrimage Organization (Iran) * Hejaz * Incidents during the Hajj * Khalili Collection of Hajj and the Arts of Pilgrimage * List of largest peaceful gatherings Further reading --------------- * Bianchi, Robert R. (2004). *Guests of God: Pilgrimage and Politics in the Islamic World*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-517107-5. * Hammoudi, Abdellah (2006). *A Season in Mecca: Narrative of a Pilgrimage*. Hill and Wang. ISBN 978-0-8090-7609-3. * Khan, Qaisra (2014). "Hajj & 'Umra". In Fitzpatrick, Coeli; Walker, Adam Hani (eds.). *Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God*. Vol. I. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. pp. 239–245. OCLC 857754274. * Patler, Nicholas (2017). *From Mecca to Selma: Malcolm X, Islam, and the Journey tnto the American Civil Rights Movement*. The Islamic Monthly. * Trojanow, Ilija (2007). *Mumbai to Mecca: A Pilgrimage to the Holy Sites of Islam*. Haus Publishing. ISBN 978-1-904950-29-5. https://english.alarabiya.net/News/saudi-arabia/2023/06/21/Over-1-3-million-pilgrims-have-arrived-in-Saudi-Arabia-for-Hajj}}

Hajj

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hajj

**Hungarians**, also known as **Magyars** (/ˈmæɡjɑːrz/ *MAG-yarz*; Hungarian: *magyarok* [ˈmɒɟɒrok]), are a nation and ethnic group native to Hungary (Hungarian: *Magyarország*) and historical Hungarian lands who share a common culture, history, ancestry and language. The Hungarian language belongs to the Uralic language family. There are an estimated 15 million ethnic Hungarians and their descendants worldwide, of whom 9.6 million live in today's Hungary. About 2 million Hungarians live in areas that were part of the Kingdom of Hungary before the Treaty of Trianon in 1920 and are now parts of Hungary's seven neighbouring countries, Slovakia, Ukraine, Romania, Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, and Austria. Significant groups of people with Hungarian ancestry live in various other parts of the world, most of them in the United States, Canada, Germany, France, the United Kingdom, Chile, Brazil, Australia, and Argentina. Hungarians can be divided into several subgroups according to local linguistic and cultural characteristics; subgroups with distinct identities include the Székelys (in eastern Transylvania), the Csángós (in Western Moldavia), the Palóc, and the Matyó. Name ---- The Hungarians' own ethnonym to denote themselves in the Early Middle Ages is uncertain. The exonym "Hungarian" is thought to be derived from Oghur-Turkic *On-Ogur* (literally "Ten Arrows" or "Ten Tribes"). Another possible explanation comes from the Old East Slavic "Yugra" ("Югра"). It may refer to the Hungarians during a time when they dwelt east of the Ural Mountains along the natural borders of Europe and Asia before their conquest of the Carpathian Basin. Prior to the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin in 895/6 and while they lived on the steppes of Eastern Europe east of the Carpathian Mountains, written sources called the Magyars "Hungarians", specifically: "Ungri" by Georgius Monachus in 837, "Ungri" by *Annales Bertiniani* in 862, and "Ungari" by the *Annales ex Annalibus Iuvavensibus* in 881. The Magyars/Hungarians probably belonged to the Onogur tribal alliance, and it is possible that they became its ethnic majority. In the Early Middle Ages, the Hungarians had many names, including "Węgrzy" (Polish), "Ungherese" (Italian), "Ungar" (German), and "Hungarus". The "H-" prefix is a later addition of Medieval Latin. The Hungarian people refer to themselves by the demonym "Magyar" rather than "Hungarian". "Magyar" possibly derived from the name of the most prominent Hungarian tribe, the "Megyer". The tribal name "Megyer" became "Magyar" in reference to the Hungarian people as a whole. The Greek cognate of "Tourkia" (Greek: Τουρκία) was used by the scholar and Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in his *De Administrando Imperio* of c. AD 950, though in his use, "Turks" always referred to Magyars. This was a misnomer, as while the Magyars do have some Turkic genetic and cultural influence, including their historical social structure being of Turkic origin, they still are not widely considered as part of the Turkic people. The obscure name *kerel* or *keral*, found in the 13th-century work the Secret History of the Mongols, possibly referred to Hungarians and derived from the Hungarian title *király* 'king'. The historical Latin phrase "Natio Hungarica" ("Hungarian nation") had a wider and political meaning because it once referred to all nobles of the Kingdom of Hungary, regardless of their ethnicity or mother tongue. History ------- ### Origin The origin of Hungarians, the place and time of their ethnogenesis, has been a matter of debate. The Hungarian language is classified as an Ugric language, and Hungarians are commonly considered an Ugric people that originated from the Ural Mountains, Western Siberia or the Middle Volga region. The relatedness of Hungarians with other Ugric peoples is confirmed by linguistic and genetic data, but modern Hungarians have substantial admixture from local European populations. The consensus among linguists is that the Hungarian language is a member of the Uralic family and that it diverged from its Ugric relatives in the first half of the 1st millennium BC, in western Siberia, east of the southern Urals, and arrived into Central Europe by the historical Magyar or Hungarian "conquerors". The historical Magyars were found to show significant affinity to modern Bashkirs, and stood also in contact with Iranian peoples (especially Jaszic speakers), Turkic peoples (presumably Oghuric speakers) and Slavs. The historical Magyars created an alliance of Steppe tribes, consisting of an Ugric/Magyar ruling class, Iranian but also Turkic (Oghuric) and Slavic tribes, which conquered the Pannonian Steppe and surrounding regions, giving rise to modern Hungarians and Hungarian culture. "Hungarian pre-history", i.e. the history of the "ancient Hungarians" before their arrival in the Carpathian basin at the end of the 9th century, is thus a "tenuous construct", based on linguistics, analogies in folklore, archaeology and subsequent written evidence. In the 21st century, historians have argued that "Hungarians" did not exist as a discrete ethnic group or people for centuries before their settlement in the Carpathian basin. Instead, the formation of the people with its distinct identity was a process. According to this view, Hungarians as a people emerged by the 9th century, subsequently incorporating other, ethnically and linguistically divergent, peoples. ### Pre-4th century AD During the 4th millennium BC, the Uralic-speaking peoples who were living in the central and southern regions of the Urals split up. Some dispersed towards the west and northwest and came into contact with Turkic and Iranian speakers who were spreading northwards. From at least 2000 BC onwards, the Ugric-speakers became distinguished from the rest of the Uralic community, of which the ancestors of the Magyars, being located farther south, were the most numerous. Judging by evidence from burial mounds and settlement sites, they interacted with the Indo-Iranian Andronovo culture and Baikal-Altai Asian cultures. ### 4th century to c. 830 In the 4th and 5th centuries AD, the Hungarians moved to the west of the Ural Mountains, to the area between the southern Ural Mountains and the Volga River, known as Bashkiria (Bashkortostan) and Perm Krai. In the early 8th century, some of the Hungarians moved to the Don River, to an area between the Volga, Don and the Seversky Donets rivers. Meanwhile, the descendants of those Hungarians who stayed in Bashkiria remained there as late as 1241. The Hungarians around the Don River were subordinates of the Khazar Khaganate. Their neighbours were the archaeological Saltov culture, i.e. Bulgars (Proto-Bulgarians, Onogurs) and the Alans, from whom they learned gardening, elements of cattle breeding and of agriculture. Tradition holds that the Hungarians were organized in a confederacy of seven tribes. The names of the seven tribes were: *Jenő*, *Kér*, *Keszi*, *Kürt-Gyarmat*, *Megyer*, *Nyék*, and *Tarján*. ### c. 830 to c. 895 The Avar Khaganate collapsed after c. 822, a few decades later, Álmos and his son Árpád conquered the Carpathian Basin around c. 862–895. The Hungarian conquerors together with the Turkic-speaking Kabars integrated the Avars and Onoghurs. Around 830, a rebellion broke out in the Khazar khaganate. As a result, three Kabar tribes of the Khazars joined the Hungarians and moved to what the Hungarians call the Etelköz, the territory between the Carpathians and the Dnieper River. The Hungarians faced their first attack by the Pechenegs around 854. The new neighbours of the Hungarians were the Varangians and the eastern Slavs. From 862 onwards, the Hungarians (already referred to as the *Ungri*) along with their allies, the Kabars, started a series of looting raids from the Etelköz into the Carpathian Basin, mostly against the Eastern Frankish Empire (Germany) and Great Moravia, but also against the Balaton principality and Bulgaria. ### Entering the Carpathian Basin (c. 895) In 895/896, under the leadership of Árpád, some Hungarians crossed the Carpathians and entered the Carpathian Basin. The tribe called *Megyer* was the leading tribe of the Hungarian alliance that conquered the centre of the basin. At the same time (c. 895), due to their involvement in the 894–896 Bulgaro-Byzantine war, Hungarians in Etelköz were attacked by Bulgaria and then by their old enemies the Pechenegs. The Bulgarians won the decisive battle of Southern Buh. It is uncertain whether or not those conflicts contributed to the Hungarian departure from Etelköz. From the upper Tisza region of the Carpathian Basin, the Hungarians intensified their looting raids across continental Europe. In 900, they moved from the upper Tisza river to Transdanubia, which later became the core of the arising Hungarian state. By 902, the borders were pushed to the South-Moravian Carpathians and the Principality of Moravia collapsed. At the time of the Hungarian migration, the land was inhabited only by a sparse population of Slavs, numbering about 200,000, who were either assimilated or enslaved by the Hungarians. Archaeological findings (e.g. in the Polish city of Przemyśl) suggest that many Hungarians remained to the north of the Carpathians after 895/896. There is also a consistent Hungarian population in Transylvania, the Székelys, who comprise 40% of the Hungarians in Romania. The Székely people's origin, and in particular the time of their settlement in Transylvania, is a matter of historical controversy. ### After 900 In 907, the Hungarians destroyed a Bavarian army in the Battle of Pressburg and laid the territories of present-day Germany, France, and Italy open to Hungarian raids, which were fast and devastating. The Hungarians defeated the Imperial Army of Louis the Child, son of Arnulf of Carinthia and last legitimate descendant of the German branch of the house of Charlemagne, near Augsburg in 910. From 917 to 925, Hungarians raided through Basle, Alsace, Burgundy, Saxony, and Provence. Hungarian expansion was checked at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955, ending their raids against Western Europe, but raids on the Balkan Peninsula continued until 970. The Pope approved Hungarian settlement in the area when their leaders converted to Christianity, and Stephen I (*Szent István*, or Saint Stephen) was crowned King of Hungary in 1001. The century between the arrival of the Hungarians from the eastern European plains and the consolidation of the Kingdom of Hungary in 1001 was dominated by pillaging campaigns across Europe, from Dania (Denmark) to the Iberian Peninsula (contemporary Spain and Portugal). After the acceptance of the nation into Christian Europe under Stephen I, Hungary served as a bulwark against further invasions from the east and south, especially by the Turks. At this time, the Hungarian nation numbered around 400,000 people. ### Early modern period The first accurate measurements of the population of the Kingdom of Hungary including ethnic composition were carried out in 1850–51. There is a debate among Hungarian and non-Hungarian (especially Slovak and Romanian) historians about the possible changes in the ethnic structure of the region throughout history. Some historians support the theory that the proportion of Hungarians in the Carpathian Basin was at an almost constant 80% during the Middle Ages. Non-Hungarians numbered hardly more than 20% to 25% of the total population. The Hungarian population began to decrease only at the time of the Ottoman conquest, reaching as low as around 39% by the end of the 18th century. The decline of the Hungarians was due to the constant wars, Ottoman raids, famines, and plagues during the 150 years of Ottoman rule. The main zones of war were the territories inhabited by the Hungarians, so the death toll depleted them at a much higher rate than among other nationalities. In the 18th century, their proportion declined further because of the influx of new settlers from Europe, especially Slovaks, Serbs and Germans. In 1715 (after the Ottoman occupation), the Southern Great Plain was nearly uninhabited but now has 1.3 million inhabitants, nearly all of them Hungarians. As a consequence, having also the Habsburg colonization policies, the country underwent a great change in ethnic composition as its population more than tripled to 8 million between 1720 and 1787, while only 39% of its people were Hungarians, who lived primarily in the centre of the country. Other historians, particularly Slovaks and Romanians, argue that the drastic change in the ethnic structure hypothesized by Hungarian historians in fact did not occur. In particular, there is a fierce debate among Hungarians and Romanian historians about the ethnic composition of Transylvania through these times. For instance, Ioan-Aurel Pop argues that the Hungarian army of 9-10th centuries, while it was eminently suitable for raids, was not at all fit to occupy territories already densely inhabited, especially in the hilly and mountainous areas. He adds that Hungarians, outside of Alföld, region where they were seminomadic during this time, were not able to become colonizers, and that for this reason the regions of Transylvania, Upper Hungary and Croatia were integrated in the Hungarian Kingdom in a later stage, after the year 1000, after the sedentarization, Christianization and partial feudalization of the Hungarians. Pop ignores that plenty Magyar artifacts and burial sites have been found in Transylvania from the 10th century. Dennis Hupchick writes the Hungarians began to populate the region actively from the 11th century. ### 19th century to present In the 19th century, the proportion of Hungarians in the Kingdom of Hungary rose gradually, reaching over 50% by 1900 due to higher natural growth and Magyarization. Between 1787 and 1910 the number of ethnic Hungarians rose from 2.3 million to 10.2 million, accompanied by the resettlement of the Great Hungarian Plain and Délvidék by mainly Roman Catholic Hungarian settlers from the northern and western counties of the Kingdom of Hungary. Spontaneous assimilation was an important factor, especially among the German and Jewish minorities and the citizens of the bigger towns. On the other hand, about 1.5 million people (about two-thirds non-Hungarian) left the Kingdom of Hungary between 1890–1910 to escape from poverty. The years 1918 to 1920 were a turning point in the Hungarians' history. By the Treaty of Trianon, the Kingdom had been cut into several parts, leaving only a quarter of its original size. One-third of the Hungarians became minorities in the neighbouring countries. During the remainder of the 20th century, the Hungarians population of Hungary grew from 7.1 million (1920) to around 10.4 million (1980), despite losses during the Second World War and the wave of emigration after the attempted revolution in 1956. The number of Hungarians in the neighbouring countries tended to remain the same or slightly decreased, mostly due to assimilation (sometimes forced; see Slovakization and Romanianization) and to emigration to Hungary (in the 1990s, especially from Transylvania and Vojvodina). After the "baby boom" of the 1950s (*Ratkó era*), a serious demographic crisis began to develop in Hungary and its neighbours. The Hungarian population reached its maximum in 1980, then began to decline. For historical reasons (see Treaty of Trianon), significant Hungarian minority populations can be found in the surrounding countries, most of them in Romania (in Transylvania), Slovakia, and Serbia (in Vojvodina). Sizable minorities live also in Ukraine (in Transcarpathia), Croatia (primarily Slavonia), and Austria (in Burgenland). Slovenia is also host to a number of ethnic Hungarians, and Hungarian language has an official status in parts of the Prekmurje region. Today more than two million ethnic Hungarians live in nearby countries. There was a referendum in Hungary in December 2004 on whether to grant Hungarian citizenship to Hungarians living outside Hungary's borders (i.e. without requiring a permanent residence in Hungary). The referendum failed due to insufficient voter turnout. On 26 May 2010, Hungary's Parliament passed a bill granting dual citizenship to ethnic Hungarians living outside of Hungary. Some neighboring countries with sizable Hungarian minorities expressed concerns over the legislation. Ethnic affiliations and genetic origins --------------------------------------- The Hungarian language belongs to the Uralic language family. Modern Hungarians are however genetically rather distant from their closest linguistic relatives (Mansi and Khanty), and more similar to the neighbouring non-Uralic neighbors. Modern Hungarians share a small but significant "Inner Asian/Siberian" component with other Uralic-speaking populations maximized among modern Nganasans. The historical Hungarian conqueror YDNA variation had a higher affinity with modern day Bashkirs and Volga Tatars, while their mtDNA has strong links to the populations of the Baraba region, Inner Asia, Eastern Europe, Northern Europe and Central Asia. Modern Hungarians also display genetic affinity with historical Sintashta samples. Archeological mtDNA haplogroups show a similarity between Hungarians and Turkic-speaking Tatars and Bashkirs, while another study found a link between the Mansi and Bashkirs, suggesting that the Bashkirs are a mixture of Turkic, Ugric and Indo-European contributions. The homeland of ancient Hungarians is around the Ural Mountains, and the Hungarian affinities with the Karayakupovo culture is widely accepted among researchers. A full found that the Bashkirs, next to their high European ancestry, displayed affinity to both Uralic-speaking populations of Northern Asia, as well as Inner Asian Turkic groups, "pointing to a mismatch of their cultural background and genetic ancestry and an intricacy of the historic interface between Turkic and Uralic populations*".* The proto-Uralic peoples homeland may have been close to the Okunev culture, a forest culture in the Altai-Sayan region. The arrival of the Indo-European Afanasievo culture may have caused the dispersal and expansion of proto-Uralic languages along the Seima-Turbino cultural area. Neparáczki et al. argues, based on archeogenetic results, that the historical Hungarian Conquerors were mostly a mixture of Central Asian Steppe groups, Slavic, and Germanic tribes, and this composite people evolved between 400 and 1000 AD. According to Neparáczki: "From all recent and archaic populations tested the Volga Tatars show the smallest genetic distance to the entire Conqueror population" and "a direct genetic relation of the Conquerors to Onogur-Bulgar ancestors of these groups is very feasible." Genetic data found high affinity between Magyar conquerors, the historical Bolgars, and modern day Turkic-speaking peoples in the Volga region, suggesting a possible language shifted from an Uralic (Ugric) to Turkic languages. Hunnish origin or influences on Hungarians and Székelys have always been a matter of debate among scholars. Conquering Magyars may have been Avar, Hunnish and Xiongnu influences.{{ A genetic study published in *Scientific Reports* in November 2019 led by Neparáczki Endre had examined the remains of three males from three separate 5th century Hunnic cemeteries in the Pannonian Basin. They were found to be carrying the paternal haplogroups Q1a2, R1b1a1b1a1a1 and R1a1a1b2a2. In modern Europe, Q1a2 is rare and has its highest frequency among the Székelys. All of the Hunnic males studied were determined to have had brown eyes and black or brown hair, and to have been of mixed European and East Eurasian ancestry. ### Paternal haplogroups According to a study by Pamjav, the area of Bodrogköz suggested to be a population isolate found an elevated frequency of Haplogroup N: R1a-M458 (20.4%), I2a1-P37 (19%), R1a-Z280 (14.3%), and E1b-M78 (10.2%). Various R1b-M343 subgroups accounted for 15% of the Bodrogköz population. Haplogroup N1c-Tat covered 6.2% of the lineages, but most of it belonged to the N1c-VL29 subgroup, which is more frequent among Balto-Slavic speaking than Finno-Ugric speaking peoples. Other haplogroups had frequencies of less than 5%. Among 100 Hungarian men, 90 of whom from the Great Hungarian Plain, the following haplogroups and frequencies are obtained: 30% R1a, 15% R1b, 13% I2a1, 13% J2, 9% E1b1b1a, 8% I1, 3% G2, 3% J1, 3% I\*, 1% E\*, 1% F\*, 1% K\*. The 97 Székelys belong to the following haplogroups: 20% R1b, 19% R1a, 17% I1, 11% J2, 10% J1, 8% E1b1b1a, 5% I2a1, 5% G2, 3% P\*, 1% E\*, 1% N. It can be inferred that Szekelys have more significant German admixture. A study sampling 45 Palóc from Budapest and northern Hungary, found 60% R1a, 13% R1b, 11% I, 9% E, 2% G, 2% J2. A study estimating possible Inner Asian admixture among nearly 500 Hungarians based on paternal lineages only, estimated it at 5.1% in Hungary, at 7.4 in Székelys and at 6.3% at Csángós. An analysis of Bashkir samples from the Burzyansky and Abzelilovsky districts of the Republic of Bashkortostan in the Volga-Ural region, revealed them to belong to the R1a subclade R1a-SUR51, which is shared in significant amounts with the historical Magyars and the royal Hungarian lineage, and representing the closest kin to the Hungarian Árpád dynasty. This subclade was also found among historical Scytho-Iranian samples in modern day Afghanistan. Historical Magyar conquerors had a higher eastern paternal haplogroup frequency, with around ~37.5% to up to 50% Haplogroup N-M231, as well as lower frequency of Haplogroup C-M217 at 6.25%. While haplogroup N can be associated with Uralic/Ugric groups, C-M217 may be associated with Turkic-speakers (especially with Kipchaks). ### Autosomal DNA Modern Hungarians show relative close affinity to surrounding populations, but harbour a small "Siberian" component maximized among the Samoyedic Nganasan people, and argued to have arrived with the historical Magyars. Modern Hungarians formed from several historical population groupings, including the historical Magyars, assimilated Slavic and Germanic groups, as well as Central Asian Steppe tribes (presumably Turkic and Iranian tribes). Genetic analyses link parts of the historical Magyars ancestors to Eastern Siberian hunter-gatherers. These historical Eastern Siberian hunter-gatherers were characterized by high Ancient Northern East Asian ancestry. The historical Magyar genome corresponds largely with the modern Bashkirs, and can be modeled as ~50% Mansi-like, ~35% Sarmatian-like, and ~15% Hun/Xiongnu-like. The admixture event is suggested to have taken place in the Southern Ural region at 643–431 BCE. Modern Hungarians were found to be admixed descendants of the historical Magyar conquerors with local Europeans, as 31 Hungarian samples could be modelled as two-way admixtures of "Conq\_Asia\_Core" and "EU\_Core" in varying degrees. The historical Magyar component among modern Hungarians is estimated at an average frequency of 13%, which can be explained by the relative smaller population size of Magyar conquerors compared to local European groups. ### Other influences | Origin of word roots in Hungarian | | --- | | | | | | Uncertain |   | 30% | | Uralic |   | 21% | | Slavic |   | 20% | | Germanic |   | 11% | | Turkic |   | 9.5% | | Latin and Greek |   | 6% | | Romance |   | 2.5% | | Other known |   | 1% | Besides the various peoples mentioned above, the Magyars were later influenced by other populations in the Carpathian Basin. Among these are the Cumans, Pechenegs, Jazones, West Slavs, Germans, and Vlachs (Romanians). Ottomans, who occupied the central part of Hungary from c. 1526 until c. 1699, inevitably exerted an influence, as did the various nations (Germans, Slovaks, Serbs, Croats, and others) that resettled the depopulated central and southern territories of the kingdom (roughly present-day South Hungary, Vojvodina in Serbia and Banat in Romania) after their departure. Similar to other European countries, Jewish, Armenian, and Roma (Gypsy) ethnic minorities have been living in Hungary since the Middle Ages. Diaspora -------- Hungarian diaspora (Magyar diaspora) is a term that encompasses the total ethnic Hungarian population located outside of current-day Hungary. Maps of the Hungarian diaspora* Hungarians in Romania (according to the 2011 census)Hungarians in Romania (according to the 2011 census) * Hungarians in Vojvodina, Serbia (according to the 2002 census)Hungarians in Vojvodina, Serbia (according to the 2002 census) * Hungarians in Slovakia (according to the 2011 census)Hungarians in Slovakia (according to the 2011 census) * Hungarians in Ukraine (according to the 2001 census)Hungarians in Ukraine (according to the 2001 census) * Hungarians in the United States (according to the 2018 census)Hungarians in the United States (according to the 2018 census) * Hungarians of Croatia (according to the 2011 census)Hungarians of Croatia (according to the 2011 census) * Hungarians in Germany (according to the 2021 census)Hungarians in Germany (according to the 2021 census) Maps ---- * Kniezsa's (1938) view on the ethnic map of the Kingdom of Hungary in the 11th century, based on toponyms. Kniezsa's view has been criticized by many scholars, because of its non-compliance with later archaeological and onomastics research, but his map is still regularly cited in modern reliable sources. One of the most prominent critics of this map was Emil Petrovici.Kniezsa's (1938) view on the ethnic map of the Kingdom of Hungary in the 11th century, based on toponyms. Kniezsa's view has been criticized by many scholars, because of its non-compliance with later archaeological and onomastics research, but his map is still regularly cited in modern reliable sources. One of the most prominent critics of this map was Emil Petrovici. * The "Red Map", based on the 1910 census. Regions with population density below 20 persons/km2 (51.8 persons/sq. mi.) are left blank and the corresponding population is represented in the nearest region with population density above that limit. Red color to mark Hungarians and light purple color to mark Walachians.The "Red Map", based on the 1910 census. Regions with population density below 20 persons/km2 (51.8 persons/sq. mi.) are left blank and the corresponding population is represented in the nearest region with population density above that limit. Red color to mark Hungarians and light purple color to mark Walachians. * Legend: .mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}  Hungary proper where Hungarians are the ethnic majority people.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}  Regions outside Hungary where there are Hungarian minoritiesLegend:   Hungary proper where Hungarians are the ethnic majority people  Regions outside Hungary where there are Hungarian minorities Culture ------- The culture of Hungary shows distinctive elements, incorporating local European elements and minor Central Asian/Steppe derived traditions, such as Horse culture and Shamanistic remnants in Hungarian folklore. Traditional costumes (18th and 19th century) -------------------------------------------- * * * * * * * * * * * * Folklore and communities ------------------------ * Hungarians dressed in folk costumes in Southern Transdanubia, HungaryHungarians dressed in folk costumes in Southern Transdanubia, Hungary * Vojvodina Hungarians women's national costumeVojvodina Hungarians women's national costume * Kalotaszeg folk Costume in Transylvania, RomaniaKalotaszeg folk Costume in Transylvania, Romania * The Hungarian PusztaThe Hungarian Puszta * The Turul, the mythical bird of HungaryThe Turul, the mythical bird of Hungary * Welcome sign in Latin and in Old Hungarian script for the town of Vonyarcvashegy, HungaryWelcome sign in Latin and in Old Hungarian script for the town of Vonyarcvashegy, Hungary * Csárdás folk dance in Skorenovac (Székelykeve), Vojvodina, SerbiaCsárdás folk dance in Skorenovac (Székelykeve), Vojvodina, Serbia See also -------- * Central Europe * Demographics of Hungary * List of Hungarians * List of people of Hungarian origin * Ugric languages * Khanty people * Mansi people * Eastern Magyars * Magyarab people * Jász people * Székelys of Bukovina * Kunság * Pole, Hungarian, two good friends * Hungarian mythology * Hunor and Magor * Shamanistic remnants in Hungarian folklore * List of domesticated animals from Hungary * Hungarian Americans * Hungarian cuisine * Hungarian culture * Romani people in Hungary **Genetic studies** * MtDNA and Y chromosome polymorphisms in Hungary: inferences from the Palaeolithic, Neolithic and Uralic influences on the modern Hungarian gene pool * Guglielmino, CR; De Silvestri, A; Beres, J (March 2000). "Probable ancestors of Hungarian ethnic groups: an admixture analysis". *Annals of Human Genetics*. **64** (Pt 2): 145–59. doi:10.1017/S0003480000008010. PMID 11246468. * Human Chromosomal Polymorphism in a Hungarian Sample * Hungarian genetics researches 2008–2009 (in Hungarian)

Hungarians

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarians

**Euthanasia** (from Greek: εὐθανασία, lit. 'good death': εὖ, *eu*, 'well, good' + θάνατος, *thanatos*, 'death') is the practice of intentionally ending life to eliminate pain and suffering. Different countries have different euthanasia laws. The British House of Lords select committee on medical ethics defines euthanasia as "a deliberate intervention undertaken with the express intention of ending a life, to relieve intractable suffering". In the Netherlands and Belgium, euthanasia is understood as "termination of life by a doctor at the request of a patient". The Dutch law, however, does not use the term 'euthanasia' but includes the concept under the broader definition of "assisted suicide and termination of life on request". Euthanasia is categorized in different ways, which include voluntary, non-voluntary, or involuntary. Voluntary euthanasia is when a person wills to have their life ended and is legal in a growing number of countries. Non-voluntary euthanasia occurs when a patient's consent is unavailable and is legal in some countries under certain limited conditions, in both active and passive forms. Involuntary euthanasia, which is done without asking for consent or against the patient's will, is illegal in all countries and is usually considered murder. As of 2006[update] euthanasia had become the most active area of research in bioethics. In some countries divisive public controversy occurs over the moral, ethical, and legal issues associated with euthanasia. Passive euthanasia (known as "pulling the plug") is legal under some circumstances in many countries. Active euthanasia, however, is legal or *de facto* legal in only a handful of countries (for example: Belgium, Canada and Switzerland), which limit it to specific circumstances and require the approval of counselors and doctors or other specialists. In some countries—such as Nigeria, Saudi Arabia and Pakistan—support for active euthanasia is almost non-existent. Definition ---------- Like other terms borrowed from history, "euthanasia" has had different meanings depending on usage. The first apparent usage of the term "euthanasia" belongs to the historian Suetonius, who described how the Emperor Augustus, "dying quickly and without suffering in the arms of his wife, Livia, experienced the 'euthanasia' he had wished for." The word "euthanasia" was first used in a medical context by Francis Bacon in the 17th century, to refer to an easy, painless, happy death, during which it was a "physician's responsibility to alleviate the 'physical sufferings' of the body." Bacon referred to an "outward euthanasia"—the term "outward" he used to distinguish from a spiritual concept—the euthanasia "which regards the preparation of the soul." In current usage, euthanasia has been defined as the "painless inducement of a quick death". However, it is argued that this approach fails to properly define euthanasia, as it leaves open a number of possible actions which would meet the requirements of the definition, but would not be seen as euthanasia. In particular, these include situations where a person kills another, painlessly, but for no reason beyond that of personal gain; or accidental deaths that are quick and painless, but not intentional. Another approach incorporates the notion of suffering into the definition. The definition offered by the Oxford English Dictionary incorporates suffering as a necessary condition, with "the painless killing of a patient suffering from an incurable and painful disease or in an irreversible coma", This approach is included in Marvin Khol and Paul Kurtz's definition of it as "a mode or act of inducing or permitting death painlessly as a relief from suffering". Counterexamples can be given: such definitions may encompass killing a person suffering from an incurable disease for personal gain (such as to claim an inheritance), and commentators such as Tom Beauchamp and Arnold Davidson have argued that doing so would constitute "murder simpliciter" rather than euthanasia. The third element incorporated into many definitions is that of intentionality – the death must be intended, rather than being accidental, and the intent of the action must be a "merciful death". Michael Wreen argued that "the principal thing that distinguishes euthanasia from intentional killing simpliciter is the agent's motive: it must be a good motive insofar as the good of the person killed is concerned." Similarly, Heather Draper speaks to the importance of motive, arguing that "the motive forms a crucial part of arguments for euthanasia, because it must be in the best interests of the person on the receiving end." Definitions such as that offered by the House of Lords Select committee on Medical Ethics take this path, where euthanasia is defined as "a deliberate intervention undertaken with the express intention of ending a life, to relieve intractable suffering." Beauchamp and Davidson also highlight Baruch Brody's "an act of euthanasia is one in which one person ... (A) kills another person (B) for the benefit of the second person, who actually does benefit from being killed". Draper argued that any definition of euthanasia must incorporate four elements: an agent and a subject; an intention; a causal proximity, such that the actions of the agent lead to the outcome; and an outcome. Based on this, she offered a definition incorporating those elements, stating that euthanasia "must be defined as death that results from the intention of one person to kill another person, using the most gentle and painless means possible, that is motivated solely by the best interests of the person who dies." Prior to Draper, Beauchamp and Davidson had also offered a definition that includes these elements. Their definition specifically discounts fetuses to distinguish between abortions and euthanasia: > In summary, we have argued ... that the death of a human being, A, is an instance of euthanasia if and only if (1) A's death is intended by at least one other human being, B, where B is either the cause of death or a causally relevant feature of the event resulting in death (whether by action or by omission); (2) there is either sufficient current evidence for B to believe that A is acutely suffering or irreversibly comatose, or there is sufficient current evidence related to A's present condition such that one or more known causal laws supports B's belief that A will be in a condition of acute suffering or irreversible comatoseness; (3) (a) B's primary reason for intending A's death is cessation of A's (actual or predicted future) suffering or irreversible comatoseness, where B does not intend A's death for a different primary reason, though there may be other relevant reasons, and (b) there is sufficient current evidence for either A or B that causal means to A's death will not produce any more suffering than would be produced for A if B were not to intervene; (4) the causal means to the event of A's death are chosen by A or B to be as painless as possible, unless either A or B has an overriding reason for a more painful causal means, where the reason for choosing the latter causal means does not conflict with the evidence in 3b; (5) A is a nonfetal organism. > > Wreen, in part responding to Beauchamp and Davidson, offered a six-part definition: > Person A committed an act of euthanasia if and only if (1) A killed B or let her die; (2) A intended to kill B; (3) the intention specified in (2) was at least partial cause of the action specified in (1); (4) the causal journey from the intention specified in (2) to the action specified in (1) is more or less in accordance with A's plan of action; (5) A's killing of B is a voluntary action; (6) the motive for the action specified in (1), the motive standing behind the intention specified in (2), is the good of the person killed. > > Wreen also considered a seventh requirement: "(7) The good specified in (6) is, or at least includes, the avoidance of evil", although as Wreen noted in the paper, he was not convinced that the restriction was required. In discussing his definition, Wreen noted the difficulty of justifying euthanasia when faced with the notion of the subject's "right to life". In response, Wreen argued that euthanasia has to be voluntary, and that "involuntary euthanasia is, as such, a great wrong". Other commentators incorporate consent more directly into their definitions. For example, in a discussion of euthanasia presented in 2003 by the European Association of Palliative Care (EPAC) Ethics Task Force, the authors offered: "Medicalized killing of a person without the person's consent, whether nonvoluntary (where the person is unable to consent) or involuntary (against the person's will) is not euthanasia: it is murder. Hence, euthanasia can be voluntary only." Although the EPAC Ethics Task Force argued that both non-voluntary and involuntary euthanasia could not be included in the definition of euthanasia, there is discussion in the literature about excluding one but not the other. Classification -------------- Euthanasia may be classified into three types, according to whether a person gives informed consent: voluntary, non-voluntary and involuntary. There is a debate within the medical and bioethics literature about whether or not the non-voluntary (and by extension, involuntary) killing of patients can be regarded as euthanasia, irrespective of intent or the patient's circumstances. In the definitions offered by Beauchamp and Davidson and, later, by Wreen, consent on the part of the patient was not considered one of their criteria, although it may have been required to justify euthanasia. However, others see consent as essential. ### Voluntary euthanasia Voluntary euthanasia is conducted with the consent of the patient. Active voluntary euthanasia is legal in Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. Passive voluntary euthanasia is legal throughout the US per *Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Department of Health*. When the patient brings about their own death with the assistance of a physician, the term assisted suicide is often used instead. Assisted suicide is legal in Switzerland and the U.S. states of California, Oregon, Washington, Montana and Vermont. ### Non-voluntary euthanasia Non-voluntary euthanasia is conducted when the consent of the patient is unavailable. Examples include child euthanasia, which is illegal worldwide but decriminalised under certain specific circumstances in the Netherlands under the Groningen Protocol. Passive forms of non-voluntary euthanasia (i.e. withholding treatment) are legal in a number of countries under specified conditions. ### Involuntary euthanasia Involuntary euthanasia is conducted against the will of the patient. ### Passive and active euthanasia Voluntary, non-voluntary and involuntary types can be further divided into passive or active variants. Passive euthanasia entails the withholding treatment necessary for the continuance of life. Active euthanasia entails the use of lethal substances or forces (such as administering a lethal injection), and is more controversial. While some authors consider these terms to be misleading and unhelpful, they are nonetheless commonly used. In some cases, such as the administration of increasingly necessary, but toxic doses of painkillers, there is a debate whether or not to regard the practice as active or passive. History ------- Euthanasia was practiced in Ancient Greece and Rome: for example, hemlock was employed as a means of hastening death on the island of Kea, a technique also employed in Massalia. Euthanasia, in the sense of the deliberate hastening of a person's death, was supported by Socrates, Plato and Seneca the Elder in the ancient world, although Hippocrates appears to have spoken against the practice, writing "I will not prescribe a deadly drug to please someone, nor give advice that may cause his death" (noting there is some debate in the literature about whether or not this was intended to encompass euthanasia). ### Early modern period The term *euthanasia*, in the earlier sense of supporting someone as they died, was used for the first time by Francis Bacon. In his work, *Euthanasia medica*, he chose this ancient Greek word and, in doing so, distinguished between *euthanasia interior*, the preparation of the soul for death, and *euthanasia exterior*, which was intended to make the end of life easier and painless, in exceptional circumstances by shortening life. That the ancient meaning of an easy death came to the fore again in the early modern period can be seen from its definition in the 18th century *Zedlers Universallexikon*: > Euthanasia: a very gentle and quiet death, which happens without painful convulsions. The word comes from ευ, *bene*, well, and θανατος, *mors*, death. > > The concept of euthanasia in the sense of alleviating the process of death goes back to the medical historian Karl Friedrich Heinrich Marx, who drew on Bacon's philosophical ideas. According to Marx, a doctor had a moral duty to ease the suffering of death through encouragement, support and mitigation using medication. Such an "alleviation of death" reflected the contemporary *zeitgeist*, but was brought into the medical canon of responsibility for the first time by Marx. Marx also stressed the distinction of the theological care of the soul of sick people from the physical care and medical treatment by doctors. Euthanasia in its modern sense has always been strongly opposed in the Judeo-Christian tradition. Thomas Aquinas opposed both and argued that the practice of euthanasia contradicted our natural human instincts of survival, as did Francois Ranchin (1565–1641), a French physician and professor of medicine, and Michael Boudewijns (1601–1681), a physician and teacher. Other voices argued for euthanasia, such as John Donne in 1624, and euthanasia continued to be practised. In 1678, the publication of Caspar Questel's *De pulvinari morientibus non-subtrahend*, ("*On the pillow of which the dying should not be deprived*"), initiated debate on the topic. Questel described various customs which were employed at the time to hasten the death of the dying, (including the sudden removal of a pillow, which was believed to accelerate death), and argued against their use, as doing so was "against the laws of God and Nature". This view was shared by others who followed, including Philipp Jakob Spener, Veit Riedlin and Johann Georg Krünitz. Despite opposition, euthanasia continued to be practised, involving techniques such as bleeding, suffocation, and removing people from their beds to be placed on the cold ground. Suicide and euthanasia became more accepted during the Age of Enlightenment. Thomas More wrote of euthanasia in *Utopia*, although it is not clear if More was intending to endorse the practice. Other cultures have taken different approaches: for example, in Japan suicide has not traditionally been viewed as a sin, as it is used in cases of honor, and accordingly, the perceptions of euthanasia are different from those in other parts of the world. ### Beginnings of the contemporary euthanasia debate In the mid-1800s, the use of morphine to treat "the pains of death" emerged, with John Warren recommending its use in 1848. A similar use of chloroform was revealed by Joseph Bullar in 1866. However, in neither case was it recommended that the use should be to hasten death. In 1870 Samuel Williams, a schoolteacher, initiated the contemporary euthanasia debate through a speech given at the Birmingham Speculative Club in England, which was subsequently published in a one-off publication entitled *Essays of the Birmingham Speculative Club*, the collected works of a number of members of an amateur philosophical society. Williams' proposal was to use chloroform to deliberately hasten the death of terminally ill patients: > That in all cases of hopeless and painful illness, it should be the recognized duty of the medical attendant, whenever so desired by the patient, to administer chloroform or such other anaesthetic as may by-and-bye supersede chloroform – so as to destroy consciousness at once, and put the sufferer to a quick and painless death; all needful precautions being adopted to prevent any possible abuse of such duty; and means being taken to establish, beyond the possibility of doubt or question, that the remedy was applied at the express wish of the patient. > > — Samuel Williams (1872), *Euthanasia* Williams and Northgate: London. The essay was favourably reviewed in *The Saturday Review*, but an editorial against the essay appeared in *The Spectator*. From there it proved to be influential, and other writers came out in support of such views: Lionel Tollemache wrote in favour of euthanasia, as did Annie Besant, the essayist and reformer who later became involved with the National Secular Society, considering it a duty to society to "die voluntarily and painlessly" when one reaches the point of becoming a 'burden'. *Popular Science* analyzed the issue in May 1873, assessing both sides of the argument. Kemp notes that at the time, medical doctors did not participate in the discussion; it was "essentially a philosophical enterprise ... tied inextricably to a number of objections to the Christian doctrine of the sanctity of human life". ### Early euthanasia movement in the United States The rise of the euthanasia movement in the United States coincided with the so-called Gilded Age, a time of social and technological change that encompassed an "individualistic conservatism that praised laissez-faire economics, scientific method, and rationalism", along with major depressions, industrialisation and conflict between corporations and labour unions. It was also the period in which the modern hospital system was developed, which has been seen as a factor in the emergence of the euthanasia debate. Robert Ingersoll argued for euthanasia, stating in 1894 that where someone is suffering from a terminal illness, such as terminal cancer, they should have a right to end their pain through suicide. Felix Adler offered a similar approach, although, unlike Ingersoll, Adler did not reject religion. In fact, he argued from an Ethical Culture framework. In 1891, Adler argued that those suffering from overwhelming pain should have the right to commit suicide, and, furthermore, that it should be permissible for a doctor to assist – thus making Adler the first "prominent American" to argue for suicide in cases where people were suffering from chronic illness. Both Ingersoll and Adler argued for voluntary euthanasia of adults suffering from terminal ailments. Dowbiggin argues that by breaking down prior moral objections to euthanasia and suicide, Ingersoll and Adler enabled others to stretch the definition of euthanasia. The first attempt to legalise euthanasia took place in the United States, when Henry Hunt introduced legislation into the General Assembly of Ohio in 1906. Hunt did so at the behest of Anna Sophina Hall, a wealthy heiress who was a major figure in the euthanasia movement during the early 20th century in the United States. Hall had watched her mother die after an extended battle with liver cancer, and had dedicated herself to ensuring that others would not have to endure the same suffering. Towards this end she engaged in an extensive letter writing campaign, recruited Lurana Sheldon and Maud Ballington Booth, and organised a debate on euthanasia at the annual meeting of the American Humane Association in 1905 – described by Jacob Appel as the first significant public debate on the topic in the 20th century. Hunt's bill called for the administration of an anesthetic to bring about a patient's death, so long as the person is of lawful age and sound mind, and was suffering from a fatal injury, an irrevocable illness, or great physical pain. It also required that the case be heard by a physician, required informed consent in front of three witnesses, and required the attendance of three physicians who had to agree that the patient's recovery was impossible. A motion to reject the bill outright was voted down, but the bill failed to pass, 79 to 23. Along with the Ohio euthanasia proposal, in 1906 Assemblyman Ross Gregory introduced a proposal to permit euthanasia to the Iowa legislature. However, the Iowa legislation was broader in scope than that offered in Ohio. It allowed for the death of any person of at least ten years of age who suffered from an ailment that would prove fatal and cause extreme pain, should they be of sound mind and express a desire to artificially hasten their death. In addition, it allowed for infants to be euthanised if they were sufficiently deformed, and permitted guardians to request euthanasia on behalf of their wards. The proposed legislation also imposed penalties on physicians who refused to perform euthanasia when requested: a 6–12-month prison term and a fine of between $200 and $1,000. The proposal proved to be controversial. It engendered considerable debate and failed to pass, having been withdrawn from consideration after being passed to the Committee on Public Health. After 1906 the euthanasia debate reduced in intensity, resurfacing periodically, but not returning to the same level of debate until the 1930s in the United Kingdom. Euthanasia opponent Ian Dowbiggin argues that the early membership of the Euthanasia Society of America (ESA) reflected how many perceived euthanasia at the time, often seeing it as a eugenics matter rather than an issue concerning individual rights. Dowbiggin argues that not every eugenist joined the ESA "solely for eugenic reasons", but he postulates that there were clear ideological connections between the eugenics and euthanasia movements. ### 1930s in Britain The Voluntary Euthanasia Legalisation Society was founded in 1935 by Charles Killick Millard (now called Dignity in Dying). The movement campaigned for the legalisation of euthanasia in Great Britain. In January 1936, King George V was given a fatal dose of morphine and cocaine to hasten his death. At the time he was suffering from cardio-respiratory failure, and the decision to end his life was made by his physician, Lord Dawson. Although this event was kept a secret for over 50 years, the death of George V coincided with proposed legislation in the House of Lords to legalise euthanasia. ### Nazi Euthanasia Program A 24 July 1939 killing of a severely disabled infant in Nazi Germany was described in a BBC "Genocide Under the Nazis Timeline" as the first "state-sponsored euthanasia". Parties that consented to the killing included Hitler's office, the parents, and the Reich Committee for the Scientific Registration of Serious and Congenitally Based Illnesses. *The Telegraph* noted that the killing of the disabled infant—whose name was Gerhard Kretschmar, born blind, with missing limbs, subject to convulsions, and reportedly "an idiot"— provided "the rationale for a secret Nazi decree that led to 'mercy killings' of almost 300,000 mentally and physically handicapped people". While Kretchmar's killing received parental consent, most of the 5,000 to 8,000 children killed afterwards were forcibly taken from their parents. The "euthanasia campaign" of mass murder gathered momentum on 14 January 1940 when the "handicapped" were killed with gas vans and at killing centres, eventually leading to the deaths of 70,000 adult Germans. Professor Robert Jay Lifton, author of *The Nazi Doctors* and a leading authority on the T4 program, contrasts this program with what he considers to be a genuine euthanasia. He explains that the Nazi version of "euthanasia" was based on the work of Adolf Jost, who published *The Right to Death* (Das Recht auf den Tod) in 1895. Lifton writes: > Jost argued that control over the death of the individual must ultimately belong to the social organism, the state. This concept is in direct opposition to the Anglo-American concept of euthanasia, which emphasizes the *individual's* 'right to die' or 'right to death' or 'right to his or her own death,' as the ultimate human claim. In contrast, Jost was pointing to the state's right to kill. ... Ultimately the argument was biological: 'The rights to death [are] the key to the fitness of life.' The state must own death—must kill—in order to keep the social organism alive and healthy. > > In modern terms, the use of "euthanasia" in the context of Action T4 is seen to be a euphemism to disguise a program of genocide, in which people were killed on the grounds of "disabilities, religious beliefs, and discordant individual values". Compared to the discussions of euthanasia that emerged post-war, the Nazi program may have been worded in terms that appear similar to the modern use of "euthanasia", but there was no "mercy" and the patients were not necessarily terminally ill. Despite these differences, historian and euthanasia opponent Ian Dowbiggin writes that "the origins of Nazi euthanasia, like those of the American euthanasia movement, predate the Third Reich and were intertwined with the history of eugenics and Social Darwinism, and with efforts to discredit traditional morality and ethics." ### 1949 New York State Petition for Euthanasia and Catholic opposition On 6 January 1949, the Euthanasia Society of America presented to the New York State Legislature a petition to legalize euthanasia, signed by 379 leading Protestant and Jewish ministers, the largest group of religious leaders ever to have taken this stance. A similar petition had been sent to the New York Legislature in 1947, signed by approximately 1,000 New York physicians. Roman Catholic religious leaders criticized the petition, saying that such a bill would "legalize a suicide-murder pact" and a "rationalization of the fifth commandment of God, 'Thou Shalt Not Kill.'" The Right Reverend Robert E. McCormick stated that: > The ultimate object of the Euthanasia Society is based on the Totalitarian principle that the state is supreme and that the individual does not have the right to live if his continuance in life is a burden or hindrance to the state. The Nazis followed this principle and compulsory Euthanasia was practiced as a part of their program during the recent war. We American citizens of New York State must ask ourselves this question: "Are we going to finish Hitler's job?" > > The petition brought tensions between the American Euthanasia Society and the Catholic Church to a head that contributed to a climate of anti-Catholic sentiment generally, regarding issues such as birth control, eugenics, and population control. However, the petition did not result in any legal changes. Debate ------ Historically, the euthanasia debate has tended to focus on a number of key concerns. According to euthanasia opponent Ezekiel Emanuel, proponents of euthanasia have presented four main arguments: a) that people have a right to self-determination, and thus should be allowed to choose their own fate; b) assisting a subject to die might be a better choice than requiring that they continue to suffer; c) the distinction between passive euthanasia, which is often permitted, and active euthanasia, which is not substantive (or that the underlying principle–the doctrine of double effect–is unreasonable or unsound); and d) permitting euthanasia will not necessarily lead to unacceptable consequences. Pro-euthanasia activists often point to countries like the Netherlands and Belgium, and states like Oregon, where euthanasia has been legalized, to argue that it is mostly unproblematic. Similarly, Emanuel argues that there are four major arguments presented by opponents of euthanasia: a) not all deaths are painful; b) alternatives, such as cessation of active treatment, combined with the use of effective pain relief, are available; c) the distinction between active and passive euthanasia is morally significant; and d) legalising euthanasia will place society on a slippery slope, which will lead to unacceptable consequences. In fact, in Oregon, in 2013, pain was not one of the top five reasons people sought euthanasia. Top reasons were a loss of dignity, and a fear of burdening others. In the United States in 2013, 47% nationwide supported doctor-assisted suicide. This included 32% of Latinos, 29% of African-Americans. Some U.S. disability rights organizations have also opposed bills legalizing assisted suicide. A 2015 Populus poll in the United Kingdom found broad public support for assisted dying. 82% of people supported the introduction of assisted dying laws, including 86% of people with disabilities. An alternative approach to the question is seen in the hospice movement which promotes palliative care for the dying and terminally ill. This has pioneered the use of pain-relieving drugs in a holistic atmosphere in which the patient's spiritual care ranks alongside physical care. It 'intends neither to hasten nor postpone death'. Legal status ------------ West's *Encyclopedia of American Law* states that "a 'mercy killing' or euthanasia is generally considered to be a criminal homicide" and is normally used as a synonym of homicide committed at a request made by the patient. The judicial sense of the term "homicide" includes any intervention undertaken with the express intention of ending a life, even to relieve intractable suffering. Not all homicide is unlawful. Two designations of homicide that carry no criminal punishment are justifiable and excusable homicide. In most countries this is not the status of euthanasia. The term "euthanasia" is usually confined to the active variety; the University of Washington website states that "euthanasia generally means that the physician would act directly, for instance by giving a lethal injection, to end the patient's life". Physician-assisted suicide is thus not classified as euthanasia by the US State of Oregon, where it is legal under the Oregon Death with Dignity Act, and despite its name, it is not legally classified as suicide either. Unlike physician-assisted suicide, withholding or withdrawing life-sustaining treatments with patient consent (voluntary) is almost unanimously considered, at least in the United States, to be legal. The use of pain medication to relieve suffering, even if it hastens death, has been held as legal in several court decisions. Some governments around the world have legalized voluntary euthanasia but most commonly it is still considered to be criminal homicide. In the Netherlands and Belgium, where euthanasia has been legalized, it still remains homicide although it is not prosecuted and not punishable if the perpetrator (the doctor) meets certain legal conditions. In a historic judgment, the Supreme court of India legalized passive euthanasia. The apex court remarked in the judgment that the Constitution of India values liberty, dignity, autonomy, and privacy. A bench headed by Chief Justice Dipak Misra delivered a unanimous judgment. Health professionals' sentiment ------------------------------- A 2010 survey in the United States of more than 10,000 physicians found that 16.3% of physicians would consider halting life-sustaining therapy because the family demanded it, even if they believed that it was premature. Approximately 54.5% would not, and the remaining 29.2% responded "it depends". The study also found that 45.8% of physicians agreed that physician-assisted suicide should be allowed in some cases; 40.7% did not, and the remaining 13.5% felt it depended. In the United Kingdom, the assisted dying campaign group Dignity in Dying cites research in which 54% of general practitioners support or are neutral towards a law change on assisted dying. Similarly, a 2017 Doctors.net.uk poll reported in the British Medical Journal stated that 55% of doctors believe assisted dying, in defined circumstances, should be legalised in the UK. Religious views --------------- ### Christianity #### Broadly against The Roman Catholic Church condemns euthanasia and assisted suicide as morally wrong. As paragraph 2324 of the Catechism of the Catholic Church states, "Intentional euthanasia, whatever its forms or motives, is murder. It is gravely contrary to the dignity of the human person and to the respect due to the living God, his Creator". Because of this, per the Declaration on Euthanasia, the practice is unacceptable within the Church. The Orthodox Church in America, along with other Eastern Orthodox Churches, also opposes euthanasia stating that "euthanasia is the deliberate cessation of human life, and, as such, must be condemned as murder." Many non-Catholic churches in the United States take a stance against euthanasia. Among Protestant denominations, the Episcopal Church passed a resolution in 1991 opposing euthanasia and assisted suicide stating that it is "morally wrong and unacceptable to take a human life to relieve the suffering caused by incurable illnesses." Protestant and other non-Catholic churches which oppose euthanasia include: * Assemblies of God * The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints * Church of the Nazarene * Evangelical Lutheran Church in America * Presbyterian Church in America * Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod * Reformed Church in America * Salvation Army * Seventh-day Adventist Church * Southern Baptist Convention * United Methodist Church #### Partially in favor of The Church of England accepts passive euthanasia under some circumstances, but is strongly against active euthanasia, and has led opposition against recent attempts to legalise it. The United Church of Canada accepts passive euthanasia under some circumstances, but is in general against active euthanasia, with growing acceptance now that active euthanasia has been partly legalised in Canada. The Waldensians take a liberal stance on Euthanasia and allow the decision to lie with individuals. ### Islam Euthanasia is a complex issue in Islamic theology; however, in general it is considered contrary to Islamic law and holy texts. Among interpretations of the Qur'an and Hadith, the early termination of life is a crime, be it by suicide or helping one commit suicide. The various positions on the cessation of medical treatment are mixed and considered a different class of action than direct termination of life, especially if the patient is suffering. Suicide and euthanasia are both crimes in almost all Muslim majority countries. ### Judaism There is much debate on the topic of euthanasia in Judaic theology, ethics, and general opinion (especially in Israel and the United States). Passive euthanasia was declared legal by Israel's highest court under certain conditions and has reached some level of acceptance. Active euthanasia remains illegal; however, the topic is actively under debate with no clear consensus through legal, ethical, theological and spiritual perspectives. See also -------- * All pages with titles beginning with *Euthanasia in* – lists many countries with notable positions * All pages with titles beginning with *Assisted suicide in* – lists some countries with notable positions * List of deaths from legal euthanasia and assisted suicide * Advance healthcare directive * Aruna Shanbaug case * Terri Schiavo case * Child euthanasia in Nazi Germany * Coup de grâce * Dysthanasia * Euthanasia and the slippery slope * Euthanasia device * Medical law * Palliative sedation * Principle of double effect * Sarco pod Further reading --------------- * Fry-Revere, Sigrid (2008). "Euthanasia". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). *The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism*. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Cato Institute. pp. 156–58. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n98. ISBN 978-1412965804. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024. * Nitschke, Philip; Fiona Stewart; Philip Nitschke; Fiona Stewart (2006). *The Peaceful Pill Handbook*. Exit International US Ltd. ISBN 978-0-9788788-0-1. * Rachels, James (1986). *The end of life: Euthanasia and Morality*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-286070-5. * Torr, James D. (2000). *Euthanasia: opposing viewpoints*. San Diego: Greenhaven Press. ISBN 978-0-7377-0127-2.

Euthanasia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euthanasia

The history of the lands that became the United States began with the arrival of the first people in the Americas around 15,000 BC. Numerous indigenous cultures formed, and many saw transformations in the 16th century away from more densely populated lifestyles and towards reorganized polities elsewhere. The European colonization of the Americas began in the late 15th century, however most colonies in what would later become the United States were settled after 1600. By the 1760s, the thirteen British colonies contained 2.5 million people and were established along the Atlantic Coast east of the Appalachian Mountains. The Southern Colonies built an agricultural system on slave labor, importing slaves from Africa for this purpose. After defeating France, the British government imposed a series of taxes, including the Stamp Act of 1765, rejecting the colonists' constitutional argument that new taxes needed their approval. Resistance to these taxes, especially the Boston Tea Party in 1773, led to Parliament issuing punitive laws designed to end self-government. Armed conflict began in Massachusetts in 1775. In 1776, in Philadelphia, the Second Continental Congress declared the independence of the colonies as the "United States". Led by General George Washington, it won the Revolutionary War. The peace treaty of 1783 established the borders of the new sovereign state. The Articles of Confederation established a central government, but it was ineffectual at providing stability as it could not collect taxes and had no executive officer. A convention wrote a new Constitution that was adopted in 1789 and a Bill of Rights was added in 1791 to guarantee inalienable rights. With Washington as the first president and Alexander Hamilton his chief adviser, a strong central government was created. Purchase of the Louisiana Territory from France in 1803 doubled the size of the United States. Encouraged by the notion of manifest destiny, the United States expanded to the Pacific Coast. While the nation was large in terms of area, its population in 1790 was only four million. Westward expansion was driven by a quest for inexpensive land for yeoman farmers and slave owners. The expansion of slavery was increasingly controversial and fueled political and constitutional battles, which were resolved by compromises. Slavery was abolished in all states north of the Mason–Dixon line by 1804, but states in the south continued the institution, to support the kinds of large scale agriculture that dominated the southern economy. Precipitated by the election of Abraham Lincoln as president in 1860, the Civil War began as the southern states seceded from the Union to form their own pro-slavery country, the Confederate States of America. The defeat of the Confederates in 1865 led to the abolition of slavery. In the Reconstruction era following the war, legal and voting rights were extended to freed male slaves. The national government emerged much stronger, and gained explicit duty to protect individual rights. However, when white southern Democrats regained their political power in the South in 1877, often by paramilitary suppression of voting, they passed Jim Crow laws to maintain white supremacy, as well as new state constitutions that legalized discrimination based on race and prevented most African Americans from participating in public life. The United States became the world's leading industrial power at the turn of the 20th century, due to an outburst of entrepreneurship and industrialization and the arrival of millions of immigrant workers and farmers. A national railroad network was completed and large-scale mines and factories were established. Mass dissatisfaction with corruption, inefficiency, and traditional politics stimulated the Progressive movement, from the 1890s to the 1920s, leading to reforms, including the federal income tax, direct election of Senators, granting of citizenship to many indigenous people, alcohol prohibition, and women's suffrage. Initially neutral during World War I, the United States declared war on Germany in 1917 and funded the Allied victory the following year. After the prosperous Roaring Twenties, the Wall Street Crash of 1929 marked the onset of the decade-long worldwide Great Depression. President Franklin D. Roosevelt implemented his New Deal programs, including relief for the unemployed, support for farmers, social security, and a minimum wage. The New Deal defined modern American liberalism. Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States entered World War II and financed the Allied war effort, and helped defeat Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy in the European theater. Its involvement culminated in using newly American invented nuclear weapons on Hiroshima and Nagasaki to defeat Imperial Japan in the Pacific War. The United States and the Soviet Union emerged as rival superpowers in the aftermath of World War II. During the Cold War, the two countries confronted each other indirectly in the arms race, the Space Race, propaganda campaigns, and proxy wars. In the 1960s, in large part due to the strength of the civil rights movement, another wave of social reforms was enacted which enforced the constitutional rights of voting and freedom of movement to African Americans. The Cold War ended when the Soviet Union was officially dissolved, leaving the United States as the world's sole superpower. Foreign policy after the Cold War has often focused on conflicts in the Middle East, especially after the September 11 attacks. Early in the 21st century, the United States experienced the Great Recession and the COVID-19 pandemic, which had a negative effect on the local economy. Prehistory ---------- It is not definitively known how or when Native Americans first settled the Americas and the present-day United States. The prevailing theory proposes that people from Eurasia followed game across Beringia, a land bridge that connected Siberia to present-day Alaska during the Ice Age, and then spread southward throughout the Americas. This migration may have begun as early as 30,000 years ago and continued through to about 10,000 years ago, when the land bridge became submerged by the rising sea level caused by the melting glaciers. These early inhabitants, called Paleo-Indians, soon diversified into hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. This pre-Columbian era incorporates all periods in the history of the Americas before the appearance of European influences on the American continents, spanning from the original settlement in the Upper Paleolithic period to European colonization during the early modern period. While the term technically refers to the era before Christopher Columbus' voyage in 1492, in practice the term usually includes the history of American indigenous cultures until they were conquered or significantly influenced by Europeans, even if this happened decades or centuries after Columbus's initial landing. ### Paleo-Indians By 10,000 BCE, humans were relatively well-established throughout North America. Originally, Paleo-Indians hunted Ice Age megafauna like mammoths, but as they began to go extinct, people turned instead to bison as a food source. As time went on, foraging for berries and seeds became an important alternative to hunting. Paleo-Indians in central Mexico were the first in the Americas to farm, starting to plant corn, beans, and squash around 8,000 BCE. Eventually, the knowledge began to spread northward. By 3,000 BCE, corn was being grown in the valleys of Arizona and New Mexico, followed by primitive irrigation systems and early villages of the Hohokam. One of the earlier cultures in the present-day United States was the Clovis culture, who are primarily identified by the use of fluted spear points called the Clovis point. From 9,100 to 8,850 BCE, the culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis, New Mexico. The Folsom culture was similar, but is marked by the use of the Folsom point. A later migration identified by linguists, anthropologists, and archeologists occurred around 8,000 BCE. This included Na-Dene-speaking peoples, who reached the Pacific Northwest by 5,000 BCE. From there, they migrated along the Pacific Coast and into the interior and constructed large multi-family dwellings in their villages, which were used only seasonally in the summer to hunt and fish, and in the winter to gather food supplies. Another group, the Oshara tradition people, who lived from 5,500 BCE to 600 CE, were part of the Archaic Southwest. ### Mound builders and pueblos The Adena began constructing large earthwork mounds around 600 BCE. They are the earliest known people to have been Mound Builders, however, there are mounds in the United States that predate this culture. Watson Brake is an 11-mound complex in Louisiana that dates to 3,500 BCE, and nearby Poverty Point, built by the Poverty Point culture, is an earthwork complex that dates to 1,700 BCE. These mounds likely served a religious purpose. The Adenans were absorbed into the Hopewell tradition, a powerful people who traded tools and goods across a wide territory. They continued the Adena tradition of mound-building, with remnants of several thousand still in existence across the core of their former territory in southern Ohio. The Hopewell pioneered a trading system called the Hopewell Exchange System, which at its greatest extent ran from the present-day Southeast up to the Canadian side of Lake Ontario. By 500 CE, the Hopewellians had too disappeared, absorbed into the larger Mississippian culture. The Mississippians were a broad group of tribes. Their most important city was Cahokia, near modern-day St. Louis, Missouri. At its peak in the 12th century, the city had an estimated population of 20,000, larger than the population of London at the time. The entire city was centered around a mound that stood 100 feet (30 m) tall. Cahokia, like many other cities and villages of the time, depended on hunting, foraging, trading, and agriculture, and developed a class system with slaves and human sacrifice that was influenced by societies to the south, like the Mayans. In the Southwest, the Anasazi began constructing stone and adobe pueblos around 900 BCE. These apartment-like structures were often built into cliff faces, as seen in the Cliff Palace at Mesa Verde. Some grew to be the size of cities, with Pueblo Bonito along the Chaco River in New Mexico once consisting of 800 rooms. ### Northwest and northeast The indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest were likely the most affluent Native Americans. Many distinct cultural groups and political entities developed there, but they all shared certain beliefs, traditions, and practices, such as the centrality of salmon as a resource and spiritual symbol. Permanent villages began to develop in this region as early as 1,000 BCE, and these communities celebrated by the gift-giving feast of the potlatch. These gatherings were usually organized to commemorate special events such as the raising of a Totem pole or the celebration of a new chief. In present-day upstate New York, the Iroquois formed a confederacy of tribal peoples in the mid-15th century, consisting of the Oneida, Mohawk, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. Their system of affiliation was a kind of federation, different from the strong, centralized European monarchies. Each tribe had seats in a group of 50 sachem chiefs. It has been suggested that their culture contributed to political thinking during the development of the United States government. The Iroquois were powerful, waging war with many neighboring tribes, and later, Europeans. As their territory expanded, smaller tribes were forced further west, including the Osage, Kaw, Ponca, and Omaha peoples. ### Native Hawaiians The exact date for the settling of Hawaii is disputed but the first settlement most likely took place between 940 and 1130 CE. Around 1200 CE, Tahitian explorers found and began settling the area as well establishing a new caste system. This marked the rise of the Hawaiian civilization, which would be largely separated from the rest of the world until the arrival of the British 600 years later. Europeans under the British explorer James Cook arrived in the Hawaiian Islands in 1778, and within five years of contact, European military technology would help Kamehameha I conquer most of the island group, and eventually unify the islands for the first time; establishing the Hawaiian Kingdom. ### Puerto Rico The island of Puerto Rico has been settled for at least 4,000 years dating back to the remains of Puerto Ferro man. Starting with the Ortoiroid culture, successive generations of native migrations arrived replacing or absorbing local populations. By the year 1000 Arawak people had arrived from South America via the Lesser Antilles, these settlers would become the Taíno encountered by the Spanish in 1493. Upon European contact a native population between 30,000 and 60,000 was likely, led by a single chief called a Cacique. Colonization resulted in the decimation of the local inhabitants due to the harsh Encomienda system and epidemics caused by Old World diseases. Puerto Rico would remain a part of Spain until American annexation in 1898. ### Norse exploration The earliest recorded European mention of America is in a historical treatise by the medieval chronicler Adam of Bremen, circa 1075, where it is referred to as Vinland. It is also extensively referred to in the 13th-century Norse Vinland sagas, which relate to events which occurred around 1000. Whilst the strongest archaeological evidence of the existence of Norse settlements in America is located in Canada, most notably at L'Anse aux Meadows and dated to circa 1000, there is significant scholarly debate as to whether Norse explorers also made landfall in New England and other east-coast areas. In 1925, President Calvin Coolidge declared that a Norse explorer called Leif Erikson (c.970 – c.1020) was the first European to discover America. European colonization --------------------- After a period of exploration sponsored by major European states, the first successful English settlement was established in 1607. Europeans brought horses, cattle, and hogs to the Americas and, in turn, took back maize, turkeys, tomatoes, potatoes, tobacco, beans, and squash to Europe. Many explorers and early settlers died after being exposed to new diseases in the Americas. However, the effects of new Eurasian diseases carried by the colonists, especially smallpox and measles, were much worse for the Native Americans, as they had no immunity to them. They suffered epidemics and died in very large numbers, usually before large-scale European settlement began. Their societies were disrupted and hollowed out by the scale of deaths. ### First settlements #### Spanish contact Spanish explorers were the first Europeans to reach the present-day United States, after Christopher Columbus's expeditions (beginning in 1492) established possessions in the Caribbean, including the modern-day U.S. territories of Puerto Rico, and parts of the U.S. Virgin Islands. Juan Ponce de León landed in Florida in 1513. Spanish expeditions quickly reached the Appalachian Mountains, the Mississippi River, the Grand Canyon, and the Great Plains. In 1539, Hernando de Soto extensively explored the Southeast, and a year later Francisco Coronado explored from Arizona to central Kansas in search of gold. Escaped horses from Coronado's party spread over the Great Plains, and the Plains Indians mastered horsemanship within a few generations. Small Spanish settlements eventually grew to become important cities, such as San Antonio, Albuquerque, Tucson, Los Angeles, and San Francisco. #### Dutch mid-Atlantic The Dutch West India Company sent explorer Henry Hudson to search for a Northwest Passage to Asia in 1609. New Netherland was established in 1621 by the company to capitalize on the North American fur trade. Growth was slow at first due to mismanagement by the Dutch and Native American conflicts. After the Dutch purchased the island of Manhattan from the Native Americans for a reported price of US$24, the land was named New Amsterdam and became the capital of New Netherland. The town rapidly expanded and in the mid-1600s it became an important trading center and port. Despite being Calvinists and building the Reformed Church in America, the Dutch were tolerant of other religions and cultures and traded with the Iroquois to the north. The colony served as a barrier to British expansion from New England, and as a result a series of wars were fought. The colony was taken over by Britain as New York in 1664 and its capital was renamed New York City. New Netherland left an enduring legacy on American cultural and political life of religious tolerance and sensible trade in urban areas and rural traditionalism in the countryside (typified by the story of Rip Van Winkle). Notable Americans of Dutch descent include Martin Van Buren, Theodore Roosevelt, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Eleanor Roosevelt and the Frelinghuysens. #### Swedish settlement In the early years of the Swedish Empire, Swedish, Dutch, and German stockholders formed the New Sweden Company to trade furs and tobacco in North America. The company's first expedition was led by Peter Minuit, who had been governor of New Netherland from 1626 to 1631 but left after a dispute with the Dutch government, and landed in Delaware Bay in March 1638. The settlers founded Fort Christina at the site of modern-day Wilmington, Delaware, and made treaties with the indigenous groups for land ownership on both sides of the Delaware River. Over the following seventeen years, 12 more expeditions brought settlers from the Swedish Empire (which also included contemporary Finland, Estonia, and portions of Latvia, Norway, Russia, Poland, and Germany) to New Sweden. The colony established 19 permanent settlements along with many farms, extending into modern-day Maryland, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. It was incorporated into New Netherland in 1655 after a Dutch invasion from the neighboring New Netherland colony during the Second Northern War. #### French and Spanish conflict Giovanni da Verrazzano landed in North Carolina in 1524, and was the first European to sail into New York Harbor and Narragansett Bay. A decade later, Jacques Cartier sailed in search of the Northwest Passage, but instead discovered the Saint Lawrence River and laid the foundation for French colonization of the Americas in New France. After the collapse of the first Quebec colony in the 1540s, French Huguenots settled at Fort Caroline near present-day Jacksonville in Florida. In 1565, Spanish forces led by Pedro Menéndez destroyed the settlement and established the first European settlement in what would become the United States — St. Augustine. After this, the French mostly remained in Quebec and Acadia, but far-reaching trade relationships with Native Americans throughout the Great Lakes and Midwest spread their influence. French colonists in small villages along the Mississippi and Illinois rivers lived in farming communities that served as a grain source for Gulf Coast settlements. The French established plantations in Louisiana along with settling New Orleans, Mobile and Biloxi. ### British colonies The English, drawn in by Francis Drake's raids on Spanish treasure ships leaving the New World, settled the strip of land along the east coast in the 1600s. The first British colony in North America was established at Roanoke by Walter Raleigh in 1585, but failed. It would be twenty years before another attempt. The early British colonies were established by private groups seeking profit, and were marked by starvation, disease, and Native American attacks. Many immigrants were people seeking religious freedom or escaping political oppression, peasants displaced by the Industrial Revolution, or those simply seeking adventure and opportunity. Between the late 1610s and the Revolution, the British shipped an estimated 50,000 to 120,000 convicts to their American colonies. In some areas, Native Americans taught colonists how to plant and harvest the native crops. In others, they attacked the settlers. Virgin forests provided an ample supply of building material and firewood. Natural inlets and harbors lined the coast, providing easy ports for essential trade with Europe. Settlements remained close to the coast due to this as well as Native American resistance and the Appalachian Mountains that were found in the interior. #### First settlement in Jamestown The first successful English colony, Jamestown, was established by the Virginia Company in 1607 on the James River in Virginia. The colonists were preoccupied with the search for gold and were ill-equipped for life in the New World. Captain John Smith held the fledgling Jamestown together in the first year, and the colony descended into anarchy and nearly failed when he returned to England two years later. John Rolfe began experimenting with tobacco from the West Indies in 1612, and by 1614 the first shipment arrived in London. It became Virginia's chief source of revenue within a decade. In 1624, after years of disease and Indian attacks, including the Powhatan attack of 1622, King James I revoked the Virginia Company's charter and made Virginia a royal colony. #### New England Colonies New England was initially settled primarily by Puritans fleeing religious persecution. The Pilgrims sailed for Virginia on the Mayflower in 1620, but were knocked off course by a storm and landed at Plymouth, where they agreed to a social contract of rules in the Mayflower Compact. Like Jamestown, Plymouth suffered from disease and starvation, but local Wampanoag Indians taught the colonists how to farm maize. Plymouth was followed by the Puritans and Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630. They maintained a charter for self-government separate from England, and elected founder John Winthrop as the governor for most of its early years. Roger Williams opposed Winthrop's treatment of Native Americans and religious intolerance, and established the colony of Providence Plantations, later Rhode Island, on the basis of freedom of religion. Other colonists established settlements in the Connecticut River Valley, and on the coasts of present-day New Hampshire and Maine. Native American attacks continued, with the most significant occurring in the 1637 Pequot War and the 1675 King Philip's War. New England became a center of commerce and industry due to the poor, mountainous soil making agriculture difficult. Rivers were harnessed to power grain mills and sawmills, and the numerous harbors facilitated trade. Tight-knit villages developed around these industrial centers, and Boston became one of America's most important ports. #### Middle Colonies In the 1660s, the Middle Colonies of New York, New Jersey, and Delaware were established in the former Dutch New Netherland, and were characterized by a large degree of ethnic and religious diversity. At the same time, the Iroquois of New York, strengthened by years of fur trading with Europeans, formed the powerful Iroquois Confederacy. The last colony in this region was Pennsylvania, established in 1681 by William Penn as a home for religious dissenters, including Quakers, Methodists, and the Amish. The capital of the colony, Philadelphia, became a dominant commercial center in a few short years, with busy docks and brick houses. While Quakers populated the city, German immigrants began to flood into the Pennsylvanian hills and forests, while the Scots-Irish pushed into the far western frontier. #### Southern Colonies The overwhelmingly rural Southern Colonies contrasted sharply with the New England and Middle Colonies. After Virginia, the second British colony south of New England was Maryland, established as a Catholic haven in 1632. The economy of these two colonies was built entirely on yeoman farmers and planters. The planters established themselves in the Tidewater region of Virginia, establishing massive plantations with slave labor. In 1670, the Province of Carolina was established, and Charleston became the region's great trading port. While Virginia's economy was also based on tobacco, Carolina was more diversified, exporting rice, indigo, and lumber as well. In 1712, it was divided in two, creating North and South Carolina. The Georgia Colony – the last of the Thirteen Colonies – was established by James Oglethorpe in 1732 as a border to Spanish Florida and a reform colony for former prisoners and the poor. #### Religion Religiosity expanded greatly after the First Great Awakening, a religious revival in the 1740s which was led by preachers such as Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield. American Evangelicals affected by the Awakening added a new emphasis on divine outpourings of the Holy Spirit and conversions that implanted new believers with an intense love for God. Revivals encapsulated those hallmarks and carried the newly created evangelicalism into the early republic, setting the stage for the Second Great Awakening in the late 1790s. In the early stages, evangelicals in the South, such as Methodists and Baptists, preached for religious freedom and abolition of slavery; they converted many slaves and recognized some as preachers. #### Government Each of the 13 American colonies had a slightly different governmental structure. Typically, a colony was ruled by a governor appointed from London who controlled the executive administration and relied upon a locally elected legislature to vote on taxes and make laws. By the 18th century, the American colonies were growing very rapidly as a result of low death rates along with ample supplies of land and food. The colonies were richer than most parts of Britain, and attracted a steady flow of immigrants, especially teenagers who arrived as indentured servants. #### Servitude and slavery Over half of all European immigrants to Colonial America arrived as indentured servants. Few could afford the cost of the journey to America, and so this form of unfree labor provided a means to immigrate. Typically, people would sign a contract agreeing to a set term of labor, usually four to seven years, and in return would receive transport to America and a piece of land at the end of their servitude. In some cases, ships' captains received rewards for the delivery of poor migrants, and so extravagant promises and kidnapping were common. The Virginia Company and the Massachusetts Bay Company also used indentured servant labor. The first African slaves were brought to Virginia in 1619, just twelve years after the founding of Jamestown. Initially regarded as indentured servants who could buy their freedom, the institution of slavery began to harden and the involuntary servitude became lifelong as the demand for labor on tobacco and rice plantations grew in the 1660s. Slavery became identified with brown skin color, at the time seen as a "black race", and the children of slave women were born slaves (*partus sequitur ventrem*). By the 1770s African slaves comprised a fifth of the American population. The question of independence from Britain did not arise as long as the colonies needed British military support against the French and Spanish powers. Those threats were gone by 1765. However, London continued to regard the American colonies as existing for the benefit of the mother country in a policy known as mercantilism. Colonial America was defined by a severe labor shortage that used forms of unfree labor, such as slavery and indentured servitude. The British colonies were also marked by a policy of avoiding strict enforcement of parliamentary laws, known as salutary neglect. This permitted the development of an American spirit distinct from that of its European founders. Road to independence -------------------- An upper-class emerged in South Carolina and Virginia, with wealth based on large plantations operated by slave labor. A unique class system operated in upstate New York, where Dutch tenant farmers rented land from very wealthy Dutch proprietors, such as the Van Rensselaer family. The other colonies were more egalitarian, with Pennsylvania being representative. By the mid-18th century Pennsylvania was basically a middle-class colony with limited respect for its small upper-class. A writer in the *Pennsylvania Journal* in 1756 wrote: > The People of this Province are generally of the middling Sort, and at present pretty much upon a Level. They are chiefly industrious Farmers, Artificers or Men in Trade; they enjoy in are fond of Freedom, and the meanest among them thinks he has a right to Civility from the greatest. > > ### Political integration and autonomy The French and Indian War (1754–1763), part of the larger Seven Years' War, was a watershed event in the political development of the colonies. The influence of the French and Native Americans, the main rivals of the British Crown in the colonies and Canada, was significantly reduced and the territory of the Thirteen Colonies expanded into New France, both in Canada and Louisiana. The war effort also resulted in greater political integration of the colonies, as reflected in the Albany Congress and symbolized by Benjamin Franklin's call for the colonies to "Join, or Die." Franklin was a man of many inventions – one of which was the concept of a United States of America, which emerged after 1765 and would be realized a decade later. ### Taxation without representation Following Britain's acquisition of French territory in North America, King George III issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763, with the goal of organizing the new North American empire and protecting the Native Americans from colonial expansion into western lands beyond the Appalachian Mountains. In the following years, strains developed in the relations between the colonists and the Crown. The British Parliament passed the Stamp Act of 1765, imposing a tax on the colonies, without going through the colonial legislatures. The issue was drawn: did Parliament have the right to tax Americans who were not represented in it? Crying "No taxation without representation", the colonists refused to pay the taxes as tensions escalated in the late 1760s and early 1770s. The Boston Tea Party in 1773 was a direct action by activists in the town of Boston to protest against the new tax on tea. Parliament quickly responded the next year with the Intolerable Acts, stripping Massachusetts of its historic right of self-government and putting it under military rule, which sparked outrage and resistance in all thirteen colonies. Patriot leaders from every colony convened the First Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance to the Intolerable Acts. The Congress called for a boycott of British trade, published a list of rights and grievances, and petitioned the king to rectify those grievances. This appeal to the Crown had no effect, though, and so the Second Continental Congress was convened in 1775 to organize the defense of the colonies against the British Army. Common people became insurgents against the British even though they were unfamiliar with the ideological rationales being offered. They held very strongly a sense of "rights" that they felt the British were deliberately violating – rights that stressed local autonomy, fair dealing, and government by consent. They were highly sensitive to the issue of tyranny, which they saw manifested by the arrival in Boston of the British Army to punish the Bostonians. This heightened their sense of violated rights, leading to rage and demands for revenge, and they had faith that God was on their side. Revolution and confederation ---------------------------- ### American Revolution The Second Continental Congress voted to declare independence on July 2, 1776, and the Declaration of Independence was drafted by the Committee of Five. The Declaration of Independence presented arguments in favor of the rights of citizens, stating that all men are created equal, supporting the rights of Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness, and demanding the consent of the governed. It also listed grievances against the crown. The Founding Fathers were guided by the ideology of republicanism, rejecting the monarchism of Great Britain. The Declaration of Independence was signed by members of the Congress on July 4. This date has since been commemorated as Independence Day. The American Revolutionary War began with the Battles of Lexington and Concord when American and British forces clashed on April 19, 1775. George Washington was appointed general of the Continental Army. The New York and New Jersey campaign was the first major campaign of the war, beginning in 1776. Washington's crossing of the Delaware River began a series of victories that expelled British forces from New Jersey. The British began the Saratoga campaign in 1777 to capture Albany, New York as a choke point. After American victory at Saratoga, France, the Netherlands, and Spain began providing support to the Continental Army. Britain responded to defeat in the northern theater by advancing in the southern theater, beginning with the Capture of Savannah in 1778. American forces reclaimed the south in 1781, and the British Army was defeated in the Siege of Yorktown on October 19, 1781. King George III formally ordered the end of hostilities on December 5, 1782, recognizing American independence. The Treaty of Paris was negotiated between Great Britain and the United States to establish terms of peace. It was signed on September 3, 1783, and it was ratified by the Congress of the Confederation on January 14, 1784. Washington resigned his commission as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army on December 23, 1783. ### Confederation period The Articles of Confederation were ratified as the governing law of the United States, written to limit the powers of the central government in favor of state governments. This caused economic decline, as the government was unable to pass economic legislation and pay its debts. Nationalists worried that the confederate nature of the union was too fragile to withstand an armed conflict with any adversarial states, or even internal revolts such as the Shays' Rebellion of 1786 in Massachusetts. In the 1780s the national government was able to settle the issue of the western regions of the young United States, which were ceded by the states to Congress and became territories. With the migration of settlers to the Northwest, soon they became states. The American Indian Wars continued in the 1780s as settlers moved west, prompting Native American attacks on American civilians and in turn prompting American attacks on Native American civilians. The Northwestern Confederacy and American settlers began fighting the Northwest Indian War in the late 1780s; the Northwestern Confederacy received British support, but the settlers received little assistance from the American government. Nationalists – most of them war veterans – organized in every state and convinced Congress to call the Philadelphia Convention in 1787. The delegates from every state wrote a new Constitution that created a federal government with a strong president and powers of taxation. The new government reflected the prevailing republican ideals of guarantees of individual liberty and of constraining the power of government through a system of separation of powers. A national debate took place over whether the constitution should be ratified, and it was ratified by a sufficient number of states in 1788 to begin forming a federal government. The United States Electoral College chose George Washington as the first President of the United States in 1789. Early years of the republic --------------------------- ### President George Washington George Washington – a renowned hero of the American Revolutionary War, commander-in-chief of the Continental Army, and president of the Constitutional Convention – became the first President of the United States under the new Constitution in 1789. The national capital moved from New York to Philadelphia in 1790 and finally settled in Washington D.C. in 1800. The major accomplishment of the Washington Administration was creating a strong national government that was recognized without question by all Americans. His government, following the vigorous leadership of Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton, assumed the debts of the states (the debt holders received federal bonds), created the Bank of the United States to stabilize the financial system, and set up a uniform system of tariffs (taxes on imports) and other taxes to pay off the debt and provide a financial infrastructure. To support his programs Hamilton created a new political party – the first in the world based on voters[*vague*] – the Federalist Party. To assuage the Anti-Federalists who feared a too-powerful central government, the Congress adopted the United States Bill of Rights in 1791. Comprising the first ten amendments of the Constitution, it guaranteed individual liberties such as freedom of speech and religious practice, jury trials, and stated that citizens and states had reserved rights (which were not specified). #### Two-party system Thomas Jefferson and James Madison formed an opposition Republican Party (usually called the Democratic-Republican Party by political scientists). Hamilton and Washington presented the country in 1794 with the Jay Treaty that reestablished good relations with Britain. The Jeffersonians vehemently protested, and the voters aligned behind one party or the other, thus setting up the First Party System. Federalists promoted business, financial and commercial interests and wanted more trade with Britain. Republicans accused the Federalists of plans to establish a monarchy, turn the rich into a ruling class, and making the United States a pawn of the British. The treaty passed, but politics became intensely heated. #### Challenges to the federal government Serious challenges to the new federal government included the Northwest Indian War, the ongoing Cherokee–American wars, and the 1794 Whiskey Rebellion, in which western settlers protested against a federal tax on liquor. Washington called the state militia and personally led an army against the settlers, as the insurgents melted away and the power of the federal government was firmly established. Washington refused to serve more than two terms – setting a precedent – and in his famous farewell address, he extolled the benefits of federal government and importance of ethics and morality while warning against foreign alliances and the formation of political parties. John Adams, a Federalist, defeated Jefferson in the 1796 election. War loomed with France and the Federalists used the opportunity to try to silence the Republicans with the Alien and Sedition Acts, build up a large army with Hamilton at the head, and prepare for a French invasion. However, the Federalists became divided after Adams sent a successful peace mission to France that ended the Quasi-War of 1798. ### Increasing demand for slave labor During the first two decades after the Revolutionary War, there were dramatic changes in the status of slavery among the states and an increase in the number of freed blacks. Inspired by revolutionary ideals of the equality of men and influenced by their lesser economic reliance on slavery, northern states abolished slavery. States of the Upper South made manumission easier, resulting in an increase in the proportion of free blacks in the Upper South (as a percentage of the total non-white population) from less than one percent in 1792 to more than 10 percent by 1810. By that date, a total of 13.5 percent of all blacks in the United States were free. After that date, with the demand for slaves on the rise because of the Deep South's expanding cotton cultivation, the number of manumissions declined sharply; and an internal U.S. slave trade became an important source of wealth for many planters and traders. In 1807, with four million slaves already in the United States, Congress severed the U.S.'s involvement with the Atlantic slave trade. ### Louisiana and Jeffersonian republicanism Jefferson defeated Adams massively for the presidency in the 1800 election. Jefferson's major achievement as president was the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, which provided U.S. settlers with vast potential for expansion west of the Mississippi River. Jefferson, a scientist, supported expeditions to explore and map the new domain, most notably the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Jefferson believed deeply in republicanism and argued it should be based on the independent yeoman farmer and planter; he distrusted cities, factories and banks. He also distrusted the federal government and judges, and tried to weaken the judiciary. However he met his match in John Marshall, a Federalist from Virginia. Although the Constitution specified a Supreme Court, its functions were vague until Marshall, the Chief Justice of the United States (1801–1835), defined them, especially the power to overturn acts of Congress or states that violated the Constitution, first enunciated in 1803 in *Marbury v. Madison*. ### War of 1812 Americans were increasingly angry at the British violation of American ships' neutral rights to hurt France, the impressment (seizure) of 10,000 American sailors needed by the Royal Navy to fight Napoleon, and British support for hostile Indians attacking American settlers in the American Midwest with the goal of creating a pro-British Indian barrier state to block American expansion westward. They may also have desired to annex all or part of British North America, although this is still heavily debated. Despite strong opposition from the Northeast, especially from Federalists who did not want to disrupt trade with Britain, Congress declared war on June 18, 1812. The war was frustrating for both sides. Both sides tried to invade the other and were repulsed. The American high command remained incompetent until the last year. The American militia proved ineffective because the soldiers were reluctant to leave home and efforts to invade Canada repeatedly failed. The British blockade ruined American commerce, bankrupted the Treasury, and further angered New Englanders, who smuggled supplies to Britain. The Americans under General William Henry Harrison finally gained naval control of Lake Erie and defeated the Indians under Tecumseh in Canada, while Andrew Jackson ended the Indian threat in the Southeast. The Indian threat to expansion into the Midwest was permanently ended. The British invaded and occupied much of Maine. The British raided and burned Washington, but were repelled at Baltimore in 1814 – where the "Star Spangled Banner" was written to celebrate the American success. In upstate New York a major British invasion of New York State was turned back at the Battle of Plattsburgh. Finally in early 1815 Andrew Jackson decisively defeated a major British invasion at the Battle of New Orleans, making him the most famous war hero. With Napoleon (apparently) gone, the causes of the war had evaporated and both sides agreed to a peace that left the prewar boundaries intact. Americans claimed victory on February 18, 1815, as news came almost simultaneously of Jackson's victory of New Orleans and the peace treaty that left the prewar boundaries in place. Americans swelled with pride at success in the "second war of independence"; the naysayers of the antiwar Federalist Party were put to shame and the party never recovered. This helped lead to an emerging American identity that cemented national pride over state pride. Britain never achieved the war goal of granting the Indians a barrier state to block further American settlement and this allowed settlers to pour into the Midwest without fear of a major threat. The War of 1812 also destroyed America's negative perception of a standing army, which was proved useful in many areas against the British as opposed to ill-equipped and poorly-trained militias in the early months of the war, and War Department officials instead decided to place regular troops as the main military capabilities of the government. ### Second Great Awakening The Second Great Awakening was a Protestant revival movement that affected virtually all of society during the early 19th century and led to rapid church growth. The movement began around 1790, gained momentum by 1800, and, after 1820 membership rose rapidly among Baptist and Methodist congregations, whose preachers led the movement. It was past its peak by the 1840s. It enrolled millions of new members in existing evangelical denominations and led to the formation of new denominations. Many converts believed that the Awakening heralded a new millennial age. The Second Great Awakening stimulated the establishment of many reform movements – including abolitionism and temperance designed to remove the evils of society before the anticipated Second Coming of Jesus Christ. ### Era of Good Feelings As strong opponents of the War of 1812, the Federalists held the Hartford Convention in 1814 that hinted at disunion. National euphoria after the victory at New Orleans ruined the prestige of the Federalists and they no longer played a significant role as a political party. President Madison and most Republicans realized they were foolish to let the First Bank of the United States close down, for its absence greatly hindered the financing of the war. So, with the assistance of foreign bankers, they chartered the Second Bank of the United States in 1816. The Republicans also imposed tariffs designed to protect the infant industries that had been created when Britain was blockading the U.S. With the collapse of the Federalists as a party, the adoption of many Federalist principles by the Republicans, and the systematic policy of President James Monroe in his two terms (1817–1825) to downplay partisanship, society entered an Era of Good Feelings, with far less partisanship than before (or after), and closed out the First Party System. The Monroe Doctrine, expressed in 1823, proclaimed the United States' opinion that European powers should no longer colonize or interfere in the Americas. This was a defining moment in the foreign policy of the United States. The Monroe Doctrine was adopted in response to American and British fears over Russian and French expansion into the Western Hemisphere. In 1832, President Andrew Jackson, 7th President of the United States, ran for a second term under the slogan "Jackson and no bank" and did not renew the charter of the Second Bank, dissolving the bank in 1836. Jackson was convinced that central banking was used by the elite to take advantage of the average American, and instead implemented publicly owned banks in various states, popularly known as "pet banks". Westward expansion ------------------ ### Indian removal In 1830, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act, which authorized the president to negotiate treaties that exchanged Native American tribal lands in the eastern states for lands west of the Mississippi River. Its goal was primarily to remove Native Americans, including the Five Civilized Tribes, from the American Southeast – they occupied land that settlers wanted. Jacksonian Democrats demanded the forcible removal of native populations who refused to acknowledge state laws to reservations in the West. Whigs and religious leaders opposed the move as inhumane. Thousands of deaths resulted from the relocations, as seen in the Cherokee Trail of Tears. The Trail of Tears resulted in approximately 2,000–8,000 of the 16,543 relocated Cherokee perishing along the way.[*full citation needed*] Many of the Seminole Indians in Florida refused to move west; they fought the Army for years in the Seminole Wars. ### Second party system After the First Party System of Federalists and Republicans withered away in the 1820s, the stage was set for the emergence of a new party system based on well organized local parties that appealed for the votes of (almost) all adult white men. The former Jeffersonian (Democratic-Republican) party split into factions. They split over the choice of a successor to President James Monroe, and the party faction that supported many of the old Jeffersonian principles, led by Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren, became the Democratic Party. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828: > Jacksonians believed the people's will had finally prevailed. Through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president. The Democrats became the nation's first well-organized national party, and tight party organization became the hallmark of nineteenth-century American politics. > > Opposing factions led by Henry Clay helped form the Whig Party. The Democratic Party had a small but decisive advantage over the Whigs until the 1850s, when the Whigs fell apart over the issue of slavery. The great majority of anti-slavery activists, such as Abraham Lincoln and Mr. Walters, rejected Garrison's theology and held that slavery was an unfortunate social evil, not a sin. ### Westward expansion and Manifest Destiny The American colonies and the newly formed union grew rapidly in population and area, as pioneers pushed the frontier of settlement west. The process finally ended around 1890–1912 as the last major farmlands and ranch lands were settled. Native American tribes in some places resisted militarily, but they were overwhelmed by settlers and the army and after 1830 were relocated to reservations in the west. The highly influential "Frontier thesis" of Wisconsin historian Frederick Jackson Turner argues that the frontier shaped the national character, with its boldness, violence, innovation, individualism, and democracy. Recent historians have emphasized the multicultural nature of the frontier. Enormous popular attention in the media focuses on the "Wild West" of the second half of the 19th century. As defined by Hine and Faragher, "frontier history tells the story of the creation and defense of communities, the use of the land, the development of markets, and the formation of states". They explain, "It is a tale of conquest, but also one of survival, persistence, and the merging of peoples and cultures that gave birth and continuing life to America." The first settlers in the west were the Spanish in New Mexico; they became U.S. citizens in 1848. The Hispanics in California ("Californios") were overwhelmed by over 100,000 California Gold Rush miners. California grew explosively. San Francisco by 1880 had become the economic hub of the entire Pacific Coast with a diverse population of a quarter million. From the early 1830s to 1869, the Oregon Trail and its many offshoots were used by over 300,000 settlers. '49ers (in the California Gold Rush), ranchers, farmers, and entrepreneurs and their families headed to California, Oregon, and other points in the far west. Wagon-trains took five or six months on foot; after 1869, the trip took 6 days by rail. Manifest destiny was the belief that American settlers were destined to expand across the continent. This concept was born out of "A sense of mission to redeem the Old World by high example ... generated by the potentialities of a new earth for building a new heaven". Manifest Destiny was rejected by modernizers, especially the Whigs like Henry Clay and Abraham Lincoln who wanted to build cities and factories – not more farms. Democrats strongly favored expansion, and won the key election of 1844. After a bitter debate in Congress the Republic of Texas was annexed in 1845, leading to war with Mexico, who considered Texas to be a part of Mexico due to the large numbers of Mexican settlers. The Mexican–American War (1846–1848) broke out with the Whigs opposed to the war, and the Democrats supporting the war. The U.S. army, using regulars and large numbers of volunteers, defeated the Mexican armies, invaded at several points, captured Mexico City and won decisively. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the war in 1848. Many Democrats wanted to annex all of Mexico, but that idea was rejected by White Southerners who argued that by incorporating millions of Mexican people, mainly of mixed race, would undermine the United States as an exclusively white republic. Instead the U.S. took Texas and the lightly settled northern parts (California and New Mexico). The Hispanic residents were given full citizenship and the Mexican Indians became American Indians. Simultaneously, gold was discovered in California in 1849, attracting over 100,000 men to northern California in a matter of months in the California Gold Rush. To clear the state for settlers, the U.S. government began a policy of extermination since termed the California genocide. A peaceful compromise with Britain gave the U.S. ownership of the Oregon Country, which was renamed the Oregon Territory. The demand for guano (prized as an agricultural fertilizer) led the United States to pass the Guano Islands Act in 1856, which enabled citizens of the United States to take possession, in the name of the United States, of unclaimed islands containing guano deposits. Under the act the United States annexed nearly 100 islands in the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. By 1903, 66 of these islands were recognized as territories of the United States. Sectional conflict and Civil War -------------------------------- ### Divisions between North and South The central issue after 1848 was the expansion of slavery, with the anti-slavery elements in the North pitted against the pro-slavery elements that dominated the South. A small number of active Northerners were abolitionists who declared that ownership of slaves was a sin (in terms of Protestant theology) and demanded its immediate abolition. Much larger numbers in the North were against the expansion of slavery, seeking to put it on the path to extinction so that America would be committed to free land (as in low-cost farms owned and cultivated by a family), free labor, and free speech (as opposed to censorship of abolitionist material in the South). Southern white Democrats insisted that slavery was of economic, social, and cultural benefit to all whites (and even to the slaves themselves), and denounced all anti-slavery spokesmen as "abolitionists". Justifications of slavery included economics, history, religion, legality, social good, and even humanitarianism. Defenders of slavery argued that the sudden end to the slave economy would have had a profound and fatal economic impact in the South where reliance on slave labor was the foundation of their economy. They also argued that if all the slaves were freed, there would be widespread unemployment and chaos. Religious activists were split on slavery, with the Methodists and Baptists dividing into northern and southern denominations. In the North, the Methodists, Congregationalists, and Quakers included many abolitionists, especially among women activists. (The Catholic, Episcopal and Lutheran denominations largely ignored the slavery issue.) ### Compromise of 1850 and popular sovereignty The issue of slavery in the new territories was seemingly settled by the Compromise of 1850, brokered by Whig Henry Clay and Democrat Stephen Douglas; the Compromise included the admission of California as a free state in exchange for no federal restrictions on slavery placed on Utah or New Mexico. A point of contention was the Fugitive Slave Act, which increased federal enforcement and required even free states to cooperate in turning over fugitive slaves to their owners. Abolitionists highlighted the Act as particularly harmful in their fight against slavery, as evinced in the best-selling anti-slavery novel *Uncle Tom's Cabin* by Harriet Beecher Stowe. The Compromise of 1820 was repealed in 1854 with the Kansas–Nebraska Act, promoted by Senator Douglas in the name of "popular sovereignty" and democracy. It permitted voters to decide on the legality of slavery in each territory, and allowed Douglas to adopt neutrality on the issue of slavery. Anti-slavery forces rose in anger and alarm, forming the new Republican Party. Pro- and anti- contingents rushed to Kansas to vote slavery up or down, resulting in a miniature civil war called Bleeding Kansas. By the late 1850s, the young Republican Party dominated nearly all northern states and thus the electoral college. It insisted that slavery would never be allowed to expand (and thus would slowly die out). ### Plantation economy The Southern slavery-based societies had become wealthy based on their cotton and other agricultural commodity production, and some particularly profited from the internal slave trade. Northern cities such as Boston and New York, and regional industries, were tied economically to slavery by banking, shipping, and manufacturing, including textile mills. By 1860, there were four million slaves in the South, nearly eight times as many as there were nationwide in 1790. The plantations were highly profitable, due to the heavy European demand for raw cotton. Most of the profits were invested in new lands and in purchasing more slaves (largely drawn from the declining tobacco regions). For the 50 of the country's first 72 years, a slaveholder served as President of the United States and, during that period, only slaveholding presidents were re-elected to second terms. In addition, southern states benefited by their increased apportionment in Congress due to the partial counting of slaves in their populations. #### Slave rebellions and Abolitionism There was resistance to slavery by both peaceful and violent means. Slave rebellions, by Gabriel Prosser (1800), Denmark Vesey (1822), Nat Turner (1831), and most famously by John Brown (1859), caused fear in the white South, which imposed stricter oversight of slaves and reduced the rights of free blacks. Abolitionism grew in the north in the decades before the Civil War, while southern states entrenched themselves on upholding slavery fiercely. Former slaves Frederick Douglass and Harriet Tubman became leading advocates for abolition. However, before 1860 only a minority of northern whites supported abolition, which was often seen as a 'radical' measure. There were violent reactions to abolitionist advocates in the north, notably the burning of an anti slavery society in Pennsylvania Hall. With political power in Congress being a key flash-point between slave and free states The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 required the states to cooperate with slave owners when attempting to recover escaped slaves, which outraged Northerners. Formerly, an escaped slave that reached a non-slave state was presumed to have attained sanctuary and freedom under the Missouri Compromise. The Supreme Court's 1857 decision in *Dred Scott v. Sandford* ruled that the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional and that free blacks were not citizens of the United States; the decision enraged all major political forces except for southern states. The Republicans worried the decision could be used to expand slavery throughout all states and territories. With senator Abraham Lincoln leading criticism of the ruling, the stage was set for the 1860 presidential election. ### President Abraham Lincoln and secession After Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 election, seven Southern states seceded from the union and set up a newly formed sovereign state, the Confederate States of America (Confederacy), on February 8, 1861. It attacked Fort Sumter, a U.S. Army fort in South Carolina, thus igniting the war. When Lincoln called for troops to suppress the Confederacy in April 1861, four more states seceded and joined the Confederacy. A few of the (northernmost) "slave states" did not secede and became known as the border states; these were Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri. During the war, the northwestern portion of Virginia seceded from the Confederacy. and became the new Union state of West Virginia. West Virginia is usually associated with the border states. ### Civil War The Civil War began April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces attacked a U.S. military installation at Fort Sumter in South Carolina. In response, Lincoln called on the states to send troops to recapture forts, protect the capital, and "preserve the Union," which in his view still existed intact despite the actions of the seceding states. The two armies had their first major clash at the First Battle of Bull Run, which proved to both sides that the war would be much longer and bloodier than originally anticipated. In the western theater, the Union Army was relatively successful, with major battles, such as Perryville and Shiloh along with Union Navy gunboat dominance of navigable rivers producing strategic Union victories and destroying major Confederate operations. Warfare in the eastern theater began poorly for the Union. U.S. General George B. McClellan failed to capture the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia in his Peninsula campaign and retreated after attacks from Confederate General Robert E. Lee. Meanwhile, both sides concentrated in 1861–1862 on raising and training new armies. The main action was Union success in controlling the border states, with Confederates largely driven out of border states. The autumn 1862 Confederate retreat at the Battle of Antietam led to Lincoln's warning he would issue an Emancipation Proclamation in January 1863 if the states did not return. Making slavery a central war goal energized Republicans in the North, as well as their enemies, the anti-war Copperhead Democrats and ended the chance of British and French intervention. Lee's smaller Army of Northern Virginia won battles in late 1862 and spring 1863, but he pushed too hard and ignored the Union threat in the west. Lee invaded Pennsylvania in search of supplies and to cause war-weariness in the North. In perhaps the turning point of the war, Lee's army was badly beaten by the Army of the Potomac at the July 1863 Battle of Gettysburg and barely made it back to Virginia. Survivors of the Battle of Gettysburg were immediately redeployed to suppress the New York City draft riots by Irish Americans first resisting Civil War conscription but later out of racism aganist the city's free black population. In July 1863, Union forces under General Ulysses S. Grant gained control of the Mississippi River at the Battle of Vicksburg, thereby splitting the Confederacy. In 1864, Union General William Tecumseh Sherman marched south from Chattanooga to capture Atlanta, a decisive victory that ended war jitters among Republicans in the North and helped Lincoln win re-election. On the homefront, industrial expansion in the North expanded dramatically, using its extensive railroad service, and moving industrial workers into munitions factories. Foreign trade increased, with the United States providing both food and cotton to Britain, and Britain sending in manufactured products and thousands of volunteers for the Union Army (plus a few to the Confederate army). The British operated blockade runners bringing in food, luxury items and munitions to the Confederacy, bringing out tobacco and cotton. The Union blockade increasingly shut down Confederate ports, and by late 1864 the blockade runners were usually captured before they could make more than a handful of runs. The last two years of the war were bloody for both sides, with Sherman marching almost unopposed through southern states, burning cities, destroying plantations, ruining railroads and bridges, but avoiding civilian casualties. Sherman demonstrated that the South was unable to resist a Union invasion. Much of the Confederate heartland was destroyed, and could no longer provide desperately needed supplies to its armies. In spring 1864, Grant launched a war of attrition and pursued Lee to the final, Appomattox campaign which resulted in Lee surrendering in April 1865. The American Civil War was the world's earliest industrial war. Railroads, the telegraph, steamships, and mass-produced weapons were employed extensively. The mobilization of civilian factories, mines, shipyards, banks, transportation and food supplies all foreshadowed the impact of industrialization in World War I. It remains the deadliest war in American history, resulting in the deaths of about 750,000 soldiers and an undetermined number of civilian casualties. About ten percent of all Northern males 20–45 years old, and 30 percent of all Southern white males aged 18–40 died. Its legacy includes ending slavery in the United States, restoring the Union, and strengthening the role of the federal government. According to historian Allan Nevins, the Civil War had a major long-term impact on the United States in terms of developing its leadership potential and metaphorically moving the country beyond the adolescent stage: > The fighting and its attendant demands upon industry, finance, medicine, and law also helped train a host of leaders who during the next 35 years, to 1900, made their influence powerfully felt on most of the social, economic, and cultural fronts. It broke down barriers of parochialism; it ended distrust of large-scale effort; it hardened and matured the whole people emotionally. The adolescent land of the 1850s…rose under the blows of battle to adult estate. The nation of the post-Appomattox generation, though sadly hurt (especially in the South) by war losses, and deeply scarred psychologically (especially in the North) by war hatreds and greeds, had at last the power, resolution, and self-trust of manhood. > > > ### Emancipation The Emancipation Proclamation was an executive order issued by President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863. In a single stroke it changed the legal status, as recognized by the U.S. government, of 3 million slaves in designated areas of the Confederacy from "slave" to "free". It had the practical effect that as soon as a slave escaped the control of the Confederate government, by running away or through advances of federal troops, the slave became legally and actually free. The owners were never compensated. Plantation owners, realizing that emancipation would destroy their economic system, sometimes moved their slaves as far as possible out of reach of the Union army. By June 1865, the Union Army controlled all of the Confederacy and liberated all of the designated slaves. Large numbers moved into camps run by the Freedmen's Bureau, where they were given food, shelter, medical care, and arrangements for their employment were made. The severe dislocations of war and Reconstruction had a large negative impact on the black population, with a large amount of sickness and death. ### Reconstruction Reconstruction lasted from Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863, to the Compromise of 1877. The major issues faced by Lincoln were the status of the ex-slaves ("Freedmen"), the loyalty and civil rights of ex-rebels, the status of the 11 ex-Confederate states, the powers of the federal government needed to prevent a future civil war, and the question of whether Congress or the President would make the major decisions. The severe threats of starvation and displacement of the unemployed Freedmen were met by the first major federal relief agency, the Freedmen's Bureau, operated by the Army. Three "Reconstruction Amendments" were passed to expand civil rights for black Americans: the Thirteenth Amendment outlawed slavery; the Fourteenth Amendment guaranteed equal rights for all and citizenship for blacks; the Fifteenth Amendment prevented race from being used to disenfranchise men. #### Radical Reconstruction Ex-Confederates remained in control of most Southern states for over two years, but changed when the Radical Republicans gained control of Congress in the 1866 elections. President Andrew Johnson, who sought easy terms for reunions with ex-rebels, was virtually powerless in the face of the Radical Republican Congress; he was impeached, but the Senate's attempt to remove him from office failed by one vote. Congress enfranchised black men and temporarily stripped many ex-Confederate leaders of the right to hold office. New Republican governments came to power based on a coalition of Freedmen made up of Carpetbaggers (new arrivals from the North), and Scalawags (native white Southerners). They were backed by the U.S. Army. Opponents said they were corrupt and violated the rights of whites. #### KKK and the rise of Jim Crow laws State by state, the New Republicans lost power to a conservative-Democratic coalition, which gained control of the entire South by 1877. In response to Radical Reconstruction, the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) emerged in 1867 as a white-supremacist organization opposed to black civil rights and Republican rule. President Ulysses Grant's vigorous enforcement of the Ku Klux Klan Act of 1870 shut down the Klan, and it disbanded. Paramilitary groups, such as the White League and Red Shirts emerged about 1874 that worked openly to use intimidation and violence to suppress black voting to regain white political power in states across the South during the 1870s. One historian described them as the military arm of the Democratic Party. Reconstruction ended after the disputed 1876 election. The Compromise of 1877 gave Republican candidate Rutherford B. Hayes the White House in exchange for removing all remaining federal troops in the South. The federal government withdrew its troops from the South, and Southern Democrats took control of every Southern state. In 1882, the United States passed its first major exclusionary immigration acts, the Chinese Exclusion Act (which barred all Chinese immigrants except for students and businessmen), and the Immigration Act of 1882 (which barred all immigrants with mental health issues). From 1890 to 1908, southern states effectively disfranchised most black voters and many poor whites by making voter registration more difficult through poll taxes, literacy tests, and other arbitrary devices. They passed segregation laws and imposed second-class status on blacks in a system known as Jim Crow that lasted until the Civil rights movement. Growth and industrialization ---------------------------- ### Frontier and the railroad The latter half of the nineteenth century was marked by the rapid development and settlement of the far West, first by wagon trains and riverboats and then aided by the completion of the transcontinental railroad. Large numbers of European immigrants (especially from Germany and Scandinavia) took up low-cost or free farms in the Prairie States. Mining for silver and copper opened up the Mountain West. #### Indian wars The United States Army fought frequent small-scale wars with Native Americans as settlers encroached on their traditional lands. Gradually the U.S. purchased the Native American tribal lands and extinguished their claims, forcing most tribes onto subsidized reservations. According to the U.S. Bureau of the Census (1894), from 1789 to 1894: > The Indian wars under the government of the United States have been more than 40 in number. They have cost the lives of about 19,000 white men, women and children, including those killed in individual combats, and the lives of about 30,000 Indians. The actual number of killed and wounded Indians must be very much higher than the given… Fifty percent additional would be a safe estimate. > > ### Gilded Age The "Gilded Age" was a term that Mark Twain used to describe the period of the late 19th century with a dramatic expansion of American wealth and prosperity, underscored by the mass corruption in the government. Reforms of the Age included the Civil Service Act, which mandated a competitive examination for applicants for government jobs. Other important legislation included the Interstate Commerce Act, which ended railroads' discrimination against small shippers, and the Sherman Antitrust Act, which outlawed monopolies in business. Twain believed that this age was corrupted by such elements as land speculators, scandalous politics, and unethical business practices. Since the days of Charles A. Beard and Matthew Josephson, some historians have argued that the United States was effectively plutocratic for at least part of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era. As financiers and industrialists such as J.P. Morgan and John D. Rockefeller began to amass vast fortunes, many U.S. observers were concerned that the nation was losing its pioneering egalitarian spirit. By 1890 American industrial production and per capita income exceeded those of all other countries. In response to heavy debts and decreasing farm prices, wheat and cotton farmers joined the Populist Party. An unprecedented wave of immigration from Europe served to both provide the labor for American industry and create diverse communities in previously undeveloped areas. From 1880 to 1914, peak years of immigration, more than 22 million people migrated to the United States. Most were unskilled workers who quickly found jobs in mines, mills, and factories. Many immigrants were craftsmen (especially from Britain and Germany) bringing human skills, and others were farmers (especially from Germany and Scandinavia) who purchased inexpensive land on the Prairies from railroads who sent agents to Europe. Poverty, growing inequality and dangerous working conditions, along with socialist and anarchist ideas diffusing from European immigrants, led to the rise of the labor movement, which often included violent strikes. #### Unions and strikes Skilled workers banded together to control their crafts and raise wages by forming labor unions in industrial areas of the Northeast. Before the 1930s few factory workers joined the unions in the labor movement. Samuel Gompers led the American Federation of Labor (1886–1924), coordinating multiple unions. Industrial growth was rapid, led by John D. Rockefeller in oil and Andrew Carnegie in steel; both became leaders of philanthropy (Gospel of Wealth), giving away their fortunes to create the modern system of hospitals, universities, libraries, and foundations. The Panic of 1893 broke out and was a severe nationwide depression impacting farmers, workers, and businessmen who saw prices, wages, and profits fall. Many railroads went bankrupt. The resultant political reaction fell on the Democratic Party, whose leader President Grover Cleveland shouldered much of the blame. Labor unrest involved numerous strikes, most notably the violent Pullman Strike of 1894, which was shut down by federal troops under Cleveland's orders. The Populist Party gained strength among cotton and wheat farmers, as well as coal miners, but was overtaken by the even more popular Free silver movement, which demanded using silver to enlarge the money supply, leading to inflation that the silverites promised would end the depression. The financial, railroad, and business communities fought back hard, arguing that only the gold standard would save the economy. In the most intense election in U.S. history, conservative Republican William McKinley defeated silverite William Jennings Bryan, who ran on the Democratic, Populist, and Silver Republican tickets. Bryan swept the South and West, but McKinley ran up landslides among the middle class, industrial workers, cities, and among upscale farmers in the Midwest. Prosperity returned under McKinley, the gold standard was enacted, and the tariff was raised. By 1900 the U.S. had the strongest economy on the globe. Apart from two short recessions (in 1907 and 1920) the overall economy remained prosperous and growing until 1929. Republicans, citing McKinley's policies, took the credit. ### Imperialism The United States emerged as a world economic and military power after 1890. The main episode was the Spanish–American War, which began when Spain refused American demands to reform its oppressive policies in Cuba. The "splendid little war", as one official called it, involved a series of quick American victories on land and at sea. At the Treaty of Paris peace conference the United States acquired the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam. Cuba became an independent country, under close American tutelage. Although the war itself was widely popular, the peace terms proved controversial. William Jennings Bryan led his Democratic Party in opposition to control of the Philippines, which he denounced as imperialism unbecoming to American democracy. President William McKinley defended the acquisition and was riding high as society had returned to prosperity and felt triumphant in the war. McKinley easily defeated Bryan in a rematch in the 1900 presidential election. After defeating an insurrection by Filipino nationalists, the United States achieved little in the Philippines except in education, and it did something in the way of public health. It also built roads, bridges, and wells, but infrastructural development lost much of its early vigor with the failure of the railroads. By 1908, however, Americans lost interest in an empire and turned their international attention to the Caribbean, especially the building of the Panama Canal. The canal opened in 1914 and increased trade with Japan and the rest of the Far East. A key innovation was the Open Door Policy, whereby the imperial powers were given equal access to Chinese business, with not one of them allowed to take control of China. Discontent and reform --------------------- ### Progressive era Dissatisfaction on the part of the growing middle class with the corruption and inefficiency of politics as usual, and the failure to deal with increasingly important urban and industrial problems, led to the dynamic Progressive Movement starting in the 1890s. In every major city and state, and at the federal level as well, and in education, medicine, and industry, the progressives called for the modernization and reform of decrepit institutions, the elimination of corruption in politics, and the introduction of efficiency as a criterion for change. Leading politicians from both parties, most notably Theodore Roosevelt, Charles Evans Hughes, and Robert La Follette on the Republican side, and William Jennings Bryan and Woodrow Wilson on the Democratic side, took up the cause of progressive reform. Women became especially involved in demands for female suffrage, prohibition, and better schools. Their most prominent leader was Jane Addams of Chicago, who created settlement houses. "Muckraking" journalists such as Upton Sinclair, Lincoln Steffens and Jacob Riis exposed corruption in business and government along with rampant inner-city poverty. Progressives implemented antitrust laws and regulated such industries of meat-packing, drugs, and railroads. Four new constitutional amendments – the Sixteenth through Nineteenth – resulted from progressive activism, bringing the federal income tax, direct election of Senators, prohibition, and female suffrage. The period also saw a major transformation of the banking system with the creation of the Federal Reserve System in 1913 and the arrival of cooperative banking in the US with the founding of the first credit union in 1908. The Progressive Movement lasted through the 1920s; the most active period was 1900–1918. ### Women's suffrage The women's suffrage movement began with the June 1848 National Convention of the Liberty Party. Presidential candidate Gerrit Smith argued for and established women's suffrage as a party plank. One month later, his cousin Elizabeth Cady Stanton joined with Lucretia Mott and other women to organize the Seneca Falls Convention, featuring the Declaration of Sentiments demanding equal rights for women, and the right to vote. Many of these activists became politically aware during the abolitionist movement. The women's rights campaign during "first-wave feminism" was led by Stanton, Lucy Stone and Susan B. Anthony, among many others. Stone and Paulina Wright Davis organized the prominent and influential National Women's Rights Convention in 1850. The movement reorganized after the Civil War, gaining experienced campaigners, many of whom had worked for prohibition in the Women's Christian Temperance Union. By the end of the 19th century a few western states had granted women full voting rights, though women had made significant legal victories, gaining rights in areas such as property and child custody. Around 1912 the feminist movement began to reawaken, putting an emphasis on its demands for equality and arguing that the corruption of American politics demanded purification by women. Protests became increasingly common as suffragette Alice Paul led parades through the capital and major cities. Paul split from the large National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA), which favored a more moderate approach and supported the Democratic Party and Woodrow Wilson, led by Carrie Chapman Catt, and formed the more militant National Woman's Party. Suffragists were arrested during their "Silent Sentinels" pickets at the White House, the first time such a tactic was used, and were taken as political prisoners. The old anti-suffragist argument that only men could fight in a war, and therefore only men deserve the right to vote, was refuted by the enthusiastic participation of tens of thousands of American women on the home front in World War I. Across the world, industrialized countries with similar experiences gave women the right to vote. Furthermore, most of the states in the western U.S. had already given the women the right to vote in state and federal elections, and the representatives from those states, including the first woman elected to the House of Representatives, Jeannette Rankin of Montana, demonstrated that woman suffrage was a success. The main resistance came from the south, where white leaders were worried about the threat of black women voting. Congress passed the Nineteenth Amendment in 1919, and women could vote in 1920. NAWSA became the League of Women Voters, and the National Woman's Party began lobbying for full equality and the Equal Rights Amendment, which would pass Congress during the second wave of the women's movement in 1972. Politicians responded to the new electorate by emphasizing issues of special interest to women, especially prohibition, child health, and world peace. The main surge of women voting came in 1928, when the big-city machines realized they needed the support of women to elect Al Smith, a Catholic from New York City. Meanwhile, Protestants mobilized women to support Prohibition and vote for Republican Herbert Hoover. * Women suffragists demonstrating for the right to vote in 1913Women suffragists demonstrating for the right to vote in 1913 * Women's suffragists parade in New York City in 1917, carrying placards with signatures of more than a million women.Women's suffragists parade in New York City in 1917, carrying placards with signatures of more than a million women. * Women surrounded by posters in English and Yiddish supporting Franklin D. Roosevelt, Herbert H. Lehman, and the American Labor Party teach other women how to vote, 1936Women surrounded by posters in English and Yiddish supporting Franklin D. Roosevelt, Herbert H. Lehman, and the American Labor Party teach other women how to vote, 1936 War, prosperity, and depression ------------------------------- ### World War I As World War I raged in Europe from 1914, President Woodrow Wilson took full control of foreign policy, declaring neutrality but warning Germany that resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare against American ships supplying goods to Allied nations would mean war. Germany decided to take the risk and try to win by cutting off supplies to Britain through the sinking of ships such as the RMS Lusitania. The U.S. declared war in April 1917 mainly from the threat of the Zimmermann Telegram. American money, food, and munitions arrived in Europe quickly, but troops had to be drafted and trained. By the summer of 1918 American Expeditionary Forces soldiers under General John J. Pershing's American Expeditionary Forces arrived at the rate of 10,000 a day, while Germany was unable to replace its losses. Dissent against the war was suppressed by the Sedition Act of 1918 & Espionage Act of 1917. German language, leftist & pacifist publications were suppressed, and over 2,000 were imprisoned for speaking out against the war. The political prisoners were later released by U.S. President Warren G. Harding. The result was Allied victory in November 1918. President Wilson demanded Germany depose the Kaiser and accept his terms in the famed Fourteen Points speech. Wilson dominated the 1919 Paris Peace Conference but Germany was treated harshly by the Allies in the Treaty of Versailles (1919) as Wilson put all his hopes in the new League of Nations. Wilson refused to compromise with Senate Republicans over the issue of Congressional power to declare war, and the Senate rejected the Treaty and the League. ### Roaring Twenties In the 1920s the U.S. grew steadily in stature as an economic and military world power. The United States Senate did not ratify the Treaty of Versailles imposed by its Allies on the defeated Central Powers; instead, the United States chose to pursue unilateralism. The aftershock of Russia's October Revolution resulted in real fears of Communism in the United States, leading to a Red Scare and the deportation of aliens considered subversive. While public health facilities grew rapidly in the Progressive Era, and hospitals and medical schools were modernized, the country in 1918 and 1919 lost approximately 675,000 lives to the Spanish flu pandemic. In 1920, the manufacture, sale, import and export of alcohol were prohibited by the Eighteenth Amendment, Prohibition. The result was that in cities illegal alcohol became a big business, largely controlled by racketeers. The second Ku Klux Klan grew rapidly in 1922–1925, then collapsed. Immigration laws were passed to strictly limit the number of new entries. The 1920s were called the Roaring Twenties due to the great economic prosperity during this period. Jazz became popular among the younger generation, and thus the decade was also called the Jazz Age. The Great Depression (1929–1939) and the New Deal (1933–1936) were decisive moments in American political, economic, and social history that reshaped the nation. ### Great Depression and the New Deal During the 1920s, the nation enjoyed widespread prosperity, albeit with a weakness in agriculture. A financial bubble was fueled by an inflated stock market, which later led to the Stock Market Crash on October 29, 1929.[*full citation needed*] This, along with many other economic factors, triggered a worldwide depression known as the Great Depression. During this time, the United States experienced deflation as prices fell, unemployment soared from 3% in 1929 to 25% in 1933, farm prices fell by half, and manufacturing output plunged by one-third. In 1932, Democratic presidential nominee Franklin D. Roosevelt promised "a New Deal for the American people", coining the enduring label for his domestic policies. The result was a series of permanent reform programs including Relief for the unemployed, assistance for the elderly, jobs for young men, social security, unemployment insurance, public housing, bankruptcy insurance, farm subsidies, and regulation of financial securities. State governments added new programs as well and introduced the sales tax to pay for them. Ideologically the revolution established modern liberalism in the United States and kept the Democrats in power in Washington almost continuously for three decades thanks to the New Deal coalition of ethnic whites, blacks, blue-collar workers, labor unions, and white Southerners. It provided relief to the long-term unemployed through numerous programs, such as the Works Progress Administration (WPA) and for young men, the Civilian Conservation Corps. Large scale spending projects designed to provide private sector construction jobs and rebuild the infrastructure were under the purview of the Public Works Administration. The Second New Deal was a turn to the left in 1935–1936, building up labor unions through the Wagner Act. Unions became a powerful element of the merging New Deal coalition, which won reelection for Roosevelt in 1936, 1940, and 1944 by mobilizing union members, blue-collar workers, relief recipients, big city machines, ethnic, and religious groups (especially Catholics and Jews) and the white South, along with blacks in the North (where they could vote). Roosevelt seriously weakened his second term by a failed effort to pack the Supreme Court, which had been a center of conservative resistance to his programs. Most of the relief programs were dropped after 1938 in the 1940s when the conservatives regained power in Congress through the Conservative coalition. Of special importance is the Social Security program, begun in 1935. The economy basically recovered by 1936, but had a sharp, short recession in 1937–1938; long-term unemployment, however, remained a problem until it was solved by wartime spending. In an effort to denounce past U.S. interventionism and subdue any subsequent fears of Latin Americans, Roosevelt announced on March 4, 1933, during his inaugural address, "In the field of World policy, I would dedicate this nation to the policy of the good neighbor, the neighbor who resolutely respects himself and, because he does so, respects the rights of others, the neighbor who respects his obligations and respects the sanctity of his agreements in and with a World of neighbors." To create a friendly relationship between the United States and Central as well as South American countries, Roosevelt sought to stray from asserting military force in the region. This position was affirmed by Cordell Hull, Roosevelt's Secretary of State at a conference of American states in Montevideo in December 1933. For Hispanics in the United States, however, the Great Depression was a difficult period, as the Mexican Repatriation resulted in the dislocation of an estimated 400,000 Mexicans and Mexican Americans. ### World War II In the Depression years, the United States remained focused on domestic concerns while democracy declined across the world and many countries fell under the control of dictators. Imperial Japan asserted dominance in East Asia and in the Pacific. Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy militarized and threatened conquests, while Britain and France attempted appeasement to avert another war in Europe. U.S. legislation in the Neutrality Acts sought to avoid foreign conflicts; however, policy clashed with increasing anti-Nazi feelings following the German invasion of Poland in September 1939 that started World War II. At first, Roosevelt positioned the U.S. as the "Arsenal of Democracy," pledging full-scale financial and munitions support for the Allies and Lend-Lease agreements – but no military personnel. Japan tried to neutralize America's power in the Pacific by attacking Pearl Harbor in 1941, but instead it catalyzed American support to enter the war. The main contributions of the U.S. to the Allied war effort comprised money, industrial output, food, petroleum, technological innovation, and (especially 1944–1945), military personnel. Much of the focus the U.S. government was in maximizing the national economic output, causing a dramatic increase in GDP, the export of vast quantities of supplies to the Allies and to American forces overseas, the end of unemployment, and a rise in civilian consumption even as 40% of the GDP went to the war effort. Tens of millions of workers moved from low-productivity occupations to high-efficiency jobs, improving productivity through better technology and management. Students, retired people, housewives, and the unemployed moved into the active labor force. Economic mobilization was managed by the War Production Board and a wartime production boom led to full employment, wiping out this vestige of the Great Depression. Labor shortages encouraged industry to look for new sources of workers, finding new roles for women and Blacks. Most durable goods became unavailable, and meat, clothing, and gasoline were tightly rationed. In industrial areas housing was in short supply as people doubled up and lived in cramped quarters. Prices and wages were controlled, and Americans saved a high portion of their incomes, which led to renewed growth after the war instead of a return to depression. Americans on the home front tolerated the extra work because of patriotism, increased pay, and the confidence that it was only "for the duration," and life would return to normal as soon as the war was won. The Allies – the United States, Britain, and the Soviet Union and other countries – saw Germany as the main threat and gave the highest priority to Europe. The U.S. dominated the war against Japan and stopped Japanese expansion in the Pacific in 1942. After the attack at Pearl Harbor and the loss of the Philippines to Japanese conquests, as well as a draw in the Battle of the Coral Sea (May 1942), the American Navy then inflicted a decisive blow at Midway (June 1942). American ground forces assisted in the North African campaign that eventually concluded with the collapse of Mussolini's fascist government in 1943, as Italy switched to the Allied side. A more significant European front was opened on D-Day, June 6, 1944, in which American and Allied forces invaded Nazi-occupied France from Britain. War fervor also inspired anti-Japanese sentiment, leading to internment of Japanese Americans. Roosevelt's Executive Order 9066 resulted in over 120,000 Americans of Japanese descent being removed from their homes and placed in internment camps. Two-thirds of those interned were American citizens and half of them were children. Military research and development also increase, leading to the Manhattan Project, a secret effort to harness nuclear fission to produce atomic bombs. The first nuclear device ever detonated was conducted July 16, 1945. The Allies pushed the Germans out of France but the western front stopped short, leaving Berlin to the Soviets as the Nazi regime formally capitulated in May 1945, ending the war in Europe. In the Pacific, the U.S. implemented an island hopping strategy toward Tokyo. The Philippines was eventually reconquered, after Japan and the United States fought in history's largest naval battle, "The Battle of Leyte Gulf". However, the war wiped out all the development the United States invested in the Philippines as cities and towns were completely destroyed. After the devastation of the war, the United States granted its colony, the Philippines, independence. The United States then established airfields for bombing runs against mainland Japan from the Mariana Islands, achieving hard-fought victories at Iwo Jima and Okinawa in 1945. Bloodied at Okinawa, the U.S. prepared to invade Japan's home islands when B-29s dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, compelling Japan to surrender and ending World War II. The U.S. occupied Japan (and part of Germany), and restructured Japan along American lines. During the war, Roosevelt coined the term "Four Powers" to refer four major Allies of World War II, the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and China, which later became the foundation of the United Nations Security Council. Though more than 400,000 military personnel and civilians were lost, the U.S. mostly prospered untouched by the physical devastation of war that inflicted a heavy toll on Europe and East Asia. Participation in postwar foreign affairs marked the end of predominant American isolationism. The threat of nuclear weapons inspired both optimism and fear. Nuclear weapons have not been used since the war ended, and a "long peace" began between the global powers in era of competition that came to be known as the Cold War. The Truman Doctrine characterized this reality on May 22, 1947. Despite the absence of a global war during this period, there were, however, regional wars in Korea and Vietnam. Cold War, counterculture, and civil rights ------------------------------------------ ### Cold War Following World War II, the United States emerged as one of the two dominant superpowers, the Soviet Union being the other. The U.S. Senate on a bipartisan vote approved U.S. participation in the United Nations (UN), which marked a turn away from the traditional isolationism of the U.S. and toward increased international involvement. The primary American goal of 1945–1948 was to rescue Europe from the devastation of World War II and to contain the expansion of Communism, represented by the Soviet Union. U.S. foreign policy during the Cold War was built around the support of Western Europe and Japan along with the policy of containment, stopping the spread of communism. The U.S. joined the wars in Korea and Vietnam and toppled left-wing governments in the third world to try to stop its spread. The Truman Doctrine of 1947 provided military and economic aid to Greece and Turkey to counteract the threat of Communist expansion in the Balkans. In 1948, the United States replaced piecemeal financial aid programs with a comprehensive Marshall Plan, which pumped money into the economy of Western Europe, and removed trade barriers, while modernizing the managerial practices of businesses and governments. The Plan's $13 billion budget was in the context of a U.S. GDP of $258 billion in 1948 and was in addition to the $12 billion in American aid given to Europe between the end of the war and the start of the Marshall Plan. Soviet head of state Joseph Stalin prevented his satellite states from participating, and from that point on, Eastern Europe, with inefficient centralized economies, fell further and further behind Western Europe in terms of economic development and prosperity. In 1949, the United States, rejecting the long-standing policy of no military alliances in peacetime, formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) alliance, which continues into the 21st century. In response the Soviets formed the Warsaw Pact of communist states, leading to the "Iron Curtain". In August 1949 the Soviets tested their first nuclear weapon, thereby escalating the risk of warfare. The threat of mutually assured destruction however, prevented both powers from nuclear war, and resulted in proxy wars, especially in Korea and Vietnam, in which the two sides did not directly confront each other. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, elected in a landslide as the first Republican president since 1932, had a lasting impact on American life and politics. He ended the Korean War, and avoided any other major conflict. He cut military spending by reliance on very high technology, such as nuclear weapons carried by long-range bombers and intercontinental missiles. He gave strong support to the NATO alliance and built other alliances along similar lines, but they never were especially effective. After Stalin died in 1953, Eisenhower worked to obtain friendlier relationships with the Soviet Union. At home, he ended McCarthyism, expanded the Social Security program and presided over a decade of bipartisan comity. He promoted civil rights cautiously, and sent in the Army when trouble threatened over racial integration in Little Rock, Arkansas. The unexpected leapfrogging of American technology by the Soviets in 1957 with Sputnik, the first Earth satellite, began the Space Race, won in 1969 by the Americans as Apollo 11 landed astronauts on the Moon. The angst about the weaknesses of American education led to large-scale federal support for science education and research. In the decades after World War II, the United States became a global influence in economic, political, military, cultural, and technological affairs. John F Kennedy's inaugural address, 1961 In 1960, John F. Kennedy was elected President and his administration saw the acceleration of the country's role in the Space Race, escalation of the American role in the Vietnam War, the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the Cuban Missile Crisis, and the jailing of Martin Luther King Jr. during the Birmingham campaign. President Kennedy was assassinated on November 22, 1963, leaving the nation in profound shock. ### Great Society President Lyndon B. Johnson secured congressional passage of his Great Society programs in the mid-1960s. They included civil rights, the end of legal segregation, Medicare, extension of welfare, federal aid to education at all levels, subsidies for the arts and humanities, environmental activism, and a series of programs designed to wipe out poverty. As later historians explained: > Gradually, liberal intellectuals crafted a new vision for achieving economic and social justice. The liberalism of the early 1960s contained no hint of radicalism, little disposition to revive new deal era crusades against concentrated economic power, and no intention to redistribute wealth or restructure existing institutions. Internationally it was strongly anti-Communist. It aimed to defend the free world, to encourage economic growth at home, and to ensure that the resulting plenty was fairly distributed. Their agenda-much influenced by Keynesian economic theory-envisioned massive public expenditure that would speed economic growth, thus providing the public resources to fund larger welfare, housing, health, and educational programs. > > > Johnson was rewarded with an electoral landslide in 1964 against conservative Barry Goldwater, which broke the decades-long control of Congress by the Conservative coalition. However, the Republicans bounced back in 1966 and elected Richard Nixon in 1968. Nixon largely continued the New Deal and Great Society programs he inherited; conservative reaction would come with the election of Ronald Reagan in 1980. Meanwhile, the American people completed a great migration from farms into the cities and experienced a period of sustained economic expansion. ### Civil rights movement Starting in the late 1950s, institutionalized racism across the United States, but especially in the South, was increasingly challenged by the growing Civil Rights Movement. The activism of African-American leaders Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr. led to the Montgomery bus boycott, which launched the movement. For years African Americans would struggle with violence against them but would achieve great steps toward equality with Supreme Court decisions, including *Brown v. Board of Education* and *Loving v. Virginia*, the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and the Fair Housing Act of 1968, which ended the Jim Crow laws that legalized racial segregation between whites and blacks. Martin Luther King Jr., who had won the 1964 Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts to achieve equality of the races, was assassinated in 1968. Following his death others led the movement, most notably King's widow, Coretta Scott King, who was also active, like her husband, in the Opposition to the Vietnam War, and in the Women's Liberation Movement. There were 164 riots in 128 American cities in the first nine months of 1967. Frustrations with the seemingly slow progress of the integration movement led to the emergence of more radical discourses during the early 1960s, which, in turn, gave rise to the Black Power movement of the late 1960s and early 1970s. The decade would ultimately bring about positive strides toward integration, especially in government service, sports, and entertainment. Native Americans turned to the federal courts to fight for their land rights. They held protests highlighting the federal government's failure to honor treaties. One of the most outspoken Native American groups was the American Indian Movement (AIM). In the 1960s, Cesar Chavez began organizing poorly paid Mexican-American farm workers in California. He led a five-year-long strike by grape pickers. Then Chávez formed the country's first successful union of farm workers. His United Farm Workers of America (UFW) faltered after a few years but after Chavez died in 1993 he became an iconic "folk saint" in the pantheon of Mexican Americans. ### Women's liberation A new consciousness of the inequality of American women began sweeping the nation, starting with the 1963 publication of Betty Friedan's best-seller, *The Feminine Mystique*, which explained how many housewives felt trapped and unfulfilled, assaulted American culture for its creation of the notion that women could only find fulfillment through their roles as wives, mothers, and keepers of the home, and argued that women were just as able as men to do every type of job. In 1966 Friedan and others established the National Organization for Women (NOW) to act for women as the NAACP did for African Americans. Protests began, and the new women's liberation movement grew in size and power, gained much media attention, and, by 1968, had replaced the Civil Rights Movement as the U.S's main social revolution. Marches, parades, rallies, boycotts, and pickets brought out thousands, sometimes millions. There were striking gains for women in medicine, law, and business, while only a few were elected to office. The women's movement was split into factions by political ideology early on, with NOW on the left, the Women's Equity Action League (WEAL) on the right, the National Women's Political Caucus (NWPC) in the center, and more radical groups formed by younger women on the far-left. The proposed Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution, passed by Congress in 1972 was defeated by a conservative coalition mobilized by Phyllis Schlafly. They argued that it degraded the position of the housewife and made young women susceptible to the military draft. However, many federal laws (i.e. those equalizing pay, employment, education, employment opportunities, and credit; ending pregnancy discrimination; and requiring NASA, the Military Academies, and other organizations to admit women), state laws (i.e., those ending spousal abuse and marital rape), Supreme Court rulings (i.e. ruling that the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment applied to women), and state ERAs established women's equal status under the law, and social custom and consciousness began to change, accepting women's equality. The controversial issue of abortion, deemed by the Supreme Court as a fundamental right in *Roe v. Wade* (1973), is still a point of debate today. ### Counterculture and Cold War détente Amid the Cold War, the United States entered the Vietnam War, whose growing unpopularity fed already existing social movements, including those among women, minorities, and young people. President Lyndon B. Johnson's Great Society social programs and numerous rulings by the Warren Court added to the wide range of social reform during the 1960s and 1970s. Feminism and the environmental movement became political forces, and progress continued toward civil rights for all Americans. The Counterculture Revolution swept through the nation and much of the western world in the late sixties and early seventies, further dividing Americans in a "culture war" but also bringing forth more liberated social views. Johnson was succeeded in 1969 by Republican Richard Nixon, who attempted to gradually turn the war over to the South Vietnamese forces. He negotiated the peace treaty in 1973 which secured the release of POWs and led to the withdrawal of U.S. troops. The war had cost the lives of 58,000 American troops. Nixon manipulated the fierce distrust between the Soviet Union and China to the advantage of the United States, achieving *détente* with both parties. The Watergate scandal, involving Nixon's cover-up of his operatives' break-in into the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate office complex destroyed his political base, sent many aides to prison, and forced Nixon's resignation on August 9, 1974. He was succeeded by Vice President Gerald Ford. The Fall of Saigon, on April 30, 1975, ended the Vietnam War and resulted in North and South Vietnam being reunited. Communist victories in neighboring Cambodia and Laos occurred in the same year, with the fall of Cambodia's capital, Phnom Penh on April 17 and the taking of Laos's capital, Vientiane on December 2. The OPEC oil embargo marked a long-term economic transition since, for the first time, energy prices skyrocketed, and American factories faced serious competition from foreign automobiles, clothing, electronics, and consumer goods. By the late 1970s, the economy suffered an energy crisis, slow economic growth, high unemployment, and very high inflation coupled with high-interest rates (the term stagflation was coined). Since economists agreed on the wisdom of deregulation, many of the New Deal era regulations were ended, such as in transportation, banking, and telecommunications. Jimmy Carter, running as someone who was not a part of the Washington political establishment, was elected president in 1976. On the world stage, Carter brokered the Camp David Accords between Israel and Egypt. In 1979, Iranian students stormed the U.S. embassy in Tehran and took 66 Americans hostage, resulting in the Iran hostage crisis. With the hostage crisis and continuing stagflation, Carter lost the 1980 election to the Republican Ronald Reagan. On January 20, 1981, minutes after Carter's term in office ended, the remaining U.S. captives held at the U.S. embassy in Iran were released, ending the 444-day hostage crisis. ### Rise of conservatism and the end of the Cold War Ronald Reagan produced a major political realignment with his 1980 and 1984 landslide elections. Reagan's economic policies (dubbed "Reaganomics") and the implementation of the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 lowered the top marginal tax rate from 70% to 28% over the course of seven years. Reagan continued to downsize government taxation and regulation. The U.S. experienced a recession in 1982, but the negative indicators reversed, with the inflation rate decreasing from 11% to 2%, the unemployment rate decreasing from 10.8% in December 1982 to 7.5% in November 1984, and the economic growth rate increasing from 4.5% to 7.2%. Reagan ordered a buildup of the U.S. military, incurring additional budget deficits. Reagan introduced a complicated missile defense system known as the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) (dubbed "Star Wars" by opponents) in which, theoretically, the U.S. could shoot down missiles with laser systems in space. The Soviets reacted harshly because they thought it violated the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty and would upset the balance of power by giving the U.S. a major military advantage. For years Soviet general secretary Mikhail Gorbachev argued vehemently against SDI. However, by the late 1980s he decided the system would never work and should not be used to block disarmament deals with the U.S. Historians argue how great an impact the SDI threat had on the Soviets – whether it was enough to force Gorbachev to initiate radical reforms, or whether the deterioration of the Soviet economy alone forced the reforms. There is agreement that the Soviets realized they were well behind the Americans in military technology, that to try to catch up would be very expensive, and that the military expenses were already a very heavy burden slowing down their economy. The 1983 Invasion of Grenada and 1986 bombing of Libya were popular in the U.S., though his backing of the Contras rebels was mired in the controversy over the Iran–Contra affair. Reagan met four times with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, who ascended to power as General Secretary of the Communist Party in 1985, and their summit conferences led to the signing of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty. Gorbachev tried to save Communism in the Soviet Union first by ending the expensive nuclear arms race with America, then by shedding the East European empire in 1989. The Soviet Union collapsed on Christmas Day 1991, ending the U.S–Soviet Cold War. For the remainder of the 20th century, the United States emerged as the world's sole remaining superpower and continued to intervene in international affairs during the 1990s, including the 1991 Gulf War against Iraq. Following his election in 1992, President Bill Clinton oversaw one of the longest periods of economic expansion and unprecedented gains in securities values. President Clinton worked with the Republican Congress to pass the first balanced federal budget in 30 years.Much of the economic boom was a side effect of the Digital Revolution and new business opportunities created by the internet privatized in 1993. Prior to this time ARPNET a Department of Defense Project had developed the internet for governmental, and research purposes. In 1998, Clinton was impeached by the House of Representatives on charges of lying under oath about (perjury regarding) a sexual relationship with White House intern Monica Lewinsky. He was acquitted by the Senate. The failure of impeachment and the Democratic gains in the 1998 election forced House Speaker Newt Gingrich, a Republican, to resign from Congress. The Republican Party expanded its base throughout the South after 1968 (except 1976), largely due to its strength among socially conservative white Evangelical Protestants and traditionalist Roman Catholics, added to its traditional strength in the business community and suburbs. As white Democrats in the South lost dominance of the Democratic Party in the 1990s, the region took on the two-party apparatus which characterized most states. The Republican Party's central leader by 1980 was Ronald Reagan, whose conservative policies called for reduced government spending and regulation, lower taxes, and a strong anti-Soviet foreign policy. His iconic status in the party persists into the 21st century, as practically all Republican Party leaders acknowledge his stature. Social scientists Theodore Caplow et al. argue, "The Republican party, nationally, moved from right-center toward the center in the 1940s and 1950s, then moved right again in the 1970s and 1980s." They add: "The Democratic party, nationally, moved from left-center toward the center in the 1940s and 1950s, then moved further toward the right-center in the 1970s and 1980s." The close presidential election in 2000 between Governor George W. Bush and Al Gore helped lay the seeds for political polarization to come. The vote in the decisive states of New Mexico and Florida was extremely close and produced a dramatic dispute over the counting of votes. Including 2000, the Democrats outpolled the Republicans in the national vote in every election from 1992 to 2020, except for 2004. 21st century ------------ ### 9/11 and the war on terror On September 11, 2001 ("9/11"), the United States was struck by a terrorist attack when 19 al-Qaeda hijackers commandeered four airliners to be used in suicide attacks and intentionally crashed two into both twin towers of the World Trade Center and the third into the Pentagon, killing 2,937 victims—206 aboard the three airliners, 2,606 who were in the World Trade Center and on the ground, and 125 who were in the Pentagon. The fourth plane was re-taken by the passengers and crew of the aircraft. While they were not able to land the plane safely, they were able to re-take control of the aircraft and crash it into an empty field in Pennsylvania, killing all 44 people including the four terrorists on board, thereby saving whatever target the terrorists were aiming for. Within two hours, both Twin Towers of the World Trade Center completely collapsed causing massive damage to the surrounding area and blanketing Lower Manhattan in toxic dust clouds. All in all, a total of 2,977 victims perished in the attacks. In response, President George W. Bush on September 20 announced a "war on terror". On October 7, 2001, the United States and NATO then invaded Afghanistan to oust the Taliban regime, which had provided safe haven to al-Qaeda and its leader Osama bin Laden. The federal government established new domestic efforts to prevent future attacks. The USA PATRIOT Act increased the power of government to monitor communications and removed legal restrictions on information sharing between federal law enforcement and intelligence services. The U.S. Department of Homeland Security was created to lead and coordinate federal counter-terrorism activities. Since 2002, the U.S. government's indefinite detention of terrorism suspects captured abroad at the Guantanamo Bay detention camp, a prison at the U.S. naval base in Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, led to allegations of human rights abuses and violations of international law. In 2003, from March 19 to May 1, the United States launched an invasion of Iraq, which led to the collapse of the Iraq government and the eventual capture of Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein, with whom the U.S. had long-standing tense relations. The reasons for the invasion cited by the Bush administration included the spreading of democracy, the elimination of weapons of mass destruction (a key demand of the UN as well, though later investigations found parts of the intelligence reports to be inaccurate), and the liberation of the Iraqi people. Despite some initial successes early in the invasion, the continued Iraq War fueled international protests and gradually saw domestic support decline as many people began to question whether or not the invasion was worth the cost. In 2007, after years of violence by the Iraqi insurgency, President Bush deployed more troops in a strategy dubbed "the surge". While the death toll decreased, the political stability of Iraq remained in doubt. In 2008, the unpopularity of President Bush and the Iraq war, along with the 2008 financial crisis, led to the election of Barack Obama, the first multiracial president, with African-American or Kenyan ancestry. After his election, Obama reluctantly continued the war effort in Iraq until August 31, 2010, when he declared that combat operations had ended. However, 50,000 American soldiers and military personnel were kept in Iraq to assist Iraqi forces, help protect withdrawing forces, and work on counter-terrorism until December 15, 2011, when the war was declared formally over and the last troops left the country. At the same time, Obama increased American involvement in Afghanistan, starting a surge strategy using an additional 30,000 troops, while proposing to begin withdrawing troops sometime in December 2014. In 2009, on his second day in office, Obama issued an executive order banning the use of torture, a prohibition codified into law in 2016. Obama also ordered the closure of secret CIA-run prisons overseas ("black sites"). Obama sought to close the Guantanamo Bay detention camp "as soon as practicable" and over his tenure the population of the detention camp declined from 242 inmates to 45 inmates; the Guantanamo Review Task Force cleared many prisoners for release and resettlement abroad. Obama's efforts to close the prison entirely were stymied by Congress, which in 2011 enacted a measure blocking Obama from transferring any Guantanamo detainees to U.S. facilities. In May 2011, after nearly a decade in hiding, the founder and leader of Al Qaeda, Osama bin Laden, was killed in Pakistan in a raid conducted by U.S. naval special forces acting under President Obama's direct orders. While Al Qaeda was near collapse in Afghanistan, affiliated organizations continued to operate in Yemen and other remote areas as the CIA used drones to hunt down and remove its leadership. The Boston Marathon bombing was a bombing incident, followed by subsequent related shootings, that occurred when two pressure cooker bombs exploded during the Boston Marathon on April 15, 2013. The bombs exploded near the marathon's finish line, killing 3 people and injuring an estimated 264 others. The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant rose to prominence in September 2014. In addition to taking control of much of Western Iraq and Eastern Syria, ISIS also beheaded three journalists, two American and one British. These events lead to a major military offensive by the United States and its allies in the region. On December 28, 2014, Obama officially ended the combat mission in Afghanistan and promised a withdrawal of all remaining U.S. troops at the end of 2016 with the exception of the embassy guards. The US military mission formally ended on August 30, 2021. ### Great Recession In September 2008, the United States and most of Europe entered the longest post–World War II recession, often called the "Great Recession". Multiple overlapping crises were involved, especially the housing market crisis, a subprime mortgage crisis, soaring oil prices, an automotive industry crisis, rising unemployment, and the worst financial crisis since the Great Depression. The financial crisis threatened the stability of the entire economy in September 2008 when Lehman Brothers failed and other giant banks were in grave danger. Starting in October the federal government lent $245 billion to financial institutions through the Troubled Asset Relief Program which was passed by bipartisan majorities and signed by Bush. Following his election victory by a wide electoral margin in November 2008, Bush's successor – Barack Obama – signed into law the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, which was a $787 billion economic stimulus aimed at helping the economy recover from the deepening recession. Obama, like Bush, took steps to rescue the auto industry and prevent future economic meltdowns. These included a bailout of General Motors and Chrysler, putting ownership temporarily in the hands of the government, and the "cash for clunkers" program which temporarily boosted new car sales. The recession officially ended in June 2009, and the economy slowly began to expand once again. Beginning in December 2007, the unemployment rate steeply rose from around 5% to a peak of 10% before falling as the economy and labor markets experienced a recovery. The economic expansion that followed the Great Recession was the longest in U.S. history; strong growth led to the unemployment rate reaching a 50-year low in 2019. Despite the strong economy, increases in the costs of housing, child care, higher education, and out-of-pocket healthcare expenses surpassed increases in wages, a phenomenon some referred to as an *affordability crisis*. The economic expansion came to an end in early 2020 with a sharp economic contraction largely caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, which seriously affected the United States. ### Recent events in 2010s From 2009 to 2010, the 111th Congress passed major legislation such as the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, informally known as Obamacare, the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act and the Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act, which were signed into law by President Obama. Following the 2010 midterm elections, which resulted in a Republican-controlled House of Representatives and a Democratic-controlled Senate, Congress presided over a period of elevated gridlock and heated debates over whether or not to raise the debt ceiling, extend tax cuts for citizens making over $250,000 annually, and many other key issues. These ongoing debates led to President Obama signing the Budget Control Act of 2011. Following Obama's 2012 re-election, Congressional gridlock continued as Congressional Republicans' call for the repeal of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act along with other various demands, resulted in the first government shutdown since the Clinton administration and almost led to the first default on U.S. debt since the 19th century. As a result of growing public frustration with both parties in Congress since the beginning of the decade, Congressional approval ratings fell to record lows. Recent events also include the rise of new political movements, such as the conservative Tea Party movement and the liberal Occupy movement. The debate over the issue of rights for the LGBT community, including same-sex marriage, began to shift in favor of same-sex couples. In 2012, President Obama became the first president to openly support same-sex marriage, and the Supreme Court provided for federal recognition of same-sex unions and then nationwide legalized gay marriage in 2015. Political debate has continued over tax reform, immigration reform, income inequality, and U.S. foreign policy in the Middle East, particularly with regards to global terrorism, the rise of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant and an accompanying climate of Islamophobia. The late 2010s were marked by widespread social upheaval and change in the United States. The #MeToo movement gained popularity, exposing alleged sexual harassment and abuse in the workplace. Multiple prominent celebrities were accused of misconduct or rape. During this period, the Black Lives Matter movement also gained support online, exacerbated by the police killings of multiple black Americans. Multiple mass shootings, including the Pulse Nightclub shooting (2016) and the Las Vegas shooting, which claimed the lives of 61 people, led to increased calls for gun control and reform. Following the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting in 2018, gun control advocates organized the March for Our Lives, where millions of students across the country walked out of school to protest gun violence. The Women's March protest against Trump's presidency in 2017 was one of the largest protests in American history. In 2016, following a contentious election, Republican Donald Trump was elected president. The results of the election were called into question, and U.S. intelligence agencies concluded that associates of the Russian government interfered in the election "to undermine public faith in the U.S. democratic process". This, along with questions about potential collusion between the Trump campaign and Russian officials, led to investigations by the FBI and Congress. During Trump's presidency, he espoused an "America First" ideology, placing restrictions on asylum seekers and imposing a widely controversial ban on immigration from seven Muslim-majority countries. Many of his executive orders and other actions were challenged in court. During his presidency he also engaged the United States in a trade war with China, imposing a wide range of tariffs on Chinese products. In 2018, controversy erupted over the Trump administration's "zero tolerance" policy towards illegal immigrants, which involved the separation of thousands of undocumented children from their parents. After public outcry, Trump rescinded this policy. Trump's term also saw the confirmation of three new justices to the Supreme Court, cementing a conservative majority. In 2019, a whistleblower complaint alleged that Trump had withheld foreign aid from Ukraine under the demand that they investigate the business dealings of the son of Trump's political opponent. As a result, Trump was impeached for abuse of power and obstruction of congress, becoming the third president to have been impeached, but he was acquitted. ### COVID-19 pandemic and other events in 2020s The worldwide COVID-19 pandemic having arrived in the United States was first confirmed in January 2020. By February 2, the Trump administration restricted travel to and from China. On March 11, the WHO declared the virus to be a pandemic. In March, many state and local governments imposed "stay at home" orders to slow the spread of the virus, with the goal of reducing patient overload in hospitals. By March 26, *New York Times* data showed the United States to have the highest number of known cases of any country. By March 27, the country had reported over 100,000 cases. On April 2, at President Trump's direction, the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) and CDC ordered additional preventive guidelines to the long-term care facility industry. On April 11, the U.S. death toll became the highest in the world when the number of deaths reached 20,000, surpassing that of Italy. On April 19, the CMS added new regulations requiring nursing homes to inform residents, their families and representatives, of COVID-19 cases in their facilities. On April 28, the total number of confirmed cases across the country surpassed 1 million. As of May 2022[update], the U.S. has suffered more official COVID-19 deaths than any other country with the death toll standing at 1 million, with the U.S. death toll surpassing the number of U.S. deaths during the Spanish flu pandemic, although the Spanish flu killed 1 in 150 Americans compared to COVID-19 killing 1 in 500 Americans. As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, U.S. life expectancy fell by over a year in 2020 and unemployment rates rose to the worst rates since the Great Depression. In 2021, U.S. life expectancy decreased by around half a year. The May 2020 murder of George Floyd caused mass protests and riots in many major cities over police brutality, with many states calling in the National Guard. 2020 was marked by a rise in domestic terrorist threats and widespread conspiracy theories around mail-in voting and COVID-19. The QAnon conspiracy theory, a fringe far-right political movement among some ardent conservatives, gained publicity and multiple major cities were hit by rioting and brawls between far-left antifascist affiliated groups and far right groups such as the Proud Boys. Democrat Joe Biden defeated Trump in the 2020 presidential election, the first defeat of an incumbent president since 1992. The election, with an exceptional amount of voting by mail and early voting due to the danger of contracting COVID-19 at traditional voting booths, had historically high voter turnout. Trump then repeatedly made false claims of massive voter fraud and election rigging, leading to the January 6 United States Capitol attack by supporters of Trump and right-wing militias. That storming led to Trump's impeachment, as the only U.S. president to be impeached twice. The Senate later acquitted Trump despite some members of his own Republican party voting against him. After the 2021 inauguration, Biden's running-mate, then-Senator Kamala Harris, became both the first African-American and first woman vice president of the United States. The biggest mass vaccination campaign in U.S. history kicked off on December 14, 2020, when ICU nurse Sandra Lindsay became the first person in the U.S. to receive the Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine. As of August 2021, 60% of the U.S. population has received a dose of the Pfizer BioNTech, Moderna, or Johnson & Johnson COVID-19 vaccine. Following Biden's election, the date for US troops to withdraw from Afghanistan was moved back from April to August 31, 2021. In Afghanistan, the withdrawal coincided with the 2021 Taliban offensive, culminating in the fall of Kabul. Following a massive airlift of over 120,000 people, the US military mission formally ended on August 30, 2021. Biden signed into law the American Rescue Plan Act of 2021; a $1.9 trillion stimulus bill that temporarily established expanded unemployment insurance and sent $1,400 stimulus checks to most Americans in response to continued economic pressure from COVID-19. He signed the bipartisan Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act; a ten-year plan brokered by Biden alongside Democrats and Republicans in Congress, to invest in American roads, bridges, public transit, ports and broadband access. He appointed Ketanji Brown Jackson to the U.S. Supreme Court—the first Black woman to serve the court. Biden proposed a significant expansion of the U.S. social safety net through the Build Back Better Act, but those efforts, along with voting rights legislation, failed in Congress. However, in August 2022, Biden signed the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022, a domestic appropriations bill that included some of the provisions of the Build Back Better Act after the entire bill failed to pass. It included significant federal investment in climate and domestic clean energy production, tax credits for solar panels, electric cars and other home energy programs as well as a three-year extension of Affordable Care Act subsidies. From June 2022 Biden went on a string of legislative achievements; with the signing of The Bipartisan Safer Communities Act, the CHIPS and Science Act, a massive investment in the Semiconductor industry and manufacturing, Honoring our PACT Act of 2022, expansion of veterans healthcare and the Respect for Marriage Act, repealing the Defense of Marriage Act and codifying Same-sex and Interracial marriage. On June 24, 2022, the Supreme Court, in a landmark ruling, determined that abortion is not a protected right under the Constitution. The ruling, *Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization* overturned *Roe v. Wade* and *Planned Parenthood v. Casey* and sparked protests outside of the Supreme Court building and across the country. Ketanji Brown Jackson succeeded Justice Breyer upon his retirement from the court on June 30, 2022. She became the first black woman and the first former federal public defender to serve on the Supreme Court upon her swearing in. In the early-2020s, Republican-led states across the United States began sweeping rollbacks of LGBT rights. These included bans on gender transitions, bans on public performances of drag shows, and other restrictions on LGBT rights. See also -------- * American urban history * Bibliography of American history * Colonial history of the United States * Economic history of the United States * History of agriculture in the United States * History of education in the United States * History of United States foreign policy * History of immigration to the United States * History of North America * History of religion in the United States * History of the Southern United States * History of the United States government * History of women in the United States * List of historians by area of study * List of history journals * List of presidents of the United States * Military history of the United States * Outline of United States history * Politics of the United States * Racism in the United States * Territorial evolution of the United States * Territories of the United States * United States factor

History of the United States

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_States

**Es** (С с; italics: *С с*) is a letter of the Cyrillic script. It commonly represents the voiceless alveolar fricative /s/, like the pronunciation of ⟨s⟩ in "**s**and". History ------- The Cyrillic letter Es is derived from a variant of the Greek letter Sigma known as *lunate sigma* (Ϲ ϲ), in use in the Greek-speaking world in early medieval times. It has no connection to the Latin letter C (C c), which is a descendant of the Greek letter Gamma (Γ γ); however, many languages (for different reasons) apply the value of /s/ to the Latin letter C, especially before front vowels *e* and *i* (examples being English, French, Mexican Spanish); see hard and soft C. As its name suggests, Es is related to the Latin S. The name of Es in the Early Cyrillic alphabet was слово (*slovo*), meaning "word" or "speech". In the Cyrillic numeral system, Es had a value of 200. Form ---- In the modern Latinized Cyrillic fonts in use today, the Cyrillic letter Es looks exactly like the Latin letter C, being one of six letters in the Cyrillic alphabet that share appearances with Latin alphabet letters but are pronounced differently (or at least differently from the most common pronunciation). This fact has been frequently abused by plagiarism detector circumventors. Usage ----- As used in the alphabets of various languages, Es represents the following sounds: * voiceless alveolar fricative /s/, like the pronunciation of ⟨s⟩ in "**s**and" * palatalized voiceless alveolar fricative /sʲ/ The pronunciations shown in the table are the primary ones for each language; for details consult the articles on the languages. | Language | Position in alphabet | Pronunciation | | --- | --- | --- | | Belarusian | 19th | /s/, /sʲ/ | | Bulgarian | 18th | /s/, /sʲ/ | | Macedonian | 22nd | /s/ | | Russian | 19th | /s/, /sʲ/ | | Serbian | 21st | /s/ | | Ukrainian | 22nd | /s/, /sʲ/ | | Ossetic (Iron) | 23rd | /ʃ~s̠/ | | Related letters and other similar characters -------------------------------------------- * Σ σ/ς : Greek letter Sigma * S s : Latin letter S * Ѕ ѕ : Cyrillic letter Ѕ * C c : Latin letter C Computing codes --------------- Character information| Preview | С | с | ᲃ | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Unicode name | CYRILLIC CAPITAL LETTER ES | CYRILLIC SMALL LETTER ES | CYRILLIC SMALL LETTER WIDE ES | | Encodings | decimal | hex | dec | hex | dec | hex | | Unicode | 1057 | U+0421 | 1089 | U+0441 | 7299 | U+1C83 | | UTF-8 | 208 161 | D0 A1 | 209 129 | D1 81 | 225 178 131 | E1 B2 83 | | Numeric character reference | &#1057; | &#x421; | &#1089; | &#x441; | &#7299; | &#x1C83; | | Named character reference | &Scy; | &scy; | | | KOI8-R and KOI8-U | 243 | F3 | 211 | D3 | | | | Code page 855 | 228 | E4 | 227 | E3 | | | | Windows-1251 | 209 | D1 | 241 | F1 | | | | ISO-8859-5 | 193 | C1 | 225 | E1 | | | | Macintosh Cyrillic | 145 | 91 | 241 | F1 | | |

Es (Cyrillic)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Es_(Cyrillic)

A **diaspora** (/daɪˈæspərə/ *dye-AS-pər-ə*) is a population that is scattered across regions which are separate from its geographic place of origin. Historically, the word was used first in reference to the dispersion of Greeks in the Hellenic world, and later Jews after the Babylonian exile. The word "diaspora" is used today in reference to people who identify with a specific geographic location, but currently reside elsewhere. Examples of notably large diasporic populations are the Assyrian–Chaldean–Syriac diaspora, which originated during and after the early Arab-Muslim conquests and continued to grow in the aftermath of the Assyrian genocide; the southern Chinese and Indians who left their homelands during the 19th and 20th centuries; the Irish diaspora that came into existence both during and after the Great Famine; the Scottish diaspora that developed on a large scale after the Highland Clearances and Lowland Clearances; the nomadic Romani population from the Indian subcontinent; the Italian diaspora and the Mexican diaspora; the Circassians in the aftermath of the Circassian genocide; the Palestinian diaspora due to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and the broader Arab–Israeli conflict; the Armenian diaspora following the Armenian genocide; the Lebanese diaspora due to the Lebanese Civil War; the Greek population that fled or was displaced following the fall of Constantinople and the later Greek genocide as well as the Istanbul pogroms; and the emigration of Anglo-Saxons (primarily to the Byzantine Empire) after the Norman Conquest of England. In contemporary times, scholars have classified the different kinds of diasporas based on their causes, such as colonialism, trade/labour migrations, or the social coherence which exists within the diaspora communities and their ties to the ancestral lands. Some diaspora communities maintain strong cultural and political ties to their homelands. Other qualities that may be typical of many diasporas are thoughts of return to the ancestral lands, maintaining any form of ties with the region of origin as well as relationships with other communities in the diaspora, and lack of full integration into the new host countries. Diasporas often maintain ties to the country of their historical affiliation and usually influence their current host country's policies towards their homeland. "Diaspora management" is a term that Harris Mylonas has "re-conceptualized to describe both the policies that states follow in order to build links with their diaspora abroad and the policies designed to help with the incorporation and integration of diasporic communities when they 'return' home." According to a 2019 United Nations report, the Indian diaspora is the world's largest diaspora, with a population of 17.5 million, followed by the Mexican diaspora, with a population of 11.8 million, and the Chinese diaspora, with a population of 10.7 million. Etymology --------- The term "diaspora" is derived from the Greek verb διασπείρω (*diaspeirō*), "I scatter", "I spread about" which in turn is composed of διά (*dia*), "between, through, across" and the verb σπείρω (*speirō*), "I sow, I scatter". In Ancient Greece the term διασπορά (*diaspora*) hence meant "scattering" and was inter alia used to refer to citizens of a dominant city-state who emigrated to a conquered land with the purpose of colonization, to assimilate the territory into the empire. An example of a diaspora from classical antiquity is the century-long exile of the Messenians under Spartan rule and the Ageanites as described by Thucydides in his "history of the Peloponnesian wars." It was first used in this original sense when the Hebrew Bible was translated into Greek; the first mention of a diaspora created as a result of exile is found in the Septuagint, first in * Deuteronomy 28:25, in the phrase ἔσῃ ἐν διασπορᾷ ἐν πάσαις ταῖς βασιλείαις τῆς γῆς, *esē en diaspora en pasais tais basileiais tēs gēs*, translated to mean "thou shalt be a dispersion in all kingdoms of the earth" and secondly in * Psalms 146(147).2, in the phrase οἰκοδομῶν Ἰερουσαλὴμ ὁ Kύριος καὶ τὰς διασπορὰς τοῦ Ἰσραὴλ ἐπισυνάξει, *oikodomōn Ierousalēm ho Kyrios kai tas diasporas tou Israēl episynaxē*, translated to mean "The Lord doth build up Jerusalem: he gathereth together the outcasts of Israel". After the Bible was translated into Greek, the word *diaspora* was used in reference to the Northern Kingdom which was exiled from Israel by the Assyrians between 740 and 722 BC, as well as Jews, Benjaminites, and Levites who were exiled from the Southern Kingdom by the Babylonians in 587 BC, and Jews who were exiled from Roman Judea by the Roman Empire in 70 AD. It subsequently came to be used in reference to the historical movements and settlement patterns of the dispersed indigenous population of Israel. When it is used in relation to Judaism and when it is capitalized without modifiers (simply, *the Diaspora*), the term specifically refers to the Jewish diaspora; when it is uncapitalized, the term *diaspora* may refer to refugee or immigrant populations with other ethnic origins which are living "away from an indigenous or established homeland". The wider application of *diaspora* evolved from the Assyrian two-way mass deportation policy of conquered populations to deny future territorial claims on their part. ### Definition According to the *Oxford English Dictionary Online*, the first known recorded usage of the word *diaspora* in the English language was in 1876 referring "extensive *diaspora* work (as it is termed) of evangelizing among the National Protestant Churches on the continent". The term became more widely assimilated into English by the mid 1950s, with long-term expatriates in significant numbers from other particular countries or regions also being referred to as a diaspora. An academic field, diaspora studies, has become established relating to this sense of the word. In English, capitalized, and without modifiers (that is simply, *the Diaspora*), the term refers specifically to the Jewish diaspora in the context of Judaism. In all cases, the term *diaspora* carries a sense of displacement. The population so described finds itself for whatever reason separated from its national territory, and usually, its people have a hope, or at least a desire, to return to their homeland at some point if the "homeland" still exists in any meaningful sense. Some writers[*who?*] have noted that diaspora may result in a loss of nostalgia for a single home as people "re-root" in a series of meaningful displacements. In this sense, individuals may have multiple homes throughout their diaspora, with different reasons for maintaining some form of attachment to each. Diasporic cultural development often assumes a different course from that of the population in the original place of settlement. Over time, remotely separated communities tend to vary in culture, traditions, language, and other factors. The last vestiges of cultural affiliation in a diaspora is often found in community resistance to language change and in the maintenance of traditional religious practice. ### Scholarly work and expanding definition William Safran in an article published in 1991, set out six rules to distinguish diasporas from migrant communities. These included criteria that the group maintains a myth or collective memory of their homeland; they regard their ancestral homeland as their true home, to which they will eventually return; being committed to the restoration or maintenance of that homeland, and they relate "personally or vicariously" to the homeland to a point where it shapes their identity. While Safran's definitions were influenced by the idea of the Jewish diaspora, he recognised the expanding use of the term. Rogers Brubaker (2005) also notes that the use of the term diaspora has been widening. He suggests that one element of this expansion in use "involves the application of the term diaspora to an ever-broadening set of cases: essentially to any and every nameable population category that is to some extent dispersed in space". Brubaker has used the WorldCat database to show that 17 out of the 18 books on diaspora published between 1900 and 1910 were on the Jewish diaspora. The majority of works in the 1960s were also about the Jewish diaspora, but in 2002 only two out of 20 books sampled (out of a total of 253) were about the Jewish case, with a total of eight different diasporas covered. Brubaker outlines the original use of the term diaspora as follows: > Most early discussions of the diaspora were firmly rooted in a conceptual 'homeland'; they were concerned with a paradigmatic case, or a small number of core cases. The paradigmatic case was, of course, the Jewish diaspora; some dictionary definitions of diaspora, until recently, did not simply illustrate but defined the word with reference to that case. > > Brubaker argues that the initial expansion of the phrase's use extended it to other, similar cases, such as the Armenian and Greek diasporas. More recently, it has been applied to emigrant groups that continue their involvement in their homeland from overseas, such as the category of long-distance nationalists identified by Benedict Anderson. Brubaker notes that (as examples): Albanians, Basques, Hindu Indians, Irish, Japanese, Kashmiri, Koreans, Kurds, Palestinians, and Tamils have been conceptualized as diasporas in this sense. Furthermore, "labor migrants who maintain (to some degree) emotional and social ties with a homeland" have also been described as diasporas. In further cases of the use of the term, "the reference to the conceptual homeland – to the 'classical' diasporas – has become more attenuated still, to the point of being lost altogether". Here, Brubaker cites "transethnic and transborder linguistic categories...such as Francophone, Anglophone and Lusophone 'communities'", along with Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Confucian, Huguenot, Muslim and Catholic 'diasporas'. Brubaker notes that, as of 2005[update], there were also academic books or articles on the Dixie, white, liberal, gay, queer and digital diasporas. Some observers have labeled evacuation from New Orleans and the Gulf Coast in the wake of Hurricane Katrina the New Orleans diaspora, since a significant number of evacuees have not been able to return, yet maintain aspirations to do so. Agnieszka Weinar (2010) notes the widening use of the term, arguing that recently, "a growing body of literature succeeded in reformulating the definition, framing diaspora as almost any *population* on the move and no longer referring to the specific *context* of their existence". It has even been noted that as charismatic Christianity becomes increasingly globalized, many Christians conceive of themselves as a diaspora, and form an imaginary that mimics salient features of ethnic diasporas. Professional communities of individuals no longer in their homeland can also be considered diaspora. For example, science diasporas are communities of scientists who conduct their research away from their homeland and trading diasporas are communities of merchant aliens. In an article published in 1996, Khachig Tölölyan argues that the media have used the term corporate diaspora in a rather arbitrary and inaccurate fashion, for example as applied to “mid-level, mid-career executives who have been forced to find new places at a time of corporate upheaval” (10) The use of corporate diaspora reflects the increasing popularity of the diaspora notion to describe a wide range of phenomena related to contemporary migration, displacement and transnational mobility. While corporate diaspora seems to avoid or contradict connotations of violence, coercion, and unnatural uprooting historically associated with the notion of diaspora, its scholarly use may heuristically describe the ways in which corporations function alongside diasporas. In this way, corporate diaspora might foreground the racial histories of diasporic formations without losing sight of the cultural logic of late capitalism in which corporations orchestrate the transnational circulation of people, images, ideologies and capital. African diasporas ----------------- The diaspora of Sub-Saharan Africans during the Atlantic slave trade is one of the most notorious modern diasporas. 10.7 million people from West Africa survived transportation to arrive in the Americas as slaves starting in the late 16th century CE and continuing into the 19th. Outside of the Atlantic slave trade, however, African diasporic communities have existed for millennia. While some communities were slave-based, other groups emigrated for various reasons. From the 8th through the 19th centuries, the Arab slave trade dispersed millions of Africans to Asia and the islands of the Indian Ocean. The Islamic slave trade also has resulted in the creation of communities of African descent in India, most notably the Siddi, Makrani and Sri Lanka Kaffirs. Beginning as early as the 2nd century CE, the kingdom of Aksum (modern-day Ethiopia) created colonies on the Arabian Peninsula. During the 5th century, Aksumite elites began to adopt Christianity after establishing trade routes with the Roman Empire. In the 6th century, King Kaleb undertook a series of invasions into Himyar (modern-day Yemen) to aid Christians under persecution in the area. During these campaigns, several groups of soldiers chose not to return to Aksum, due to the pleasant climate and agricultural richness of the region. These groups are estimated to have ranged in size from the 600s to mid 3000s. Previously, migrant Africans with national African passports could only enter thirteen African countries without advanced visas. In pursuing a unified future, the African Union (AU) launched an African Union Passport in July 2016, allowing people with a passport from one of the 55 member states of the AU to move freely between these countries under this visa free passport and encourage migrants with national African passports to return to Africa. Asian diasporas --------------- The largest Asian diaspora, and in the world, is the Indian diaspora. The overseas Indian community, estimated at over 17.5 million, is spread across many regions in the world, on every continent. It constitutes a diverse, heterogeneous and eclectic global community representing different regions, languages, cultures, and faiths (see Desi). Similarly, the Romani, numbering roughly 12 million in Europe trace their origins to the Indian subcontinent, and their presence in Europe is first attested to in the Middle Ages. The earliest known Asian diaspora of note is the Jewish diaspora. With roots in the Babylonian Captivity and later migration under Hellenism, the majority of the diaspora can be attributed to the Roman conquest, expulsion, and enslavement of the Jewish population of Judea, whose descendants became the Ashkenazim, Sephardim, and Mizrahim of today, roughly numbering 15 million of which 8 million still live in the diaspora, though the number was much higher before Zionist immigration to what is now Israel and the murder of 6 million Jews in the Holocaust. Chinese emigration (also known as the Chinese Diaspora; see also Overseas Chinese) first occurred thousands of years ago. The mass emigration that occurred from the 19th century to 1949 was caused mainly by wars and starvation in mainland China, as well as political corruption. Most migrants were illiterate or poorly educated peasants, called by the now-recognized racial slur coolies (Chinese: 苦力, literally "hard labor"), who migrated to developing countries in need of labor, such as the Americas, Australia, South Africa, Southeast Asia, Malaya and other places. At least three waves of Nepalese diaspora can be identified. The earliest wave dates back to hundreds of years as early marriage and high birthrates propelled Hindu settlement eastward across Nepal, then into Sikkim and Bhutan. A backlash developed in the 1980s as Bhutan's political elites realized that Bhutanese Buddhists were at risk of becoming a minority in their own country. At least 60,000 ethnic Nepalese from Bhutan have been resettled in the United States. A second wave was driven by British recruitment of mercenary soldiers beginning around 1815 and resettlement after retirement in the British Isles and Southeast Asia. The third wave began in the 1970s as land shortages intensified and the pool of educated labor greatly exceeded job openings in Nepal. Job-related emigration created Nepalese enclaves in India, the wealthier countries of the Middle East, Europe, and North America. Current estimates of the number of Nepalese living outside Nepal range well up into the millions. In Siam, regional power struggles among several kingdoms in the region led to a large diaspora of ethnic Lao between the 1700s–1800s by Siamese rulers to settle large areas of the Siamese kingdom's northeast region, where Lao ethnicity is still a major factor in 2012. During this period, Siam decimated the Lao capital, capturing, torturing, and killing the Lao king Anuwongse, who led the lao rebellion in the 19th century. European diasporas ------------------ European history contains numerous diaspora-like events. In ancient times, the trading and colonising activities of the Greek tribes from the Balkans and Asia Minor spread people of Greek culture, religion and language around the Mediterranean and Black Sea basins, establishing Greek city-states in Magna Graecia (Sicily, southern Italy), northern Libya, eastern Spain, the south of France, and the Black Sea coasts. Greeks founded more than 400 colonies. Tyre and Carthage also colonised the Mediterranean. Alexander the Great's the conquest of the Achaemenid Empire marked the beginning of the Hellenistic period, characterized by a new wave of Greek colonization in Asia and Africa, with Greek ruling-classes established in Egypt, southwest Asia and northwest India. Subsequent waves of colonization and migration during the Middle Ages added to the older settlements or created new ones, thus replenishing the Greek diaspora and making it one of the most long-standing and widespread in the world. The Romans also established numerous colonies and settlements outside of Rome and throughout the Roman empire. The Migration-Period relocations, which included several phases, are just one set of many in history. The first phase Migration-Period displacement (between CE 300 and 500) included relocation of the Goths (Ostrogoths and Visigoths), Vandals, Franks, various other Germanic peoples (Burgundians, Lombards, Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Suebi and Alemanni), Alans and numerous Slavic tribes. The second phase, between CE 500 and 900, saw Slavic, Turkic, and other tribes on the move, resettling in Eastern Europe and gradually leaving it predominantly Slavic, and affecting Anatolia and the Caucasus as the first Turkic tribes (Avars, Huns, Khazars, Pechenegs), as well as Bulgars, and possibly Magyars arrived. The last phase of the migrations saw the coming of the Hungarian Magyars. The Viking expansion out of Scandinavia into southern and eastern Europe, Iceland, the British Isles and Greenland. The recent application of the word "diaspora" to the Viking lexicon highlights their cultural profile distinct from their predatory reputation in the regions they settled, especially in the North Atlantic. The more positive connotations associated with the social science term help to view the movement of the Scandinavian peoples in the Viking Age in a new way. Such colonizing migrations cannot be considered indefinitely as diasporas; over very long periods, eventually, the migrants assimilate into the settled area so completely that it becomes their new mental homeland. Thus the modern Magyars of Hungary do not feel that they belong in the Western Siberia that the Hungarian Magyars left 12 centuries ago; and the English descendants of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes do not yearn to reoccupy the plains of Northwest Germany. In 1492 a Spanish-financed expedition headed by Christopher Columbus arrived in the Americas, after which European exploration and colonization rapidly expanded. Historian James Axtell estimates that 240,000 people left Europe for the Americas in the 16th century. Emigration continued. In the 19th century alone over 50 million Europeans migrated to North and South America. Other Europeans moved to Siberia, Africa, and Australasia. The properly Spanish emigrants were mainly from several parts of Spain, but not only the impoverished ones (i.e., Basques in Chile), and the destination varied also along the time. As an example, the Galicians moved first to the American colonies during the XVII-XX (mainly but not only Mexico, Cuba, Argentine and Venezuela, as many writers during the Francoist exile), later to Europe (France, Switzerland) and finally within Spain (to Madrid, Catalonia or the Basque Country). A specific 19th-century example is the Irish diaspora, beginning in the mid-19th century and brought about by *An Gorta Mór* or "the Great Hunger" of the Irish Famine. An estimated 45% to 85% of Ireland's population emigrated to areas including Britain, the United States of America, Canada, Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand. The size of the Irish diaspora is demonstrated by the number of people around the world who claim Irish ancestry; some sources put the figure at 80 to 100 million. From the 1860s the Circassian people, originally from Europe, were dispersed through Anatolia, Australia, the Balkans, the Levant, North America, and West Europe, leaving less than 10% of their population in the homeland – parts of historical Circassia (in the modern-day Russian portion of the Caucasus). The Scottish Diaspora includes large populations of Highlanders moving to the United States and Canada after the Highland Clearances; as well as the Lowlanders, becoming the Ulster Scots in Ireland and the Scotch-Irish in America. There were two major Italian diasporas in Italian history. The first diaspora began around 1880, two decades after the Unification of Italy, and ended in the 1920s to the early 1940s with the rise of Fascist Italy. Poverty was the main reason for emigration, specifically the lack of land as *mezzadria* sharecropping flourished in Italy, especially in the South, and property became subdivided over generations. Especially in Southern Italy, conditions were harsh. Until the 1860s to 1950s, most of Italy was a rural society with many small towns and cities and almost no modern industry in which land management practices, especially in the South and the Northeast, did not easily convince farmers to stay on the land and to work the soil. Another factor was related to the overpopulation of Southern Italy as a result of the improvements in socioeconomic conditions after Unification. That created a demographic boom and forced the new generations to emigrate en masse in the late 19th century and the early 20th century, mostly to the Americas. The new migration of capital created millions of unskilled jobs around the world and was responsible for the simultaneous mass migration of Italians searching for "work and bread". The second diaspora started after the end of World War II and concluded roughly in the 1970s. Between 1880 and 1980, about 15,000,000 Italians left the country permanently. By 1980, it was estimated that about 25,000,000 Italians were residing outside Italy. Internal diasporas ------------------ In the United States of America, approximately 4.3 million people moved outside their home states in 2010, according to IRS tax-exemption data. In a 2011 TEDx presentation, Detroit native Garlin Gilchrist referenced the formation of distinct "Detroit diaspora" communities in Seattle and in Washington, D.C., while layoffs in the auto industry also led to substantial blue-collar migration from Michigan to Wyoming c. 2005. In response to a statewide exodus of talent, the State of Michigan continues to host "MichAGAIN" career-recruiting events in places throughout the United States with significant Michigan-diaspora populations. In the People's Republic of China, millions of migrant workers have sought greater opportunity in the country's booming coastal metropolises,[*when?*] though this trend has slowed with the further development of China's interior. Migrant social structures in Chinese megacities are often based on place of origin, such as a shared hometown or province, and recruiters and foremen commonly select entire work-crews from the same village. In two separate June 2011 incidents, Sichuanese migrant workers organized violent protests against alleged police misconduct and migrant-labor abuse near the southern manufacturing hub of Guangzhou. Much of Siberia's population has its origins in internal migration – voluntary or otherwise – from European Russia since the 16th century. In Canada, internal migration has occurred for a number of different factors over the course of Canadian history. An example is the migration of workers from Atlantic Canada (particularly Newfoundland and Labrador) to Alberta, driven in part by the cod collapse in the early 1990s and the 1992 moratorium on cod fishing. Fishing had previously been a major driver of the economies of the Atlantic provinces, and this loss of work proved catastrophic for many families. As a result, beginning in the early 1990s and into the late 2000s, thousands of people from the Atlantic provinces were driven out-of-province to find work elsewhere in the country, especially in the Alberta oil sands during the oil boom of the mid-2000s. This systemic export of labour is explored by author Kate Beaton in her 2022 graphic memoir *Ducks*, which details her experience working in the Athabasca oil sands. Twentieth century ----------------- The twentieth century saw huge population movements. Some involved large-scale transfers of people by government action. Some migrations occurred to avoid conflict and warfare. Other diasporas formed as a consequence of political developments, such as the end of colonialism. ### World War II, colonialism and post-colonialism As World War II (1939–1945) unfolded, Nazi German authorities deported and killed millions of Jews; they also enslaved or murdered millions of other people, including Romani, Ukrainians, Russians and other Slavs. Some Jews fled from persecution to unoccupied parts of western Europe or to the Americas before borders closed. Later, other eastern European refugees moved west, away from Soviet expansion[*failed verification*] and from the Iron Curtain regimes established as World War II ended. Hundreds of thousands of these anti-Soviet political refugees and displaced persons ended up in western Europe, Australia, Canada, and the United States of America. After World War II, the Soviet Union and Communist-controlled Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Yugoslavia expelled millions of ethnic Germans, most them descendants of immigrants who had settled in those areas centuries previously. This was allegedly in reaction to German Nazi invasions and to pan-German attempts at annexation. Most of the refugees moved to the West, including western Europe, and with tens of thousands seeking refuge in the United States. The Istrian–Dalmatian exodus was the post-World War II exodus and departure of local ethnic Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians) as well as ethnic Slovenes, Croats, and Istro-Romanians from the Yugoslav territory of Istria, Kvarner, the Julian March as well as Dalmatia, towards Italy, and in smaller numbers, towards the Americas, Australia and South Africa. These regions were ethnically mixed, with long-established historic Croatian, Italian, and Slovene communities. According to various sources, the exodus is estimated to have amounted to between 230,000 and 350,000 Italians (the others being ethnic Slovenes, Croats, and Istro-Romanians, who chose to maintain Italian citizenship) leaving the areas in the aftermath of the conflict. Hundreds or perhaps tens of thousands of local ethnic Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians) were killed or summarily executed during World War II by Yugoslav Partisans and OZNA during the first years of the exodus, in what became known as the *foibe* massacres. From 1947, after the war, Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians were subject by Yugoslav authorities to less violent forms of intimidation, such as nationalization, expropriation, and discriminatory taxation, which gave them little option other than emigration. In 1953, there were 36,000 declared Italians in Yugoslavia, just about 16% of the original Italian population before World War II. According to the census organized in Croatia in 2001 and that organized in Slovenia in 2002, the Italians who remained in the former Yugoslavia amounted to 21,894 people (2,258 in Slovenia and 19,636 in Croatia). Spain sent many political activists into exile during the rule of Franco's military regime from 1936 until his death in 1975. Prior to World War II and the re-establishment of Israel in 1948, a series of anti-Jewish pogroms broke out in the Arab world and caused many to flee, mostly to Palestine/Israel. The 1947–1949 Palestine war likewise saw at least 750,000 Palestinians expelled or forced to flee from the newly forming Israel. Many Palestinians continue to live in refugee camps in the Middle East, while others have resettled in other countries. The 1947 Partition in the Indian subcontinent resulted in the migration of millions of people between India, Pakistan and present-day Bangladesh. Many were murdered in the religious violence of the period, with estimates of fatalities up to 2 million people. Thousands of former subjects of the British Raj went to the UK from the Indian subcontinent after India and Pakistan became independent in 1947. From the late 19th century, and formally from 1910, Japan made Korea a Japanese colony. Millions of Chinese fled to western provinces not occupied by Japan (that is, in particular, Sichuan and Yunnan in the Southwest and Shaanxi and Gansu in the Northwest) and to Southeast Asia. More than 100,000 Koreans moved across the Amur River into the Russian Far East (and later into the Soviet Union) away from the Japanese. ### The Cold War and the formation of post-colonial states During and after the Cold War-era, huge populations of refugees migrated from conflict, especially from then-developing countries. Upheaval in the Middle East and Central Asia, some of which related to power struggles between the United States and the Soviet Union, produced new refugee populations that developed into global diasporas. In Southeast Asia, many Vietnamese people emigrated to France and later millions to the United States, Australia and Canada after the Cold War-related Vietnam War of 1955–1975. Later, 30,000 French *colons* from Cambodia were displaced after being expelled by the 1975–1979 Khmer Rouge regime under Pol Pot. A small, predominantly Muslim ethnic group, the Cham people, long residing in Cambodia, were nearly eradicated. The mass exodus of Vietnamese people from Vietnam from 1975 onwards led to the popularisation of the term "boat people". In Southwest China, many Tibetan people emigrated to India, following the 14th Dalai Lama after the failure of his 1959 Tibetan uprising. This wave lasted until the 1960s, and another wave followed when Tibet opened up to trade and tourism in the 1980s. It is estimated[*by whom?*] that about 200,000 Tibetans live now dispersed worldwide, half of them in India, Nepal and Bhutan. In lieu of lost citizenship papers, the Central Tibetan Administration offers Green Book identity documents to Tibetan refugees. Sri Lankan Tamils have historically migrated to find work, notably during the British colonial period (1796–1948). Since the beginning of the Sri Lankan Civil War in 1983, more than 800,000 Tamils have been displaced within Sri Lanka as a local diaspora, and over a half-million Tamils have emigrated as the Tamil diaspora to destinations such as India, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the UK, and Europe. The Afghan diaspora resulted from the 1979 invasion of Afghanistan by the former Soviet Union; both official and unofficial records indicate that the war displaced over 6 million people, resulting in the creation of the second-largest refugee population worldwide as of 2018[update] (2.6 million in 2018). Many Iranians fled the 1979 Iranian Revolution which culminated in the fall of the USA/British-ensconced Shah. In Africa, a new series of diasporas formed following the end of colonial rule. In some cases, as countries became independent, numerous minority descendants of Europeans emigrated; others stayed in the lands which had been family homes for generations. Uganda expelled 80,000 South Asians in 1972 and took over their businesses and properties. The 1990–1994 Rwandan Civil War between rival social/ethnic groups (Hutu and Tutsi) turned deadly and produced a mass efflux of refugees. In Latin America, following the 1959 Cuban Revolution and the introduction of communism, over a million people have left Cuba. A new Jamaican diaspora formed around the start of the 21st century. More than 1 million Dominicans live abroad, a majority living in the US. A million Colombian refugees have left Colombia since 1965 to escape that country's violence and civil wars. In South America, thousands of Argentine and Uruguay refugees fled to Europe during periods of military rule in the 1970s and 1980s. In Central America, Nicaraguans, Salvadorans, Guatemalans, and Hondurans have fled[*when?*] conflict and poor economic conditions. Hundreds of thousands of people fled from the Rwandan genocide in 1994 and moved into neighboring countries. Between 4 and 6 million have emigrated from Zimbabwe beginning in the 1990s especially since 2000, greatly increasing the Zimbabwean diaspora due to a protracted socioeconomic crisis, forming large communities in South Africa, the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, and smaller communities in the United States, New Zealand and Ireland, where their skills have been in high demand. The long war in Congo, in which numerous nations have been involved, has also spawned millions of refugees. A South Korean diaspora movement during the 1990s caused the homeland fertility rate to drop when a large amount of the middle class emigrated, as the rest of the population continued to age. To counteract the change in these demographics, the South Korean government initiated a diaspora-engagement policy in 1997. Twenty-first century -------------------- ### Middle Eastern conflicts Following the Iraq War, nearly 3 million Iraqis had been displaced as of 2011, with 1.3 million within Iraq and 1.6 million in neighboring countries, mainly Jordan and Syria. The Syrian Civil War has forced further migration, with at least 4 million displaced as per UN estimates. #### Iranian people Per International Organization for Migration, 2.8 million Iranians immigrated in 2022, i.e., 3.3% of the total population majority of which were academics, by 2023 the number rose to 10 percent of the population. A 4 million Afghan were in Iran. ### Venezuelan refugee crisis Following the presidency of Hugo Chávez and the establishment of his Bolivarian Revolution, over 1.6 million Venezuelans emigrated from Venezuela in what has been called the Bolivarian diaspora. The analysis of a study by the Central University of Venezuela titled *Venezuelan Community Abroad. A New Method of Exile* by *El Universal* states that the Bolivarian diaspora in Venezuela has been caused by the "deterioration of both the economy and the social fabric, rampant crime, uncertainty and lack of hope for a change in leadership in the near future". Diaspora Internet services -------------------------- Numerous web-based news portals and forum sites are dedicated to specific diaspora communities, often organized on the basis of an origin characteristic and a current location characteristic. The location-based networking features of mobile applications such as China's WeChat have also created de facto online diaspora communities when used outside of their home markets. Now, large companies from the emerging countries are looking at leveraging diaspora communities to enter the more mature market. In popular culture ------------------ *Gran Torino*, a 2008 drama starring Clint Eastwood, was the first mainstream American film to feature the Hmong American diaspora. See also -------- * List of diasporas * List of sovereign states and dependent territories by immigrant population * Expulsion of Poles by Nazi Germany * Partition of India * Armenian genocide * Diaspora politics * Ethnic cleansing * Kurdish refugees * The Exodus * Expulsions and exoduses of Jews * Forced displacement * Human migration * Long Walk of the Navajo * Population transfer * Rural exodus * State collapse * Stateless nation * Trail of Tears * Ummah * Yom HaAliyah * Rohingya genocide * Expulsion of the Moriscos References ---------- ### Sources * Barclay, John M. G. (ed.), *Negotiating Diaspora: Jewish Strategies in the Roman Empire*, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2004 * Baser, B and Swain, A. *Diasporas as Peacemakers: Third Party Mediation in Homeland Conflicts* with Ashok Swain. International Journal on World Peace 25, 3, September 2008. * Braziel, Jana Evans. 2008. *Diaspora – an introduction*. Malden, MA: Blackwell. * Brubaker, Rogers (2005). "The 'diaspora' diaspora" (PDF). *Ethnic and Racial Studies*. **28** (1): 1–19. doi:10.1080/0141987042000289997. S2CID 17914353. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 April 2011. Retrieved 22 February 2011. * Bueltmann, Tanja, et al. eds. *Locating the English Diaspora, 1500–2010* (Liverpool University Press, 2012) * Cohen, Robin (2008). *Global Diasporas: An Introduction* (2nd ed.). Abingdon: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-43550-5. * Délano Alonso, Alexandra and Harris Mylonas. 2019. “The Microfoundations of Diaspora Politics: Unpacking the State and Disaggregating the Diaspora,” *Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies*, Volume 45, Issue 4: 473-491. * Forbes, Andrew, and Henley, David, *People of Palestine* (Chiang Mai: Cognoscenti Books, 2012), ASIN B0094TU8VY * Galil, Gershon, & Weinfeld, Moshe, *Studies in Historical Geography and Biblical Historiography: Presented to Zekharyah Ḳalai*, Brill, 2000 * Jayasuriya, S. and Pankhurst, R. eds. (2003) *The African Diaspora in the Indian Ocean*. Trenton: Africa World Press * Kantor, Mattis, *The Jewish timeline encyclopedia: a year-by-year history from Creation to the Present*, (New updated edition), Jason Aronson, Northvale NJ, 1992 * Kenny, Kevin, *Diaspora: A Very Short Introduction*. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013. * Luciuk, Lubomyr, "Searching for Place: Ukrainian Displaced Persons, Canada and the Migration of Memory," University of Toronto Press, 2000. * Mahroum, Sami & De Guchteneire, P. (2007), *Transnational Knowledge Through Diaspora Networks-Editorial*. International Journal of Multicultural Societies 8 (1), 1–3 * Mahroum, Sami; Eldridge, Cynthia; Daar, Abdallah S. (2006). *Transnational diaspora options: How developing countries could benefit from their emigrant populations*. International Journal on Multicultural Societies, 2006. * Nesterovych, Volodymyr (2013). "Impact of ethnic diasporas on the adoption of normative legal acts in the United States". Viche. 8: 19–23. * Oonk, G, *Global Indian Diasporas: trajectories of migration and theory*, Amsterdam University Press, 2007 Free download here * Shain, Yossi, *Kinship and Diasporas in International Politics*, Michigan University Press, 2007 * Tetlow, Elisabeth Meier, *Women, Crime, and Punishment in Ancient Law and Society*, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2005 * Weheliye, Alexander G. "My Volk to Come: Peoplehood in Recent Diaspora Discourse and Afro-German Popular Music." Black Europe and the African Diaspora. Ed. Darlene Clark. Hine, Trica Danielle. Keaton, and Stephen Small. Urbana: U of Illinois, 2009. 161–79. Print. * Weinar, Agnieszka (2010). "Instrumentalising diasporas for development: International and European policy discourses". In Bauböck, Rainer; Faist, Thomas (eds.). *Diaspora and Transnationalism: Concepts, Theories and Methods*. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. pp. 73–89. ISBN 978-90-8964-238-7. Retrieved 12 January 2021. * Xharra, B. & Wählisch, M. *Beyond Remittances: Public Diplomacy and Kosovo's Diaspora*, Foreign Policy Club, Pristina (2012), abstract and free access here. Further reading --------------- * Gewecke, Frauke. "Diaspora" (2012). University Bielefeld – Center for InterAmerican Studies.

Diaspora

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diaspora

**Tryptophan** (symbol **Trp** or **W**) is an α-amino acid that is used in the biosynthesis of proteins. Tryptophan contains an α-amino group, an α-carboxylic acid group, and a side chain indole, making it a polar molecule with a non-polar aromatic beta carbon substituent. Tryptophan is also a precursor to the neurotransmitter serotonin, the hormone melatonin, and vitamin B3. It is encoded by the codon UGG. Like other amino acids, tryptophan is a zwitterion at physiological pH where the amino group is protonated (–NH+ 3; pKa = 9.39) and the carboxylic acid is deprotonated ( –COO−; pKa = 2.38). Humans and many animals cannot synthesize tryptophan: they need to obtain it through their diet, making it an essential amino acid. In 2023, the spectra of tryptophan was discovered in the interstellar gas of the star cluster IC 348. Function -------- Amino acids, including tryptophan, are used as building blocks in protein biosynthesis, and proteins are required to sustain life. Tryptophan is among the less common amino acids found in proteins, but it plays important structural or functional roles whenever it occurs. For instance, tryptophan and tyrosine residues play special roles in "anchoring" membrane proteins within the cell membrane. Tryptophan, along with other aromatic amino acids, is also important in glycan-protein interactions. In addition, tryptophan functions as a biochemical precursor for the following compounds: * Serotonin (a neurotransmitter), synthesized by tryptophan hydroxylase. * Melatonin (a neurohormone) is in turn synthesized from serotonin, via N-acetyltransferase and 5-hydroxyindole-O-methyltransferase enzymes. * Kynurenine, to which tryptophan is mainly (more than 95%) metabolized. Two enzymes, namely indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) in the immune system and the brain, and tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase (TDO) in the liver, are responsible for the synthesis of kynurenine from tryptophan. The kynurenine pathway of tryptophan catabolism is altered in several diseases, including psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia, major depressive disorder, and bipolar disorder. * Niacin, also known as vitamin B3, is synthesized from tryptophan via kynurenine and quinolinic acids. * Auxins (a class of phytohormones) are synthesized from tryptophan. The disorder fructose malabsorption causes improper absorption of tryptophan in the intestine, reduced levels of tryptophan in the blood, and depression. In bacteria that synthesize tryptophan, high cellular levels of this amino acid activate a repressor protein, which binds to the trp operon. Binding of this repressor to the tryptophan operon prevents transcription of downstream DNA that codes for the enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of tryptophan. So high levels of tryptophan prevent tryptophan synthesis through a negative feedback loop, and when the cell's tryptophan levels go down again, transcription from the trp operon resumes. This permits tightly regulated and rapid responses to changes in the cell's internal and external tryptophan levels. | | | --- | | Tryptophan metabolism by human gastrointestinal microbiota () Tryptophan metabolism diagram Tryptophan *Clostridiumsporogenes* Lacto-bacilli Tryptophanase-expressingbacteria IPA I3A Indole Liver Brain IPA I3A Indole Indoxylsulfate AST-120 AhR Intestinalimmunecells Intestinalepithelium PXR Mucosal homeostasis:↓TNF-α↑Junction protein-coding mRNAs L cell GLP-1 T J Neuroprotectant:↓Activation of glial cells and astrocytes↓4-Hydroxy-2-nonenal levels↓DNA damage–Antioxidant–Inhibits β-amyloid fibril formation Maintains mucosal reactivity:↑IL-22 production Associated with vascular disease:↑Oxidative stress↑Smooth muscle cell proliferation↑Aortic wall thickness and calcification Associated with chronic kidney disease:↑Renal dysfunction–Uremic toxin Kidneys The image above contains clickable linksThis diagram shows the biosynthesis of bioactive compounds (indole and certain other derivatives) from tryptophan by bacteria in the gut. Indole is produced from tryptophan by bacteria that express tryptophanase. *Clostridium sporogenes* metabolizes tryptophan into indole and subsequently 3-indolepropionic acid (IPA), a highly potent neuroprotective antioxidant that scavenges hydroxyl radicals. IPA binds to the pregnane X receptor (PXR) in intestinal cells, thereby facilitating mucosal homeostasis and barrier function. Following absorption from the intestine and distribution to the brain, IPA confers a neuroprotective effect against cerebral ischemia and Alzheimer's disease. *Lactobacillus* species metabolize tryptophan into indole-3-aldehyde (I3A) which acts on the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) in intestinal immune cells, in turn increasing interleukin-22 (IL-22) production. Indole itself triggers the secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) in intestinal L cells and acts as a ligand for AhR. Indole can also be metabolized by the liver into indoxyl sulfate, a compound that is toxic in high concentrations and associated with vascular disease and renal dysfunction. AST-120 (activated charcoal), an intestinal sorbent that is taken by mouth, adsorbs indole, in turn decreasing the concentration of indoxyl sulfate in blood plasma. | Recommended dietary allowance ----------------------------- In 2002, the U.S. Institute of Medicine set a Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) of 5 mg/kg body weight/day of Tryptophan for adults 19 years and over. ### Dietary sources Tryptophan is present in most protein-based foods or dietary proteins. It is particularly plentiful in chocolate, oats, dried dates, milk, yogurt, cottage cheese, red meat, eggs, fish, poultry, sesame, chickpeas, almonds, sunflower seeds, pumpkin seeds, Hemp Seeds, buckwheat, spirulina, and peanuts. Contrary to the popular belief that cooked turkey contains an abundance of tryptophan, the tryptophan content in turkey is typical of poultry. Tryptophan (Trp) content of various foods| Food | Tryptophan [g/100 g of food] | Protein [g/100 g of food] | Tryptophan/protein [%] | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Egg white, dried | 1.00 | 81.10 | 1.23 | | Spirulina, dried | 0.92 | 57.47 | 1.62 | | Cod, Atlantic, dried | 0.70 | 62.82 | 1.11 | | Soybeans, raw | 0.59 | 36.49 | 1.62 | | Cheese, Parmesan | 0.56 | 37.90 | 1.47 | | Chia seeds, dried | 0.436 | 16.5 | 2.64 | | Sesame seed | 0.37 | 17.00 | 2.17 | | Cheese, Cheddar | 0.32 | 24.90 | 1.29 | | Sunflower seed | 0.30 | 17.20 | 1.74 | | Pork, chop | 0.25 | 19.27 | 1.27 | | Turkey | 0.24 | 21.89 | 1.11 | | Chicken | 0.24 | 20.85 | 1.14 | | Beef | 0.23 | 20.13 | 1.12 | | Oats | 0.23 | 16.89 | 1.39 | | Salmon | 0.22 | 19.84 | 1.12 | | Lamb, chop | 0.21 | 18.33 | 1.17 | | Perch, Atlantic | 0.21 | 18.62 | 1.12 | | Chickpeas, raw | 0.19 | 19.30 | 0.96 | | Egg | 0.17 | 12.58 | 1.33 | | Wheat flour, white | 0.13 | 10.33 | 1.23 | | Baking chocolate, unsweetened | 0.13 | 12.9 | 1.23 | | Milk | 0.08 | 3.22 | 2.34 | | Rice, white, medium-grain, cooked | 0.028 | 2.38 | 1.18 | | Quinoa, uncooked | 0.167 | 14.12 | 1.2 | | Quinoa, cooked | 0.052 | 4.40 | 1.1 | | Potatoes, russet | 0.02 | 2.14 | 0.84 | | Tamarind | 0.018 | 2.80 | 0.64 | | Banana | 0.01 | 1.03 | 0.87 | Medical use ----------- ### Depression Because tryptophan is converted into 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP) which is then converted into the neurotransmitter serotonin, it has been proposed that consumption of tryptophan or 5-HTP may improve depression symptoms by increasing the level of serotonin in the brain. Tryptophan is sold over the counter in the United States (after being banned to varying extents between 1989 and 2005) and the United Kingdom as a dietary supplement for use as an antidepressant, anxiolytic, and sleep aid. It is also marketed as a prescription drug in some European countries for the treatment of major depression. There is evidence that blood tryptophan levels are unlikely to be altered by changing the diet, but consuming purified tryptophan increases the serotonin level in the brain, whereas eating foods containing tryptophan does not. In 2001 a Cochrane review of the effect of 5-HTP and tryptophan on depression was published. The authors included only studies of a high rigor and included both 5-HTP and tryptophan in their review because of the limited data on either. Of 108 studies of 5-HTP and tryptophan on depression published between 1966 and 2000, only two met the authors' quality standards for inclusion, totaling 64 study participants. The substances were more effective than placebo in the two studies included but the authors state that "the evidence was of insufficient quality to be conclusive" and note that "because alternative antidepressants exist which have been proven to be effective and safe, the clinical usefulness of 5-HTP and tryptophan is limited at present". The use of tryptophan as an adjunctive therapy in addition to standard treatment for mood and anxiety disorders is not supported by the scientific evidence. ### Insomnia The American Academy of Sleep Medicine's 2017 clinical practice guidelines recommended against the use of tryptophan in the treatment of insomnia due to poor effectiveness. Side effects ------------ Potential side effects of tryptophan supplementation include nausea, diarrhea, drowsiness, lightheadedness, headache, dry mouth, blurred vision, sedation, euphoria, and nystagmus (involuntary eye movements). Interactions ------------ Tryptophan taken as a dietary supplement (such as in tablet form) has the potential to cause serotonin syndrome when combined with antidepressants of the MAOI or SSRI class or other strongly serotonergic drugs. Because tryptophan supplementation has not been thoroughly studied in a clinical setting, its interactions with other drugs are not well known. Isolation --------- The isolation of tryptophan was first reported by Frederick Hopkins in 1901. Hopkins recovered tryptophan from hydrolysed casein, recovering 4–8 g of tryptophan from 600 g of crude casein. Biosynthesis and industrial production -------------------------------------- As an essential amino acid, tryptophan is not synthesized from simpler substances in humans and other animals, so it needs to be present in the diet in the form of tryptophan-containing proteins. Plants and microorganisms commonly synthesize tryptophan from shikimic acid or anthranilate: anthranilate condenses with phosphoribosylpyrophosphate (PRPP), generating pyrophosphate as a by-product. The ring of the ribose moiety is opened and subjected to reductive decarboxylation, producing indole-3-glycerol phosphate; this, in turn, is transformed into indole. In the last step, tryptophan synthase catalyzes the formation of tryptophan from indole and the amino acid serine. The industrial production of tryptophan is also biosynthetic and is based on the fermentation of serine and indole using either wild-type or genetically modified bacteria such as *B. amyloliquefaciens*, *B. subtilis*, *C. glutamicum* or *E. coli*. These strains carry mutations that prevent the reuptake of aromatic amino acids or multiple/overexpressed trp operons. The conversion is catalyzed by the enzyme tryptophan synthase. Society and culture ------------------- ### Showa Denko contamination scandal There was a large outbreak of eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome (EMS) in the U.S. in 1989, with more than 1,500 cases reported to the CDC and at least 37 deaths. After preliminary investigation revealed that the outbreak was linked to intake of tryptophan, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recalled tryptophan supplements in 1989 and banned most public sales in 1990, with other countries following suit. Subsequent studies suggested that EMS was linked to specific batches of L-tryptophan supplied by a single large Japanese manufacturer, Showa Denko. It eventually became clear that recent batches of Showa Denko's L-tryptophan were contaminated by trace impurities, which were subsequently thought to be responsible for the 1989 EMS outbreak. However, other evidence suggests that tryptophan itself may be a potentially major contributory factor in EMS. There are also claims that a precursor reached sufficient concentrations to form a toxic dimer. The FDA loosened its restrictions on sales and marketing of tryptophan in February 2001, but continued to limit the importation of tryptophan not intended for an exempted use until 2005. The fact that the Showa Denko facility used genetically engineered bacteria to produce the contaminated batches of L-tryptophan later found to have caused the outbreak of eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome has been cited as evidence of a need for "close monitoring of the chemical purity of biotechnology-derived products". Those calling for purity monitoring have, in turn, been criticized as anti-GMO activists who overlook possible non-GMO causes of contamination and threaten the development of biotech. ### Turkey meat and drowsiness hypothesis A common assertion in the US is that heavy consumption of turkey meat results in drowsiness, due to high levels of tryptophan contained in turkey. However, the amount of tryptophan in turkey is comparable to that contained in other meats. Drowsiness after eating may be caused by other foods eaten with the turkey, particularly carbohydrates. Ingestion of a meal rich in carbohydrates triggers the release of insulin. Insulin in turn stimulates the uptake of large neutral branched-chain amino acids (BCAA), but not tryptophan, into muscle, increasing the ratio of tryptophan to BCAA in the blood stream. The resulting increased tryptophan ratio reduces competition at the large neutral amino acid transporter (which transports both BCAA and aromatic amino acids), resulting in more uptake of tryptophan across the blood–brain barrier into the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Once in the CSF, tryptophan is converted into serotonin in the raphe nuclei by the normal enzymatic pathway. The resultant serotonin is further metabolised into melatonin by the pineal gland. Hence, these data suggest that "feast-induced drowsiness"—or postprandial somnolence—may be the result of a heavy meal rich in carbohydrates, which indirectly increases the production of melatonin in the brain, and thereby promotes sleep. Research -------- In 1912 Felix Ehrlich demonstrated that yeast metabolizes the natural amino acids essentially by splitting off carbon dioxide and replacing the amino group with a hydroxyl group. By this reaction, tryptophan gives rise to tryptophol. Tryptophan affects brain serotonin synthesis when given orally in a purified form and is used to modify serotonin levels for research. Low brain serotonin level is induced by administration of tryptophan-poor protein in a technique called acute tryptophan depletion. Studies using this method have evaluated the effect of serotonin on mood and social behavior, finding that serotonin reduces aggression and increases agreeableness. ### Fluorescence Tryptophan is an important intrinsic fluorescent probe (amino acid), which can be used to estimate the nature of the microenvironment around the tryptophan residue. Most of the intrinsic fluorescence emissions of a folded protein are due to excitation of tryptophan residues. See also -------- * 5-Hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP) * Acree–Rosenheim reaction * Adamkiewicz reaction * Attenuator (genetics) * *N*,*N*-Dimethyltryptamine * Hopkins–Cole reaction * Serotonin * Tryptamine Further reading --------------- * Wood RM, Rilling JK, Sanfey AG, Bhagwagar Z, Rogers RD (May 2006). "Effects of tryptophan depletion on the performance of an iterated Prisoner's Dilemma game in healthy adults". *Neuropsychopharmacology*. **31** (5): 1075–84. doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1300932. PMID 16407905. External links -------------- * "KEGG PATHWAY: Tryptophan metabolism - Homo sapiens". KEGG: Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes. 23 August 2006. Retrieved 20 April 2008. * G. P. Moss. "Tryptophan Catabolism (early stages)". Nomenclature Committee of the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (NC-IUBMB). Archived from the original on 13 September 2003. Retrieved 20 April 2008. * G. P. Moss. "Tryptophan Catabolism (later stages)". Nomenclature Committee of the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (NC-IUBMB). Archived from the original on 13 September 2003. Retrieved 20 April 2008. * B. Mikkelson; D. P. Mikkelson (22 November 2007). "Turkey Causes Sleepiness". *Urban Legends Reference Pages*. Snopes.com. Retrieved 20 April 2008.

Tryptophan

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tryptophan

**Essen** (German pronunciation: [ˈɛsn̩] (); Latin: *Assindia*) is the central and, after Dortmund, second-largest city of the Ruhr, the largest urban area in Germany. Its population of 579,432 makes it the fourth-largest city of North Rhine-Westphalia after Cologne, Düsseldorf and Dortmund, as well as the ninth-largest city of Germany. Essen lies in the larger Rhine-Ruhr Metropolitan Region and is part of the cultural area of Rhineland. Because of its central location in the Ruhr, Essen is often regarded as the Ruhr's "secret capital". Two rivers flow through the city: in the north, the Emscher, the Ruhr area's central river, and in the south, the Ruhr River, which is dammed in Essen to form the Lake Baldeney (*Baldeneysee*) and Lake Kettwig (*Kettwiger See*) reservoirs. The central and northern boroughs of Essen historically belong to the Low German (Westphalian) language area, and the south of the city to the Low Franconian (Bergish) area (closely related to Dutch). Essen is seat to several of the region's authorities, as well as to eight of the 100 largest publicly held German corporations by revenue, including three DAX-listed corporations. Essen is often considered the energy capital of Germany with E.ON and RWE, Germany's largest energy providers, both headquartered in the city. Essen is also known for its impact on the arts through the respected Folkwang University of the Arts, its Zollverein School of Management and Design, and the Red Dot industrial product design award. In early 2003, the universities of Essen and the nearby city of Duisburg (both established in 1972) were merged into the University of Duisburg-Essen with campuses in both cities and a university hospital in Essen. In 1958, Essen was chosen to serve as the seat to a Roman Catholic diocese (often referred to as *Ruhrbistum* or *diocese of the Ruhr*). Founded around 845, Essen remained a small town within the sphere of influence of an important ecclesiastical principality (Essen Abbey) until the onset of industrialization. The city then—especially through the Krupp family iron works—became one of Germany's most important coal and steel centers. Essen, until the 1970s, attracted workers from all over the country; it was the fifth-largest city in Germany between 1929 and 1988, peaking at over 730,000 inhabitants in 1962. Following the region-wide decline of heavy industries in the last decades of the 20th century, the city has seen the development of a strong tertiary sector of the economy. The most notable witness of this *Strukturwandel* (structural change) is the Zollverein Coal Mine Industrial Complex, which had once been the largest of its kind in Europe. Ultimately closed in 1993, both the coking plant and the mine have been inscribed in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites since 2001. Notable accomplishments of the city in recent years include the title of European Capital of Culture on behalf of the whole Ruhr area in 2010 and the selection as the European Green Capital for 2017. Geography --------- ### General | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Oberhausen | Bottrop | Gladbeck | Gelsenkirchen | | Mülheim an der Ruhr | Map of the Districts and Boroughs of EssenMap of the Districts and Boroughs of Essen Essen(Map of districts and boroughs) | Bochum | | Ratingen | Heiligenhaus | Velbert | Hattingen | | Essen is located in the centre of the Ruhr area, one of the largest urban areas in Europe (see also: megalopolis), comprising eleven independent cities and four districts with some 5.3 million inhabitants. The city limits of Essen itself are 87 km (54 mi) long and border ten cities, five independent and five *kreisangehörig* (i.e., belonging to a district), with a total population of approximately 1.4 million. The city extends over 21 km (13 mi) from north to south and 17 km (11 mi) from west to east, mainly north of the River Ruhr. The Ruhr forms the Lake Baldeney [de] reservoir in the boroughs of Fischlaken, Kupferdreh, Heisingen and Werden. The lake, a popular recreational area, dates from 1931 to 1933, when some thousands of unemployed coal miners dredged it with primitive tools. Generally, large areas south of the River Ruhr (including the suburbs of Schuir and Kettwig) are quite green and are often quoted as examples of rural structures in the otherwise relatively densely populated central Ruhr area. According to the Federal Statistical Office of Germany, Essen with 9.2% of its area covered by recreational green is the greenest city in North Rhine-Westphalia and the third-greenest city in Germany. The city has been shortlisted for the title of European Green Capital two consecutive times, for 2016 and 2017, winning for 2017. The city was singled out for its exemplary practices in protecting and enhancing nature and biodiversity and efforts to reduce water consumption. Essen participates in a variety of networks and initiatives to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve the city's resilience in the face of climate change. The lowest point can be found in the northern borough of Karnap at 26.5 m (86.9 ft), the highest point in the borough of Heidhausen at 202.5 m (664 ft). The average elevation is 116 m (381 ft). ### City districts Essen comprises fifty boroughs which in turn are grouped into nine suburban districts (called *Stadtbezirke*) often named after the most important boroughs. Each Stadtbezirk is assigned a Roman numeral and has a local body of nineteen members with limited authority. Most of the boroughs were originally independent municipalities but were gradually annexed from 1901 to 1975. This long-lasting process of annexation has led to a strong identification of the population with "their" boroughs or districts and to a rare peculiarity: The borough of Kettwig, located south of the Ruhr River, and which was not annexed until 1975, has its own area code and remains part of the Archdiocese of Cologne, whereas all other boroughs of Essen and some neighbouring cities constitute the Diocese of Essen. ### Climate Essen has a typical oceanic climate (Köppen: *Cfb*) with cool winters and warm summers (different of Berlin or Stuttgart). Without large mountains and the presence of inland seas, it ends up extending a predominantly marine climate is found in Essen, usually a little more extreme and drier in other continents in such geographical location. Its average annual temperature is 10 °C (50 °F): 13.3 °C (56 °F) during the day and 6.7 °C (44 °F) at night. The average annual precipitation is 934 mm (37 in). The coldest month of the year is January, when the average temperature is 2.4 °C (36 °F). The warmest months are July and August, with an average temperature of 18 °C (64 °F). The record high is 36.6 °C (98 °F) and the record low is −24 °C (−11 °F). | Climate data for Essen (Bredeney), elevation: 152 m, 1971–2000 normals | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average high °C (°F) | 4.5(40.1) | 5.5(41.9) | 9.1(48.4) | 12.7(54.9) | 17.6(63.7) | 19.9(67.8) | 22.2(72.0) | 22.3(72.1) | 18.3(64.9) | 13.7(56.7) | 8.2(46.8) | 5.6(42.1) | 13.3(55.9) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 2.4(36.3) | 2.9(37.2) | 6.0(42.8) | 8.9(48.0) | 13.4(56.1) | 15.8(60.4) | 18.0(64.4) | 18.0(64.4) | 14.7(58.5) | 10.7(51.3) | 5.9(42.6) | 3.6(38.5) | 10.0(50.0) | | Average low °C (°F) | 0.2(32.4) | 0.3(32.5) | 2.9(37.2) | 5.0(41.0) | 9.1(48.4) | 11.6(52.9) | 13.7(56.7) | 13.7(56.7) | 11.1(52.0) | 7.6(45.7) | 3.6(38.5) | 1.6(34.9) | 6.7(44.1) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 84.5(3.33) | 58.1(2.29) | 78.2(3.08) | 61.0(2.40) | 72.2(2.84) | 92.8(3.65) | 81.2(3.20) | 78.8(3.10) | 78.0(3.07) | 75.1(2.96) | 81.1(3.19) | 93.1(3.67) | 934.1(36.78) | | Average precipitation days | 14.1 | 10.5 | 13.6 | 11.1 | 11.1 | 12.0 | 10.4 | 9.9 | 11.2 | 10.9 | 13.6 | 14.1 | 142.5 | | Source: WMO | | Climate data for Essen (Bredeney), elevation: 161 m, 1961–1990 normals | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 13.5(56.3) | 18.7(65.7) | 23.2(73.8) | 28.9(84.0) | 29.8(85.6) | 32.3(90.1) | 33.5(92.3) | 34.3(93.7) | 30.6(87.1) | 26.1(79.0) | 19.8(67.6) | 15.8(60.4) | 34.3(93.7) | | Average high °C (°F) | 3.9(39.0) | 5.1(41.2) | 8.3(46.9) | 12.4(54.3) | 17.1(62.8) | 20.0(68.0) | 21.6(70.9) | 21.6(70.9) | 18.4(65.1) | 14.0(57.2) | 8.1(46.6) | 4.9(40.8) | 13.0(55.3) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 1.9(35.4) | 2.5(36.5) | 5.1(41.2) | 8.5(47.3) | 12.9(55.2) | 15.7(60.3) | 17.4(63.3) | 17.2(63.0) | 14.4(57.9) | 10.7(51.3) | 5.7(42.3) | 2.9(37.2) | 9.6(49.2) | | Average low °C (°F) | −0.3(31.5) | 0.0(32.0) | 2.2(36.0) | 4.8(40.6) | 8.7(47.7) | 11.5(52.7) | 13.2(55.8) | 13.3(55.9) | 11.1(52.0) | 7.9(46.2) | 3.5(38.3) | 0.9(33.6) | 6.4(43.5) | | Record low °C (°F) | −17.1(1.2) | −15.9(3.4) | −11.1(12.0) | −4.6(23.7) | −0.6(30.9) | 1.0(33.8) | 4.4(39.9) | 6.0(42.8) | 3.2(37.8) | −2.3(27.9) | −6.7(19.9) | −16.7(1.9) | −17.1(1.2) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 81.0(3.19) | 57.0(2.24) | 75.0(2.95) | 68.0(2.68) | 73.0(2.87) | 97.0(3.82) | 89.0(3.50) | 77.0(3.03) | 73.0(2.87) | 70.0(2.76) | 83.0(3.27) | 90.0(3.54) | 933(36.72) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 14.0 | 10.0 | 13.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 11.0 | 10.0 | 11.0 | 10.0 | 14.0 | 14.0 | 143 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 44.5 | 76.2 | 102.6 | 147.0 | 192.6 | 181.6 | 186.0 | 183.1 | 134.5 | 111.1 | 55.7 | 38.8 | 1,453.7 | | Source: NOAA | History ------- ### Origin of the name In German-speaking countries, the name of the city Essen often causes confusion as to its origins, because it has the same form as the German infinitive of the verb for "eating" (written as lowercase *essen*), and/or the German noun for food (which is always capitalized as *Essen*, adding to the confusion). Although scholars still dispute the interpretation of the name, there remain a few noteworthy interpretations. The oldest known form of the city's name is *Astnide*, which changed to Essen by way of forms such as Astnidum, Assinde, Essendia and Esnede. The name Astnide may have referred either to a region where many ash trees were found or to a region in the East (of the Frankish Empire). The Old High German word for fireplace, Esse, is also commonly mentioned due to the industrial history of the city, but is highly unlikely since the old forms of the city name originate from times before industrialization. ### Early history The oldest archaeological find, the *Vogelheimer Klinge*, dates back to 280,000 – 250,000 BC. It is a blade found in the borough of Vogelheim [de] in the northern part of the city during the construction of the Rhine–Herne Canal in 1926. Other artifacts from the Stone Age have also been found, although these are not overly numerous. Land utilization was very high—especially due to mining activities during the Industrial Age—and any more major finds, especially from the Mesolithic era, are not expected. Finds from 3,000 BC and onwards are far more common, the most important one being a Megalithic tomb found in 1937. Simply called Steinkiste (Chest of Stone), it is referred to as "Essen's earliest preserved example of architecture". Essen was part of the settlement areas of several Germanic peoples (Chatti, Bructeri, Marsi), although a clear distinction among these groupings is difficult. The Alteburg [de] castle in the south of Essen dates back to the eighth century, the nearby Herrenburg [de] to the ninth century. Recent research into Ptolemy's *Geographia* has identified the *polis* or *oppidum* Navalia as Essen. ### Eighth–twelfth centuries Around 845, Saint Altfrid (around 800–874), the later Bishop of Hildesheim, founded an abbey for women (*coenobium Astnide*) in the centre of present-day Essen. The first abbess was Altfrid's relative Gerswit (see also: Essen Abbey). In 799, Saint Liudger had already founded Benedictine Werden Abbey on its own grounds a few kilometers south. The region was sparsely populated with only a few smallholdings and an old and probably abandoned castle. Whereas Werden Abbey sought to support Liudger's missionary work in the Harz region (Helmstedt/Halberstadt), Essen Abbey was meant to care for women of the higher Saxon nobility. This abbey was not an abbey in the ordinary sense, but rather intended as a residence and educational institution for the daughters and widows of the higher nobility; led by an abbess, the members other than the abbess herself were not obliged to take vows of chastity. Around 852, construction of the collegiate church of the abbey began, to be completed in 870. A major fire in 946 heavily damaged both the church and the settlement. The church was rebuilt, expanded considerably, and is the foundation of the present Essen Cathedral. The first documented mention of Essen dates back to 898, when Zwentibold, King of Lotharingia, willed territory on the western bank of the River Rhine to the abbey. Another document, describing the foundation of the abbey and allegedly dating back to 870, is now considered an 11th-century forgery. In 971, Mathilde II, granddaughter of Emperor Otto I, took charge of the abbey. She was to become the most important of all abbesses in the history of Essen. She reigned for over 40 years, and endowed the abbey's treasury with invaluable objects such as the oldest preserved seven branched candelabrum, and the Golden Madonna of Essen, the oldest known sculpture of the Virgin Mary in the western world. Mathilde was succeeded by other women related to the Ottonian emperors: Sophia, daughter of Otto II and sister of Otto III, and Teophanu, granddaughter of Otto II. It was under the reign of Teophanu that Essen, which had been called a city since 1003, received the right to hold markets in 1041. Ten years later, Teophanu had the eastern part of Essen Abbey constructed. Its crypt contains the tombs of St. Altfrid, Mathilde II, and Teophanu herself. ### 13th–17th centuries In 1216, the abbey, which had only been an important landowner until then, gained the status of a princely residence when Emperor Frederick II called abbess Elisabeth I *Reichsfürstin* (*Princess of the Empire*) in an official letter. In 1244, 28 years later, Essen received its town charter and seal when Konrad von Hochstaden, the Archbishop of Cologne, marched into the city and erected a city wall together with the population. This proved a temporary emancipation of the population of the city from the princess-abbesses, but this lasted only until 1290. That year, King Rudolph I restored the princess-abbesses to full sovereignty over the city, much to the dismay of the population of the growing city, who called for self-administration and imperial immediacy. The title free imperial city was finally granted by Emperor Charles IV in 1377. However, in 1372, Charles had paradoxically endorsed Rudolph I's 1290 decision and hence left both the abbey and the city in imperial favour. Disputes between the city and the abbey about supremacy over the region remained common until the abbey's dissolution in 1803. Many lawsuits were filed at the Reichskammergericht, one of them lasting almost 200 years. The final decision of the court in 1670 was that the city had to be "duly obedient in dos and don'ts" to the abbesses but could maintain its old rights—a decision that did not really solve any of the problems. In 1563, the city council, with its self-conception as the only legitimate ruler of Essen, introduced the Protestant Reformation. The Catholic abbey had no troops to counter this development. ### Thirty Years' War During the Thirty Years' War, the Protestant city and the Catholic abbey opposed each other. In 1623, princess-abbess Maria Clara von Spaur, Pflaum und Valör, managed to direct Catholic Spaniards against the city in order to initiate a Counter-Reformation. In 1624, a "re-Catholicization" law was enacted, and churchgoing was strictly controlled. In 1628, the city council filed against this at the Reichskammergericht. Maria had to flee to Cologne when the Dutch stormed the city in 1629. She returned in the summer of 1631 following the Bavarians under Gottfried Heinrich Graf zu Pappenheim, only to leave again in September. She died 1644 in Cologne. The war proved a severe blow to the city, with frequent arrests, kidnapping and rape. Even after the Peace of Westphalia from 1648, troops remained in the city until 9 September 1650. ### Industrialisation Three rings of the Krupp logoThe historic house of the Krupp Family in 2014 The first historic evidence of the important mining tradition of Essen date back to the 14th century, when the princess-abbess was granted mining rights. The first silver mine opened in 1354, but the indisputably more important coal was not mentioned until 1371, and coal mining only began in 1450. At the end of the 16th century, many coal mines had opened in Essen, and the city earned a name as a centre of the weapons industry. Around 1570, gunsmiths made high profits and in 1620, they produced 14,000 rifles and pistols a year. The city became increasingly important strategically. Resident in Essen since the 16th century, the Krupp family dynasty and Essen shaped each other. In 1811, Friedrich Krupp founded Germany's first cast-steel factory in Essen and laid the cornerstone for what was to be the largest enterprise in Europe for a couple of decades. The weapon factories in Essen became so important that a sign facing the main railway station welcomed visitors Hitler and Mussolini to the "Armory of the Reich" (German: *Waffenschmiede des Reiches*) in 1937. The Krupp Works also were the main reason for the large population growth beginning in the mid-19th century. Essen reached a population of 100,000 in 1896. Other industrialists, such as Friedrich Grillo, who in 1892 donated the Grillo-Theater to the city, also played a major role in the shaping of the city and the Ruhr area in the late 19th and early 20th century. ### World War I and occupation Riots broke out in February 1917 following a breakdown in the supply of flour. There were then strikes in the Krupp factory. On 11 January 1923 the Occupation of the Ruhr was carried out by the invasion of French and Belgian troops into the Ruhr. The French Prime Minister, Raymond Poincaré, was convinced that Germany failed to comply the demands of the Treaty of Versailles. On the morning of 31 March 1923, the culmination of this French-German confrontation occurred when a small French military command, occupied the Krupp car hall to seize several vehicles. This event caused 13 deaths and 28 injured. The occupation of the Ruhr ended in summer 1925. ### Nazism, World War II On the night of Kristallnacht on 10 November 1938, the synagogue was sacked, but remained through the whole war in the exterior almost intact. The Steele synagogue was completely destroyed. During the Nazi era, tens of thousands of slave laborers were forced to work in 350 Essen forced labour camps. Here, they did mining work and worked for companies like Krupp and Siemens. Alfried Krupp was convicted in the Krupp trial at Nuremberg for his role in this but was pardoned by the US in 1951. There were several subcamps in Essen in Second World War, such as the subcamps Humboldtstraße [de], Gelsenberg [de], Schwarze Poth [de]. As a major industrial centre, Essen was a target for allied bombing, the Royal Air Force (RAF) dropping a total of 36,429 long tons of bombs on the city. Over 270 air raids were launched against the city, destroying 90% of the centre and 60% of the suburbs. On 5 March 1943 Essen was subjected to one of the heaviest air-raids of the war. 461 people were killed, 1,593 injured and a further 50,000 residents of Essen were made homeless. On 13 December 1944 three British airmen were lynched. The Krupp decoy site (German: Kruppsche Nachtscheinanlage) was built in Velbert to divert Allied airstrikes from the actual production site of the arms factory in Essen. The Allied ground advance into Germany reached Essen in April 1945. The US 507th Parachute Infantry Regiment of the 17th Airborne Division, acting as regular infantry and not in a parachute role, entered the city unopposed and captured it on 10 April 1945. After the successful invasion of Germany by the allies, Essen was assigned to the British Zone of Occupation. On 8 March 1946, a German Army Officer and a civilian were hanged for the lynching of three British Airmen in December 1944. ### Twenty-first century Although weaponry is no longer produced in Essen, old industrial enterprises such as ThyssenKrupp and RWE remain large employers in the city. Foundations such as the Alfried Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach-Stiftung still promote the well-being of the city, for example by supporting a hospital and donating €55,000,000 for a new building for the Museum Folkwang, one of the Ruhr area's major art museums. Politics -------- ### Historical development The administration of Essen had for a long time been in the hands of the princess-abbesses as heads of the Imperial Abbey of Essen. However, from the 14th century onwards, the city council increasingly grew in importance. In 1335, it started choosing two burgomasters, one of whom was placed in charge of the treasury. In 1377, Essen was granted imperial immediacy but had to abandon this privilege later on. Between the early 15th and 20th centuries, the political system of Essen underwent several changes, most importantly the introduction of the Protestant Reformation in 1563, the annexation of 1802 by Prussia, and the subsequent secularization of the principality in 1803. The territory was made part of the Prussian Province of Jülich-Cleves-Berg from 1815 to 1822, after which it became part of the Prussian Rhine Province until its dissolution in 1946. During the German Revolution of 1918–19, Essen was the home of the Essen Tendency (Essener Richtung) within the Communist Workers' Party of Germany. In 1922 they founded the Communist Workers' International. Essen became one of the centres of resistance to Social Democracy and the Freikorps alike. During the Nazi era (1933–1945), mayors were installed by the Nazi Party. After World War II, the military government of the British occupation zone installed a new mayor and a municipal constitution modeled on that of British cities. Later, the city council was again elected by the population. The mayor was elected by the council as its head and as the city's main representative. The administration was led by a full-time *Oberstadtdirektor*. In 1999, the position of *Oberstadtdirektor* was abolished in North Rhine-Westphalia and the mayor became both main representative and administrative head. In addition, the population now elects the mayor directly. ### Mayor The current Mayor of Essen is Thomas Kufen of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), who was elected in 2015 and re-elected in 2020. The most recent mayoral election was held on 13 September 2020, and the results were as follows: | Candidate | Party | Votes |  % | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | Thomas Kufen | Christian Democratic Union | 115,415 | 54.3 | | | Oliver Kern | Social Democratic Party | 43,093 | 20.3 | | | Mehrdad Mostofizadeh | Alliance 90/The Greens | 25,924 | 12.2 | | | Harald Parussel | Alternative for Germany | 12,695 | 6.0 | | | Daniel Kerekeš | The Left | 5,414 | 2.5 | | | Annie Maria Tarrach | Die PARTEI | 5,168 | 2.4 | | | Karlgeorg Raimund Krüger | Free Democratic Party | 4,200 | 2.0 | | | Peter Köster | German Communist Party | 546 | 0.3 | | | Detlef Albert Fergeé | National Democratic Party | 232 | 0.1 | | Valid votes | 212,687 | 99.1 | | Invalid votes | 1,861 | 0.9 | | Total | 214,548 | 100.0 | | Electorate/voter turnout | 446,384 | 48.1 | | Source: State Returning Officer | ### City council The Essen city council governs the city alongside the Mayor. The most recent city council election was held on 13 September 2020, and the results were as follows: | Party | Votes |  % | +/- | Seats | +/- | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | Christian Democratic Union (CDU) | 73,206 | 34.4 | Increase 3.0 | 30 | Increase 2 | | | Social Democratic Party (SPD) | 51,550 | 24.3 | Decrease 9.7 | 21 | Decrease 10 | | | Alliance 90/The Greens (Grüne) | 39,569 | 18.6 | Increase 7.4 | 16 | Increase 6 | | | Alternative for Germany (AfD) | 15,849 | 7.5 | Increase 3.7 | 6 | Increase 3 | | | The Left (Die Linke) | 8,309 | 3.9 | Decrease 1.4 | 3 | Decrease 2 | | | Free Democratic Party (FDP) | 6,476 | 3.0 | Decrease 0.2 | 3 | ±0 | | | Essen Citizens' Alliance (EBB) | 6,209 | 2.9 | Decrease 1.4 | 3 | Decrease 1 | | | Die PARTEI (PARTEI) | 5,282 | 2.5 | Increase 1.7 | 2 | Increase 1 | | | Human Environment Animal Protection (Tierschutz) | 4,396 | 2.1 | New | 2 | New | | | | | Social Liberal Alliance (SLB) | 760 | 0.4 | New | 0 | New | | | German Communist Party (DKP) | 463 | 0.2 | Decrease 0.1 | 0 | ±0 | | | Volt Germany (Volt) | 357 | 0.2 | New | 0 | New | | | Pirate Party Germany (Piraten) | 86 | 0.0 | Decrease 1.8 | 0 | Decrease 2 | | Valid votes | 212,512 | 98.9 | | | | | Invalid votes | 2,327 | 1.1 | | | | | Total | 214,839 | 100.0 | | 86 | Decrease 4 | | Electorate/voter turnout | 446,384 | 48.1 | Increase 2.8 | | | | Source: State Returning Officer | ### Coat of arms The coat of arms of the city of Essen is a heraldic peculiarity. Granted in 1886, it is a so-called *Allianzwappen* (arms of alliance) and consists of two separate shields under a single crown. Most other coats of arms of cities use a mural crown instead of a heraldic crown. The crown, however, does not refer to the city of Essen itself, but instead to the secularized ecclesiastical principality of Essen under the reign of the princess-abbesses. The dexter (heraldically right) escutcheon shows the double-headed Imperial Eagle of the Holy Roman Empire, granted to the city in 1623. The sinister (heraldically left) escutcheon is one of the oldest emblems of Essen and shows a sword that people believed was used to behead the city's patron Saints Cosmas and Damian. People tend to connect the sword in the left shield with one found in the Cathedral Treasury. This sword, however, is much more recent. A slightly modified and more heraldically correct version of the coat of arms can be found on the roof of the *Handelshof* hotel near the main station. Demographics ------------ Historical population| Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1816 | 4,721 | —     | | 1831 | 5,460 | +15.7% | | 1839 | 8,813 | +61.4% | | 1871 | 51,513 | +484.5% | | 1895 | 96,128 | +86.6% | | 1905 | 231,360 | +140.7% | | 1919 | 439,257 | +89.9% | | 1925 | 470,524 | +7.1% | | 1935 | 654,461 | +39.1% | | 1939 | 666,743 | +1.9% | | 1950 | 605,411 | −9.2% | | 1956 | 698,925 | +15.4% | | 1963 | 730,970 | +4.6% | | 1970 | 696,733 | −4.7% | | 1975 | 677,568 | −2.8% | | 1980 | 647,643 | −4.4% | | 1990 | 626,973 | −3.2% | | 2000 | 595,243 | −5.1% | | 2010 | 574,635 | −3.5% | | 2015 | 582,624 | +1.4% | | 2017 | 583,393 | +0.1% | | 2019 | 582,760 | −0.1% | | Population size may be affected by changes in administrative divisions. Source: | Essen has a population about 580,000 and is the 2nd largest city in Ruhr area after Dortmund and the 10th largest city in Germany. Essen has also the largest urban density with cities like Bochum, Gelsenkirchen and Oberhausen borders this city. In 1960, the population reached its historical peak of over 720,000 (Essen was the fifth largest German city at that time) due to its booming industrial era of the Ruhr Area and West Germany (Wirtschaftswunder). Since 1970s, the population of Essen declined due to loss of jobs by coal and mining. Essen has a large migrant population, most of them are from Turkey, Syria and Poland. Largest groups of foreign residents as of March 2022| Nationality | Population | | --- | --- | |  Turkey | 14,984 | |  Syria | 13,076 | |  Poland | 6,952 | |  Iraq | 6,317 | |  Ukraine | 5,642 | |  Romania | 4,652 | |  Serbia | 3,774 | |  Greece | 3,429 | |  China | 3,047 | |  Italy | 2,974 | |  Croatia | 2,890 | |  Afghanistan | 2,504 | |  Bulgaria | 2,471 | |  Spain | 1,911 | |  Iran | 1,863 | |  Russia | 1,800 | |  Lebanon | 1,719 | |  India | 1,561 | |  Morocco | 1,458 | |  Netherlands | 1,306 | International relations ----------------------- The City of Monessen, Pennsylvania, situated along the Monongahela River, was named after the river and Essen. ### Twin towns – sister cities Essen is twinned with: * Changzhou, China (2015) * Grenoble, France (1974) * Nizhny Novgorod, Russia (1991) * Sunderland, England, United Kingdom (1949) * Tampere, Finland (1960) * Tel Aviv, Israel (1991) * Zabrze, Poland (2015) ### Cooperation agreements Essen cooperates with: * Kōriyama, Japan (2017) * Qingdao, China (2008) * Rivne, Ukraine (2022) * Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia (2012) Industry and infrastructure --------------------------- ### Economy Essen is home to several large companies, among them the ThyssenKrupp industrial conglomerate which is also registered in Duisburg and originates from a 1999 merger between Duisburg-based Thyssen AG and Essen-based Friedrich Krupp AG Hoesch-Krupp. The largest company registered only in Essen is Germany's second-largest electric utility RWE AG. Essen hosts parts of the corporate headquarters of Schenker AG, the logistics division of Deutsche Bahn. Other major companies include Germany's largest construction company Hochtief, as well as Aldi Nord, Evonik Industries, Karstadt, Medion AG and Deichmann, Europe's largest shoe retailer. The Coca-Cola Company had originally established their German headquarters in Essen (around 1930), where it remained until 2003, when it was moved to the capital Berlin. In light of the Energy transition in Germany, Germany's largest electric utility E.ON announced that, after restructuring and splitting off its conventional electricity generation division (coal, gas, atomic energy), it will move its headquarters to Essen in 2016, becoming a sole provider of renewable energy. The DAX-listed chemical distribution company Brenntag announced it would move its headquarters to Essen at the end of 2017. * ThyssenKrupp headquarters in EssenThyssenKrupp headquarters in Essen * RWE AG headquarters in the business districtRWE AG headquarters in the business district * E.ON headquartersE.ON headquarters * RWE AG headquartersRWE AG headquarters * Hochtief headquartersHochtief headquarters * Evonik Industries headquartersEvonik Industries headquarters * Schenker AG headquartersSchenker AG headquarters * Postbank EssenPostbank Essen * Deutsche Bank branch in the financial districtDeutsche Bank branch in the financial district * Emschergenossenschaft EssenEmschergenossenschaft Essen ### Fairs The city's exhibition centre, Messe Essen, hosts some 50 trade fairs each year. With around 530.000 visitors each year, Essen Motor Show is by far the largest event held there. It has been described as "the showcase event of the year for the tuning community" and as the German version of the annual SEMA auto show in Las Vegas. As contrasted with the Frankfurt Auto Show, the Essen show is smaller and is focused on car tuning and racing interests. Other important fairs open to consumers include SPIEL, the world's biggest consumer fair for tabletop gaming, and one of the leading fairs for equestrian sports, Equitana, held every two years. Important fairs restricted to professionals include "Security" (security and fire protection), IPM (gardening) and E-World (energy and water). * Messe Essen south entranceMesse Essen south entrance * Messe Essen east entranceMesse Essen east entrance * Messe Essen south entranceMesse Essen south entrance ### Media The Westdeutscher Rundfunk has a studio in Essen, which is responsible for the central Ruhr area. Each day, it produces a 30-minute regional evening news magazine (called *Lokalzeit Ruhr*), a five-minute afternoon news programme, and several radio news programmes. A local broadcasting station went on air in the late 1990s. The WAZ Media Group is one of the most important (print) media companies in Europe and publishes the Ruhr area's two most important daily newspapers, *Westdeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung* (WAZ; 580,000 copies) and *Neue Ruhr/Rhein Zeitung* (NRZ; 180,000 copies). In Essen, the WAZ Group also publishes the local *Borbecker Nachrichten [de]* and *Werdener Nachrichten [de]*, both of which had been independent weekly newspapers for parts of Essen. Additionally, Axel Springer run a printing facility for their boulevard-style daily paper *Bild* in Essen. ### Education One renowned educational institution in Essen is the Folkwang University, a university of the arts founded in 1927, which is headquartered in Essen and has additional facilities in Duisburg, Bochum and Dortmund. Since 1927, its traditional main location has been in the former Werden Abbey in Essen in the Ruhr area, with additional facilities in Duisburg, Bochum, and Dortmund, and, since 2010, at the Zeche Zollverein, a World Heritage Site also in Essen. The Folkwang University is home to the international dance company *Folkwang Tanz Studio* (FTS). In 1963 the Folkwang school was renamed *Folkwang-Hochschule* (Folkwang Academy). In 2010 the institution began offering graduate studies and was renamed Folkwang University of the Arts. This coincided with Ruhr.2010, the festival in which the Ruhr district was designated the European Capital of Culture for the year 2010. * Folkwang University of the ArtsFolkwang University of the Arts * Zollverein School of Management and DesignZollverein School of Management and Design * Universität EssenUniversität Essen * Folkwang UniversityFolkwang University The University of Duisburg-Essen, which resulted from a 2003 merger of the universities of Essen and Duisburg, is one of Germany's "youngest" universities with about 42,000 Students. One of its primary research areas is *urban systems* (i.e., sustainable development, logistics and transportation), a theme largely inspired by the highly urbanised Ruhr area. Other fields include nanotechnology, discrete mathematics and "education in the 21st century". Another university in Essen is the private *Fachhochschule für Ökonomie und Management*, a university of applied sciences with over 6,000 students and branches in 15 other major cities throughout Germany. ### Medicine Essen offers a highly diversified health care system with more than 1,350 resident doctors and almost 6,000 beds in 13 hospitals, including a university hospital. The university hospital dates back to 1909, when the city council established a municipal hospital; although it was largely destroyed during World War II, it was later rebuilt, and finally gained the title of a university hospital in 1963. It focuses on diseases of the circulatory system (West German Heart Centre Essen), oncology and transplantation medicine, with the department of bone marrow transplantation being the second-largest of its kind in the world. * Elisabethkrankenhaus EssenElisabethkrankenhaus Essen * University Hospital EssenUniversity Hospital Essen ### Transport #### Streets and motorways The road network of Essen consists of over 3,200 streets, which in total have a length of roughly 1,600 km (994 mi). Four *Autobahnen* touch Essen territory, most importantly the Ruhrschnellweg (Ruhr expressway, A 40), which runs directly through the city, dividing it roughly in half. In a west-eastern direction, the A 40 connects the Dutch city of Venlo with Dortmund, running through the whole Ruhr area. It is one of the arterial roads of the Ruhr area (> 140,000 vehicles/day) and suffers from heavy congestion during rush hours, which is why many people in the area nicknamed it *Ruhrschleichweg* (Ruhr crawling way). A tunnel was built in the 1970s, when the then-Bundesstraße was upgraded to motorway standards, so that the A 40 is hidden from public view in the inner-city district near the main railway station. In the north, the A 42 briefly touches Essen territory, serving as an interconnection between the neighboring cities of Oberhausen and Gelsenkirchen and destinations beyond. A part of the A 44, a highly segmented connection from Aachen and the Belgian border to Kassel, planned to go further into Central Germany, ends in Essens south. A segment of the A 52 connects Essen with the more southern region around Düsseldorf. On Essen territory, the A 52 runs from the southern boroughs near Mülheim an der Ruhr past the fairground and then merges with the Ruhrschnellweg at the Autobahndreieck Essen-Ost junction east of the city centre. With the A 40/A 52 in the southern parts of the city and the A 42 in the north, there is a gap in the motorway system often leading to congestion on streets leading from the central to the northern boroughs. An extension of the A 52 to connect the Essen-Ost junction with the A 42 to close this gap is considered urgent; it has been planned for years but not yet been realized – most importantly due to the high-density areas this extension would lead through, resulting in high costs and concerns with the citizens. #### Public transport As with most communes in the Ruhr area, local transport is carried out by a local, publicly owned company for transport within the city, the DB Regio subsidiary of Deutsche Bahn for regional transport and Deutsche Bahn itself for long-distance journeys. The local carrier, Ruhrbahn, is a member of the Verkehrsverbund Rhein-Ruhr (VRR) association of public transport companies in the Ruhr area, which provides a uniform fare structure in the whole region. Within the VRR region, tickets are valid on lines of all members as well as DB's railway lines (except the high-speed InterCity and Intercity-Express networks) and can be bought at ticket machines and service centres of Ruhrbahn, all other members of VRR, and DB. As of 2009[update], Ruhrbahn operates 3 U-Stadtbahn lines of the Essen Stadtbahn network, 7 Straßenbahn (tram) lines and 57 bus lines (16 of these serving as *Nacht Express* late-night lines only). The Stadtbahn and Straßenbahn operate on total route lengths of 19.6 kilometres (12.2 mi) and 52.4 kilometres (32.6 mi), respectively. One tram line and a few bus lines coming from neighboring cities are operated by these cities' respective carriers. The U-Stadtbahn, which partly runs on used Docklands Light Railway stock, is a mixture of tram and full underground systems with 20 underground stations for the U-Stadtbahn and additional four underground stations used by the tram. Two lines of the U-Stadtbahn are completely intersection-free and hence independent from other traffic, and the U18 line leading from Mülheim main station to the *Bismarckplatz* station at the gates of the city centre partly runs above ground amidst the A 40 motorway. The Essen Stadtbahn is one of the Stadtbahn systems integrated into the greater Rhine-Ruhr Stadtbahn network. * Main stationMain station * Essen Stadtbahn NF2-TW 1601Essen Stadtbahn NF2-TW 1601 * Essen HauptbahnhofEssen Hauptbahnhof * Essen Hauptbahnhof in the city centreEssen Hauptbahnhof in the city centre * Essen Hauptbahnhof subway stationEssen Hauptbahnhof subway station * Platforms at Kaiser-Wilhelm-ParkPlatforms at Kaiser-Wilhelm-Park On the same motorway, a long-term test of a guided bus system is being held since 1980. Many Ruhrbahn rail lines meet at the main station but only a handful of bus lines. However, all but one of the Nacht Express bus lines originate from / lead to Essen Hauptbahnhof in a star-shaped manner. All Ruhrbahn lines, including the Nacht Express lines, are closed on weekdays from 1:30 a.m. to 4:30 a.m. Of the Rhein-Ruhr S-Bahn net's 13 lines, 5 lines lead through Essen territory and meet at the Essen Hauptbahnhof main station, which also serves as the connection to the Regional-Express and Intercity-Express network of regional and nationwide high-speed trains, respectively. Following Essen's appointment as European Capital of Culture 2010, the main station, which is classified as a station of highest importance and which had not been substantially renovated over decades, will be redeveloped with a budget of €57 million until early 2010. Other important stations in Essen, where regional and local traffic are connected, are the *Regionalbahnhöfe* (regional railway stations) in the boroughs of Altenessen, Borbeck, Kray and Steele. Further 20 S-Bahn stations can be found in the whole urban area. In 2017 the public transport organization of Mülheim, the Mülheimer Verkehrsgesellschaft (MVG) and the Essener Verkehrsgesellschaft (EVAG) merged and became the *Ruhrbahn*. All vehicles and staff were merged and are now operated together. #### Aviation Together with the neighbouring city of Mülheim an der Ruhr and the state of North Rhine-Westphalia, Essen maintains Essen/Mülheim Airport (IATA: ESS, ICAO: EDLE). While the first flights had already arrived in 1919, it was officially opened on 25 August 1925. Significantly expanded in 1935, Essen/Mülheim became the central airport of the Ruhr area until the end of the Second World War, providing an asphalted runway of 1,553 m (5,095 ft), another unsurfaced runway for gliding and destinations to most major European cities. It was heavily damaged during the war, yet partly reconstructed and used by the Allies as a secondary airport since visibility is less often obscured than at Düsseldorf Airport. The latter then developed into the large civil airport that it is now, while Essen/Mülheim now mainly serves occasional air traffic (some 33,000 passengers each year), the base of a fleet of airships and Germany's oldest public flight training company. Residents of the region around Essen typically use Düsseldorf Airport (≈20 driving minutes) and occasionally Dortmund Airport (≈30 driving minutes) for both domestic and international flights. Landmarks --------- ### Zollverein Industrial Complex The Zollverein Coal Mine Industrial Complex is the city's most famous landmark. For decades, the coal mine (current form mainly from 1932, closed in 1986) and the coking plant (closed in 1993) ranked among the largest of their kinds in Europe. Shaft XII, built in Bauhaus style, with its characteristic winding tower, which over the years has become a symbol for the whole Ruhr area, is considered an architectural and technical masterpiece, earning it a reputation as the "most beautiful coal mine in the world". After UNESCO had declared it a World Heritage Site in 2001, the complex, which had lain idle for a long time and was even threatened to be demolished, began to see a period of redevelopment. Under the direction of an agency borne by the land of North Rhine-Westphalia and the city itself, several arts and design institutions settled mainly on the grounds of the former coal mine; a redevelopment plan for the coking plant is to be realised. On the grounds of the coal mine and the coking plant, which are both accessible free of charge while paid guided tours (some with former *Kumpels*) are available, several tourist attractions can be found, most importantly the *Design Zentrum NRW*/Red Dot Design Museum. The *Ruhrmuseum*, a museum dedicated to the history of the Ruhr area, which had been existing since 1904, opened its gates as one of the anchor attractions in the former coal-washing facility in 2010. * Coal mine ZollvereinCoal mine Zollverein * Shaft XII of ZollvereinShaft XII of Zollverein * Zollverein entranceZollverein entrance * RuhrmuseumRuhrmuseum * Ruhrmuseum staircaseRuhrmuseum staircase ### Essen Minster and treasury The former collegiate church of Essen Abbey and nowadays cathedral of the Bishop of Essen is a Gothic hall church made from light sandstone. The first church on the premises dates back to between 845 and 870; the current church was constructed after a former church had burnt down in 1275. However, the important westwork and crypt have survived from Ottonian times. The cathedral is located in the centre of the city which evolved around it. It is not spectacular in appearance and the adjacent church *St. Johann Baptist*, which is located directly within the pedestrian precinct, is often mistakenly referred to as the cathedral. The cathedral treasury, however, ranks amongst the most important in Germany since only few art works have been lost over the centuries. The most precious exhibit, located within the cathedral, is the Golden Madonna of Essen (around 980), the oldest known sculpture of the Madonna and the oldest free-standing sculpture north of the Alps. Other exhibits include the alleged *child crown* of Emperor Otto III, the eldest preserved seven-branched Christian candelabrum and several other art works from Ottonian times. * Golden Madonna of EssenGolden Madonna of Essen * Golden Madonna of EssenGolden Madonna of Essen * Cross of Otto and Mathilde, tenth centuryCross of Otto and Mathilde, tenth century * St. Ludger BasilicaSt. Ludger Basilica * Essen Minster overshadowed by the town hallEssen Minster overshadowed by the town hall ### Old Synagogue Opened in 1913, the then-New Synagogue served as the central meeting place of Essen's pre-war Jewish community. The building ranks as one of the largest and most impressive testimonies of Jewish culture in pre-war Germany. In post-war Germany, the former house of worship was bought by the city, used as an exhibition hall and later rededicated as a cultural meeting centre and house of Jewish culture. * Synagogue, 1917Synagogue, 1917 * Synagogue, 1922Synagogue, 1922 * Old Synagogue, 2010Old Synagogue, 2010 * Old Synagogue, 2014Old Synagogue, 2014 * Old Synagogue interiorOld Synagogue interior ### Villa Hügel Built in 1873 by industrial magnate Alfred Krupp, Villa Hügel, the 269-room mansion (8,100 m2 or 87,190 sq ft) and the surrounding park of 28 ha (69.2 acres) served as the Krupp family's representative seat. The city's land register solely lists the property, which at times had a staff of up to 640 people, as a single-family home. At the time of its construction, the villa featured some technical novelties and peculiarities, such as a central hot air heating system, own water- and gas works and electric internal and external telegraph- and telephone systems (with a central induction alarm for the staff). The mansion's central clock became the reference clock for the whole Krupp enterprise; every clock was to be set with a maximum difference of half a minute. It even acquired its own railway station, *Essen Hügel*, which is still a regular stop. The Krupp family had to leave the Gründerzeit mansion in 1945, when it was annexed by the allies. Given back in 1952, Villa Hügel is now seat of the Alfried Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach Foundation (major shareholder of Thyssen-Krupp) and was opened for concerts and sporadic yet high-profile exhibitions. * Villa HügelVilla Hügel * Villa HügelVilla Hügel * Villa HügelVilla Hügel * Great hallGreat hall ### Kettwig and Werden In the south of the city, the boroughs of Kettwig and Werden exceptionally stand for towns once of their own, which have been annexed in 1929 (Werden) and 1975 (Kettwig), respectively, and which have largely preserved their pre-annexation character. While most of the northern boroughs were heavily damaged during the Second World War and often lost their historic town centres; the more southern parts got off more lightly. In Werden, St. Ludger founded Werden Abbey around 799, 45 years before St. Altfrid founded the later cornerstone of the modern city, Essen Abbey. The old church of Werden abbey, *St. Ludgerus*, was designated a papal basilica minor in 1993, while the main building of the former abbey today is the headquarters of the Folkwang University of music and performing arts. Kettwig, which was annexed in 1975, much to the dismay of the population that still struggles for independence, was mainly shaped by the textile industry. The most southern borough of Essen is also the city's largest (with regard to area) and presumably greenest. * Essen WerdenEssen Werden * Essen WerdenEssen Werden * Essen Werden historic town centreEssen Werden historic town centre * Protestant church Essen WerdenProtestant church Essen Werden * Essen WerdenEssen Werden * Essen Werden, old town hallEssen Werden, old town hall * Historic town centre of KettwigHistoric town centre of Kettwig * Essen KettwigEssen Kettwig ### Other important cultural sites * Museum Folkwang: One of the Ruhr area's major art collections, mainly from the 19th and 20th centuries. Major parts of the museum have recently been rebuilt and expanded according to plans by David Chipperfield & Co. The Alfried Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach Foundation is the sole funder of the €55 million project which was completed in early 2010. After its re-opening, it also hosts the collection of the *Deutsches Plakat Museum* (more than 340 000 exhibits). * Aalto Theatre: Opened in 1988 (the plans dating back to 1959), the asymmetric building with its deep indigo interior is home to the acclaimed Essen Opera and Ballet. * Saalbau Essen: Home of the Essen Philharmonic Orchestra, completely renovated in 2003/2004. Critics have repeatedly voted the Essen Philharmonic as Germany's Orchestra of the Year. * Colosseum Theater: Situated in a former Krupp factory building at the fringe of the central pedestrian precinct, the Colosseum Theater has been home to several musical theatre productions since 1996. * Zeche Carl, a former coal mine, now a cultural centre and venue for Rock concerts and home of Offener Kanal Essen. * Grillo-Theater, a theatre in the centre of the city. * Saalbau EssenSaalbau Essen * Museum FolkwangMuseum Folkwang * Aalto TheatreAalto Theatre * Colosseum TheaterColosseum Theater * Grillo-TheaterGrillo-Theater * Grugahalle concert hallGrugahalle concert hall * Schloss BorbeckSchloss Borbeck * Hugenpoet castleHugenpoet castle ### Other sites * Gartenstadt Margarethenhöhe: Founded by Margarethe Krupp in 1906, the garden city with its 3092 units in 935 buildings on an area of 115 ha (284.2 acres) (of which 50 ha are woodland) is considered the first of its kind in Germany. All buildings follow the same stylistic concept, with slight variations for each one. Although originally designed as an area for the lower classes with quite small flats, the old part Margarethenhöhe I has developed into a middle class residential area and housing space has become highly sought after. A new part, Margarehenhöhe II, was built in the 1960s and 1970s but is architecturally inferior and especially the multi-storey buildings are still considered social hot spots. * Moltkeviertel (Moltke Quarter): from 1908 on, following reformative plans of the city deputy *Robert Schmidt*, this quarter was developed just south-east of the city centre. Large green zones, forming broad urban ventilation lanes and incorporating sporting and playing areas and high quality architecture – invariably in the style of Reform Architecture, combine to create a unique example worldwide of modern town planning. It reflects reformative ideas and dates from the early part of the 20th century. The Moltkeviertel continues to be a much sought-after area for residential, educational, health care and small-scale commercial purposes. On the Moltkeplatz, the quarter's largest square, an ensemble of high quality contemporary art is maintained and cared for by local residents. * Grugapark: With a total area of 70 ha (173.0 acres), the park near the exhibition halls is one of the largest urban parks in Germany and, although entry is not free of charge, one of the most popular recreational sites of the city. It includes the city's botanical garden, the Botanischer Garten Grugapark. * Baldeneysee [de]: The largest of the six reservoirs of the River Ruhr, situated in the south of the city, is another popular recreational area. It is used for sailing, rowing and ship tours. The hilly and only lightly developed forest area around the lake, from which the Kettwig area is easily reachable, is popular with hikers. * Grugapark, Kranichwiese facing the Orangerie and the sculpture OrionGrugapark, Kranichwiese facing the Orangerie and the sculpture *Orion* * Grugapark, Sculpture "Trauer" by Joseph EnselingGrugapark, Sculpture "Trauer" by Joseph Enseling * Grugapark, Reichsgartenschau 1938, KeramikhofGrugapark, Reichsgartenschau 1938, Keramikhof * Grugapark illuminated, 2015Grugapark illuminated, 2015 * Grugapark, WaterfallGrugapark, Waterfall * BaldeneyseeBaldeneysee * BaldeneyseeBaldeneysee * BaldeneyseeBaldeneysee * Marketplace of Margarethenhöhe IMarketplace of Margarethenhöhe I * Margarethenhöhe housesMargarethenhöhe houses * Sculptures by Friedrich Gräsel and Gloria Friedmann at the MoltkeplatzSculptures by Friedrich Gräsel and Gloria Friedmann at the Moltkeplatz Notable people -------------- ### Natives People born in Essen: * Gerd Albrecht (1935-2014), conductor * Karl Albrecht (1920-2014), entrepreneur * Theo Albrecht (1922-2010), entrepreneur; brother of Karl * Peter Anders (1908-1954), operatic tenor * Karl Baedeker (1801-1859), publisher * Jürgen Bartsch (1946-1976), serial killer * Ute Berg (born 1953), politician * Naftali Bezem (1924-2018), artist * Ali Bilgin (born 1981), footballer * Franz Blücher (1896-1959), politician * Hermann Blumenthal (1905-1942), sculptor * Karl Brandt (1899-1975), agricultural economist * Sabine Braun (born 1965), track athlete * Dennis Brinkmann (born 1978), footballer * Ernest B.H. Busch (1885-1945), Generalfeldmarschall * Gunter d'Alquen (1910-1998), editor * Marc Degens (born 1971), writer * Marius Ebbers (born 1978), footballer * Friedrich Karl Florian (1894-1975), gauleiter * James Ingo Freed (1930-2005), architect * Matt Frei (born 1963), journalist * Harald Grohs (born 1944), race car driver * Brigitte Hamann (1940-2016), author * Hildegard Hamm-Brücher (1921-2016), politician * Walter Heiman (1901-2007), centenarian and WW1 survivor * Alfred Herrhausen (1930-1989), banker * Axel Honneth (born 1949), philosopher * Carl Humann (1839-1896), engineer * Wilhelm Kalveram (1882-1951), university professor * Christian Keller (born 1972), swimmer * Fritz G. A. Kraemer (1908-2003), military educator * Diether Krebs (1947-2000), actor * Helene Kröller-Müller (1869-1939), art collector * Alfred Krupp (1812-1887), inventor * Alfried Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach (1907-1967), Nazi industrialist * Bertha Krupp (1886-1957), daughter of Friedrich Alfred * Friedrich Alfred Krupp (1854-1902), steel manufacturer * Friedrich C. Krupp (1787-1826), founder of Krupp family business * Heinz Kubsch (1930-1993), football goalkeeper * Hubert Lampo (1920-2006), writer * Johanna Langefeld (1900-1974), Nazi guard * Arthur Laumann (1894-1970), flying ace * Issachar Berend Lehmann (1661-1730), banker * Jens Lehmann (born 1969), footballer * Helga Niessen Masthoff (born 1941), tennis player * Armin Meiwes (born 1961), convicted murderer known as the Cannibal of Rothenburg * Frank Mill (born 1958), footballer * Harry S. Morgan (1945-2011), pornographic film director * Alfred Müller-Armack (1901-1978), politician * Henry Osterman (1862-????), architect * Friedrich Panse (1899-1973), psychiatrist * Mille Petrozza (born 1967), guitarist * Helmut Rahn (1929-2003), footballer * Uta Ranke-Heinemann (1927-2021), theologian * Otto Rehhagel (born 1938), footballer * Uwe Reinders (born 1955), footballer * Günther Rennert (1911-1978), opera director * Heinz Rühmann (1902-1994), actor * Leroy Sané (born 1996), footballer * Klaus Scharioth (born 1946), diplomat * Magdalene Schauss-Flake (1921-2008), composer and organist * Hilde Krahwinkel Sperling (1908-1981), tennis player * John Steppling (1870-1932), actor * David D. Stern (born 1956), artist * Martin Stratmann (born 1954), electrochemist * Marianne Strauss (1923-1996), Holocaust survivor * Josef Terboven (1898-1945), Nazi politician * Bernhard Termath (1928-2004), footballer * Johan van Galen (1604-1653), commodore * Kyriakos Velopoulos (born 1965), politician * Albert Vögler (1877-1945), politician * Elisabeth Volkmann (1936-2006), actress * Pia Walkenhorst (born 1993), volleyball player * Daniel Wende (born 1984), skater ### Honorary citizens The city of Essen has been awarding honorary citizenships since 1879 but has (coincidentally) discontinued this tradition after the foundation of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1949. A notable exception was made in 2007, when Berthold Beitz, the president of the Alfried Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach Foundation received honorary citizenship for his long lasting commitment to the city. The following list contains all honorary citizens of the city of Essen: * 1879 Otto von Bismarck – Chancellor of Germany * 1888 Friedrich Hammacher [de] – politician, lawyer and economist * 1895 Johann Heinrich Peter Beising [de] – Roman catholic theologian * 1896 Friedrich Alfred Krupp – industrialist *(spouse of Margarethe Krupp, see below)* * 1901 Heinrich Carl Sölling – tradesman and benefactor * 1906 Erich Zweigert [de] – Lord Mayor (1886–1906) * 1912 Margarethe Krupp [de] – benefactress *(spouse of Friedrich Alfred Krupp, see above)* * 1917 Paul von Hindenburg – Generalfeldmarschall and army leader, later President of Germany * 1949 Viktor Niemeyer – councilman *(posthumous recognition)* * 2007 Berthold Beitz – president of the Alfried Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach Foundation Today, the highest award of the city is the *Ring of Honour*, which Berthold Beitz, for example, had already received in 1983. Other bearers of the Ring of Honour include Essen's former Lord Mayor and later President of Germany, Gustav Heinemann, as well as Franz Cardinal Hengsbach, the first Bishop of Essen. Berthold Beitz (1973) and his wife Else Beitz (2006) are recipients of the Righteous Among the Nations recognized by the Yad Vashem for having saved about 800 Jewish lives during World War II. Sport ----- The biggest association football clubs in Essen are Rot-Weiss Essen (Red-White Essen) and Schwarz-Weiß Essen (Black-White Essen). Stadion Essen, is the home stadium for Rot-Weiß, is located in the north of Essen. Rot-Weiss Essen is playing in the third tier of the German football league system, 3. Liga, and Schwarz-Weiß Essen in the fifth tier, Oberliga Nordrhein-Westfalen. Schwarz-Weiß Essens home stadium is Uhlenkrugstadion, located in the southern part of the city. Other football clubs are BV Altenessen and TuS Helene Altenessen. In women's football, SGS Essen are members of top division Frauen-Bundesliga. Another important and famous sports club is TUSEM Essen, with a handball team that have won several national and international titles. The city's main basketball team is ETB Essen, currently called the ETB Wohnbau Baskets for sponsorship reasons. The team is one of the main teams in Germany's second division ProA and has attempted to move up to Germany's elite league Basketball Bundesliga. The Baskets play their home games at the Sportpark am Hallo. Essen hosted the 1955 nine-pin bowling World Championships and the final round of the FIBA EuroBasket 1971. The city is also home to the VV Humann Essen volleyball team. Bibliography ------------

Essen

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essen

**Polyandry** (/ˈpɒliˌændri, ˌpɒliˈæn-/; from Ancient Greek πολύ *(*polú*)* 'many', and ἀνήρ *(*anḗr*)* 'man') is a form of polygamy in which a woman takes two or more husbands at the same time. Polyandry is contrasted with polygyny, involving one male and two or more females. If a marriage involves a plural number of "husbands and wives" participants of each gender, then it can be called polygamy, group or conjoint marriage. In its broadest use, polyandry refers to sexual relations with multiple males within or without marriage. Of the 1,231 societies listed in the 1980 Ethnographic Atlas, 186 were found to be monogamous, 453 had occasional polygyny, 588 had more frequent polygyny, and 4 had polyandry. Polyandry is less rare than this figure suggests, as it considered only those examples found in the Himalayan mountain region (eight societies). More recent studies have found more than four other societies practicing polyandry. Fraternal polyandry is practiced among Tibetans in Nepal and parts of China, in which two or more brothers are married to the same wife, with the wife having equal "sexual access" to them. It is associated with *partible paternity*, the cultural belief that a child can have more than one father. Several ethnic groups practicing polyandry in India identify their customs with their descent from Draupadi, a central character of the Mahabharta who was married to five brothers, although local practices may not be fraternal themselves. Polyandry is believed to be more likely in societies with scarce environmental resources. It is believed to limit human population growth and enhance child survival. It is a rare form of marriage that exists not only among peasant families but also among elite families. For example, polyandry in the Himalayan mountains is related to the scarcity of land. The marriage of all brothers in a family to the same wife allows family land to remain intact and undivided. If every brother married separately and had children, family land would be split into unsustainable small plots. In contrast, very poor persons not owning land were less likely to practice polyandry in Buddhist Ladakh and Zanskar.[*verification needed*] In Europe, the splitting up of land was prevented through the social practice of impartible inheritance. With most siblings disinherited, many of them became celibate monks and priests. Polyandrous mating systems are also a common phenomenon in the animal kingdom. Types ----- ### Successional polyandry Unlike in fraternal polyandry where a woman will receive a number of husbands simultaneously, in successional polyandry a woman will acquire one husband after another in sequence. This form is flexible. These men may or may not be related. And it may or may not incorporate a **hierarchical** system, where one husband is considered *primary* and may be allotted certain rights or privileges not awarded to secondary husbands, such as biologically fathering a child. In cases where one husband has a primary role, the *secondary* husbands have the power to succeed the primary if he were to become severely ill or be away from the home for a long period of time or is otherwise rendered incapable of fulfilling his husbandly duties. Successional polyandry can likewise be **egalitarian**, where all husbands are equal in status and receive the same rights and privileges. In this system, each husband will have a wedding ceremony and share the paternity of whatever children she may bear. ### Associated polyandry Another form of polyandry is a combination of polyandry and polygyny; whereas women are married to several men simultaneously and the same men may marry other women. It is found in some tribes of native Africa as well as villages in northern Nigeria and the northern Cameroons. Usually, one of the woman's husbands will be chosen to be the husband of a woman from another tribe who would also have many husbands; this double-polyandrous union serves to form a marital alliance between tribes. *Other Classifications: Equal polygamy, Polygynandry* The system results in less land fragmentation, and a diversification of domestic activities. ### Fraternal polyandry Fraternal polyandry (from the Latin *frater*—brother), also called **adelphic polyandry** (from the Greek *ἀδελφός*—brother), is a form of polyandry in which a woman is married to two or more men who are brothers. Fraternal polyandry was (and sometimes still is) found in certain areas of Tibet, Nepal, and Northern India, as well as some central African cultures where polyandry was accepted as a social practice. The Toda people of southern India practice fraternal polyandry, but monogamy has become prevalent recently. In contemporary Hindu society, polyandrous marriages in agrarian societies in the Malwa region of Punjab seem to occur to avoid division of farming land. Fraternal polyandry achieves a similar goal to that of primogeniture in 19th-century England. Primogeniture dictated that the eldest son inherited the family estate, while younger sons had to leave home and seek their own employment. Primogeniture maintained family estates intact over generations by permitting only one heir per generation. Fraternal polyandry also accomplishes this, but does so by keeping all the brothers together with just one wife so that there is only one set of heirs per generation. This strategy appears less successful the larger the fraternal sibling group is. Some forms of polyandry appear to be associated with a perceived need to retain aristocratic titles or agricultural lands within kin groups, and/or because of the frequent absence, for long periods, of a man from the household. In Tibet the practice was particularly popular among the priestly Sakya class. The female equivalent of fraternal polyandry is sororate marriage. ### Partible paternity Anthropologist Stephen Beckerman points out that at least 20 tribal societies accept that a child could, and ideally should, have more than one father, referring to it as "partible paternity". This often results in the shared nurture of a child by multiple fathers in a form of polyandric relation to the mother, although this is not always the case. One of the most well known examples is that of Trobriand "virgin birth". The matrilineal Trobriand Islanders recognize the importance of sex in reproduction but do not believe the male makes a contribution to the constitution of the child, who therefore remains attached to their mother's lineage alone. The mother's non-resident husbands are not recognized as fathers, although the mother's co-resident brothers are, since they are part of the mother's lineage. Culture ------- According to inscriptions describing the reforms of the Sumerian king Urukagina of Lagash (ca. 2300 BC), the earlier custom of polyandry in his country was abolished, on pain of the woman taking multiple husbands being stoned with stones upon which her crime was written. An extreme gender imbalance has been suggested as a justification for polyandry. For example, the selective abortion of female children in India has led to a significant margin in sex ratio and, it has been suggested, results in related men "sharing" a wife. Known cases ----------- Polyandry in Tibet was a common practice and continues to a lesser extent today. A survey of 753 Tibetan families by Tibet University in 1988 found that 13% practiced polyandry. Polyandry in India still exists among minorities, and also in Bhutan, and the northern parts of Nepal. Polyandry has been practised in several parts of India, such as Rajasthan, Ladakh and Zanskar, in the Jaunsar-Bawar region in Uttarakhand, among the Toda of South India. It also occurs or has occurred in Nigeria, the Nymba, [*clarification needed*] Irigwe and some pre-contact Polynesian societies, though probably only among higher caste women. It is also encountered in some regions of Yunnan and Sichuan regions of China, among the Mosuo people in China (who also practice polygyny as well), and in some sub-Saharan African such as the Maasai people in Kenya and northern Tanzania and American indigenous communities. The Guanches, the first known inhabitants of the Canary Islands, practiced polyandry until Spanish colonization. The Zo'e tribe in the state of Pará on the Cuminapanema River, Brazil, also practice polyandry. ### Africa * In the Lake Region of Central Africa, "Polygyny ... was uncommon. Polyandry, on the other hand, was quite common." * Among the Irigwe of Northern Nigeria, women have traditionally acquired numerous spouses called "co-husbands". * In August 2013, two Kenyan men entered into an agreement to marry a woman with whom they had both been having an affair. Kenyan law does not explicitly forbid polyandry, although it is not a common custom. ### Asia * In the reign of Urukagina of Lagash, "Dyandry, the marriage of one woman to two men, is abolished." * M. Notovitck mentioned polyandry in Ladakh or Little 'Tibet' in his record of his journey to Tibet. ("The Unknown life of Jesus Christ" by Virchand Gandhi). * Polyandry was widely (and to some extent still is) practised in Lahaul-Spiti situated in isolation in the high Himalayas in India. * Prior to Islam, in Arabia (southern) "All the kindred have their property in common ...; all have one wife" whom they share. * The Hoa-tun (Hephthalites, White Huns) "living to the north of the Great Wall ... practiced polyandry." Among the Hephthalites, "the practice of several husbands to one wife, or polyandry, was always the rule, which is agreed on by all commentators. That this was plain was evidenced by the custom among the women of wearing a hat containing a number of horns, one for each of the subsequent husbands, all of whom were also brothers to the husband. Indeed, if a husband had no natural brothers, he would adopt another man to be his brother so that he would be allowed to marry." * "Polyandry is very widespread among the Sherpas." * In Bhutan in 1914, polyandry was "the prevailing domestic custom". Nowadays polyandry is rare, but still found for instance among the Brokpas of the Merak-Sakten region. * In several villages in Nyarixung Township, Xigaze, Tibet, up to 90% of families practiced polyandry in 2008. * Among the Gilyaks of Sakhalin Island "polyandry is also practiced." * Fraternal polyandry was permitted in Sri Lanka under Kandyan Marriage law, often described using the euphemism eka-ge-kama (literally "eating in one house").[*disputed – discuss*] Associated Polyandry, or polyandry that begins as monogamy, with the second husband entering the relationship later, is also practiced and is sometimes initiated by the wife. * Polyandry was common in Sri Lanka, until it was banned by the British in 1859. ### Europe * Reporting on the mating patterns in ancient Greece, specifically Sparta, Plutarch writes: "Thus if an older man with a young wife should take a liking to one of the well-bred young men and approve of him, he might well introduce him to her so as to fill her with noble sperm and then adopt the child as his own. Conversely a respectable man who admired someone else’s wife noted for her lovely children and her good sense, might gain the husband’s permission to sleep with her thereby planting in fruitful soil, so to speak, and producing fine children who would be linked to fine ancestors by blood and family." * "According to Julius Caesar, it was customary among the ancient Britons for brothers, and sometimes for fathers and sons, to have their wives in common." * "Polyandry prevailed among the Lacedaemonians according to Polybius." (Polybius vii.7.732, following Timæus) * "The matrons of Rome flocked in great crowds to the Senate, begging with tears and entreaties that one woman should be married to two men." * The gravestone of Allia Potestas, a woman from Perusia, describes how she lived peacefully with two lovers, one of whom immortalized her in this famous epigraphic eulogy, dating (probably) from the second century. ### North America * Aleut people in the 19th century. * During the most abusive times of the slave economy in Saint-Domingue during the Haitian Revolution, mortality was so high that women practised polyandry. * Inuit ### Oceania * Among the Kanak of New Caledonia, "every woman is the property of several husbands. It is this collection of husbands, having one wife in common, that...live together in a hut, with their common wife." * Marquesans had "a society in which households were polyandrous". * Friedrich Ratzel in *The History of Mankind* reported in 1896 that in the New Hebrides there was a kind of convention in cases of widowhood, that two widowers shall live with one widow. ### South America * "The Bororos ... among them...there are also cases of polyandry." * "The Tupi-Kawahib also practice fraternal polyandry." * "...up to 70 percent of Amazonian cultures may have believed in the principle of multiple paternity" * Mapuche polyandry is rare but not unheard of. The men are often brothers. Religious attitudes ------------------- ### Hinduism There is at least one reference to polyandry in the ancient Hindu epic *Mahabharata*. Draupadi married the five Pandava brothers, as this is what she chose in a previous life. This ancient text remains largely neutral to the concept of polyandry, accepting this as her way of life. However, in the same epic, when questioned by Kunti to give an example of polyandry, Yudhishthira cites Gautam-clan Jatila (married to seven Saptarishis) and Hiranyaksha's sister Pracheti (married to ten brothers), thereby implying a more open attitude toward polyandry in Hindu society. ### Judaism The Hebrew Bible contains no examples of women married to more than one man, but its description of adultery clearly implies that polyandry is unacceptable and the practice is unknown in Jewish tradition. In addition, the children from other than the first husband are considered illegitimate (i.e., mamzers), unless he has already divorced her or died, being a product of an adulterous relationship. ### Christianity Most Christian denominations in the Western world strongly advocate monogamous marriage, and a passage from the Pauline epistles can be interpreted as forbidding polyandry. ### Latter-Day Saints Joseph Smith and Brigham Young, and other early Latter-day Saints, practiced polygamous marriages with several women who were already married to other men. The practice was officially ended with the 1890 Manifesto. Polyandrous marriages did exist, albeit in significantly less numbers, in early LDS history. ### Islam Although Islamic marital law allows men to have up to four wives, polyandry is not allowed in Islam or Islamic scriptures. In biology ---------- Polyandrous behaviour exists in the animal kingdom, occurring for example in certain insects, fish, birds, and mammals. See also -------- * Legal status of polygamy * Matrilineality * Polygyny in India * Polyandry in India * Polyandry in Tibet * Sacred prostitution * Sexual conflict Types of mating, marriage and lifestyle: * Bigamy * Cuckquean * Cuckold * Eusociality * Group marriage * Monogamy * Non-monogamy * Open marriage * Polyamory * Polygamy * Polygynandry * Polygyny * Unicorn hunting Further reading --------------- * Levine, Nancy, *The Dynamics of Polyandry: Kinship, domesticity and population on the Tibetan border*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988. ISBN 0-226-47569-7, ISBN 978-0-226-47569-1 * Peter, Prince of Greece, *A Study of Polyandry,* The Hague, Mouton, 1963. * Beall, Cynthia M.; Goldstein, Melvyn C. (1981). "Tibetan Fraternal Polyandry: A Test of Sociobiological Theory". *American Anthropologist*. **83** (1): 898–901. doi:10.1525/aa.1982.84.4.02a00170. * Gielen, U. P. (1993). Gender Roles in traditional Tibetan cultures. In L. L. Adler (Ed.), *International handbook on gender roles* (pp. 413–437). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. * Goldstein, M. C. (1971). "Stratification, Polyandry, and Family Structure in Central Tibet". *Southwestern Journal of Anthropology*. **27** (1): 64–74. doi:10.1086/soutjanth.27.1.3629185. JSTOR 3629185. S2CID 146900571. * Crook, J., & Crook, S. 1994. "Explaining Tibetan polyandry: Socio-cultural, demographic, and biological perspectives". In J. Crook, & H. Osmaston (Eds.), *Himayalan Buddhist Villages* (pp. 735–786). Bristol, UK: University of Bristol. * Goldstein, M. C. (1971). "Stratification, Polyandry, and Family Structure in Central Tibet". *Southwestern Journal of Anthropology*. **27** (1): 64–74. doi:10.1086/soutjanth.27.1.3629185. JSTOR 3629185. S2CID 146900571. * Goldstein, M. C. (1976). "Fraternal Polyandry and Fertility in a High Himalayan Valley in Northwest Nepal". *Human Ecology*. **4** (3): 223–233. doi:10.1007/bf01534287. JSTOR 4602366. S2CID 153817518. * Lodé, Thierry (2006) *La Guerre des sexes chez les animaux*. Paris: Eds O. Jacob. ISBN 2-7381-1901-8 * Smith, Eric Alden (1998). "Is Tibetan polyandry adaptive?" (PDF). *Human Nature*. **9** (3): 225–261. doi:10.1007/s12110-998-1004-3. PMID 26197483. S2CID 3022928. * Trevithick, Alan (1997). "On a Panhuman Preference for Monandry: Is Polyandry an Exception?". *Journal of Comparative Family Studies*. **28** (3): 154–81.

Polyandry

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyandry

A **Doctor of Philosophy** (**PhD**, **Ph.D.**, or **DPhil**; Latin: *philosophiae doctor* or *doctor philosophiae*) is the most common degree at the highest academic level, awarded following a course of study and research. PhDs are awarded for programs across the whole breadth of academic fields. Because it is an earned research degree, those studying for a PhD are required to produce original research that expands the boundaries of knowledge, normally in the form of a dissertation, and defend their work before a panel of other experts in the field. The completion of a PhD is typically required for employment as a university professor, researcher, or scientist in many fields. Individuals who have earned the Doctor of Philosophy degree use the title *Doctor* (often abbreviated "Dr" or "Dr."), although the etiquette associated with this usage may be subject to the professional ethics of the particular scholarly field, culture, or society. Those who teach at universities or work in academic, educational, or research fields are usually addressed by this title "professionally and socially in a salutation or conversation." Alternatively, holders may use post-nominal letters such as "Ph.D.", "PhD", or "DPhil", depending on the awarding institution. It is, however, considered incorrect to use both the title and post-nominals together. The specific requirements to earn a PhD degree vary considerably according to the country, institution, and time period, from entry-level research degrees to higher doctorates. During the studies that lead to the degree, the student is called a *doctoral student* or *PhD student*; a student who has completed any necessary coursework and related examinations and is working on their thesis/dissertation is sometimes known as a *doctoral candidate* or *PhD candidate*. A student attaining this level may be granted a Candidate of Philosophy degree at some institutions or may be granted a master's degree *en route* to the doctoral degree. Sometimes this status is also colloquially known as "ABD", meaning "all but dissertation." A PhD candidate must submit a project, thesis, or dissertation often consisting of a body of original academic research, which is in principle worthy of publication in a peer-reviewed journal. In many countries, a candidate must defend this work before a panel of expert examiners appointed by the university. Universities sometimes award other types of doctorate besides the PhD, such as the Doctor of Musical Arts (D.M.A.) for music performers, Doctor of Juridical Science (S.J.D.) for legal scholars and the Doctor of Education (Ed.D.) for studies in education. In 2005 the European University Association defined the "Salzburg Principles," 10 basic principles for third-cycle degrees (doctorates) within the Bologna Process. These were followed in 2016 by the "Florence Principles," seven basic principles for doctorates in the arts laid out by the European League of Institutes of the Arts, which have been endorsed by the European Association of Conservatoires, the International Association of Film and Television Schools, the International Association of Universities and Colleges of Art, Design and Media, and the Society for Artistic Research. In the context of the Doctor of Philosophy and other similarly titled degrees, the term "philosophy" does not refer to the field or academic discipline of philosophy, but is used in a broader sense in accordance with its original Greek meaning, which is "love of wisdom." In most of Europe, all fields (history, philosophy, social sciences, mathematics, and natural philosophy/sciences) other than theology, law, and medicine (the so-called professional, vocational, or technical curriculum) were traditionally known as philosophy, and in Germany and elsewhere in Europe the basic faculty of liberal arts was known as the "faculty of philosophy." Terminology ----------- The degree is abbreviated PhD (sometimes Ph.D. in the U.S.), from the Latin *Philosophiae Doctor*, pronounced as three separate letters (/piːeɪtʃˈdiː/, *PEE-aych-DEE*). The abbreviation DPhil, from the English 'Doctor of Philosophy', is used by a small number of British and Commonwealth universities, including Oxford, formerly York, and Sussex, as the abbreviation for degrees from those institutions. History ------- ### Medieval and early modern Europe In the universities of Medieval Europe, study was organized in four faculties: the basic faculty of arts, and the three higher faculties of theology, medicine, and law (canon law and civil law). All of these faculties awarded intermediate degrees (bachelor of arts, of theology, of laws, of medicine) and final degrees. Initially, the titles of master and doctor were used interchangeably for the final degrees—the title *Doctor* was merely a formality bestowed on a Teacher/Master of the art—but by the late Middle Ages the terms Master of Arts and Doctor of Theology/Divinity, Doctor of Law, and Doctor of Medicine had become standard in most places (though in the German and Italian universities the term *Doctor* was used for all faculties). The doctorates in the higher faculties were quite different from the current PhD degree in that they were awarded for advanced scholarship, not original research. No dissertation or original work was required, only lengthy residency requirements and examinations. Besides these degrees, there was the licentiate. Originally this was a license to teach, awarded shortly before the award of the master's or doctoral degree by the diocese in which the university was located, but later it evolved into an academic degree in its own right, in particular in the continental universities. According to Keith Allan Noble (1994), the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150. The doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany as the terminal teacher's credential in the 17th century (circa 1652). There were no PhDs in Germany before the 1650s (when they gradually started replacing the MA as the highest academic degree; arguably, one of the earliest German PhD holders is Erhard Weigel (Dr. phil. hab., Leipzig, 1652). In theory, the full course of studies might, for example, lead in succession to the degrees of Bachelor of Arts, Licentiate of Arts, Master of Arts, or Bachelor of Medicine, Licentiate of Medicine, or Doctor of Medicine, but before the early modern era, many exceptions to this existed. Most students left the university without becoming masters of arts, whereas regulars (members of monastic orders) could skip the arts faculty entirely. ### Educational reforms in Germany This situation changed in the early 19th century through the educational reforms in Germany, most strongly embodied in the model of the University of Berlin, founded and controlled by the Prussian government in 1810. The arts faculty, which in Germany was labelled the faculty of philosophy, started demanding contributions to research, attested by a dissertation, for the award of their final degree, which was labelled Doctor of Philosophy (abbreviated as Ph.D.)—originally this was just the German equivalent of the Master of Arts degree. Whereas in the Middle Ages the arts faculty had a set curriculum, based upon the trivium and the quadrivium, by the 19th century it had come to house all the courses of study in subjects now commonly referred to as sciences and humanities. Professors across the humanities and sciences focused on their advanced research. Practically all the funding came from the central government, and it could be cut off if the professor was politically unacceptable.[*relevant?*] These reforms proved extremely successful, and fairly quickly the German universities started attracting foreign students, notably from the United States. The American students would go to Germany to obtain a PhD after having studied for a bachelor's degrees at an American college. So influential was this practice that it was imported to the United States, where in 1861 Yale University started granting the PhD degree to younger students who, after having obtained the bachelor's degree, had completed a prescribed course of graduate study and successfully defended a thesis or dissertation containing original research in science or in the humanities. In Germany, the name of the doctorate was adapted after the philosophy faculty started being split up − e.g. Dr. rer. nat. for doctorates in the faculty of natural sciences − but in most of the English-speaking world the name "Doctor of Philosophy" was retained for research doctorates in all disciplines. The PhD degree and similar awards spread across Europe in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The degree was introduced in France in 1808, replacing diplomas as the highest academic degree; into Russia in 1819, when the *Doktor Nauk* degree, roughly equivalent to a PhD, gradually started replacing the specialist diploma, roughly equivalent to the MA, as the highest academic degree; and in Italy in 1927, when PhDs gradually started replacing the Laurea as the highest academic degree. ### History in the United Kingdom Research degrees first appeared in the UK in the late 19th century in the shape of the Doctor of Science (DSc or ScD) and other such "higher doctorates." The University of London introduced the DSc in 1860, but as an advanced study course, following on directly from the BSc, rather than a research degree. The first higher doctorate in the modern sense was Durham University's DSc, introduced in 1882. This was soon followed by other universities, including the University of Cambridge establishing its ScD in the same year and the University of London transforming its DSc into a research degree in 1885. These were, however, very advanced degrees, rather than research-training degrees at the PhD level—Harold Jeffreys said that getting a Cambridge ScD was "more or less equivalent to being proposed for the Royal Society." Finally, in 1917, the current PhD degree was introduced, along the lines of the American and German model, and quickly became popular with both British and foreign students. The slightly older degrees of Doctor of Science and Doctor of Literature/Letters still exist at British universities; together with the much older degrees of Doctor of Divinity (DD), Doctor of Music (DMus), Doctor of Civil Law (DCL) and Doctor of Medicine (MD), they form the higher doctorates, but apart from honorary degrees, they are only infrequently awarded. In the English (but not the Scottish) universities, the Faculty of Arts had become dominant by the early 19th century. Indeed, the higher faculties had largely atrophied, since medical training had shifted to teaching hospitals, the legal training for the common law system was provided by the Inns of Court (with some minor exceptions, see Doctors' Commons), and few students undertook formal study in theology. This contrasted with the situation in the continental European universities at the time, where the preparatory role of the Faculty of Philosophy or Arts was to a great extent taken over by secondary education: in modern France, the Baccalauréat is the examination taken at the end of secondary studies. The reforms at the Humboldt University transformed the Faculty of Philosophy or Arts (and its more recent successors such as the Faculty of Sciences) from a lower faculty into one on a par with the Faculties of Law and Medicine. Similar developments occurred in many other continental European universities, and at least until reforms in the early 21st century, many European countries (e.g., Belgium, Spain, and the Scandinavian countries) had in all faculties triple degree structures of bachelor (or candidate) − licentiate − doctor as opposed to bachelor − master − doctor; the meaning of the different degrees varied from country to country, however. To this day, this is also still the case for the pontifical degrees in theology and canon law; for instance, in sacred theology, the degrees are Bachelor of Sacred Theology (STB), Licentiate of Sacred Theology (STL), and Doctor of Sacred Theology (STD), and in canon law: Bachelor of Canon Law (JCB), Licentiate of Canon Law (JCL), and Doctor of Canon Law (JCD). ### History in the United States Until the mid-19th century, advanced degrees were not a criterion for professorships at most colleges. That began to change as the more ambitious scholars at major schools went to Germany for 1 to 3 years to obtain a PhD in the sciences or humanities. Graduate schools slowly emerged in the United States. In 1861, Yale awarded the first three earned PhDs in North America to Eugene Schuyler, Arthur Williams Wright, and James Morris Whiton, although honorary PhDs had been awarded in the US for almost a decade, with Bucknell University awarding the first to Ebenezer Newton Elliott in 1852. In the next two decades, New York University, the University of Pennsylvania, Harvard, and Princeton also began granting the degree. Major shifts toward graduate education were foretold by the opening of Clark University in 1887 which offered only graduate programs and the Johns Hopkins University which focused on its PhD program. By the 1890s, Harvard, Columbia, Michigan and Wisconsin were building major graduate programs, whose alumni were hired by new research universities. By 1900, 300 PhDs were awarded annually, most of them by six universities. It was no longer necessary to study in Germany. However, half of the institutions awarding earned PhDs in 1899 were undergraduate institutions that granted the degree for work done away from campus. Degrees awarded by universities without legitimate PhD programs accounted for about a third of the 382 doctorates recorded by the US Department of Education in 1900, of which another 8–10% were honorary. At the start of the 20th century, US universities were held in low regard internationally and many American students were still traveling to Europe for PhDs. The lack of centralised authority meant anyone could start a university and award PhDs. This led to the formation of the Association of American Universities by 14 leading research universities (producing nearly 90% of the approximately 250 legitimate research doctorates awarded in 1900), with one of the main goals being to "raise the opinion entertained abroad of our own Doctor's Degree." In Germany, the national government funded the universities and the research programs of the leading professors. It was impossible for professors who were not approved by Berlin to train graduate students. In the United States, by contrast, private universities and state universities alike were independent of the federal government. Independence was high, but funding was low. The breakthrough came from private foundations, which began regularly supporting research in science and history; large corporations sometimes supported engineering programs. The postdoctoral fellowship was established by the Rockefeller Foundation in 1919. Meanwhile, the leading universities, in cooperation with the learned societies, set up a network of scholarly journals. "Publish or perish" became the formula for faculty advancement in the research universities. After World War II, state universities across the country expanded greatly in undergraduate enrollment, and eagerly added research programs leading to masters or doctorate degrees. Their graduate faculties had to have a suitable record of publication and research grants. Late in the 20th century, "publish or perish" became increasingly important in colleges and smaller universities. Requirements ------------ Detailed requirements for the award of a PhD degree vary throughout the world and even from school to school. It is usually required for the student to hold an Honours degree or a Master's degree with high academic standing, in order to be considered for a PhD program. In the US, Canada, India, and Denmark, for example, many universities require coursework in addition to research for PhD degrees. In other countries (such as the UK) there is generally no such condition, though this varies by university and field. Some individual universities or departments specify additional requirements for students not already in possession of a bachelor's degree or equivalent or higher. In order to submit a successful PhD admission application, copies of academic transcripts, letters of recommendation, a research proposal, and a personal statement are often required. Most universities also invite for a special interview before admission. A candidate must submit a project, thesis, or dissertation often consisting of a body of original academic research, which is in principle worthy of publication in a peer-reviewed context. Moreover, some PhD programs, especially in science, require one to three published articles in peer-reviewed journals. In many countries, a candidate must defend this work before a panel of expert examiners appointed by the university; in other countries, the dissertation is examined by a panel of expert examiners who stipulate whether the dissertation is in principle passable and any issues that need to be addressed before the dissertation can be passed. Some universities in the non-English-speaking world have begun adopting similar standards to those of the anglophone PhD degree for their research doctorates (see the Bologna process). A PhD student or candidate is conventionally required to study on campus under close supervision. With the popularity of distance education and e-learning technologies, some universities now accept students enrolled into a distance education part-time mode. In a "sandwich PhD" program, PhD candidates do not spend their entire study period at the same university. Instead, the PhD candidates spend the first and last periods of the program at their home universities and in between conduct research at another institution or field research. Occasionally a "sandwich PhD" will be awarded by two universities. ### PhD confirmation A *PhD confirmation* is a preliminary presentation or lecture that a PhD candidate presents to faculty and possibly other interested members.[*where?*] The lecture follows after a suitable topic has been identified, and can include such matters as the aim of the research, methodology, first results, planned (or finished) publications, etc. The confirmation lecture can be seen as a trial run for the final public defense, though faculty members at this stage can still largely influence the direction of the research. At the end of the lecture, the PhD candidate can be seen as "confirmed" – faculty members give their approval and trust that the study is well directed and will with high probability result in the candidate being successful. In the United States, this is generally called advancing to Candidacy, the confirmation event being called the Candidacy Examination. Value and criticism ------------------- A career in academia generally requires a PhD, although in some countries it is possible to reach relatively high positions without a doctorate. In North America, professors are increasingly being required to have a PhD, and the percentage of faculty with a PhD may be used as a university ratings measure. The motivation may also include increased salary, but in many cases, this is not the result. Research by Bernard H. Casey of the University of Warwick, U.K, suggests that, over all subjects, PhDs provide an earnings premium of 26% over non-accredited graduates, but notes that master's degrees already provide a premium of 23% and a bachelor's 14%. While this is a small return to the individual (or even an overall deficit when tuition and lost earnings during training are accounted for), he claims there are significant benefits to society for the extra research training. However, some research suggests that overqualified workers are often less satisfied and less productive at their jobs. These difficulties are increasingly being felt by graduates of professional degrees, such as law school, looking to find employment. PhD students may need to take on debt to undertake their degree. A PhD is also required in some positions outside academia, such as research jobs in major international agencies. In some cases, the Executive Directors of some types of foundations may be expected to hold a PhD. A PhD is sometimes felt to be a necessary qualification in certain areas of employment, such as in foreign policy think-tanks: U.S. News wrote in 2013 that "[i]f having a master's degree at the minimum is *de rigueur* in Washington's foreign policy world, it is no wonder many are starting to feel that the PhD is a necessary escalation, another case of costly signaling to potential employers." Similarly, an article on the Australian public service states that "credentialism in the public service is seeing a dramatic increase in the number of graduate positions going to PhDs and masters degrees becoming the base entry level qualification." *The Economist* published an article in 2010 citing various criticisms against the state of PhDs. These included a prediction by economist Richard B. Freeman that, based on pre-2000 data, only 20% of life science PhD students would gain a faculty job in the U.S., and that in Canada 80% of postdoctoral research fellows earned less than or equal to an average construction worker ($38,600 a year). According to the article, only the fastest developing countries (e.g. China or Brazil) have a shortage of PhDs. The US higher education system often offers little incentive to move students through PhD programs quickly and may even provide incentive to slow them down. To counter this problem, the United States introduced the Doctor of Arts degree in 1970 with seed money from the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. The aim of the Doctor of Arts degree was to shorten the time needed to complete the degree by focusing on pedagogy over research, although the Doctor of Arts still contains a significant research component. Germany is one of the few nations engaging these issues, and it has been doing so by reconceptualising PhD programs to be training for careers, outside academia, but still at high-level positions. This development can be seen in the extensive number of PhD holders, typically from the fields of law, engineering, and economics, at the very top corporate and administrative positions. To a lesser extent, the UK research councils have tackled the issue by introducing, since 1992, the EngD.[*clarification needed*] Mark C. Taylor opined in 2011 in *Nature* that total reform of PhD programs in almost every field is necessary in the U.S. and that pressure to make the necessary changes will need to come from many sources (students, administrators, public and private sectors, etc.). Other articles in *Nature* have also examined the issue of PhD reform. Freeman Dyson, professor emeritus at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, was opposed to the PhD system and did not have a PhD degree. On the other hand, it was understood by all his peers that he was a world leading scientist with many accomplishments already under his belt during his graduate study years and he was eligible to gain the degree at any given moment. In 2022, *Nature* reports that PhD students wages in US do not cover living costs. ### National variations In German-speaking nations, most Eastern European nations, successor states of the former Soviet Union, most parts of Africa, Asia, and many Spanish-speaking countries, the corresponding degree to a Doctor of Philosophy is simply called "Doctor" (*Doktor*), and the subject area is distinguished by a Latin suffix (e.g., "Dr. med." for **Doctor medicinae**, Doctor of Medicine; "Dr. rer. nat." for **Doctor rerum naturalium**, Doctor of the Natural Sciences; "Dr. phil." for **Doctor philosophiae**, Doctor of Philosophy; "Dr. iur." for **Doctor iuris**, Doctor of Laws). Degrees around the globe ------------------------ The UNESCO, in its International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED), states that: "Programmes to be classified at ISCED level 8 are referred to in many ways around the world such as PhD, DPhil, D.Lit, D.Sc, LL.D, Doctorate or similar terms. However, it is important to note that programmes with a similar name to 'doctor' should only be included in ISCED level 8 if they satisfy the criteria described in Paragraph 263. For international comparability purposes, the term 'doctoral or equivalent' is used to label ISCED level 8." ### Argentina #### Admission In Argentina, the admission to a PhD program at public Argentine University requires the full completion of a Master's degree or a Licentiate degree. Non-Argentine Master's titles are generally accepted into a PhD program when the degree comes from a recognized university. #### Funding While a significant portion of postgraduate students finance their tuition and living costs with teaching or research work at private and state-run institutions, international institutions, such as the Fulbright Program and the Organization of American States (OAS), have been known to grant full scholarships for tuition with apportions for housing. Others apply for funds to CONICET, the national public body of scientific and technical research, which typically awards more than a thousand scholarships each year for this purpose, thus guaranteeing many PhD candidates remain within the system. #### Requirements for completion Upon completion of at least two years' research and coursework as a graduate student, a candidate must demonstrate truthful and original contributions to their specific field of knowledge within a frame of academic excellence. The doctoral candidate's work should be presented in a dissertation or thesis prepared under the supervision of a tutor or director and reviewed by a Doctoral Committee. This committee should be composed of examiners that are external to the program, and at least one of them should also be external to the institution. The academic degree of Doctor, respective to the correspondent field of science that the candidate has contributed with original and rigorous research, is received after a successful defense of the candidate's dissertation. ### Australia #### Admission Admission to a PhD program in Australia requires applicants to demonstrate capacity to undertake research in the proposed field of study. The standard requirement is a bachelor honours degree with either first-class or upper second-class honours. Research master's degrees and coursework master's degrees with a 25% research component are usually considered equivalent. It is also possible for research master's degree students to "upgrade" to PhD candidature after demonstrating sufficient progress. #### Scholarships PhD students are sometimes offered a scholarship to study for their PhD degree. The most common of these was the government-funded Australian Postgraduate Award (APA) until its dissolution in 2017. It was replaced by Research Training Program (RTP), awarded to students of "exceptional research potential," which provides a living stipend to students of approximately A$27,000 a year (tax-free). RTPs are paid for a duration of 3 years, while a 6-month extension is usually possible upon citing delays out of the control of the student. Some universities also fund a similar scholarship that matches the APA amount. Due to a continual increase in living costs, many PhD students are forced to live under the poverty line. In addition to the more common RTP and university scholarships, Australian students have other sources of scholarship funding, coming from industry, private enterprise, and organisations. #### Fees Australian citizens, permanent residents, and New Zealand citizens are not charged course fees for their PhD or research master's degree, with the exception in some universities of the student services and amenities fee (SSAF) which is set by each university and typically involves the largest amount allowed by the Australian government. All fees are paid for by the Australian government, except for the SSAF, under the Research Training Program. International students and coursework master's degree students must pay course fees unless they receive a scholarship to cover them. #### Requirements for completion Completion requirements vary. Most Australian PhD programs do not have a required coursework component. The credit points attached to the degree are all in the product of the research, which is usually an 80,000-word thesis that makes a significant new contribution to the field. Recent pressure on higher degree by research (HDR) students to publish has resulted in increasing interest in Ph.D by publication as opposed to the more traditional Ph.D by dissertation, which typically requires a minimum of two publications, but which also requires traditional thesis elements such as an introductory exegesis, and linking chapters between papers. The PhD thesis is sent to external examiners who are experts in the field of research and who have not been involved in the work. Examiners are nominated by the candidate's university, and their identities are often not revealed to the candidate until the examination is complete. A formal oral defence is generally not part of the examination of the thesis, largely because of the distances that would need to be travelled by the overseas examiners; however, since 2016, there is a trend toward implementing this in many Australian universities. At the University of South Australia, PhD candidates who started after January 2016 now undertake an oral defence via an online conference with two examiners. ### Canada #### Admission Admission to a doctoral programme at a Canadian university usually requires completion of a Master's degree in a related field, with sufficiently high grades and proven research ability. In some cases, a student may progress directly from an Honours Bachelor's degree to a PhD program; other programs allow a student to fast-track to a doctoral program after one year of outstanding work in a Master's program (without having to complete the Master's). An application package typically includes a research proposal, letters of reference, transcripts, and in some cases, a writing sample or Graduate Record Examinations scores. A common criterion for prospective PhD students is the comprehensive or qualifying examination, a process that often commences in the second year of a graduate program. Generally, successful completion of the qualifying exam permits continuance in the graduate program. Formats for this examination include oral examination by the student's faculty committee (or a separate qualifying committee), or written tests designed to demonstrate the student's knowledge in a specialized area (see below) or both. At English-speaking universities, a student may also be required to demonstrate English language abilities, usually by achieving an acceptable score on a standard examination (for example the Test of English as a Foreign Language). Depending on the field, the student may also be required to demonstrate ability in one or more additional languages. A prospective student applying to French-speaking universities may also have to demonstrate some English language ability. #### Funding While some students work outside the university (or at student jobs within the university), in some programs students are advised (or must agree) not to devote more than ten hours per week to activities (e.g., employment) outside of their studies, particularly if they have been given funding. For large and prestigious scholarships, such as those from NSERC and Fonds québécois de la recherche sur la nature et les technologies, this is an absolute requirement. At some Canadian universities, most PhD students receive an award equivalent to part or all of the tuition amount for the first four years (this is sometimes called a tuition deferral or tuition waiver). Other sources of funding include teaching assistantships and research assistantships; experience as a teaching assistant is encouraged but not requisite in many programs. Some programs may require all PhD candidates to teach, which may be done under the supervision of their supervisor or regular faculty. Besides these sources of funding, there are also various competitive scholarships, bursaries, and awards available, such as those offered by the federal government via NSERC, CIHR, or SSHRC. #### Requirements for completion In general, the first two years of study are devoted to completion of coursework and the comprehensive examinations. At this stage, the student is known as a "PhD student" or "doctoral student." It is usually expected that the student will have completed most of their required coursework by the end of this stage. Furthermore, it is usually required that by the end of eighteen to thirty-six months after the first registration, the student will have successfully completed the comprehensive exams. Upon successful completion of the comprehensive exams, the student becomes known as a "PhD candidate." From this stage on, the bulk of the student's time will be devoted to their own research, culminating in the completion of a PhD thesis or dissertation. The final requirement is an oral defense of the thesis, which is open to the public in some, but not all, universities. At most Canadian universities, the time needed to complete a PhD degree typically ranges from four to six years. It is, however, not uncommon for students to be unable to complete all the requirements within six years, particularly given that funding packages often support students for only two to four years; many departments will allow program extensions at the discretion of the thesis supervisor or department chair. Alternative arrangements exist whereby a student is allowed to let their registration in the program lapse at the end of six years and re-register once the thesis is completed in draft form. The general rule is that graduate students are obligated to pay tuition until the initial thesis submission has been received by the thesis office. In other words, if a PhD student defers or delays the initial submission of their thesis they remain obligated to pay fees until such time that the thesis has been received in good standing. ### China In China, doctoral programs can be applied directly after obtaining a bachelor's degree or applied after obtaining a master's degree. Those who directly apply for a doctoral program after a bachelor's degree usually need four to five years to obtain a doctorate and will not be awarded a master's degree during the period. The courses at the doctoral level are mainly completed in the first and second years, and the remaining years are spent doing experiments/research and writing papers. At most universities, the maximum duration of doctoral study is 7 years. If a doctoral student does not complete their degree within 7 years, it is likely that they can only obtain a study certificate without any degree. China has thirteen statutory types of academic degrees, which also apply to doctorate degrees. Despite the naming difference, all these thirteen types of doctoral degrees are research and academic degrees that are equivalent to PhD degrees. These thirteen doctorates are: * Doctor of Philosophy (for the discipline of philosophy) * Doctor of Economics * Doctor of Law * Doctor of Education * Doctor of Literature * Doctor of History * Doctor of Science * Doctor of Engineering * Doctor of Agriculture * Doctor of Medicine (equivalent to a PhD in Medical Sciences) * Doctor of Military * Doctor of Management * Doctor of Fine Arts. In international academic communication, Chinese doctoral degree recipients sometimes translate their doctorate degree names to *PhD in Discipline* (such as *PhD in Engineering, Computer Science*) to facilitate peer understanding. ### Colombia #### Admission In Colombia, the PhD course admission may require a master's degree (Magíster) in some universities, specially public universities. However, it could also be applied for a direct doctorate in specific cases, according to the jury's recommendations on the thesis proposal. #### Funding Most of postgraduate students in Colombia must finance their tuition fees by means of teaching assistant seats or research works. Some institutions such as Colciencias, Colfuturo, CeiBA, and Icetex grant scholarships or provide awards in the form of forgivable loans. #### Requirements for completion After two or two and a half years, it is expected that the research work of the doctoral candidate be submitted in the form of oral qualification, where suggestions and corrections about the research hypothesis and methodology, as well as on the course of the research work, are performed. The PhD degree is only received after a successful defense of the candidate's thesis is performed (four or five years after the enrollment), most of the time also requiring the most important results having been published in at least one peer-reviewed high-impact international journal. ### Finland In Finland, the degree of *filosofian tohtori* (abbreviated *FT*) is awarded by traditional universities, such as University of Helsinki. A Master's degree is required, and the doctorate combines approximately 4–5 years of research (amounting to 3–5 scientific articles, some of which must be first-author) and 60 ECTS points of studies. Other universities such as Aalto University award degrees such as *tekniikan tohtori* (*TkT*, engineering), *taiteen tohtori* (*TaT*, art), etc., which are translated in English to Doctor of Science (D.Sc.), and they are formally equivalent. The licentiate (*filosofian lisensiaatti* or *FL*) requires only 2–3 years of research and is sometimes done before an FT. ### France #### History Before 1984 three research doctorates existed in France: the State doctorate (*doctorat d'État*, the old doctorate introduced in 1808), the third cycle doctorate (*doctorat de troisième cycle*, created in 1954 and shorter than the State doctorate) and the diploma of doctor-engineer (*diplôme de docteur-ingénieur* created in 1923), for technical research. After 1984, only one type of doctoral degree remained, called "doctorate" (*Doctorat*). The latter is equivalent to the PhD. #### Admission Students pursuing the PhD degree must first complete a master's degree program, which takes two years after graduation with a bachelor's degree (five years in total). The candidate must apply to a doctoral research project associated with a doctoral advisor (Directeur de thèse or directeur doctoral) with a habilitation throughout the doctoral program. The PhD admission is granted by a graduate school (in French, "école doctorale"). A PhD candidate may follow some in-service training offered by the graduate school while continuing their research in a laboratory. Their research may be carried out in a laboratory,[*clarification needed*] at a university or in a company. In the first case, the candidates can be hired by the university or a research organisation. In the last case, the company hires the candidate and they are supervised by both the company's tutor and a lab's professor. Completion of the PhD degree generally requires 3 years after the master's degree but it can last longer in specific cases. #### Funding The financing of PhD research comes mainly from funds for research of the French Ministry of Higher Education and Research. The most common procedure is a short-term employment contract called doctoral contract: the institution of higher education is the employer and the PhD candidate the employee. However, the candidate can apply for funds from a company, which can host them at its premises (as in the case where PhD candidates do their research at a company). In another possible situation, the company and the institute can sign a funding agreement together so that the candidate still has a public doctoral contract but is works at the company on a daily basis (for example, this is particularly the case for the (French) Scientific Cooperation Foundation). Many other resources come from some regional/city projects, some associations, etc. ### Germany #### Admission In Germany, admission to a doctoral program is generally on the basis of having an advanced degree (i.e., a master's degree, *diplom*, *magister*, or *staatsexamen*), mostly in a related field and having above-average grades. A candidate must also find a tenured professor from a university to serve as the formal advisor and supervisor (*Betreuer*) of the dissertation throughout the doctoral program. This supervisor is informally referred to as *Doktorvater* or *Doktormutter*, which literally translate to "doctor's father" and "doctor's mother" respectively. The formal admission is the beginning of the so-called *Promotionsverfahren*, while the final granting of the degree is called *Promotion*. The duration of the doctorate depends on the field. A doctorate in medicine may take less than a full-time year to complete; those in other fields, two to six years. Most doctorates are awarded with specific Latin designations for the field of research (except for engineering, where the designation is German), instead of a general name for all fields (such as the Ph.D.). The most important degrees are: * *Dr. rer. nat.* (*rerum naturalium*; natural and formal sciences, i.e. physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, computer science and information technology, or psychology); * *Dr. phil.* (*philosophiae*; humanities such as philosophy, philology, history, and social sciences such as sociology, political science, or psychology as well); * *Dr. iur.* (*iuris*; law); * *Dr. oec.* (*oeconomiae*; economics); * *Dr. rer. pol.* (*rerum politicarum*; economics, business administration, political science); * *Dr. theol.* (*theologiae*; theology); * *Dr. med.* (*medicinae*; medicine); * *Dr. med. dent.* (*medicinae dentariae*; dentistry); * *Dr. med. vet.* (*medicinae veterinariae*; veterinary medicine); * *Dr.-Ing.* (engineering). Over fifty such designations exist, many of them rare or no longer in use. As a title, the degree is commonly written in front of the name in abbreviated form, e.g., *Dr. rer. nat. Max Mustermann* or *Dr. Max Mustermann*, dropping the designation entirely. However, leaving out the designation is only allowed when the doctorate degree is not an honorary doctorate, which must be indicated by *Dr. h.c.* (from Latin honoris causa). While most German doctorates are considered equivalent to the PhD, an exception is the medical doctorate, where "doctoral" dissertations are often written alongside undergraduate study. The European Research Council decided in 2010 that those doctorates do not meet the international standards of a PhD research degree. There are different forms of university-level institution in Germany, but only professors from "Universities" (Univ.-Prof.) can serve as doctoral supervisors – "Universities of Applied Sciences" (Fachhochschulen) are not entitled to award doctorates, although some exceptions apply to this rule. #### Structure Depending on the university, doctoral students (*Doktoranden*) can be required to attend formal classes or lectures, some of them also including exams or other scientific assignments, in order to get one or more certificates of qualification (*Qualifikationsnachweise*). Depending on the doctoral regulations (*Promotionsordnung*) of the university and sometimes on the status of the doctoral student, such certificates may not be required. Usually, former students, research assistants or lecturers from the same university, may be spared from attending extra classes. Instead, under the tutelage of a single professor or advisory committee, they are expected to conduct independent research. In addition to doctoral studies, many doctoral candidates work as teaching assistants, research assistants, or lecturers. Many universities have established research-intensive *Graduiertenkollegs* ("graduate colleges"), which are graduate schools that provide funding for doctoral studies. #### Duration The typical duration of a doctoral program can depend heavily on the subject and area of research. Usually, three to five years of full-time research work are required. The average time to graduation is 4.5 years. In 2014, the median age of new PhD graduates was 30.4 years. ### India In India, generally, a master's degree is required to gain admission to a doctoral program. Direct admission to a PhD program after bachelor's is also offered by the IITs, the IIITs, the NITs, and the Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research. In some subjects, doing a Master in Philosophy (M.Phil.) is a prerequisite to starting a Ph.D. for funding/fellowship, it is required to qualify for the National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and Junior Research fellowship (NET for LS and JRF) conducted by the National Testing Agency (NTA). In the last few years, there have been many changes in the rules relating to a PhD in India. According to the new rules described by UGC, universities must have to conduct entrance exams in general ability and the selected subject. After clearing these tests, the shortlisted candidates need to appear for an interview with the available supervisor/guide. After successful completion of the coursework, the students are required to give presentations of the research proposal (plan of work or synopsis) at the beginning, submit progress reports, give a pre-submission presentation and finally defend the thesis in an open defence viva-voce. ### Italy #### History The *Dottorato di ricerca* (research doctorate), abbreviated to "Dott. Ric." or "PhD", is an academic title awarded at the end of a course of not less than three years, admission to which is based on entrance examinations and academic rankings in the Bachelor of Arts ("Laurea", a three-year diploma) and Master of Arts ("Laurea Magistrale" a two-year diploma). While the standard PhD follows the Bologna process, the MD–PhD programme may be completed in two years. The first institution in Italy to create a doctoral program (PhD) was Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa in 1927 under the historic name *"Diploma di Perfezionamento"*. Further, the research doctorates or PhD (**Dottorato di ricerca**) in Italy were introduced by law and Presidential Decree in 1980, referring to the reform of academic teaching, training and experimentation in organisation and teaching methods. Hence, the Superior Graduate Schools in Italy (**Scuola Superiore Universitaria**), also called *Schools of Excellence* (**Scuole di Eccellenza**) such as Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa and Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies still keep their reputed historical *"Diploma di Perfezionamento"* PhD title by law and MIUR Decree. #### Admission Doctorate courses are open, without age or citizenship limits, to all those who already hold a "laurea magistrale" (master degree) or similar academic title awarded abroad which has been recognised as equivalent to an Italian degree by the Committee responsible for the entrance examinations. The number of places on offer each year and details of the entrance examinations are set out in the examination announcement. ### Poland A doctoral degree (Pol. *doktor*), abbreviated to PhD (Pol. *dr*) is an advanced academic degree awarded by universities in most fields as well as by the Polish Academy of Sciences, regulated by the Polish parliament acts and the government orders, in particular by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Poland. Commonly, students with a master's degree or equivalent are accepted to a doctoral entrance exam. The title of PhD is awarded to a scientist who has completed a minimum of three years of PhD studies (Pol. *studia doktoranckie*; not required to obtain PhD), finished a theoretical or laboratory scientific work, passed all PhD examinations; submitted the dissertation, a document presenting the author's research and findings, and successfully defended the doctoral thesis. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, always public, by a supervisory committee with expertise in the given discipline. ### Scandinavia The doctorate was introduced in Sweden in 1477 and in Denmark-Norway in 1479 and awarded in theology, law, and medicine, while the magister's degree was the highest degree at the Faculty of Philosophy, equivalent to the doctorate. Scandinavian countries were among the early adopters of a degree known as a doctorate of philosophy, based upon the German model. Denmark and Norway both introduced the Dr. Phil(os). degree in 1824, replacing the Magister's degree as the highest degree, while Uppsala University of Sweden renamed its Magister's degree *Filosofie Doktor* (fil. dr) in 1863. These degrees, however, became comparable to the German Habilitation rather than the doctorate, as Scandinavian countries did not have a separate Habilitation. The degrees were uncommon and not a prerequisite for employment as a professor; rather, they were seen as distinctions similar to the British (higher) doctorates (DLitt, DSc). Denmark introduced an American-style PhD, the ph.d., in 1989; it formally replaced the Licentiate's degree and is considered a lower degree than the dr. phil. degree; officially, the ph.d. is not considered a doctorate, but unofficially, it is referred to as "the smaller doctorate," as opposed to the dr. phil., "the grand doctorate." Holders of a ph.d. degree are not entitled to style themselves as "Dr." Currently Denmark distinctions between the dr. phil. as the proper doctorate and a higher degree than the ph.d., whereas in Norway, the historically analogous dr. philos. degree is officially regarded as equivalent to the new ph.d. Today, the Norwegian PhD degree is awarded to candidates who have completed a supervised doctoral programme at an institution, while candidates with a master's degree who have conducted research on their own may submit their work for a Dr. Philos. defence at a relevant institution. PhD candidates must complete one trial lecture before they can defend their thesis, whereas Dr. Philos. candidates must complete two trial lectures. In Sweden, the doctorate of philosophy was introduced at Uppsala University's Faculty of Philosophy in 1863. In Sweden, the Latin term is officially translated into Swedish *filosofie doktor* and commonly abbreviated fil. dr or FD. The degree represents the traditional Faculty of Philosophy and encompasses subjects from biology, physics, and chemistry, to languages, history, and social sciences, being the highest degree in these disciplines. Sweden currently has two research-level degrees, the Licentiate's degree, which is comparable to the Danish degree formerly known as the Licentiate's degree and now as the ph.d., and the higher doctorate of philosophy, *Filosofie Doktor*. Some universities in Sweden also use the term *teknologie doktor* for doctorates awarded by institutes of technology (for doctorates in engineering or natural science related subjects such as materials science, molecular biology, computer science etc.). The Swedish term fil. dr is often also used as a translation of corresponding degrees from e.g. Denmark and Norway. ### Singapore Singapore has six universities offering doctoral study opportunities: National University of Singapore, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore Management University, Singapore Institute of Technology, Singapore University of Technology and Design, and Singapore University of Social Sciences. ### Spain Doctoral degrees are regulated by *Real Decreto* (Royal Decree in Spanish) 99/2011 from the 2014/2015 academic year. They are granted by a university on behalf of the King, and its diploma has the force of a public document. The Ministry of Science keeps a National Registry of Theses called TESEO. All doctoral programs are of a research nature. The studies should include original results and can take a maximum of three years, although this period can be extended under certain circumstances to 5 years. The student must write their thesis presenting a new discovery or original contribution to science. If approved by her or his "thesis director (or directors)," the study will be presented to a panel of 3–5 distinguished scholars. Any doctor attending the public presentations is allowed to challenge the candidate with questions on their research. If approved, they will receive the doctorate. Four marks can be granted: Unsatisfactory, Pass, Satisfactory, and Excellent. "Cum laude" (with all honours, in Latin) denomination can be added to the Excellent ones if all five members of the tribunal agree. The social standing of doctors in Spain was evidenced by the fact that Philip III let PhD holders to take seat and cover their heads during an act in the University of Salamanca in which the King took part so as to recognise their merits. This right to cover their heads in the presence of the King is traditionally reserved in Spain to Grandees and Dukes. The concession is remembered in solemn ceremonies held by the University by telling Doctors to take seat and cover their heads as a reminder of that royal leave. All Doctor Degree holders are reciprocally recognized as equivalent in Germany and Spain ("Bonn Agreement of November 14, 1994"). ### Ukraine Starting in 2016, in Ukraine Doctor of Philosophy (PhD, Ukrainian: Доктор філософії) is the highest education level and the first science degree. PhD is awarded in recognition of a substantial contribution to scientific knowledge, origination of new directions and visions in science. A PhD degree is a prerequisite for heading a university department in Ukraine. Upon completion of a PhD, a PhD holder can elect to continue their studies and get a post-doctoral degree called "Doctor of Sciences" (DSc. Ukrainian: Доктор наук), which is the second and the highest science degree in Ukraine. ### United Kingdom #### Admission Universities admit applicants to PhD programs on a case-by-case basis; depending on the university, admission is typically conditional on the prospective student having completed an undergraduate degree with at least upper second-class honours or a postgraduate master's degree but requirements can vary. In the case of the University of Oxford, for example, "The one essential condition of being accepted … is evidence of previous academic excellence, and of future potential." Some UK universities (e.g. Oxford) abbreviate their Doctor of Philosophy degree as "DPhil", while most use the abbreviation "PhD"; but these are stylistic conventions, and the degrees are in all other respects equivalent. Commonly, students are first accepted onto an MPhil or MRes programme and may transfer to PhD regulations upon satisfactory progress, this is sometimes referred to as APG (Advanced Postgraduate) status. This is typically done after one or two years and the research work done may count towards the PhD degree. If a student fails to make satisfactory progress, they may be offered the opportunity to write up and submit for an MPhil degree, e.g. at King's College London and the University of Manchester. In many universities, the MPhil is also offered as a stand-alone research degree. PhD students from countries outside the EU/EFTA area are required to comply with the Academic Technology Approval Scheme (ATAS), which involves undergoing a security clearance process with the Foreign Office for certain courses in medicine, mathematics, engineering and material sciences. This requirement was introduced in 2007 due to concerns about overseas terrorism and weapons proliferation. #### Funding In the United Kingdom, funding for PhD students is sometimes provided by government-funded Research Councils (UK Research and Innovation - UKRI)or the European Social Fund, usually in the form of a tax-free bursary which consists of tuition fees together with a stipend. Tuition fees are charged at different rates for "Home/EU" and "Overseas" students, generally £3,000–£6,000 per year for the former and £9,000–14,500 for the latter (which includes EU citizens who have not been normally resident in the EEA for the last three years), although this can rise to over £16,000 at elite institutions. Higher fees are often charged for laboratory-based degrees. As of 2022/23[update], the national indicative fee for PhD students is £4,596, increasing annually, typically with inflation; there is no regulation of the fees charged by institutions, but if they charge a higher fee they may not require Research Council funded students to make up any difference themselves. As of 2022/23[update], the national minimum stipend for UKRI-funded students is £16,062 per year, increasing annually typically with inflation. The period of funding for a PhD project is between three and four years, depending on the research council and the decisions of individual institutions, with extensions in funding of up to twelve months available to offset periods of absence for maternity leave, shared parental leave, adoption leave, absences covered by a medical certificate, and extended jury service. PhD work beyond this may be unfunded or funded from other sources. A very small number of scientific studentships are sometimes paid at a higher rate – for example, in London, Cancer Research UK, the ICR and the Wellcome Trust stipend rates start at around £19,000 and progress annually to around £23,000 a year; an amount that is tax and national insurance free. Research Council funding is distributed to Doctoral Training Partnerships and Centres for Doctoral Training, who are responsible for student selection, within the eligibility guidelines established by the Research Councils. The ESRC (Economic and Social Science Research Council), for example, explicitly state that a 2.1 minimum (or a master's degree) is required. Many students who are not in receipt of external funding may choose to undertake the degree part-time, thus reducing the tuition fees. The tuition fee per annum for part-time PhD degrees are typically 50–60% of the equivalent full-time doctorate. However, since the duration of a part-time PhD degree is longer than a full-time degree, the overall cost may be the same or higher. The part-time PhD degree option provides free time in which to earn money for subsistence. Students may also take part in tutoring, work as research assistants, or (occasionally) deliver lectures, at a rate of typically £12–14 per hour, either to supplement existing low income or as a sole means of funding. #### Completion There is usually a preliminary assessment to remain in the program and the thesis is submitted at the end of a three- to four-year program. These periods are usually extended pro rata for part-time students. With special dispensation, the final date for the thesis can be extended for up to four additional years, for a total of seven, but this is rare. For full-time PhDs, a 4-year time limit has now been fixed and students must apply for an extension to submit a thesis past this point. Since the early 1990s, British funding councils have adopted a policy of penalising departments where large proportions of students fail to submit their theses in four years after achieving PhD-student status (or pro rata equivalent) by reducing the number of funded places in subsequent years. Inadvertently, this leads to significant pressure on the candidate to minimise the scope of projects with a view on thesis submission, regardless of quality, and discourage time spent on activities that would otherwise further the impact of the research on the community (e.g., publications in high-impact journals, seminars, workshops). Furthermore, supervising staff are encouraged in their career progression to ensure that the PhD students under their supervision finalise the projects in three rather than the four years that the program is permitted to cover. These issues contribute to an overall discrepancy between supervisors and PhD candidates in the priority they assign to the quality and impact of the research contained in a PhD project, the former favouring quick PhD projects over several students and the latter favouring a larger scope for their own ambitious project, training, and impact. There has recently been an increase in the number of Integrated PhD programs available, such as at the University of Southampton. These courses include a Master of Research (MRes) in the first year, which consists of a taught component as well as laboratory rotation projects. The PhD must then be completed within the next 3 years. As this includes the MRes all deadlines and timeframes are brought forward to encourage completion of both MRes and PhD within 4 years from commencement. These programs are designed to provide students with a greater range of skills than a standard PhD, and for the university, they are a means of gaining an extra years' fees from public sources. #### Other doctorates In the United Kingdom, PhD degrees are distinct from other doctorates, most notably the higher doctorates such as DLitt (Doctor of Letters) or DSc (Doctor of Science), which may be granted on the recommendation of a committee of examiners on the basis of a substantial portfolio of submitted (and usually published) research. However, some UK universities still maintain the option of submitting a thesis for the award of a higher doctorate. Recent years have seen the introduction of professional doctorates, which are the same level as PhDs but more specific in their field. Most tend not to be solely academic, but combine academic research, a taught component or a professional qualification. These are most notably in the fields of engineering (EngD), educational psychology (DEdPsych), occupational psychology (DOccPsych), clinical psychology (DClinPsych), health psychology (DHealthPsy), social work (DSW), nursing (DNP), public administration (DPA), business administration (DBA), and music (DMA). A more generic degree also used is DProf or ProfD. These typically have a more formal taught component consisting of smaller research projects, as well as a 40,000–60,000-word thesis component, which together are officially considered equivalent to a PhD degree. ### United States In the United States, the PhD degree is the highest academic degree awarded by universities in most fields of study. There are more than 282 universities in the United States that award the PhD degree, and those universities vary widely in their criteria for admission, as well as the rigor of their academic programs. #### Requirements Typically, PhD programs require applicants to have a bachelor's degree in a relevant field (and, in many cases in the humanities, a master's degree), reasonably high grades, several letters of recommendation, relevant academic coursework, a cogent statement of interest in the field of study, and satisfactory performance on a graduate-level exam specified by the respective program (e.g., GRE, GMAT). #### Duration, age structure, statistics (US) Depending on the specific field of study, completion of a PhD program usually takes four to eight years of study after the Bachelor's Degree; those students who begin a PhD program with a master's degree may complete their PhD degree a year or two sooner. As PhD programs typically lack the formal structure of undergraduate education, there are significant individual differences in the time taken to complete the degree. Overall, 57% of students who begin a PhD program in the US will complete their degree within ten years, approximately 30% will drop out or be dismissed, and the remaining 13% of students will continue on past ten years. The median age of PhD recipients in the US is 32 years. While many candidates are awarded their degree in their 20s, 6% of PhD recipients in the US are older than 45 years. The **number of PhD diplomas** awarded by US universities has risen nearly every year since 1957, according to data compiled by the US National Science Foundation. In 1957, US universities awarded 8,611 PhD diplomas; 20,403 in 1967; 31,716 in 1977; 32,365 in 1987; 42,538 in 1997; 48,133 in 2007, and 55,006 in 2015. #### Funding PhD students at US universities typically receive a tuition waiver and some form of annual stipend. Many US PhD students work as teaching assistants or research assistants. Graduate schools increasingly encourage their students to seek outside funding; many are supported by fellowships they obtain for themselves or by their advisers' research grants from government agencies such as the National Science Foundation and the National Institutes of Health. Many Ivy League and other well-endowed universities provide funding for the entire duration of the degree program (if it is short) or for most of it, especially in the forms of tuition waivers/stipends. ### USSR, Russian Federation and former Soviet Republics #### Candidate of Science degree awarded by the State Higher Attestation Commission The degree of Candidate of Sciences (Russian: кандидат наук, Kandidat Nauk) was the first advanced research qualification in the former USSR (it was introduced there in 1934) and some Eastern Bloc countries (Czechoslovakia, Hungary) and is still awarded in some post-Soviet states (Russian Federation, Belarus, and others). According to "Guidelines for the recognition of Russian qualifications in the other European countries," in countries with a two-tier system of doctoral degrees (like Russian Federation, some post-Soviet states, Germany, Poland, Austria and Switzerland), should be considered for recognition at the level of the first doctoral degree, and in countries with only one doctoral degree, the degree of Kandidat Nauk should be considered for recognition as equivalent to this PhD degree. Since most education systems only have one advanced research qualification granting doctoral degrees or equivalent qualifications (ISCED 2011, par.270), the degree of Candidate of Sciences (Kandidat Nauk) of the former USSR countries is usually considered to be at the same level as the doctorate or PhD degrees of those countries. According to the Joint Statement by the Permanent Conference of the Ministers for Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder of the Federal Republic of Germany (Kultusministerkonferenz, KMK), German Rectors' Conference (HRK) and the Ministry of General and Professional Education of the Russian Federation, the degree of Kandidat Nauk is recognised in Germany at the level of the German degree of Doktor and the degree of Doktor Nauk at the level of German Habilitation. The Russian degree of Kandidat Nauk is also officially recognised by the Government of the French Republic as equivalent to French doctorate. According to the International Standard Classification of Education, for purposes of international educational statistics, Kandidat Nauk (Candidate of Sciences) belongs to ISCED level 8, or "doctoral or equivalent," together with PhD, DPhil, DLitt, DSc, LLD, Doctorate, or similar. It is mentioned in the Russian version of ISCED 2011 (par.262) on the UNESCO website as an equivalent to PhD belonging to this level. In the same way as PhD degrees awarded in many English-speaking countries, Kandidat Nauk (Candidate of Sciences) allows its holders to reach the level of the Docent. The second doctorate (or post-doctoral degree) in some post-Soviet states called Doctor of Sciences (Russian: доктор наук, Doktor Nauk) is given as an example of second advanced research qualifications or higher doctorates in ISCED 2011 (par.270) and is similar to Habilitation in Germany, Poland and several other countries. It constitutes a higher qualification compared to PhD as against the European Qualifications Framework (EQF) or Dublin Descriptors. About 88% of Russian students studying at state universities study at the expense of budget funds. The average stipend in Russia (as of August 2011[update]) is $430 a year ($35/month). The average tuition fee in graduate school is $2,000 per year. #### PhD degree awarded by university On 19 June 2013, for the first time in the Russian Federation, defenses were held for the PhD degree awarded by universities, instead of the Candidate of Sciences degree awarded by the State Supreme Certification Commission. Renat Yuldashev, the graduate of the Department of Applied Cybernetics of the Faculty of Mathematics and Mechanics of St. Petersburg State University, was the first to defend his thesis in field of mathematics according to new rules for the PhD SPbSU degree. For the defense procedure in the field of mathematics, it was used the experience of joint Finnish-Russian research and educational program organized in 2007 by the Faculty of Information Technology of the University of Jyväskylä and the Faculty of Mathematics and Mechanics of St. Petersburg State University: co-chairs of the program — N. Kuznetsov, G. Leonov, P. Neittaanmäki, were organizers of the first defenses and co-supervisors of dissertations. Models of supervision --------------------- At some universities, there may be training for those wishing to supervise PhD studies. There is much literature available, such as Delamont, Atkinson, and Parry (1997). Dinham and Scott (2001) have argued that the worldwide growth in research students has been matched by the increase in the number of what they term "how-to" texts for both students and supervisors, citing examples such as Pugh and Phillips (1987). These authors report empirical data on the benefits to a PhD candidate from publishing; students are more likely to publish with adequate encouragement from their supervisors. Wisker (2005) has reported that research into this field distinguishes two models of supervision: The technical-rationality model of supervision, emphasising technique; and the negotiated order model, which is less mechanistic, emphasising fluid and dynamic change in the PhD process. These two models were first distinguished by Acker, Hill and Black (1994; cited in Wisker, 2005). Considerable literature exists on the expectations that supervisors may have of their students (Phillips & Pugh, 1987) and the expectations that students may have of their supervisors (Phillips & Pugh, 1987; Wilkinson, 2005) in the course of PhD supervision. Similar expectations are implied by the Quality Assurance Agency's Code for Supervision (Quality Assurance Agency, 1999; cited in Wilkinson, 2005). PhD in the workforce -------------------- PhD graduates represent a relatively small, elite group within most countries — around 1.1% of adults among OECD countries. Slovenia, Switzerland and Luxembourg have higher numbers of PhD Graduates per capita as illustrated here. For Slovenia, this is because MSc degrees before Bologna Process are ranked at the same level of education as PhD. Without the MSc, Slovenia has 1.4% PhD graduates, which is comparable to the average in OECD and EU-23 countries. International PhD equivalent degrees ------------------------------------ * Afghanistan: دکتورا * Albania: Doktorature.(Dr.) * Algeria: Doctorat, دكتوراه * Argentina: Doctorado (Dr.) * Armenia: գիտությունների թեկնածու * Austria: Doktor (Dr., plural: DDr.) * Australia: Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) * Azerbaijan: Fəlsəfə doktoru (Dr.) * Bangladesh: Doctorate * Belarus: кандидат наук * Belgium (Dutch-speaking): Doctor (dr. or PhD) * Belgium (French-speaking): Doctorat (dr. or PhD) * Bosnia and Herzegovina: Doktor nauka * Brazil: Doutorado (DSc) * Bulgaria: Доктор * Burma: ပါရဂူ * Canada: Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) * China: 博士 (Bo-shi) * Chile: Doctorado * Colombia: Doctorado * Costa Rica: PhD or Doctorado (Dr.) * Croatia: Doktor znanosti * Cuba: Doctorado (DrC) * Czech Republic: CSc. was used until 1998, since 1998 PhD is used * Denmark: Licentiate, Magister, PhD (the *doctorates* are higher degrees) * Dominican Republic: Doctorado * Ecuador: Doctorado * El Salvador: Doctorado * Egypt: Doctorat, دكتوراه * Estonia: Doktor (Dr) * Ethiopia: ዶክተር, Doctor (PhD, Dr.) * Finland: Filosofian tohtori and any degree of tohtori * France: Doctorat * Georgia: დოქტორი * Germany: Doktor * Greece: Διδακτορικό * Hong Kong: 博士 (Doctor) * Hungary: Doktor (Dr.) * India: Doctorate * Indonesia: Doktor (Dr.) * Iran: دکتری تخصصی, دکترای تخصصی, (PhD) , (دکتر) , (پی اچ دی (title)) * Iraq: دكتوراه (Duktorah) * Ireland: an Doctúireacht * Israel: דוקטורט ("doctorat") * Italy: Dottorato di ricerca (Dott. Ric. or Ph.D.) * Japan: 博士 (*hakase*) * Jordan: دكتوراه (Doctorah) * Korea: 박사 (*baksa*) * Kuwait: دكتوراه (Dektoraah) * Kurdistan: دکتۆرا (Doctorah) * Kyrgyzstan (Илим доктору) * Latin America: Doctorado/Doctorate * Latvia: Zinātņu doktors * Lebanon: دكتوراه (doktorah) * Lithuania: Daktaras * Macau: 博士 (Doutoramento) * North Macedonia: Докторат * Malaysia: Doktor Falsafah * Mauritius: Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) * Mexico: Doctorado * Mongolia: Эрдэмтэн * Morocco: Doctorat * Mozambique: Doutoramento * Nepal: Doctor * Netherlands: Doctor (dr. or PhD) * New Zealand: Doctor * Nigeria: Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) * Norway: Magister, Licentiate, doctorates (traditionally considered higher degrees), PhD * Pakistan: Doctor * Palestine: دكتوراه (doktorah) * Paraguay: PhD or Doctorado (Dr.) * Peru: Doctorado * Philippines: Doktor * Poland: Doktor * Portugal: Doutorado * Romania: Doctorat * Russia: кандидат наук (PhD), ru: доктор наук (Sc.D.) * Saudi Arabia: دكتوراه * Singapore: Doctor * Serbia: Доктор наука * Slovakia: Doktor filozofie (PhD) * Slovenia: Doktor znanosti * Somalia: Dhaqtarka Falsafada * South Africa: Doctor of Philosophy (PhD, Doctor) * Spain: Doctorado * Sweden: Filosofie doktor (fil.dr., FD) * Switzerland: Doctorat (Dr) * Syria: دكتوراه (doktorah) * Taiwan: 博士 (Mandarin: Bo-shi; Taiwanese: Phok-sū) * Thailand: ดุษฎีบัณฑิต * Tunisia: دكتوراه (doktorah) * Turkey: Doktora * Uganda: Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) * United Arab Emirates: دكتوراه (doktorah) * United Kingdom: Doctor of Philosophy (PhD, doctor, the abbreviation DPhil is used by the University of Oxford) * United States: Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) * Ukraine: Доктор філософії (PhD) * Uruguay: Doctorado * Uzbekistan: Fan nomzodi (CSc.) * Vatican City State: Doctor of Sacred Theology (STD) or Doctor of Canon Law (JCD) * Venezuela: Doctorado * Vietnam: Tiến sỹ * Yemen: دكتوراه (doktorah) See also -------- * History of higher education in the United States * List of fields of doctoral studies in the United States * Doctor of Professional Studies * *Piled Higher and Deeper, Life (or the lack thereof) in Academia* * Terminal degree * Doctor of Philosophy by publication * Postgraduate-only institutions Further reading --------------- * Geiger, Roger L. (1986). *To Advance Knowledge: The Growth of American Research Universities, 1900–1940*. Oxford University Press. * Geiger, Roger L. (2001). *Research and Relevant Knowledge: American Research Universities Since World War II*. * Simpson, Renate (1983). *How the PhD came to Britain: A century of struggle for postgraduate education*. *Society for Research into Higher Education*. Guildford.

Doctor of Philosophy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy

**Kollam** (Malayalam: [kolːɐm] ()), also known by its former name **Quilon** (sometimes referred to by its historical name **Desinganadu**), is an ancient seaport and city on the Malabar Coast of India bordering the Laccadive Sea, which is a part of the Arabian Sea. It is 71 km (44 mi) north of the state capital Thiruvananthapuram. The city is on the banks of Ashtamudi Lake and the Kallada river. Kollam is the fourth largest city in Kerala and is known for cashew processing and coir manufacturing. It is the southern gateway to the Backwaters of Kerala and is a prominent tourist destination. Kollam is one of the most historic cities with continuous settlements in India. The Malayalam calendar (Kollavarsham) is also known so with the name of the city Kollam. Geographically, Quilon formation seen around coastal cliffs of Ashtamudi Lake, represent sediments laid down in the Kerala basin that existed during Mio-Pliocene times. Kollam has a strong commercial reputation since ancient times. The Arabs, Phoenicians, Chinese, Ethiopians, Syrians, Jews, Chaldeans and Romans have all engaged in trade at the port of Kollam for millennia. As a result of Chinese trade, Kollam was mentioned by Ibn Battuta in the 14th century as one of the five Indian ports he had seen during the course of his twenty-four-year travels. Desinganadu's rajas exchanged embassies with Chinese rulers while there was a flourishing Chinese settlement at Kollam. In the ninth century, on his way to Canton, China, Persian merchant Sulaiman al-Tajir found Kollam to be the only port in India visited by huge Chinese junks. Marco Polo, the Venetian traveller, who was in Chinese service under Kublai Khan in 1275, visited Kollam and other towns on the west coast, in his capacity as a Chinese mandarin. Kollam is also home to one of the seven churches that were established by St Thomas as well as one of the 10 oldest mosques believed to be found by Malik Deenar in Kerala. V. Nagam Aiya in his *Travancore State Manual* records that in 822 AD two East Syriac bishops Mar Sabor and Mar Proth, settled in Quilon with their followers. Two years later the Malabar Era began (824 AD) and Quilon became the premier city of the Malabar region ahead of Travancore and Cochin. Kollam Port was founded by Mar Sabor at Tangasseri in 825 as an alternative to reopening the inland seaport of Kore-ke-ni Kollam near Backare (Thevalakara), which was also known as Nelcynda and Tyndis to the Romans and Greeks and as Thondi to the Tamils. Kollam city corporation received ISO 9001:2015 certification for municipal administration and services. As per the survey conducted by the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) based on urban area growth during January 2020, Kollam became the tenth fastest growing city in the world with a 31.1% urban growth between 2015 and 2020. It is a coastal city and on the banks of Ashtamudi Lake. The city hosts the administrative offices of Kollam district and is a prominent trading city for the state. The proportion of females to males in Kollam city is second highest among the 500 most populous cities in India. Kollam is one of the least polluted cities in India. During the later stages of the rule of the Chera monarchy in Kerala, Kollam emerged as the focal point of trade and politics. Kollam continues to be a major business and commercial centre in Kerala. Four major trading centers around Kollam are Kottarakara, Punalur, Paravur, and Karunagapally. Kollam appeared as **Palombe** in Mandeville's *Travels*, where he claimed it contained a Fountain of Youth. Etymology --------- In 825 CE, the Malayalam calendar, or *Kollavarsham*, was created in Kollam at meetings held in the city. The present Malayalam calendar is said to have begun with the re-founding of the town, which was rebuilt after its destruction by fire. The city was known as *Koolam* in Arabic, *Coulão* in Portuguese, and *Desinganadu* in ancient Tamil literature. History ------- As the ancient city of Quilon, Kollam was a flourishing port during the Pandya dynasty (c. 3rd century BC–12th century), and later became the capital of the independent Venad or the Kingdom of Quilon on its foundation in c. 825. Kollam was considered one of the four early entrepots in global sea trade during the 13th century, along with Alexandria and Cairo in Egypt, the Chinese city of Quanzhou, and Malacca in the Malaysian archipelago. It seems that trade at Kollam seems to have flourished right into the Medieval period as in 1280, there is instance of envoys of Yuan China coming to Kollam for establishing relations between the local ruler and China ### Pandya rule The ancient political and cultural history of Kollam was almost entirely independent from that of the rest of Kerala. The Chera dynasty governed the area of Malabar Coast between Alappuzha in the south to Kasaragod in the north. This included Palakkad Gap, Coimbatore, Salem, and Kolli Hills. The region around Coimbatore was ruled by the Cheras during Sangam period between c. first and the fourth centuries CE and it served as the eastern entrance to the Palakkad Gap, the principal trade route between the Malabar Coast and Tamil Nadu. However the southern region of present-day Kerala state (The coastal belt between Thiruvananthapuram and Alappuzha) was under Ay dynasty, who was more related to the Pandya dynasty of Madurai than Cheras. Along with (Muziris and Tyndis), Quilon was an ancient seaport on the Malabar Coast of India from the early centuries before the Christian era. Kollam served as a major port city for Pandya dynasty on the western coast while Kulasekharapatnam served Pandyas on the eastern coast. The city had a high commercial reputation from the days of the Phoenicians and Ancient Romans. Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD) mentions Greek ships anchored at Muziris and Nelcynda. There was also a land route over the Western Ghats. Spices, pearls, diamonds, and silk were exported to Egypt and Rome from these ports. Pearls and diamonds came to the Chera Kingdom from Ceylon and the southeastern coast of India, then known as the Pandyan Kingdom. Cosmas Indicopleustes, a Greek Nestorian sailor, in his book the Christian Topography who visited the Malabar Coast in 550, mentions an enclave of Christian believers in *Male* (Malabar Coast). He writes, "In the island of Tabropane (Ceylon), there is a church of Christians, and clerics and faithful. Likewise at Male, where the pepper grows, and in the farming community of Kalliana (Kalliankal at Nillackal) there is also a bishop consecrated in Persia in accordance with the Nicea Sunnahadose of 325 AD." The Nestorian Patriarch Jesujabus, who died in 660 AD, mentions Kollam in his letter to Simon, Metropolitan of Persia. Kollam is also home to one of the oldest mosques in Indian subcontinent. According to the Legend of Cheraman Perumals, the first Indian mosque was built in 624 AD at Kodungallur with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) of Chera dynasty, who left from Dharmadom to Mecca and converted to Islam during the lifetime of Prophet Muhammad (c. 570–632). According to *Qissat Shakarwati Farmad*, the *Masjids* at Kodungallur, Kollam, Madayi, Barkur, Mangalore, Kasaragod, Kannur, Dharmadam, Panthalayini, and Chaliyam, were built during the era of Malik Dinar, and they are among the oldest *Masjid*s in Indian subcontinent. It is believed that Malik Dinar died at Thalangara in Kasaragod town. ### Capital of Venad (9th to 12th centuries) The port at Kollam, then known as Quilon, was founded in 825 by the Nestorian Christians Mar Sabor and Mar Proth with sanction from Ayyanadikal Thiruvadikal, the king of the independent Venad or the State of Quilon, a feudatory under the Chera kingdom. It is believed that Mar Sapor Iso also proposed that the Chera king create a new seaport near Kollam in lieu of his request that he rebuild the almost vanished inland seaport at Kollam (kore-ke-ni) near Backare (Thevalakara), also known as Nelcynda and Tyndis to the Romans and Greeks and as Thondi to the Tamils, which had been without trade for several centuries because the Cheras were overrun by the Pallavas in the sixth century, ending the spice trade from the Malabar coast. This allowed the Nestorians to stay in the Chera kingdom for several decades and introduce the Christian faith among the Nampoothiri Vaishnavites and Nair sub-castes in the St. Thomas tradition, with the Syrian liturgy as a basis for the Doctrine of the Trinity, without replacing the Sanskrit and Vedic prayers. The Tharisapalli plates presented to Maruvan Sapor Iso by Ayyanadikal Thiruvadikal granted the Christians the privilege of overseeing foreign trade in the city as well as control over its weights and measures in a move designed to increase Quilon's trade and wealth. The two Christians were also instrumental in founding Christian churches with Syrian liturgy along the Malabar coast, distinct from the ancient Vedic Advaitam propounded by Adi Shankara in the early ninth century among the Nampoothiri Vaishnavites and Nair Sub Castes, as Malayalam was not accepted as a liturgical language until the early 18th century. Thus began the Malayalam Era, known as Kolla Varsham after the city, indicating the importance of Kollam in the ninth century. The Persian merchant Soleyman of Siraf visited Malabar in the ninth century and found Quilon to be the only port in India used by the huge Chinese ships as their transshipment hub for goods on their way from China to the Persian Gulf. The rulers of Kollam (formerly called 'Desinganadu') had trade relations with China and exchanged embassies. According to the records of the Tang dynasty (618–913), Quilon was their chief port of call before the seventh century. The Chinese trade decreased about 600 and was again revived in the 13th century. *Mirabilia Descripta* by Bishop Catalani gives a description of life in Kollam, which he saw as the Catholic bishop-designate to Kollam, the oldest Catholic diocese in India. He also gives true and imaginary descriptions of life in 'India the Major' in the period before Marco Polo visited the city. Sulaiman al-Tajir, a Persian merchant who visited Kerala during the reign of Sthanu Ravi Varma (9th century CE), records that there was extensive trade between Kerala and China at that time, based at the port of Kollam. ### Kollam as "Colombo" in the Catalan Atlas (1375) In 13th century CE, Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I, a Pandya ruler fought a war in Venad and captured the city of Kollam. The city appears on the Catalan Atlas of 1375 CE as Columbo and Colobo. The map marks this city as a Christian city, ruled by a Christian ruler. The text above the picture of the king says: > *Açí seny[o]reja lo rey Colobo, christià. Pruvíncia de Columbo* > (Here reigns the Lord King Colobo, Christian, Province of Columbo). > > The city was much frequented by the Genoese merchants during the 13th-14th centuries CE, followed by the Dominican and Franciscan friars from Europe. The Genoese merchants called the city Colõbo/Colombo. The city was founded in 825 by Maruvān Sapir Iso, a Persian East Syriac Christian merchant, and was also christianized early by the Saint Thomas Christians. In 1329 CE Pope John XXII established Kollam / Columbo as the first and only Roman Catholic bishopric on the Indian subcontinent, and appointed Jordan of Catalonia, a Dominican friar, as the diocese's first bishop of the Latin sect. The Pope's Latin scribes assigned the name "Columbum" to Columbo. According to a book authored by Ilarius Augustus, published April, 2021 ('*Christopher Columbus: Buried deep in Latin the Indian origin of the great explorer from Genoa*'), the words Columbum, Columbus and Columbo appear for the very first time in a notarial deed (lease contract) of a certain Mousso in Genoa in 1329 CE. These words appear in the form of a toponym. The author then shows, through the Latin text of several other notarial deeds and the documents on church history, how Christopher Columbus - also carrying the same toponym.- was part of Mousso's family, and hence of the Indian lineage (although born in Genoa). ### Kozhikode Influences The port at Kozhikode held superior economic and political position in medieval Kerala coast, while Kannur, Kollam, and Kochi, were commercially important secondary ports, where the traders from various parts of the world would gather. ### Portuguese, Dutch and British Trade and Influences (16th to 18th centuries) The Portuguese arrived at Kappad Kozhikode in 1498 during the Age of Discovery, thus opening a direct sea route from Europe to India. They were the first Europeans to establish a trading center in Tangasseri, Kollam in 1502, which became the centre of their trade in pepper. In the wars with the Moors/Arabs that followed, the ancient church (temple) of St Thomas Tradition at Thevalakara was destroyed. In 1517, the Portuguese built the St. Thomas Fort in Thangasseri, which was destroyed in the subsequent wars with the Dutch. In 1661, the Dutch East India Company took possession of the city. The remnants of the old Portuguese Fort, later renovated by the Dutch, can be found at Thangasseri. In the 18th century, Travancore conquered Kollam, followed by the British in 1795. Thangasseri remains today as an Anglo-Indian settlement, though few Anglo-Indians remain. The Infant Jesus Church in Thangasseri, an old Portuguese-built church, remains as a memento of the Portuguese rule of the area. * Kollam in the 1500sKollam in the 1500s * Capture of Kollam in 1661Capture of Kollam in 1661 * Kollam in the 1700sKollam in the 1700s ### Battle of Quilon The Battle of Quilon was fought in 1809 between a troop of the Indian kingdom of Travancore led by the then Dalawa (prime minister) of Travancore, Velu Thampi Dalawa and the British East India Company led by Colonel Chalmers at Cantonment Maidan in Quilon. The battle lasted for only six hours and was the result of the East India Company's invasion of Quilon and their garrison situated near the Cantonment Maidan. The company forces won the battle while all the insurrectionist who participated in the war were court-martialed and subsequently hanged at the maidan. ### Travancore Rule In the early 18th century CE, the Travancore royal family adopted some members from the royal family of Kolathunadu based at Kannur, and Parappanad based in present-day Malappuram district. Later, Venad Kingdom was completely merged with the Kingdom of Travancore during the rein of Marthanda Varma and Kollam remained as the capital of Travancore Kingdom. Later on, the capital of Travancore was relocated to Thiruvananthapuram. Travancore became the most dominant state in Kerala by defeating the powerful Zamorin of Kozhikode in the battle of Purakkad in 1755. The Government Secretariat was also situated in Kollam till the 1830s. It was moved to Thiruvananthapuram during the reign of Swathi Thirunal. ### Excavation at Kollam Port seabed Excavations are going on at Kollam Port premises since February 2014 as the team has uncovered arrays of antique artifacts, including Chinese porcelain and coins. A Chinese team with the Palace Museum, a team from India with Kerala Council for Historical Research (KCHR) discovered Chinese coins and artifacts that show trade links between Kollam and ancient China. Geography --------- Kollam city is bordered by the panchayats of Neendakara and Thrikkaruva to the north, Mayyanad to the south, and Thrikkovilvattom and Kottamkara to the east, and by the Laccadive Sea to the west. Ashtamudi Lake is in the heart of the city. The city is about 71 km (44 mi) away from Thiruvananthapuram, 140 km (87 mi) away from Kochi and 350 km (220 mi) away from Kozhikode. The National Waterway 3 and Ithikkara river are two important waterways passing through the city. The 7.7 km (4.8 mi) long Kollam Canal is connecting Paravur Lake ans Ashtamudi Lake. The Kallada river, another river that flows through the suburbs of the city, empties into Ashtamudi Lake, while the Ithikkara river runs to Paravur Kayal. Kattakayal, a freshwater lake in the city, connects another water-body named Vattakkayal with Lake Ashtamudi. In March 2016, *IndiaTimes* selected Kollam as one of the nine least polluted cities on earth to which anybody can relocate. Kollam is one among the top 10 most welcoming places in India for the year 2020, according to Booking.com's traveller review awards. Kollam is an ancient trading town – trading with Romans, Chinese, Arabs, and other Orientals – mentioned in historical citations dating back to Biblical times and the reign of Solomon, connecting with Red Sea ports of the Arabian Sea (supported by a find of ancient Roman coins). There was also internal trade through the Aryankavu Pass in Schenkottah Gap connecting the ancient town to Tamil Nadu. The overland trade in pepper by bullock cart and the trade over the waterways connecting Allepey and Cochin established trade linkages that enabled it to grow into one of the earliest Indian industrial townships. The rail links later established to Tamil Nadu supported still stronger trade links. The factories processing marine exports and the processing and packaging of cashewnuts extended its trade across the globe. It is known for cashew processing and coir manufacturing. Ashtamudi Lake is considered the southern gateway to the backwaters of Kerala and is a prominent tourist destination at Kollam. The Kollam urban area includes suburban towns such as Paravur in the south, Kundara in the east and Karunagapally in the north of the city. Other important towns in the city suburbs are Eravipuram, Kottiyam, Kannanallur, and Chavara. ### Climate Kollam experiences a tropical monsoon climate (Köppen *Am*) with little seasonal variation in temperatures. December to March is the dry season with less than 60 millimetres or 2.4 inches of rain in each of those months. April to November is the wet season, with considerably more rain than during December to March, especially in June and July at the height of the Southwest Monsoon. | Climate data for Kollam | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average high °C (°F) | 31(88) | 31(88) | 32(90) | 32(90) | 31(88) | 29(84) | 29(84) | 29(84) | 29(84) | 30(86) | 29(84) | 30(86) | 30(86) | | Average low °C (°F) | 23(73) | 23(73) | 25(77) | 26(79) | 25(77) | 24(75) | 24(75) | 24(75) | 24(75) | 24(75) | 24(75) | 23(73) | 24(75) | | Average rainfall mm (inches) | 18(0.7) | 26(1.0) | 53(2.1) | 147(5.8) | 268(10.6) | 518(20.4) | 381(15.0) | 248(9.8) | 209(8.2) | 300(11.8) | 208(8.2) | 51(2.0) | 2,427(95.6) | | Average rainy days (≥ 0.1 mm) | 1 | 2 | 4 | 8 | 11 | 21 | 19 | 16 | 12 | 12 | 8 | 3 | 117 | | Source: Weather2Travel | Demographics ------------ ### Population As of the 2011[update] India census, Kollam city had a population of 349,033 with a density of 5,400 persons per square kilometre. The sex ratio (the number of females per 1,000 males) was 1,112, the highest in the state. The district of Kollam ranked seventh in population in the state while the city of Kollam ranked fourth. As of 2010[update] Kollam had an average literacy rate of 93.77%, higher than the national average of 74.04%. Male literacy stood at 95.83%, and female at 91.95%. In Kollam, 11% of the population was under six years of age. In May 2015, Government of Kerala have decided to expand City Corporation of Kollam by merging Thrikkadavoor panchayath. So the area will become 73.03 km2 (28.20 sq mi) with a total city population of 384,892. Malayalam is the most widely spoken language and official language of the city, while Tamil is understood by some sections in the city. There are also small communities of Anglo-Indians, Konkani Brahmins, Telugu Chetty and Bengali migrant labourers settled in the city. For ease of administration, Kollam Municipal Corporation is divided into six zones with local zonal offices for each one. * Central Zone (*headquartered at Cantonment*), Kollam Municipal Corporation * Sakthikulangara Zone, Kollam Municipal Corporation * Vadakkevila Zone, Kollam Municipal Corporation * Kilikollur Zone, Kollam Municipal Corporation * Eravipuram Zone, Kollam Municipal Corporation * Thrikkadavoor Zone, Kollam Municipal Corporation In 2014, former Kollam Mayor Mrs. Prasanna Earnest was selected as the Best Lady Mayor of South India by the Rotary Club of Trivandrum Royal ### Religion | Religion in Kollam City (2011) | | --- | | Religion | | Percentage | | Hinduism |   | 56% | | Islam |   | 22% | | Christianity |   | 21% | | Others |   | 1% | | Distribution of religions †Includes Not Stated, Sikhism (<0.01%), Buddhism (<0.01%). | The city of Kollam is a microcosm of Kerala state with its residents belonging to varied religious, ethnic and linguistic groups. There are so many ancient temples, centuries-old churches and mosques in the city and its suburbs. Kollam is a Hindu majority city in Kerala. 56.35% of Kollam's total population belongs to Hindu community. Moreover, the Kollam Era (also known as *Malayalam Era* or *Kollavarsham* or *Malayalam Calendar* or *Malabar Era*), solar and sidereal Hindu calendar used in Kerala, has been originated on 825 CE (Pothu Varsham) at (Kollam) city. Muslims account for 22.05% of Kollam's total population. As per the Census 2011 data, 80,935 is the total Muslim population in Kollam. The Karbala Maidan and the adjacent Makani mosque serves as the Eid gah for the city. The 300-year-old Juma-'Ath Palli at Karuva houses the mortal remains of a Sufi saint, Syed Abdur Rahman Jifri. Christians account for 21.17% of the total population of Kollam city. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Quilon (Kollam) is the first Catholic diocese in India. The diocese was first erected by Pope John XXII on 9 August 1329. It was re-erected on 1 September 1886. The diocese covers an area of 1,950 km2 (750 sq mi) and contains a population of 4,879,553, Catholics numbering 235,922 (4.8%). The famous Infant Jesus Cathedral, 400 years old, located in Thangassery, is the co-cathedral of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Quilon. CSI Kollam-Kottarakara Diocese is one of the twenty-four dioceses of the Church of South India. The Headquarters of the Kerala region of The Pentecostal Mission for Kottarakkara, is in Kollam. Civic administration -------------------- Kollam City is a Municipal Corporation with elected Councillors from its 55 divisions. The Mayor, elected from among the councillors, generally represents the political party holding a majority. The Corporation Secretary heads the office of the corporation. The present Mayor of Kollam Corporation is Adv.V. Rajendrababu of CPI(M). The police administration of the city falls under the Kollam City Police Commissionerate which is headed by an IPS (Indian Police Service) cadre officer and he reports to the Inspector General of Police (IGP) Thiruvananthapuram Range. The police administration comes under the State Home Department of the Government of Kerala. Kollam City is divided into three subdivisions, Karunagappally, Kollam and Chathannoor, each under an Assistant Commissioner of Police. ### Urban structure With a total urban population of 1,187,158 and 349,033 as city corporation's population, Kollam is the fourth most populous city in the state and 49th on the list of the most populous urban agglomerations in India. As of 2011[update] the city's urban growth rate of 154.59% was the second highest in the state. The Metropolitan area of Kollam includes Uliyakovil, Adichanalloor, Adinad, Ayanivelikulangara, Chavara, Elampalloor, Eravipuram (Part), Kallelibhagom, Karunagappally, Kollam, Kottamkara, Kulasekharapuram, Mayyanad, Meenad, Nedumpana, Neendakara, Oachira, Panayam, Panmana, Paravur, Perinad, Poothakkulam, Thazhuthala, Thodiyoor, Thrikkadavoor, Thrikkaruva, Thrikkovilvattom, and Vadakkumthala. The Kerala Government has decided to develop the City of Kollam as a "Port City of Kerala". Regeneration of the Maruthadi-Eravipuram area including construction of facilities for fishing, tourism and entertainment projects will be implemented as part of the project Economy ------- The city life of Kollam has changed in the last decade. In terms of economic performance and per capita income, Kollam city is in fifth position from India and third in Kerala. Kollam is famous as a city with excellent export background. 5 star, 4 star and 3 star hotels, multi-storied shopping malls, branded jewellery, textile showrooms and car showrooms have started operations in the city and suburbs. Kollam was the third city in Kerala (after Kozhikode and Kochi) to adopt the shopping mall culture. Kollam district ranks first in livestock wealth in the state. Downtown Kollam is the main CBD of Kollam city. Dairy farming is fairly well developed. Also there is a chilling plant in the city. Kollam is an important maritime and port city. Fishing has a place in the economy of the district. Neendakara and Sakthikulangara villages in the suburbs of the city have fisheries. An estimated 134,973 persons are engaged in fishing and allied activities. Cheriazheekkal, Alappad, Pandarathuruthu, Puthenthura, Neendakara, Thangasseri, Eravipuram and Paravur are eight of the 26 important fishing villages. There are 24 inland fishing villages. The Government has initiated steps for establishing a fishing harbour at Neendakara. Average fish landing is estimated at 85,275 tonnes per year. One-third of the state's fish catch is from Kollam. Nearly 3000 mechanised boats are operating from the fishing harbour. FFDA and VFFDA promote fresh water fish culture and prawn farming respectively. A fishing village with 100 houses is being built at Eravipuram. A prawn farm is being built at Ayiramthengu, and several new hatcheries are planned to cater to the needs of the aquaculturists. Kerala's only turkey farm and a regional poultry farm are at Kureepuzha. There are two Central Government industrial operations in the city, the Indian Rare Earths, Chavara and Parvathi Mills Ltd., Kollam. Kerala Ceramics Ltd. in Kundara, Kerala Electrical and Allied Engineering Company in Kundara, Kerala Premo Pipe factory in Chavara, Kerala Minerals and Metals Limited in Chavara and United Electrical Industries in Kollam are Kerala Government-owned companies. Other major industries in the private/cooperative sector are Aluminium Industries Ltd. in Kundara, Thomas Stephen & Co. in Kollam, Floorco in Paravur and Cooperative Spinning Mill in Chathannoor. The beach sands of the district have concentrations of such heavy minerals as Ilmenite, Rutile, Monosite and Zircon, which offer scope for exploitation for industrial purposes. Besides large deposits of China clay in Kundara, Mulavana and Chathannoor, there are also lime-shell deposits in Ashtamudi Lake and Bauxite deposits in Adichanallur. Known as the "Cashew Capital of the World", Kollam is noted for its traditional cashew business and is home to more than 600 cashew-processing units. Every year, about 800,000 tonnes of raw cashews are imported into the city for processing and an average of 130,000 tonnes of processed cashews are exported to various countries worldwide. The Cashew Export Promotion Council of India (CEPCI) expects a rise in exports to 275,000 tonnes by 2020, an increase of 120 per cent over the current figure. The Kerala State Cashew Development Corporation Limited (KSCDC) is situated at Mundakkal in Kollam city. The company owns 30 cashew factories all across Kerala. Of these, 24 are located in Kollam district. Kollam is one of many seafood export hubs in India with numerous companies involved in the sector. Most of these are based in the Maruthadi, Sakthikulangara, Kavanad, Neendakara, Asramam, Kilikollur, Thirumullavaram and Uliyakovil areas of the city. Capithans, Kings Marine Exporters, India Food Exports and Oceanic Fisheries are examples of seafood exporters. Kollam's Ashtamudi Lake clam fishery was the first Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) certified fishery in India. The clam fishery supports around 3,000 people involved in the collection, cleaning, processing and trading of clams. Around 90 species of fish and ten species of clams are found in the lake. Culture ------- **Kollam Fest** is Kollam's own annual festival, attracting mostly Keralites but also hundreds of domestic and foreign tourists to Kollam. The main venue of Kollam Fest is the historic and gigantic Ashramam Maidan. Kollam Fest is the signature event of Kollam. Kollam Fest seeks to showcase Kollam's rich culture and heritage, tourism potential and investments in new ventures. **Kollam Pooram**, part of the Asramam Sree Krishna Swamy Temple Festival, is usually held on 15 April, but occasionally on 16 April. The pooram is held at the Ashramam maidan. The **President's Trophy Boat Race (PTBR)** is an annual regatta held in Ashtamudi Lake in Kollam. The event was inaugurated by President Prathibha Patil in September 2011. The event has been rescheduled from 2012. Transport --------- ### Air The city corporation of Kollam is served by the Trivandrum International Airport, which is about 56 kilometers from the city via NH66 . Trivandrum International Airport is the first international airport in a non-metro city in India. ### Rail Kollam Junction is the second largest railway station in Kerala in area, after Shoranur Junction, with a total of 6 platforms. The station has 17 rail tracks. Kollam junction has world's third longest railway platform, measuring 1180.5 m(3873 ft). Mainline Electrical Multiple Unit (MEMU) have a maintenance shed at Kollam Junction. The MEMU services started from Kollam to Ernakulam via Alappuzha and Kottayam in the second week of January 2012. By 1 December 2012, MEMU service between Kollam and Nagercoil became a reality and later extended up to Kanyakumari. Kollam MEMU Shed inaugurated on 1 December 2013 for the maintenance works of MEMU rakes. Kollam MEMU Shed is the largest MEMU Shed in Kerala, which is equipped with most modern facilities. There is a long-standing demand for the Kollam Town Railway Station in the Kollam-Perinad stretch and "S.N College Railway Station" in the Kollam-Eravipuram stretch. The railway stations in Kollam city are Kollam Junction railway station, Eravipuram railway station and Kilikollur railway station. A new suburban rail system has been proposed by the Kerala Government and Indian Railways on the route Thiruvananthapuram - Kollam - Haripad/Chengannur for which MRVC is tasked to conduct a study and submit a report. Ten trains, each with seven coaches, will transport passengers back and forth along the Trivandrum-Kollam-Chengannur-Kottarakara-Adoor section. ### Road The city of Kollam is connected to almost all the cities and major towns in the state, including Trivandrum, Alappuzha, Kochi, Palakkad, Kottayam, Kottarakkara, and Punalur, and with other Indian cities through the NH 66, NH 183, NH 744 - and other state PWD Roads. Road transport is provided by state-owned Kerala State Road Transport Corporation (KSRTC) and private transport bus operators. Kollam is one among the five KSRTC zones in Kerala. Road transport is also provided by private taxis and autorickshaws, also called autos. There is a city private bus stand at Andamukkam. There is a KSRTC bus station beside Ashtamudi Lake. Buses to various towns in Kerala and interstate services run from this station. Chavara Thekkumbhagom bridge near Kollam City - This bridge had given a new way of connectivity for the people of Thekkumbhagom with Kollam City along with the existing boat servicesKollam Bypass - The 13.141 km (8.165 mi) long Kollam Bypass project was actually planned in 1975 but works got delayed due to political and financial issuesKollam KSRTC Bus Station is situated at the banks of famous Ashtamudi Lake. One of the main bus stations in the state, still waiting to get a makeover.Traffic on the Thevally Bridge connecting Thevally to Kottayathukadavu, over National Waterway 3, Ashtamudi Lake ### Water The State Water Transport Department operates boat services to West Kallada, Munroe Island, Guhanandapuram ,chavara Thekkumbhagom, Dalavapuram and Alappuzha from Kollam KSWTD Ferry Terminal situated on the banks of the Ashtamudi Lake. Asramam Link Road in the city passes adjacent to the ferry terminal. Double decker luxury boats run between Kollam and Allepey daily. Luxury boats, operated by the government and private owners, operate from the main boat jetty during the tourist season. The West coast canal system, which starts from Thiruvananthapuram in the south and ends at Hosdurg in the north, passes through Paravur, the city of Kollam and Karunagappally taluk. Kollam Port is the second largest port in Kerala, after Cochin Port Trust. It is one of two international ports in Kerala. Cargo handling facilities began operation in 2013. Foreign ships arrive in the port regularly with the MV Alina, a 145-metre (476 ft) vessel registered in Antigua anchored at the port on 4 April 2014. Once the Port starts functioning in full-fledged, it will make the transportation activities of Kollam-based cashew companies more easy. Shreyas Shipping Company is now running a regular container service between Kollam Port and Kochi Port. Education --------- There are many respected colleges, schools and learning centres in Kollam. The city and suburbs contribute greatly to education by providing the best and latest knowledge to the scholars. The Thangal Kunju Musaliar College of Engineering, the first private school of its kind in the state, is at Kilikollur, about 7 km (4.3 mi) east of Kollam city, and is a source of pride for all Kollamites. The Government of Kerala has granted academic autonomy to Fatima Mata National College, another prestigious institution in the city. Sree Narayana College, Bishop Jerome Institute (an integrated campus providing Architecture, Engineering and Management courses), and Travancore Business Academy are other important colleges in the city. There are two law colleges in the city, Sree Narayana Guru College of Legal Studies under the control of Sree Narayana Trust and N S S Law College managed by the N.S.S. There are also some best schools in Kollam including Trinity Lyceum School, Infant Jesus School, St Aloysius H.S.S, The oxford school, Sri Sri Academy etc. Kerala State Institute of Design (KSID), a design institute under Department of labour and Skills, Government of Kerala, is located at Chandanathope in Kollam. It was established in 2008 and was one of the first state-owned design institutes in India. KSID currently conducts Post Graduate Diploma Programs in Design developed in association with National Institute of Design, Ahmedabad. Indian Institute of Infrastructure and Construction (IIIC-Kollam) is an institute of international standards situated at Chavara in Kollam city to support the skill development programmes for construction related occupations. The Institute of Fashion Technology, Kollam, Kerala is a fashion technology institute situated at Vellimon, established in technical collaboration with the National Institute of Fashion Technology and the Ministry of Textiles. In addition, there are two IMK (Institute of Management, Kerala) Extension Centres active in the city. Kerala Maritime Institute is situated at Neendakara in Kollam city to give maritime training for the students in Kerala. More than 5,000 students have been trained at Neendakara maritime institute under the Boat Crew training programme. Apart from colleges, there are a number of bank coaching centres in Kollam. Kollam is known as India's hub for bank test coaching centres with around 40 such institutes in the district. Students from various Indian states such as Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh also come here for coaching. Sports ------ Cricket is the most popular sport, followed by hockey and football. Kollam is home to a number of local cricket, hockey and football teams participating in district, state-level and zone matches. An International Hockey Stadium with astro-turf facility is there at Asramam in the city, built at a cost of Rs. 13 crore. The land for the construction of the stadium was taken over from the Postal Department at Asramam, Kollam. The city has another stadium named the Lal Bahadur Shastri Stadium, Kollam. It is a multipurpose stadium and has repeatedly hosted such sports events as the Ranji Trophy, Santhosh Trophy and National Games. Two open grounds in the city, the Asramam Maidan and Peeranki Maidan, are also used for sports events, practice and warm-up matches. Tourist places -------------- ### Places of worship Hindus and temples Anandavalleeshwaram Sri Mahadevar Temple is a 400 years old ancient Hindu temple in the city. The 400-year-old Sanctum sanctorum of this temple is finished in teak. Ammachiveedu Muhurthi temple is another major temple in the city that have been founded around 600 years ago by the Ammachi Veedu family, aristocrats from Kollam. The Kollam pooram, a major festival of Kollam, is the culmination of a ten-day festival, normally in mid April, of Asramam Sree Krishna Swamy Temple. Kottankulangara Devi Temple is one of the world-famous Hindu temples in Kerala were cross-dressing of men for *Chamayavilakku* ritual is a part of traditional festivities. The men also carry large lamps. The first of the two-day dressing event drew to a close early on Monday. Moreover, Kottarakkara Sree Mahaganapathi Kshethram in Kottarakkara, Guhanandapuram Subramanya Temple in Chavara Thekkumbhagom , Puttingal Devi Temple in Paravur, sooranad north anayadi Pazhayidam Sree Narasimha Swami Temple Poruvazhy Peruviruthy Malanada Temple in Poruvazhy, Sasthamcotta Sree Dharma Sastha Temple in Sasthamkotta, Sakthikulangara Sree Dharma Sastha temple, Thrikkadavoor Sree Mahadeva Temple in Kadavoor and Kattil Mekkathil Devi Temple in Ponmana Padanayarkulangara mahadeva temple Karunagappally, Ashtamudi Sree Veerabhadra Swamy Temple are the other famous Hindu worship centres in the Kollam Metropolitan Area. Christianity and churches The Infant Jesus Cathedral in Tangasseri is established by Portuguese during 1614. It is now the pro-cathedral of Roman Catholic Diocese of Quilon – the ancient and first Catholic diocese of India. The church remains as a memento of the Portuguese rule of old Quilon city. St. Sebastian's Church at Neendakara is another important church in the city. The Dutch Church in Munroe Island is built by the Dutch in 1878. Our Lady of Velankanni Shrine in Cutchery is another important Christian worship place in Kollam city. Saint Casimir Church in Kadavoor, Holy Family Church in Kavanad, St.Stephen's Church in Thoppu and St.Thomas Church in Kadappakada are some of the other major Christian churches in Kollam. **Muslims and mosques** Kottukadu Juma Masjid in Chavara, Elampalloor Juma-A-Masjid, Valiyapalli in Jonakappuram, Chinnakada Juma Masjid, Juma-'Ath Palli in Kollurvila, Juma-'Ath Palli in Thattamala and Koivila Juma Masjid in Chavara are the other major Mosques in Kollam. Notable people -------------- Notable individuals born in Kollam include: * Mahakavi K.C Kesava Pillai, Malayalam poet * C. Kesavan, Chief Minister of erstwhile Travancore * Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai, historian and scholar * R. Sankar, former Chief Minister of Kerala * A. A. Rahim, Former Union minister * J. Mercykutty Amma, Politician * Paravur Devarajan, Malayalam music director * Thirunalloor Karunakaran, poet * O. N. V. Kurup, Malayalam poet and lyricist * K. Balakrishnan, Writer, politician, journalist * K. Surendran, Novelist * V. Sambasivan, Kathaprasangam artist * O. Madhavan, theatre personality * Shaji N Karun, Malayalam movie director * Murali, Malayalam movie actor * Thangal Kunju Musaliar, industrialist & educational visionary * Kollam Thulasi, actor * Kollam G. K. Pillai, actor * Jayan, a film actor and Indian Navy officer * P. K. Gurudasan, politician and MLA * James Albert, screenwriter and director * Suresh Gopi, actor * Pamman (R. Parameswara Menon), novelist * Mukesh, Malayalam film actor * Resul Pookutty, Oscar Award winner, sound engineer * Kalpana, actress * Urvashi, actress * Kalaranjini, actress * Tinu Yohannan, international cricket * Olympian T. C. Yohannan, athlete * Ambili Devi, Malayalam film actress * Rajan Pillai, businessman * B. Ravi Pillai, businessman * Kundara Johnny, film actor * K. Ravindran Nair (Achani Ravi), film producer * M. A. Baby, politician * Baby John, politician * Matha Amrithananda Mayi, spiritual leader * Sooraj Surendran, electronic engineer * R. Gopakumar, visual artist, India's first major digital art collector See also -------- * Downtown Kollam * Kollam Junction railway station * Kollam Metropolitan Area * Kollam District * Cashew business in Kollam

Kollam

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kollam

The terms **Muslim world** and **Islamic world** commonly refer to the Islamic community, which is also known as the Ummah. This consists of all those who adhere to the religious beliefs and laws of Islam or to societies in which Islam is practiced. In a modern geopolitical sense, these terms refer to countries in which Islam is widespread, although there are no agreed criteria for inclusion. The term **Muslim-majority countries** is an alternative often used for the latter sense. The history of the Muslim world spans about 1,400 years and includes a variety of socio-political developments, as well as advances in the arts, science, medicine, philosophy, law, economics and technology, particularly during the Islamic Golden Age. All Muslims look for guidance to the Quran and believe in the prophetic mission of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, but disagreements on other matters have led to the appearance of different religious schools of thought and sects within Islam. The Islamic conquests, which culminated in the Arab empire being established across three continents (Asia, Africa, and Europe), enriched the Muslim world, achieving the economic preconditions for the emergence of this institution owing to the emphasis attached to Islamic teachings. In the modern era, most of the Muslim world came under European colonial domination. The nation states that emerged in the post-colonial era have adopted a variety of political and economic models, and they have been affected by secular and as well as religious trends. As of 2013[update], the combined GDP (nominal) of 49 Muslim majority countries was US$5.7 trillion. As of 2016[update], they contributed 8% of the world's total. In 2020, the Economy of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation which consists of 57 member states had a combined GDP of US$24 trillion or US$ 30 trillion with 5 OIC observer states which is equal to about 22% of the world’s GDP. As of 2023, 2 billion or about 25% of the world population are Muslims. By the percentage of the total population in a region considering themselves Muslim, 91% in the Middle East-North Africa (MENA), 89% in Central Asia, 40% in Southeast Asia, 31% in South Asia, 30% in Sub-Saharan Africa, 25% in Asia–Oceania, around 6% in Europe, and 1% in the Americas. Most Muslims are of one of two denominations: Sunni Islam (87-90%) and Shia (10-13%). However, other denominations exist in pockets, such as Ibadi (primarily in Oman). Muslims who do not belong to, do not self-identify with, or cannot be readily classified under one of the identifiable Islamic schools and branches are known as non-denominational Muslims. About 13% of Muslims live in Indonesia, the largest Muslim-majority country; 31% of Muslims live in South Asia, the largest population of Muslims in the world; 20% in the Middle East–North Africa, where it is the dominant religion; and 15% in Sub-Saharan Africa and West Africa, incl. Nigeria. Muslims are the overwhelming majority in Central Asia, the majority in the Caucasus, and widespread in Southeast Asia. India has the largest Muslim population outside Muslim-majority countries. Pakistan, Bangladesh, Iran and Egypt are home to the world’s second, fourth, sixth and seventh largest Muslim populations respectively. Sizeable Muslim communities are also found in the Americas, Russia, China, and Europe. Islam is the fastest-growing major religion in the world partially due to their high birth rate. China has the second largest Muslim population outside Muslim-majority countries while Russia has the third largest Muslim population. Nigeria has the largest Muslim population in Africa while Indonesia has the largest Muslim population in Asia. Terminology ----------- The term has been documented as early as 1912 to encompass the influence of perceived pan-Islamic propaganda. *The Times* described Pan-Islamism as a movement with power, importance, and cohesion born in Paris, where Turks, Arabs and Persians congregated. The correspondent's focus was on India: it would take too long to consider the progress made in various parts of the Muslim world. The article considered the position of the Amir, the effect of the Tripoli Campaign, Anglo-Russian action in Persia, and "Afghan Ambitions". In a modern geopolitical sense, the terms 'Muslim world' and 'Islamic world' refer to countries in which Islam is widespread, although there are no agreed criteria for inclusion. Some scholars and commentators have criticised the term 'Muslim/Islamic world' and its derivative terms 'Muslim/Islamic country' as "simplistic" and "binary", since no state has a religiously homogeneous population (e.g. Egypt's citizens are c. 10% Christians), and in absolute numbers, there are sometimes fewer Muslims living in countries in which they make up the majority than in countries in which they form a minority. Hence, the term 'Muslim-majority countries' is often preferred in literature. Culture ------- ### Classical culture * Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni receiving a richly decorated robe of honor from the caliph al-Qadir in 1000. Miniature from the Rashid al-Din's Jami‘ al-TawarikhSultan Mahmud of Ghazni receiving a richly decorated robe of honor from the caliph al-Qadir in 1000. Miniature from the Rashid al-Din's Jami‘ al-Tawarikh * Battle between Ismail of the Safaviyya and the ruler of Shirvan, Farrukh YassarBattle between Ismail of the Safaviyya and the ruler of Shirvan, Farrukh Yassar * Shah of Safavid Empire Abbas I meet with Vali Muhammad KhanShah of Safavid Empire Abbas I meet with Vali Muhammad Khan * Mir Sayyid Ali, a scholar writing a commentary on the Quran, during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Shah JahanMir Sayyid Ali, a scholar writing a commentary on the Quran, during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan * Portrait of a painter during the reign of Ottoman Sultan Mehmet IIPortrait of a painter during the reign of Ottoman Sultan Mehmet II * A Persian miniature of Shah Abu'l Ma‘ali, a scholarA Persian miniature of Shah Abu'l Ma‘ali, a scholar * Ilkhanate Empire ruler, Ghazan, studying the QuranIlkhanate Empire ruler, Ghazan, studying the Quran * Layla and Majnun studying together, from a Persian miniature paintingLayla and Majnun studying together, from a Persian miniature painting The term "Islamic Golden Age" has been attributed to a period in history during which science, economic development and cultural works in most of the Muslim-dominated world flourished. The age is traditionally understood to have begun during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid (786–809) with the inauguration of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, where scholars from various parts of the world sought to translate and gather all the known world's knowledge into Arabic, and to have ended with the collapse of the Abbasid caliphate due to Mongol invasions and the Siege of Baghdad in 1258. The Abbasids were influenced by the Quranic injunctions and hadiths, such as "the ink of a scholar is more holy than the blood of a martyr," that stressed the value of knowledge. The major Islamic capital cities of Baghdad, Cairo, and Córdoba became the main intellectual centers for science, philosophy, medicine, and education. During this period, the Muslim world was a collection of cultures; they drew together and advanced the knowledge gained from the ancient Greek, Roman, Persian, Chinese, Indic, Egyptian, and Phoenician civilizations. #### Ceramics Between the 8th and 18th centuries, the use of ceramic glaze was prevalent in Islamic art, usually assuming the form of elaborate pottery. Tin-opacified glazing was one of the earliest new technologies developed by the Islamic potters. The first Islamic opaque glazes can be found as blue-painted ware in Basra, dating to around the 8th century. Another contribution was the development of fritware, originating from 9th-century Iraq. Other centers for innovative ceramic pottery in the Old world included Fustat (from 975 to 1075), Damascus (from 1100 to around 1600) and Tabriz (from 1470 to 1550). #### Literature * Hadiqatus-suada by Oghuz Turkic poet Fuzûlî*Hadiqatus-suada* by Oghuz Turkic poet Fuzûlî * The story of Princess Parizade and the Magic Tree.The story of *Princess Parizade* and the *Magic Tree*. * Cassim in the Cave by Maxfield Parrish.*Cassim in the Cave* by Maxfield Parrish. * The Magic carpet.The Magic carpet. The best known work of fiction from the Islamic world is *One Thousand and One Nights* (In Persian: *hezār-o-yek šab* > Arabic: *ʔalf-layl-at-wa-l’-layla*= One thousand Night and (one) Night) or \**Arabian Nights*, a name invented by early Western translators, which is a compilation of folk tales from Sanskrit, Persian, and later Arabian fables. The original concept is derived from a pre-Islamic Persian prototype ***Hezār Afsān*** (Thousand Fables) that relied on particular Indian elements. It reached its final form by the 14th century; the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another. All Arabian fantasy tales tend to be called *Arabian Nights* stories when translated into English, regardless of whether they appear in *The Book of One Thousand and One Nights* or not. This work has been very influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first by Antoine Galland. Imitations were written, especially in France. Various characters from this epic have themselves become cultural icons in Western culture, such as Aladdin, Sinbad the Sailor and Ali Baba. A famous example of Arabic poetry and Persian poetry on romance (love) is *Layla and Majnun*, dating back to the Umayyad era in the 7th century. It is a tragic story of undying love. Ferdowsi's *Shahnameh*, the national epic of Greater Iran, is a mythical and heroic retelling of Persian history. *Amir Arsalan* was also a popular mythical Persian story, which has influenced some modern works of fantasy fiction, such as *The Heroic Legend of Arslan*. Ibn Tufail (Abubacer) and Ibn al-Nafis were pioneers of the philosophical novel. Ibn Tufail wrote the first Arabic novel *Hayy ibn Yaqdhan* (*Philosophus Autodidactus*) as a response to Al-Ghazali's *The Incoherence of the Philosophers*, and then Ibn al-Nafis also wrote a novel *Theologus Autodidactus* as a response to Ibn Tufail's *Philosophus Autodidactus*. Both of these narratives had protagonists (Hayy in *Philosophus Autodidactus* and Kamil in *Theologus Autodidactus*) who were autodidactic feral children living in seclusion on a desert island, both being the earliest examples of a desert island story. However, while Hayy lives alone with animals on the desert island for the rest of the story in *Philosophus Autodidactus*, the story of Kamil extends beyond the desert island setting in *Theologus Autodidactus*, developing into the earliest known coming of age plot and eventually becoming the first example of a science fiction novel. *Theologus Autodidactus*, written by the Arabian polymath Ibn al-Nafis (1213–1288), is the first example of a science fiction novel. It deals with various science fiction elements such as spontaneous generation, futurology, the end of the world and doomsday, resurrection, and the afterlife. Rather than giving supernatural or mythological explanations for these events, Ibn al-Nafis attempted to explain these plot elements using the scientific knowledge of biology, astronomy, cosmology and geology known in his time. Ibn al-Nafis' fiction explained Islamic religious teachings via science and Islamic philosophy. A Latin translation of Ibn Tufail's work, *Philosophus Autodidactus*, first appeared in 1671, prepared by Edward Pococke the Younger, followed by an English translation by Simon Ockley in 1708, as well as German and Dutch translations. These translations might have later inspired Daniel Defoe to write *Robinson Crusoe*, regarded as the first novel in English. *Philosophus Autodidactus*, continuing the thoughts of philosophers such as Aristotle from earlier ages, inspired Robert Boyle to write his own philosophical novel set on an island, *The Aspiring Naturalist*. Dante Alighieri's *Divine Comedy*, derived features of and episodes about *Bolgia* from Arabic works on Islamic eschatology: the *Hadith* and the *Kitab al-Miraj* (translated into Latin in 1264 or shortly before as *Liber scalae Machometi*) concerning the ascension to Heaven of Muhammad, and the spiritual writings of Ibn Arabi. The Moors also had a noticeable influence on the works of George Peele and William Shakespeare. Some of their works featured Moorish characters, such as Peele's *The Battle of Alcazar* and Shakespeare's *The Merchant of Venice*, *Titus Andronicus* and *Othello*, which featured a Moorish Othello as its title character. These works are said to have been inspired by several Moorish delegations from Morocco to Elizabethan England at the beginning of the 17th century. #### Philosophy One of the common definitions for "Islamic philosophy" is "the style of philosophy produced within the framework of Islamic culture." Islamic philosophy, in this definition is neither necessarily concerned with religious issues, nor is exclusively produced by Muslims. The Persian scholar Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980–1037) had more than 450 books attributed to him. His writings were concerned with various subjects, most notably philosophy and medicine. His medical textbook *The Canon of Medicine* was used as the standard text in European universities for centuries. He also wrote *The Book of Healing*, an influential scientific and philosophical encyclopedia. One of the most influential Muslim philosophers in the West was Averroes (Ibn Rushd), founder of the Averroism school of philosophy, whose works and commentaries affected the rise of secular thought in Europe. He also developed the concept of "existence precedes essence". Another figure from the Islamic Golden Age, Avicenna, also founded his own Avicennism school of philosophy, which was influential in both Islamic and Christian lands. He was also a critic of Aristotelian logic and founder of Avicennian logic, developed the concepts of empiricism and tabula rasa, and distinguished between essence and existence. Yet another influential philosopher who had an influence on modern philosophy was Ibn Tufail. His philosophical novel, *Hayy ibn Yaqdhan*, translated into Latin as *Philosophus Autodidactus* in 1671, developed the themes of empiricism, tabula rasa, nature versus nurture, condition of possibility, materialism, and Molyneux's problem. European scholars and writers influenced by this novel include John Locke, Gottfried Leibniz, Melchisédech Thévenot, John Wallis, Christiaan Huygens, George Keith, Robert Barclay, the Quakers, and Samuel Hartlib. Islamic philosophers continued making advances in philosophy through to the 17th century, when Mulla Sadra founded his school of Transcendent theosophy and developed the concept of existentialism. Other influential Muslim philosophers include al-Jahiz, a pioneer in evolutionary thought; Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), a pioneer of phenomenology and the philosophy of science and a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy and Aristotle's concept of place (topos); Al-Biruni, a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy; Ibn Tufail and Ibn al-Nafis, pioneers of the philosophical novel; Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi, founder of Illuminationist philosophy; Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, a critic of Aristotelian logic and a pioneer of inductive logic; and Ibn Khaldun, a pioneer in the philosophy of history. #### Sciences | | | --- | | **Sciences** | | * Nasir al-Din al-Tusi's Astrolabe. (13th century)Nasir al-Din al-Tusi's *Astrolabe*. (13th century) * One of Mansur ibn Ilyas (Ak Koyunlu era) colored illustrations of human anatomy.One of Mansur ibn Ilyas (Ak Koyunlu era) colored illustrations of human anatomy. | | * Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi's Kitab al-TasrifSurgical instruments illustrations. (11th century)Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi's *Kitab al-Tasrif*Surgical instruments illustrations. (11th century) * A self-trimming lamp from Banū Mūsā's work On Mechanical Devices on Automation.A self-trimming lamp from Banū Mūsā's work *On Mechanical Devices* on Automation. | | * An illustration from al-Biruni's astronomical works, explains the different phases of the moon.An illustration from al-Biruni's astronomical works, explains the different phases of the moon. * The Elephant Clock was one of the most famous inventions of Al-Jazari.The Elephant Clock was one of the most famous inventions of Al-Jazari. | | * "Cubic equations and intersections of conic sections", of Omar Khayyam."Cubic equations and intersections of conic sections", of Omar Khayyam. * Lagâri Hasan Çelebi's rocket flight depicted in a 17th-century engraving.Lagâri Hasan Çelebi's rocket flight depicted in a 17th-century engraving. | | | Muslim scientists placed far greater emphasis on experiment than the Greeks. This led to an early scientific method being developed in the Muslim world, where progress in methodology was made, beginning with the experiments of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) on optics from *circa* 1000, in his *Book of Optics*. The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation, which began among Muslim scientists. Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the father of optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light. Jim Al-Khalili stated in 2009 that Ibn al-Haytham is 'often referred to as the "world's first true scientist".' al-Khwarzimi's invented the log base systems that are being used today, he also contributed theorems in trigonometry as well as limits. Recent studies show that it is very likely that the Medieval Muslim artists were aware of advanced decagonal quasicrystal geometry (discovered half a millennium later in the 1970s and 1980s in the West) and used it in intricate decorative tilework in the architecture. Muslim physicians contributed to the field of medicine, including the subjects of anatomy and physiology: such as in the 15th-century Persian work by Mansur ibn Muhammad ibn al-Faqih Ilyas entitled *Tashrih al-badan* (*Anatomy of the body*) which contained comprehensive diagrams of the body's structural, nervous and circulatory systems; or in the work of the Egyptian physician Ibn al-Nafis, who proposed the theory of pulmonary circulation. Avicenna's *The Canon of Medicine* remained an authoritative medical textbook in Europe until the 18th century. Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (also known as *Abulcasis*) contributed to the discipline of medical surgery with his *Kitab al-Tasrif* ("Book of Concessions"), a medical encyclopedia which was later translated to Latin and used in European and Muslim medical schools for centuries. Other medical advancements came in the fields of pharmacology and pharmacy. In astronomy, Muḥammad ibn Jābir al-Ḥarrānī al-Battānī improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the Earth's axis. The corrections made to the geocentric model by al-Battani, Averroes, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Mu'ayyad al-Din al-'Urdi and Ibn al-Shatir were later incorporated into the Copernican heliocentric model. Heliocentric theories were also discussed by several other Muslim astronomers such as Al-Biruni, Al-Sijzi, Qotb al-Din Shirazi, and Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī. The astrolabe, though originally developed by the Greeks, was perfected by Islamic astronomers and engineers, and was subsequently brought to Europe. Some most famous scientists from the medieval Islamic world include Jābir ibn Hayyān, al-Farabi, Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Biruni, Avicenna, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, and Ibn Khaldun. #### Technology In technology, the Muslim world adopted papermaking from China. The knowledge of gunpowder was also transmitted from China via predominantly Islamic countries, where formulas for pure potassium nitrate were developed. Advances were made in irrigation and farming, using new technology such as the windmill. Crops such as almonds and citrus fruit were brought to Europe through al-Andalus, and sugar cultivation was gradually adopted by the Europeans. Arab merchants dominated trade in the Indian Ocean until the arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century. Hormuz was an important center for this trade. There was also a dense network of trade routes in the Mediterranean, along which Muslim-majority countries traded with each other and with European powers such as Venice, Genoa and Catalonia. The Silk Road crossing Central Asia passed through Islamic states between China and Europe. The emergence of major economic empires with technological resources after the conquests of Timur (Tamerlane) and the resurgence of the Timurid Renaissance include the Mali Empire and the India's Bengal Sultanate in particular, a major global trading nation in the world, described by the Europeans to be the "richest country to trade with". Muslim engineers in the Islamic world made a number of innovative industrial uses of hydropower, and early industrial uses of tidal power and wind power, fossil fuels such as petroleum, and early large factory complexes (*tiraz* in Arabic). The industrial uses of watermills in the Islamic world date back to the 7th century, while horizontal-wheeled and vertical-wheeled water mills were both in widespread use since at least the 9th century. A variety of industrial mills were being employed in the Islamic world, including early fulling mills, gristmills, paper mills, hullers, sawmills, ship mills, stamp mills, steel mills, sugar mills, tide mills and windmills. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia. Muslim engineers also invented crankshafts and water turbines, employed gears in mills and water-raising machines, and pioneered the use of dams as a source of water power, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines. Such advances made it possible for industrial tasks that were previously driven by manual labour in ancient times to be mechanized and driven by machinery instead in the medieval Islamic world. The transfer of these technologies to medieval Europe had an influence on the Industrial Revolution, particularly from the proto-industrialised Mughal Bengal and Tipu Sultan's Kingdom, through the conquests of the East India Company. History ------- The history of the Islamic faith as a religion and social institution begins with its inception around 610 CE, when the Islamic prophet Muhammad, a native of Mecca, is believed by Muslims to have received the first revelation of the Quran, and began to preach his message. In 622 CE, facing opposition in Mecca, he and his followers migrated to Yathrib (now Medina), where he was invited to establish a new constitution for the city under his leadership. This migration, called the Hijra, marks the first year of the Islamic calendar. By the time of his death, Muhammad had become the political and spiritual leader of Medina, Mecca, the surrounding region, and numerous other tribes in the Arabian Peninsula. After Muhammad died in 632, his successors (the Caliphs) continued to lead the Muslim community based on his teachings and guidelines of the Quran. The majority of Muslims consider the first four successors to be 'rightly guided' or Rashidun. The conquests of the Rashidun Caliphate helped to spread Islam beyond the Arabian Peninsula, stretching from northwest India, across Central Asia, the Near East, North Africa, southern Italy, and the Iberian Peninsula, to the Pyrenees. The Arab Muslims were unable to conquer the entire Christian Byzantine Empire in Asia Minor during the Arab–Byzantine wars, however. The succeeding Umayyad Caliphate attempted two failed sieges of Constantinople in 674–678 and 717–718. Meanwhile, the Muslim community tore itself apart into the rivalling Sunni and Shia sects since the killing of caliph Uthman in 656, resulting in a succession crisis that has never been resolved. The following First, Second and Third Fitnas and finally the Abbasid Revolution (746–750) also definitively destroyed the political unity of the Muslims, who have been inhabiting multiple states ever since. Ghaznavids' rule was succeeded by the Ghurid Empire of Muhammad of Ghor and Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad, whose reigns under the leadership of Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji extended until the Bengal, where Indian Islamic missionaries achieved their greatest success in terms of dawah and number of converts to Islam.[*page needed*] Qutb-ud-din Aybak conquered Delhi in 1206 and began the reign of the Delhi Sultanate, a successive series of dynasties that synthesized Indian civilization with the wider commercial and cultural networks of Africa and Eurasia, greatly increased demographic and economic growth in India and deterred Mongol incursion into the prosperous Indo-Gangetic Plain and enthroned one of the few female Muslim rulers, Razia Sultana. Notable major empires dominated by Muslims, such as those of the Abbasids, Fatimids, Almoravids, Gao Empire, Seljukids, largest contiguous Songhai Empire (15th-16th centuries) of Sahel,West Africa, southern North Africa and western Central Africa which dominated the centers of Islamic knowledge of Timbuktu, Djenne, Oualata and Gao, Ajuran, Adal and Warsangali in Somalia, Mughals in the Indian subcontinent (India, Bangladesh, Pakistan e.t.c), Safavids in Persia and Ottomans in Anatolia, Massina Empire, Sokoto Caliphate of northern Nigeria, Toucouleur Empire, were among the influential and distinguished powers in the world. 19th-century colonialism and 20th-century decolonisation have resulted in several independent Muslim-majority states around the world, with vastly differing attitudes towards and political influences granted to, or restricted for, Islam from country to country. These have revolved around the question of Islam's compatibility with other ideological concepts such as secularism, nationalism (especially Arab nationalism and Pan-Arabism, as opposed to Pan-Islamism), socialism (see also Arab socialism and socialism in Iran), democracy (see Islamic democracy), republicanism (see also Islamic republic), liberalism and progressivism, feminism, capitalism and more. ### Gunpowder empires Scholars often use the term Age of the Islamic Gunpowders to describe period the Safavid, Ottoman and Mughal states. Each of these three empires had considerable military exploits using the newly developed firearms, especially cannon and small arms, to create their empires. They existed primarily between the fourteenth and the late seventeenth centuries. During the 17th–18th centuries, when the Indian subcontinent was ruled by Mughal Empire's sixth ruler Muhammad Auranzgeb through sharia and Islamic economics, India became the world's largest economy, valued 25% of world GDP. * Safavid Empire's Zamburak.Safavid Empire's Zamburak. * Bullocks dragging siege-guns up hill during Mughal Emperor Akbar's Siege of Ranthambore Fort in 1568.Bullocks dragging siege-guns up hill during Mughal Emperor Akbar's Siege of Ranthambore Fort in 1568. * The Mughal Army under the command of Islamist Aurangzeb recaptures Orchha in October 1635.The Mughal Army under the command of Islamist Aurangzeb recaptures Orchha in October 1635. * Gun-wielding Ottoman Janissaries in combat against the Knights of Saint John at the Siege of Rhodes in 1522.Gun-wielding Ottoman Janissaries in combat against the Knights of Saint John at the Siege of Rhodes in 1522. * Cannons and guns belonging to the Aceh Sultanate (in modern Indonesia).Cannons and guns belonging to the Aceh Sultanate (in modern Indonesia). ### Great Divergence > > "Why do the Christian nations, which were so weak in the past compared with Muslim nations begin to dominate so many lands in modern times and even defeat the once victorious Ottoman armies?"..."Because they have laws and rules invented by reason." > > > **Ibrahim Muteferrika**, *Rational basis for the Politics of Nations* (1731) The Great Divergence was the reason why European colonial powers militarily defeated preexisting Oriental powers like the Mughal Empire, starting from the wealthy Bengal Subah, Tipu Sultan's Kingdom of Mysore, the Ottoman Empire and many smaller states in the pre-modern Greater Middle East, and initiated a period known as 'colonialism'. * Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II negotiates with the East India Company after being defeated during the Battle of Buxar.Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II negotiates with the East India Company after being defeated during the Battle of Buxar. * East India Company's Robert Clive meeting the Nawabs of Bengal before the Battle of Plassey.East India Company's Robert Clive meeting the Nawabs of Bengal before the Battle of Plassey. * Siege of Ochakov (1788), an armed conflict between the Ottomans and the Russian Tsardom.Siege of Ochakov (1788), an armed conflict between the Ottomans and the Russian Tsardom. * Combat during the Russo-Persian Wars.Combat during the Russo-Persian Wars. * French campaign in Egypt and Syria against the Mamluks and Ottomans.French campaign in Egypt and Syria against the Mamluks and Ottomans. ### Colonialism Beginning with the 15th century, colonialism by European powers profoundly affected Muslim-majority societies in Africa, Europe, the Middle East and Asia. Colonialism was often advanced by conflict with mercantile initiatives by colonial powers and caused tremendous social upheavals in Muslim-dominated societies. A number of Muslim-majority societies reacted to Western powers with zealotry and thus initiating the rise of Pan-Islamism; or affirmed more traditionalist and inclusive cultural ideals; and in rare cases adopted modernity that was ushered by the colonial powers. The only Muslim-majority regions not to be colonized by the Europeans were Saudi Arabia, Iran, Turkey, and Afghanistan. Turkey was one of the first colonial powers of the world with the Ottoman empire ruling several states for over 6 centuries. * The French conquest of Algeria, from 1830 to 1903The French conquest of Algeria, from 1830 to 1903 * The Hispano-Moroccan War between Spain and Morocco, from 1859 to 1860The Hispano-Moroccan War between Spain and Morocco, from 1859 to 1860 * The Italo-Turkish War between Italy and the Ottoman Empire from 1911 to 1912The Italo-Turkish War between Italy and the Ottoman Empire from 1911 to 1912 * The Christian reconquest of Buda, Ottoman Hungary, 1686, painted by Frans GeffelsThe Christian reconquest of Buda, Ottoman Hungary, 1686, painted by Frans Geffels * French conquest of Algeria (1830–1857)French conquest of Algeria (1830–1857) * Anglo-Egyptian invasion of Sudan 1896–1899Anglo-Egyptian invasion of Sudan 1896–1899 * The Melilla War between Spain and Rif Berbers of Morocco in 1909The Melilla War between Spain and Rif Berbers of Morocco in 1909 ### Postcolonial era In the 20th century, the end of the European colonial domination has led to creation of a number of nation states with significant Muslim populations. These states drew on Islamic traditions to varying degree and in various ways in organizing their legal, educational and economic systems. The Times first documented the term "Muslim world" in 1912 when describing Pan-Islamism as a movement with power importance and cohesion born in Paris where Turks, Arabs and Persians congregated. The article considered The position of the Amir; the effect of the Tripoli Campaign; Anglo-Russian action in Persia; and "Afghan Ambitions". A significant change in the Muslim world was the defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908–1922), to which the Ottoman officer and Turkish revolutionary statesman Mustafa Kemal Atatürk had an instrumental role in ending and replacing it with the Republic of Turkey, a modern, secular democracy (see Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate). The secular values of Kemalist Turkey, which separated religion from the state with the abolition of the Caliphate in 1924, have sometimes been seen as the result of Western influence. In the 21st century, after the September 11 attacks (2001) coordinated by the Wahhabi Islamist terrorist group Al-Qaeda against the United States, scholars considered the ramifications of seeking to understand Muslim experience through the framework of secular Enlightenment principles. Muhammad Atta, one of the 11 September hijackers, reportedly quoted from the Quran to allay his fears: "Fight them, and God will chastise them at your hands/And degrade them, and He will help you/Against them, and bring healing to the breasts of a people who believe", referring to the *ummah*, the community of Muslim believers, and invoking the imagery of the early warriors of Islam who lead the faithful from the darkness of *jahiliyyah*. By Sayyid Qutb's definition of Islam, the faith is "a complete divorce from jahiliyyah". He complained that American churches served as centers of community social life that were "very hard [to] distinguish from places of fun and amusement". For Qutb, Western society was the modern *jahliliyyah*. His understanding of the "Muslim world" and its "social order" was that, presented to the Western world as the result of practicing Islamic teachings, would impress "by the beauty and charm of true Islamic ideology". He argued that the values of the Enlightenment and its related precursor, the Scientific Revolution, "denies or suspends God's sovereignty on earth" and argued that strengthening "Islamic character" was needed "to abolish the negative influences of *jahili* life." Islam by country ---------------- As the Muslim world came into contact with secular ideals, societies responded in different ways. Some Muslim-majority countries are secular. Azerbaijan became the first secular republic in the Muslim world, between 1918 and 1920, before it was incorporated into the Soviet Union.[*failed verification*] Turkey has been governed as a secular state since the reforms of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. By contrast, the 1979 Iranian Revolution replaced a monarchial semi-secular regime with an Islamic republic led by the Ayatollah, Ruhollah Khomeini. Some countries have declared Islam as the official state religion. In those countries, the legal code is largely secular. Only personal status matters pertaining to inheritance and marriage are governed by Sharia law. In some places, Muslims implement Islamic law, called sharia in Arabic. The Islamic law exists in a number of variations, called schools of jurisprudence. The Amman Message, which was endorsed in 2005 by prominent Islamic scholars around the world, recognized four Sunni schools (Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali), two Shia schools (Ja'fari, Zaidi), the Ibadi school, and the Zahiri school. ### Government and religion #### Islamic states Islamic states have adopted Islam as the ideological foundation of state and constitution. * Afghanistan * Brunei * Iran * Mauritania * Oman * Saudi Arabia * Yemen #### State religion The following Muslim-majority states have endorsed Islam as their state religion, and though they may guarantee freedom of religion for citizens, do not declare a separation of state and religion: * Algeria * Bahrain * Comoros * Djibouti * Egypt * Iraq * Jordan * Kuwait * Libya * Malaysia * Maldives * Morocco * Pakistan * Palestine * Qatar * Somalia * Tunisia * United Arab Emirates #### Secular states Secular states in the Muslim world have declared separation between civil/government affairs and religion. * Albania * Azerbaijan * Bangladesh * Bosnia and Herzegovina * Burkina Faso * Chad * The Gambia * Guinea * Guinea-Bissau * Indonesia * Ivory Coast * Kazakhstan * Kosovo * Kyrgyzstan * Lebanon * Mali * Niger * Nigeria * Senegal * Sierra Leone * Sudan * Syria * Tajikistan * Turkey * Turkmenistan * Uzbekistan ### Politics During much of the 20th century, the Islamic identity and the dominance of Islam on political issues have arguably increased during the early 21st century. The fast-growing interests of the Western world in Islamic regions, international conflicts and globalization have changed the influence of Islam on the world in contemporary history. #### Islamism Islamism (also often called political Islam) is a religio-political ideology. There is no consensus definition of Islamism, which has many varieties and alternative names, and some have objected to use of the term, either for its being derogatory, or so broad and flexible as to have lost its meaning. In its original formulation, Islamism described an ideology seeking to revive Islam to its past assertiveness and glory, purifying it of foreign elements, reasserting its role into "social and political as well as personal life"; and in particular "reordering government and society in accordance with laws prescribed by Islam" (aka Sharia). According to at least one observer (author Robin Wright), Islamist movements have "arguably altered the Middle East more than any trend since the modern states gained independence", redefining "politics and even borders". Central and prominent figures in 20th-century Islamism include Sayyid Rashid Riḍā, Hassan al-Banna (founder of the Muslim Brotherhood), Sayyid Qutb, Abul A'la Maududi, Ruhollah Khomeini (founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran), Hassan Al-Turabi. Syrian Sunni cleric Muhammad Rashid Riḍā, a fervent opponent of Westernization, Zionism and nationalism, advocated Sunni internationalism through revolutionary restoration of a pan-Islamic Caliphate to politically unite the Muslim World. Riḍā was a strong exponent of Islamic vanguardism, the belief that Muslim community should be guided by clerical elites (*ulema*) who steered the efforts for religious education and Islamic revival. Riḍā's Salafi-Arabist synthesis and Islamist ideals greatly influenced his disciples like Hasan al-Banna, an Egyptian schoolteacher who founded the Muslim Brotherhood movement, and Hajji Amin al-Husayni, the anti-Zionist Grand Mufti of Jerusalem. Al-Banna and Maududi called for a "reformist" strategy to re-Islamizing society through grassroots social and political activism. Other Islamists (Al-Turabi) are proponents of a "revolutionary" strategy of Islamizing society through exercise of state power, or (Sayyid Qutb) for combining grassroots Islamization with armed revolution. The term has been applied to non-state reform movements, political parties, militias and revolutionary groups. Islamists emphasize the implementation of *sharia*, pan-Islamic political unity, the creation of Islamic states, (eventually unified), and rejection of non-Muslim influences—particularly Western or universal economic, military, political, social, or cultural. At least one author (Graham E. Fuller) has argued for a broader notion of Islamism as a form of identity politics, involving "support for [Muslim] identity, authenticity, broader regionalism, revivalism, [and] revitalization of the community." Islamists themselves prefer terms such as "Islamic movement", or "Islamic activism" to "Islamism", objecting to the insinuation that Islamism is anything other than Islam renewed and revived. In public and academic contexts, the term "Islamism" has been criticized as having been given connotations of violence, extremism, and violations of human rights, by the Western mass media, leading to Islamophobia and stereotyping. Following the Arab Spring, many post-Islamist currents became heavily involved in democratic politics, while others spawned "the most aggressive and ambitious Islamist militia" to date, such as the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). Demographics ------------ More than 24.1% of the world's population is Muslim. Current estimates conclude that the number of Muslims in the world is around 1.8 billion. Muslims are the majority in 49 countries, they speak hundreds of languages and come from diverse ethnic backgrounds. The city of Karachi has the largest Muslim population in the world. ### Geography Because the terms 'Muslim world' and 'Islamic world' are disputed, since no country is homogeneously Muslim, and there is no way to determine at what point a Muslim minority in a country is to be considered 'significant' enough, there is no consensus on how to define the Muslim world geographically. The only rule of thumb for inclusion which has some support, is that countries need to have a Muslim population of more than 50%. #### Muslim-minority states According to the Pew Research Center in 2015 there were 50 Muslim-majority countries, which are shown in the Government and religion section above in the article. Apart from these, large Muslim populations exist in some countries where Muslims are a minority, and their Muslim communities are larger than many Muslim-majority nations: * India: 200 million Muslims (14.6%) * Ethiopia: 34.7 million Muslims (31.3%) * China: 25-40 million Muslims (2-3%) * Tanzania: 19.4 million Muslims (35.2%) * Russia: 14-20 million Muslims (10-14%) * Ivory Coast: 12 million Muslims (42%) * DR Congo: 10 million Muslims (15%) * Philippines: 8-9 million Muslims (9-10%) In 2010, 73% of the world's Muslim population lived in countries where Muslims are in the majority, while 27% of the world's Muslim population lived in countries where Muslims are in the minority. India's Muslim population is the world's largest Muslim-minority population in the world (11% of the world's Muslim population). Jones (2005) defines a "large minority" as being between 30% and 50%, which described nine countries in 2000, namely Bosnia and Herzegovina, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Kazakhstan, Nigeria, North Macedonia, and Tanzania. ### Religion #### Islam The two main denominations of Islam are the Sunni and Shia sects. They differ primarily upon of how the life of the ummah ("faithful") should be governed, and the role of the imam. Sunnis believe that the true political successor of Muhammad according to the Sunnah should be selected based on ٍShura (consultation), as was done at the Saqifah which selected Abu Bakr, Muhammad's father-in-law, to be Muhammad's political but not his religious successor. Shia, on the other hand, believe that Muhammad designated his son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib as his true political as well as religious successor. The overwhelming majority of Muslims in the world, between 87 and 90%, are Sunni. Shias and other groups make up the rest, about 10–13% of overall Muslim population. The countries with the highest concentration of Shia populations are: Iran – 89%, Azerbaijan – 65%, Iraq – 60%, Bahrain – 60%, Yemen – 35%, Turkey – 10%, Lebanon – 27%, Syria – 13%, Afghanistan – 10%, Pakistan – 10%, and India – 10%. Non-denominational Muslims make up a majority of the Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others): Albania (65%), Kyrgyzstan (64%), Kosovo (58%), Indonesia (56%), Mali (55%), Bosnia and Herzegovina (54%), Uzbekistan (54%), Azerbaijan (45%), Russia (45%), and Nigeria (42%). They are found primarily in Central Asia. Kazakhstan has the largest number of non-denominational Muslims, who constitute about 74% of the population. Southeastern Europe also has a large number of non-denominational Muslims. The Kharijite Muslims, who are less known, have their own stronghold in the country of Oman holding about 75% of the population. * Turkish Muslims at the Eyüp Sultan Mosque on Eid al-AdhaTurkish Muslims at the Eyüp Sultan Mosque on Eid al-Adha * Shi'a Muslims in Iran commemorate AshuraShi'a Muslims in Iran commemorate Ashura * Friday prayer for Sunni Muslims in Dhaka, BangladeshFriday prayer for Sunni Muslims in Dhaka, Bangladesh ##### Islamic schools and branches The first centuries of Islam gave rise to three major sects: Sunnis, Shi'as and Kharijites. Each sect developed distinct jurisprudence schools (*madhhab*) reflecting different methodologies of jurisprudence (*fiqh*). The major Sunni madhhabs are Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali. The major Shi'a branches are Twelver (Imami), Ismaili (Sevener) and Zaidi (Fiver). Isma'ilism later split into Nizari Ismaili and Musta’li Ismaili, and then Mustaali was divided into Hafizi and Taiyabi Ismailis. It also gave rise to the Qarmatian movement and the Druze faith, although Druzes do not identify as Muslims. Twelver Shiism developed Ja'fari jurisprudence whose branches are Akhbarism and Usulism, and other movements such as Alawites, Shaykism and Alevism. Similarly, Kharijites were initially divided into five major branches: Sufris, Azariqa, Najdat, Adjarites and Ibadis. Among these numerous branches, only Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali, Imamiyyah-Ja'fari-Usuli, Nizārī Ismā'īlī, Alevi, Zaydi, Ibadi, Zahiri, Alawite, Druze and Taiyabi communities have survived. In addition, new schools of thought and movements like Quranist Muslims and Ahmadi Muslims later emerged independently. * A Sufi dervish drums up the Friday afternoon crowd in Omdurman, SudanA Sufi dervish drums up the Friday afternoon crowd in Omdurman, Sudan * Druze dignitaries celebrating the Nabi Shu'ayb festival at the tomb of the prophet in HittinDruze dignitaries celebrating the Nabi Shu'ayb festival at the tomb of the prophet in Hittin * Ibadis living in the M'zab valley in Algerian SaharaIbadis living in the M'zab valley in Algerian Sahara * Zaydi Imams ruled in Yemen until 1962Zaydi Imams ruled in Yemen until 1962 * Most of the inhabitants of the Hunza Valley in Pakistan are Ismaili MuslimsMost of the inhabitants of the Hunza Valley in Pakistan are Ismaili Muslims * Children read Qur'an in Indonesia.Children read Qur'an in Indonesia. * People pray together in the mosque in Russia.People pray together in the mosque in Russia. * People move close to the Muslim food corner in China.People move close to the Muslim food corner in China. #### Other religions There are sizeable non-Muslim minorities in many Muslim-majority countries, includes, Christians, Jews, Hindus, Buddhists, Bahai's, Druzes, Yazidis, Mandaeans, Yarsanis and Zoroastrians. The Muslim world is home to some of the world's most ancient Christian communities, and some of the most important cities of the Christian world—including three of its five great patriarchates (Alexandria, Antioch, and Constantinople). Scholars and intellectuals agree Christians have made significant contributions to Arab and Islamic civilization since the introduction of Islam, and they have had a significant impact contributing the culture of the Middle East and North Africa and other areas. Pew Research Center estimates indicate that in 2010, more than 64 million Christians lived in countries with Muslim majorities (excluding Nigeria). The Pew Forum study finds that Indonesia (21.1 million) has the largest Christian population in the Muslim world, followed by Egypt, Chad and Kazakhstan. While according to Adly A. Youssef and Martyn Thomas, in 2004, there were around 30 million Christians who lived in countries with Muslim majorities, with the largest Christian population number lived in Indonesia, followed by Egypt. Nigeria is divided almost evenly between Muslims and Christians, with more than 80 million Christians and Muslims. In 2018 the Jewish Agency estimated that around 27,000 Jews live in Arab and Muslim countries. Jewish communities have existed across the Middle East and North Africa since the rise of Islam. Today, Jews residing in Muslim countries have been reduced to a small fraction of their former sizes, with the largest communities of Jews in Muslim countries exist in the non-Arab countries of Iran (9,500) and Turkey (14,500); both, however, are much smaller than they historically have been. Among Arab countries, the largest Jewish community now exists in Morocco with about 2,000 Jews and in Tunisia with about 1,000. The number of Druze worldwide is between 800,000 and one million, with the vast majority residing in the Levant (primarily in Syria and Lebanon). In 2010, the Pew Forum study finds that Bangladesh (13.5 million), Indonesia (4 million), Pakistan (3.3 million) and Malaysia (1.7 million) has a sizeable Hindu minorities. Malaysia (5 million) has the largest Buddhist population in the Muslim world. Zoroastrians are the oldest remaining religious community in Iran. * Egypt has one of the largest Christian population in the Muslim worldEgypt has one of the largest Christian population in the Muslim world * Bangladesh has the largest Hindu population in the Muslim worldBangladesh has the largest Hindu population in the Muslim world * Turkey has the largest Jewish population in the Muslim worldTurkey has the largest Jewish population in the Muslim world ### Literacy and education The literacy rate in the Muslim world varies. Azerbaijan is in second place in the Index of Literacy of World Countries. Some members such as Iran, Kuwait, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan have over 97% literacy rates, whereas literacy rates are the lowest in Mali, Afghanistan, Chad and parts of Africa. Several Muslim-majority countries, such as Turkey, Iran and Egypt have a high rate of citable scientific publications. In 2015, the International Islamic News Agency reported that nearly 37% of the population of the Muslim world is unable to read or write, basing that figure on reports from the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and the Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. In Egypt, the largest Muslim-majority Arab country, the youth female literacy rate exceeds that for males. Lower literacy rates are more prevalent in South Asian countries such as in Afghanistan and Pakistan, but are rapidly increasing. In the Eastern Middle East, Iran has a high level of youth literacy at 98%, but Iraq's youth literacy rate has sharply declined from 85% to 57% during the American-led war and subsequent occupation. Indonesia, the largest Muslim-majority country in the world, has a 99% youth literacy rate. A 2011 Pew Research Center showed that at the time about 36% of all Muslims had no formal schooling, with only 8% having graduate and post-graduate degrees. The highest of years of schooling among Muslim-majority countries found in Uzbekistan (11.5), Kuwait (11.0) and Kazakhstan (10.7). In addition, the average of years of schooling in countries in which Muslims are the majority is 6.0 years of schooling, which lag behind the global average (7.7 years of schooling). In the youngest age (25–34) group surveyed, Young Muslims have the lowest average levels of education of any major religious group, with an average of 6.7 years of schooling, which lag behind the global average (8.6 years of schooling). The study found that Muslims have a significant amount of gender inequality in educational attainment, since Muslim women have an average of 4.9 years of schooling, compared to an average of 6.4 years of schooling among Muslim men. * Young school girls in Paktia Province of Afghanistan.Young school girls in Paktia Province of Afghanistan. * A primary classroom in Niger.A primary classroom in Niger. * Schoolgirls in Gaza lining up for class, 2009.Schoolgirls in Gaza lining up for class, 2009. * Medical students of anatomy, before an exam in moulage, IranMedical students of anatomy, before an exam in moulage, Iran ### Refugees According to the UNHCR, Muslim-majority countries hosted 18 million refugees by the end of 2010. Since then Muslim-majority countries have absorbed refugees from recent conflicts, including the uprising in Syria. In July 2013, the UN stated that the number of Syrian refugees had exceeded 1.8 million. In Asia, an estimated 625,000 refugees from Rakhine, Myanmar, mostly Muslim, had crossed the border into Bangladesh since August 2017. Culture ------- Throughout history, Muslim cultures have been diverse ethnically, linguistically and regionally. According to M. M. Knight, this diversity includes diversity in beliefs, interpretations and practices and communities and interests. Knight says perception of Muslim world among non-Muslims is usually supported through introductory literature about Islam, mostly present a version as per scriptural view which would include some prescriptive literature and abstracts of history as per authors own point of views, to which even many Muslims might agree, but that necessarily would not reflect Islam as lived on the ground, 'in the experience of real human bodies'. | | | --- | | **Islamic architecture** | | * Dome of the Rock in JerusalemDome of the Rock in Jerusalem * Taj Mahal in Agra city of India was constructed during the Mughal EmpireTaj Mahal in Agra city of India was constructed during the Mughal Empire * Menara Kudus Mosque in Kudus, Indonesia with pre-Islamic Javanese style architectureMenara Kudus Mosque in Kudus, Indonesia with pre-Islamic Javanese style architecture | | * Sultan Ahmed Mosque in Istanbul, TurkeySultan Ahmed Mosque in Istanbul, Turkey * Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Mosque in Selangor, MalaysiaSultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Mosque in Selangor, Malaysia * Great Mosque of Córdoba in Spain is a Moorish-style mosque.Great Mosque of Córdoba in Spain is a Moorish-style mosque. | | * The Charminar in Hyderabad, IndiaThe Charminar in Hyderabad, India * "Tower of Introspection" (省心楼) at the Great Mosque of Xi'an, China"Tower of Introspection" (省心楼) at the Great Mosque of Xi'an, China * The design of Faisal Mosque in Islamabad, Pakistan is inspired by Bedouin's tent.The design of Faisal Mosque in Islamabad, Pakistan is inspired by Bedouin's tent. | | * Moscow Cathedral Mosque in Moscow, RussiaMoscow Cathedral Mosque in Moscow, Russia * Lagos Central Mosque in Lagos, NigeriaLagos Central Mosque in Lagos, Nigeria * Shah Mosque in Tehran, IranShah Mosque in Tehran, Iran | ### Arts The term "Islamic art and architecture" denotes the works of art and architecture produced from the 7th century onwards by people who lived within the territory that was inhabited by culturally Islamic populations. #### Architecture Islamic architecture comprises the architectural styles of buildings associated with Islam. It encompasses both secular and religious styles from the early history of Islam to the present day. The Islamic world encompasses a wide geographic area historically ranging from western Africa and Europe to eastern Asia. Certain commonalities are shared by Islamic architectural styles across all these regions, but over time different regions developed their own styles according to local materials and techniques, local dynasties and patrons, different regional centers of artistic production, and sometimes different religious affiliations. Early Islamic architecture was influenced by Roman, Byzantine, Iranian, and Mesopotamian architecture and all other lands which the Early Muslim conquests conquered in the seventh and eighth centuries. Further east, it was also influenced by Chinese and Indian architecture as Islam spread to South and Southeast Asia. Later it developed distinct characteristics in the form of buildings and in the decoration of surfaces with Islamic calligraphy, arabesques, and geometric motifs. New architectural elements like minarets, *muqarnas*, and multifoil arches were invented. Common or important types of buildings in Islamic architecture include mosques, madrasas, tombs, palaces, hammams (public baths), Sufi hospices (e.g. khanqahs or zawiyas), fountains and sabils, commercial buildings (e.g. caravanserais and bazaars), and military fortifications. #### Aniconism No Islamic visual images or depictions of God are meant to exist because it is believed that such artistic depictions may lead to idolatry. Muslims describe God by the names and attributes that, according to Islam, he revealed to his creation. All but one sura of the Quran begins with the phrase "In the name of God, the Beneficent, the Merciful". Images of Mohammed are likewise prohibited. Such aniconism and iconoclasm can also be found in Jewish and some Christian theology. #### Arabesque Islamic art frequently adopts the use of geometrical floral or vegetal designs in a repetition known as arabesque. Such designs are highly nonrepresentational, as Islam forbids representational depictions as found in pre-Islamic pagan religions. Despite this, there is a presence of depictional art in some Muslim societies, notably the miniature style made famous in Persia and under the Ottoman Empire which featured paintings of people and animals, and also depictions of Quranic stories and Islamic traditional narratives. Another reason why Islamic art is usually abstract is to symbolize the transcendence, indivisible and infinite nature of God, an objective achieved by arabesque. Islamic calligraphy is an omnipresent decoration in Islamic art, and is usually expressed in the form of Quranic verses. Two of the main scripts involved are the symbolic *kufic* and *naskh* scripts, which can be found adorning the walls and domes of mosques, the sides of minbars, and so on. Distinguishing motifs of Islamic architecture have always been ordered repetition, radiating structures, and rhythmic, metric patterns. In this respect, fractal geometry has been a key utility, especially for mosques and palaces. Other features employed as motifs include columns, piers and arches, organized and interwoven with alternating sequences of niches and colonnettes. The role of domes in Islamic architecture has been considerable. Its usage spans centuries, first appearing in 691 with the construction of the Dome of the Rock mosque, and recurring even up until the 17th century with the Taj Mahal. And as late as the 19th century, Islamic domes had been incorporated into European architecture. * Example of an ArabesqueExample of an Arabesque * Example of an ArabesqueExample of an Arabesque * Example of an ArabesqueExample of an Arabesque #### Girih *Girih* (Persian: گره, "knot", also written *gereh*) are decorative Islamic geometric patterns used in architecture and handicraft objects, consisting of angled lines that form an interlaced strapwork pattern. *Girih* decoration is believed to have been inspired by Syrian Roman knotwork patterns from the second century. The earliest *girih* dates from around 1000 CE, and the artform flourished until the 15th century. *Girih* patterns can be created in a variety of ways, including the traditional straightedge and compass construction; the construction of a grid of polygons; and the use of a set of *girih* tiles with lines drawn on them: the lines form the pattern. Patterns may be elaborated by the use of two levels of design, as at the 1453 Darb-e Imam shrine. Square repeating units of known patterns can be copied as templates, and historic pattern books may have been intended for use in this way. The 15th century Topkapı Scroll explicitly shows girih patterns together with the tilings used to create them. A set of tiles consisting of a dart and a kite shape can be used to create aperiodic Penrose tilings, though there is no evidence that such a set was used in medieval times. Girih patterns have been used to decorate varied materials including stone screens, as at Fatehpur Sikri; plasterwork, as at mosques and madrasas such as the Hunat Hatun Complex in Kayseri; metal, as at Mosque-Madrassa of Sultan Hassan in Cairo; and in wood, as at the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba. * Girih tilesGirih tiles * The subdivision rule used to generate the Girih pattern on the spandrel.The subdivision rule used to generate the Girih pattern on the spandrel. * Girih pattern that can be drawn with compass and straight edge.Girih pattern that can be drawn with compass and straight edge. #### Islamic calligraphy Islamic calligraphy is the artistic practice of handwriting and calligraphy, in the languages which use Arabic alphabet or the alphabets derived from it. It includes Arabic, Persian, Ottoman, and Urdu calligraphy. It is known in Arabic as *khatt Arabi* (خط عربي), which translates into Arabic line, design, or construction. The development of Islamic calligraphy is strongly tied to the Qur'an; chapters and excerpts from the Qur'an are a common and almost universal text upon which Islamic calligraphy is based. Although artistic depictions of people and animals are not explicitly forbidden by the Qur'an, pictures have traditionally been limited in Islamic books in order to avoid idolatry. Although some scholars dispute this, Kufic script was supposedly developed around the end of the 7th century in Kufa, Iraq, from which it takes its name. The style later developed into several varieties, including floral, foliated, plaited or interlaced, bordered, and square kufic. In the ancient world, though, artists would often get around the aniconic prohibition by using strands of tiny writing to construct lines and images. Calligraphy was a valued art form, even as a moral good. An ancient Arabic proverb illustrates this point by emphatically stating that "Purity of writing is purity of the soul." However, Islamic calligraphy is not limited to strictly religious subjects, objects, or spaces. Like all Islamic art, it encompasses a diverse array of works created in a wide variety of contexts. The prevalence of calligraphy in Islamic art is not directly related to its non-figural tradition; rather, it reflects the centrality of the notion of writing and written text in Islam. For instance, the Islamic prophet Muhammad is related to have said: "The first thing God created was the pen." Islamic calligraphy developed from two major styles: Kufic and Naskh. There are several variations of each, as well as regionally specific styles. Arabic or Persian calligraphy has also been incorporated into modern art, beginning with the post-colonial period in the Middle East, as well as the more recent style of calligraffiti. * Kufic script from an early Qur'an manuscript, 7th century. (Surah 7: 86–87)Kufic script from an early Qur'an manuscript, 7th century. (Surah 7: 86–87) * Bismallah calligraphy.Bismallah calligraphy. * Islamic calligraphy represented for amulet of sailors in the Ottoman Empire.Islamic calligraphy represented for amulet of sailors in the Ottoman Empire. * Islamic calligraphy praising Ali.Islamic calligraphy praising Ali. * Modern Islamic calligraphy representing various planets.Modern Islamic calligraphy representing various planets. ### Calendar Two calendars are used all over the Muslim world. One is a lunar calendar that is most widely used among Muslims. The other one is a solar calendar officially used in Iran and Afghanistan. #### Islamic lunar calendar The Hijri calendar (Arabic: ٱلتَّقْوِيم ٱلْهِجْرِيّ, romanized: *al-taqwīm al-hijrī*), also known in English as the Muslim calendar and Islamic calendar, is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 lunar months in a year of 354 or 355 days. It is used to determine the proper days of Islamic holidays and rituals, such as the annual fasting and the annual season for the great pilgrimage. In almost all countries where the predominant religion is Islam, the civil calendar is the Gregorian calendar, with Syriac month-names used in the Levant and Mesopotamia (Iraq, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon and Palestine) but the religious calendar is the Hijri one. This calendar enumerates the Hijri era, whose epoch was established as the Islamic New Year in 622 CE. During that year, Muhammad and his followers migrated from Mecca to Medina and established the first Muslim community (*ummah*), an event commemorated as the Hijrah. In the West, dates in this era are usually denoted AH (Latin: *Anno Hegirae*, "in the year of the Hijrah"). In Muslim countries, it is also sometimes denoted as H from its Arabic form (سَنَة هِجْرِيَّة, abbreviated ھ). In English, years prior to the Hijra are denoted as BH ("Before the Hijra"). As of 30 July 2022[update] CE, the current Islamic year is 1444 AH. In the Gregorian calendar reckoning, 1444 AH runs from approximately 30 July 2022 to 18 July 2023. #### Solar Hijri calendar The Solar Hijri calendar is a solar calendar and one of the various Iranian calendars. It begins on the March equinox as determined by the astronomical calculation for the Iran Standard Time meridian (52.5°E, UTC+03:30) and has years of 365 or 366 days. It is the modern principal calendar in Iran and is sometimes also called the Shamsi calendar and Khorshidi calendar. It is abbreviated as SH, HS or, by analogy with AH, AHSh. The Ancient Iran Solar calendar is one of the oldest calendars in the world, as well as the most accurate solar calendar in use today. Since the calendar uses astronomical calculation for determining the vernal equinox, it has no intrinsic error. It is older than the Lunar Hijri calendar used by the majority of Muslims (known in the West as the Islamic calendar); though they both count from the Hijrah, the journey of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina in the year 622, one uses solar years and the other lunar years. Each of the twelve months corresponds with a zodiac sign, and in Afghanistan the names of the zodiacal signs were used for the months; elsewhere the month names are the same as in the Zoroastrian calendar. The first six months have 31 days, the next five have 30 days, and the last month has 29 days in common years but 30 days in leap years. The ancient Iranian New Year's Day, which is called Nowruz, always falls on the March equinox. While Nowruz is celebrated by communities in a wide range of countries from the Balkans to Mongolia, the Solar Hijri calendar itself remains only in official use in Iran. Women ----- According to *Riada Asimovic Akyol* while Muslim women's experiences differs a lot by location and personal situations such as family upbringing, class and education; the difference between culture and religions is often ignored by community and state leaders in many of the Muslim majority countries, the key issue in the Muslim world regarding gender issues is that religious texts constructed in highly patriarchal environments and based on biological essentialism are still valued highly in Islam; hence views emphasizing on men's superiority in unequal gender roles– are widespread among many conservative Muslims (men and women). Orthodox Muslims often believe that rights and responsibilities of women in Islam are different from that of men and sacrosanct since assigned by the God. According to Asma Barlas patriarchal behaviour among Muslims is based in an ideology which jumbles sexual and biological differences with gender dualisms and inequality. Modernist discourse of liberal progressive movements like Islamic feminism have been revisiting hermeneutics of feminism in Islam in terms of respect for Muslim women's lives and rights. *Riada Asimovic Akyol* further says that equality for Muslim women needs to be achieved through self-criticism. * A Kazakh wedding ceremony in a mosqueA Kazakh wedding ceremony in a mosque * A group of marabouts – West African religious leaders and teachers of the Quran.A group of marabouts – West African religious leaders and teachers of the Quran. * Muslim girls at Istiqlal Mosque in JakartaMuslim girls at Istiqlal Mosque in Jakarta * A tribal delegation in ChadA tribal delegation in Chad * Minangkabau people (Padang, Western Sumatra) reciting Al-Qur'anMinangkabau people (Padang, Western Sumatra) reciting Al-Qur'an * Muslim girls walking for school in BangladeshMuslim girls walking for school in Bangladesh See also -------- * Arabization * Arab world * Glossary of Islam * History of the Arabs * History of Islam * Index of Islam-related articles * Outline of Islam * Spread of Islam * Islam by country * Islamic fundamentalism * Islamic studies * Islam and other religions * Islam and secularism * Islam and violence * Islamism * Islamization * Pan-Islamism * Islamic Military Counter Terrorism Coalition * Organisation of Islamic Cooperation References ---------- 1. ↑ This notation is similar to that of AD for the Christian era, CE for the Common Era and AM for the Jewish era. 2. ↑ exact dates depend on which variant of the Islamic calendar is followed. 3. ↑ Persian: گاه‌شماری خورشیدی, romanized: *Gâhšomâri-ye Xoršidi*; Pashto: لمريز لېږدیز کلیز, romanized: *lamrez legdez kalhandara*; Kurdish: ڕۆژژمێری کۆچیی ھەتاوی, romanized: *Salnameya Koçberiyê*; also called in some English sources as the Iranian Solar calendar 4. ↑ Since 1 Muharam 1444 AH (30 July 2022 CE), this calendar is no longer used by the government of Afghanistan, after its switch to the Lunar Hijri calendar.

Muslim world

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_world

A **startup** or **start-up** is a company or project undertaken by an entrepreneur to seek, develop, and validate a scalable business model. While entrepreneurship includes all new businesses, including self-employment and businesses that do not intend to go public, startups are new businesses that intend to grow large beyond the solo founder. At the beginning, startups face high uncertainty and have high rates of failure, but a minority of them do go on to be successful and influential. Actions ------- Startups typically begin by a founder (solo-founder) or co-founders who have a way to solve a problem. The founder of a startup will do the market validation by problem interview, solution interview, and building a minimum viable product (MVP), i.e. a prototype, to develop and validate their business models. The startup process can take a long period of time (by some estimates, three years or longer), and hence sustaining effort is required. Over the long term, sustaining effort is especially challenging because of the high failure rates and uncertain outcomes. Having a business plan in place outlines what to do and how to plan and achieve an idea in the future. Typically, these plans outline the first 3 to 5 years of your business strategy. ### Design principles Models behind startups presenting as ventures are usually associated with design science. Design science uses design principles considered to be a coherent set of normative ideas and propositions to design and construct the company's backbone. For example, one of the initial design principles is "affordable loss". ### Heuristics and biases in startup actions Because of the lack of information, high uncertainty, and the need to make decisions quickly, founders of startups use many heuristics and exhibit biases in their startup actions. Biases and heuristics are parts of our cognitive toolboxes in the decision-making process. They help us decide quickly as possible under uncertainty but sometimes become erroneous and fallacious. Entrepreneurs often become overconfident about their startups and their influence on an outcome (case of *the illusion of control*). Entrepreneurs tend to believe they have more degree of control over events, discounting the role of luck. Below are some of the most critical decision biases of entrepreneurs to start up a new business. 1. **Overconfidence:** Perceive a subjective certainty higher than the objective accuracy. 2. **Illusion of control:** Overemphasize how much skills, instead of chance, improve performance. 3. **The law of small numbers:** Reach conclusions about a larger population using a limited sample. 4. **Availability bias:** Make judgments about the probability of events based on how easy it is to think of examples. 5. **Escalation of commitment:** Persist unduly with unsuccessful initiatives or courses of action. Startups use several action principles to generate evidence as quickly as possible to reduce the downside effect of decision biases such as an escalation of commitment, overconfidence, and the illusion of control. ### Mentoring Many entrepreneurs seek feedback from mentors in creating their startups. Mentors guide founders and impart entrepreneurial skills and may increase the self-efficacy of nascent entrepreneurs. Mentoring offers direction for entrepreneurs to enhance their knowledge of how to sustain their assets relating to their status and identity and strengthen their real-time skills. Principles ---------- There are many principles in creating a startup. Some of the principles are listed below. ### Lean startup Lean startup is a clear set of principles to create and design startups under limited resources and tremendous uncertainty to build their ventures more flexibly and at a lower cost. It is based on the idea that entrepreneurs can make their implicit assumptions about how their venture works explicit and empirically testing it. The empirical test is to de/validate these assumptions and to get an engaged understanding of the business model of the new ventures, and in doing so, the new ventures are created iteratively in a build–measure–learn loop. Hence, lean startup is a set of principles for entrepreneurial learning and business model design. More precisely, it is a set of design principles aimed for iteratively experiential learning under uncertainty in an engaged empirical manner. Typically, lean startup focuses on a few lean principles: * find a problem worth solving, then define a solution * engage early adopters for market validation * continually test with smaller, faster iterations * build a function, measure customer response, and verify/refute the idea * evidence-based decisions on when to "pivot" by changing your plan's course * maximize the efforts for speed, learning, and focus ### Market validation A key principle of startup is to validate the market need before providing a customer-centric product or service to avoid business ideas with weak demand. Market validation can be done in a number of ways, including surveys, cold calling, email responses, word of mouth or through sample research. ### Design thinking Design thinking is used to understand the customers' need in an engaged manner. Design thinking and customer development can be biased because they do not remove the risk of bias because the same biases will manifest themselves in the sources of information, the type of information sought, and the interpretation of that information. Encouraging people to "consider the opposite" of whatever decision they are about to make tends to reduce biases such as overconfidence, the hindsight bias, and anchoring (Larrick, 2004; Mussweiler, Strack, & Pfeiffer, 2000). ### Decision-making under uncertainty In startups, many decisions are made under uncertainty, and hence a key principle for startups is to be agile and flexible. Founders can embed options to design startups in flexible manners, so that the startups can change easily in future. Uncertainty can vary within-person (I feel more uncertain this year than last year) and between-person (he feels more uncertain than she does). A study found that when entrepreneurs feel more uncertain, they identify more opportunities (within-person difference), but entrepreneurs who perceive more uncertainties than others do not identify more opportunities than others do (no between-person difference). ### Partnering Startups may form partnerships with other firms to enable their business model to operate. To become attractive to other businesses, startups need to align their internal features, such as management style and products with the market situation. In their 2013 study, Kask and Linton develop two ideal profiles, or also known as configurations or archetypes, for startups that are commercializing inventions. The *inheritor* profile calls for a management style that is not too entrepreneurial (more conservative) and the startup should have an incremental invention (building on a previous standard). This profile is set out to be more successful (in finding a business partner) in a market that has a dominant design (a clear standard is applied in this market). In contrast to this, profile is the *originator* which has a management style that is highly entrepreneurial and in which a radical invention or a disruptive innovation (totally new standard) is being developed. This profile is set out to be more successful (in finding a business partner) in a market that does not have a dominant design (established standard). New startups should align themselves to one of the profiles when commercializing an invention to be able to find and be attractive to a business partner. By finding a business partner, a startup has greater chances of becoming successful. Startups usually need many different partners to realize their business idea. The commercialization process is often a bumpy road with iterations and new insights during the process. Hasche and Linton (2018) argue that startups can learn from their relationships with other firms, and even if the relationship ends, the startup will have gained valuable knowledge about how it should move on going forward. When a relationship is failing for a startup it needs to make changes. Three types of changes can be identified according to Hasche and Linton (2018): * Change of business concept for the start up * Change of collaboration constellation (change several relationships) * Change of characteristic of business relationship (with the partner, e.g. from a transactional relationship to more of a collaborative type of relationship) ### Entrepreneurial learning Startups need to learn at a huge speed before running out of resources. Proactive actions (experimentation, searching, etc.) enhance a founder's learning to start a company. To learn effectively, founders often formulate falsifiable hypotheses, build a minimum viable product (MVP), and conduct A/B testing. ### Business Model Design With the key learnings from market validation, design thinking, and lean startup, founders can design a business model. However it's important not to dive into business models too early before there is sufficient learning on market validation. Paul Graham said "What I tell founders is not to sweat the business model too much at first. The most important task at first is to build something people want. If you don't do that, it won't matter how clever your business model is." Founders/entrepreneurs ---------------------- Founders or co-founders are people involved in the initial launch of startup companies. Anyone can be a co-founder, and an existing company can also be a co-founder, but the most common co-founders are founder-CEOs, engineers, hackers, web developers, web designers and others involved in the ground level of a new, often venture. The founder that is responsible for the overall strategy of the startup plays the role of founder-CEOs, much like CEOs in established firms. Startup studios provide an opportunity for founders and team members to grow along with the business they help to build. In order to create forward momentum, founders must ensure that they provide opportunities for their team members to grow and evolve within the company. The language of securities regulation in the United States considers co-founders to be "promoters" under Regulation D. The U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission definition of "Promoter" includes: (i) Any person who, acting alone or in conjunction with one or more other persons, directly or indirectly takes initiative in founding and organizing the business or enterprise of an issuer; However, not every promoter is a co-founder. In fact, there is no formal, legal definition of what makes somebody a co-founder. The right to call oneself a co-founder can be established through an agreement with one's fellow co-founders or with permission of the board of directors, investors, or shareholders of a startup company. When there is no definitive agreement (like shareholders' agreement), disputes about who the co-founders are, can arise. ### Self-efficacy Self-efficacy refers to the confidence an individual has to create a new business or startup. It has a strong relation with startup actions. Entrepreneurs' sense of self-efficacy can play a major role in how they approach goals, tasks, and challenges. Entrepreneurs with high self-efficacy—that is, those who believe they can perform well—are more likely to view difficult tasks as something to be mastered rather than something to be avoided. ### Stress > > Startups are pressure cookers. Don't let the casual dress and playful office environment fool you. New enterprises operate under do-or-die conditions. If you do not roll out a useable product or service in a timely fashion, the company will fail. Bye-bye paycheck, hello eviction. > > > Iman Jalali, chief of staff at ContextMedia [*unreliable source?*] Entrepreneurs often feel stressed. They have internal and external pressures. Internally, they need to meet deadlines to develop the prototypes and get the product or service ready for market. Externally they are expected to meet milestones of investors and other stakeholders to ensure continued resources from them on the startups. Coping with stress is critical to entrepreneurs because of the stressful nature of start up a new firm under uncertainty. Coping with stress unsuccessfully could lead to emotional exhaustion, and the founders may close or exit the startups. ### Emotional exhaustion Sustaining effort is required as the startup process can take a long period of time, by one estimate, three years or longer (Carter et al., 1996; Reynolds & Miller, 1992). Sustaining effort over the long term is especially challenging because of the high failure rates and uncertain outcomes. ### Founder identity and culture Some startup founders have a more casual or offbeat attitude in their dress, office space and marketing, as compared to executives in established corporations. For example, startup founders in the 2010s wore hoodies, sneakers and other casual clothes to business meetings. Their offices may have recreational facilities in them, such as pool tables, ping pong tables, football tables and pinball machines, which are used to create a fun work environment, stimulate team development and team spirit, and encourage creativity. Some of the casual approaches, such as the use of "flat" organizational structures, in which regular employees can talk with the founders and chief executive officers informally, are done to promote efficiency in the workplace, which is needed to get their business off the ground. In a 1960 study, Douglas McGregor stressed that punishments and rewards for uniformity in the workplace are not necessary because some people are born with the motivation to work without incentives. Some startups do not use a strict command and control hierarchical structure, with executives, managers, supervisors and employees. Some startups offer employees incentives such as stock options, to increase their "buy in" from the start up (as these employees stand to gain if the company does well). This removal of stressors allows the workers and researchers in the startup to focus less on the work environment around them, and more on achieving the task at hand, giving them the potential to achieve something great for both themselves and their company. Failure ------- The failure rate of startup companies is very high. A 2014 article in *Fortune* estimated that 90% of startups ultimately fail. In a sample of 101 unsuccessful startups, companies reported that experiencing one or more of five common factors were the reason for failure; lack of consumer interest in the product or service (42% of failures), funding or cash problems (29%), personnel or staffing problems (23%), competition from rival companies (19%) and problems with pricing of the product or service (18%). In cases of funding problems it can leave employees without paychecks. Sometimes these companies are purchased by other companies if they are deemed to be viable, but oftentimes they leave employees with very little recourse to recoup lost income for worked time. More than one-third of founders believe that running out of money led to failure. Second to that, founders attribute their failure to a lack of financing or investor interest. These common mistakes and missteps that happen early in the startup journey can result in failure, but there are precautions entrepreneurs can take to help mitigate risk. For example, startup studios offer a buffer against many of the obstacles that solo entrepreneurs face, such as funding and insufficient team structure, making them a good resource for startups in their earliest phases. Another large study of 160.000 failed companies, identified key factors such as a dysfunctional founding team, a poor business plan, or just a flawed product-market fit as examples of the primary sources of failure. The lack of human and financial resources or even dedicated patent attorneys in the early stages of a startup makes it difficult to compete with larger companies, and likewise increases the time and reduces the probability of patent applications. ### Re-starters Failed entrepreneurs, or restarters, who after some time restart in the same sector with more or less the same activities, have an increased chance of becoming a better entrepreneur. However, some studies indicate that restarters are more heavily discouraged in Europe than in the US. Training -------- Many institutions and universities provide training on startups. In the context of universities, some of the courses are entrepreneurship courses that also deal with the topic of startups, while other courses are specifically dedicated to startups. Startup courses are found both in traditional economic or business disciplines as well as the side of information technology disciplines. As startups are often focused on software, they are also occasionally taught while focusing on software development alongside the business aspects of a startup. Founders go through a lot to set up a startup. A startup requires patience and resilience, and training programs need to have both the business components and the psychological components. Entrepreneurship education is effective in increasing the entrepreneurial attitudes and perceived behavioral control, helping people and their businesses grow. Most of startup training falls into the mode of experiential learning (Cooper et al., 2004; Pittaway and Cope, 2007), in which students are exposed to a large extent to a real-life entrepreneurship context as new venture teams (Wu et al., 2009). An example of group-based experiential startup training is the Lean LaunchPad initiative that applies the principles of customer development (Blank and Dorf, 2012) and Lean Startup (Ries, 2011) to technology-based startup projects. As startups are typically thought to operate under a notable lack of resources, have little or no operating history, and to consist of individuals with little practical experience, it is possible to simulate startups in a classroom setting with reasonable accuracy. In fact, it is not uncommon for students to actually participate in real startups during and after their studies. Similarly, university courses teaching software startup themes often have students found mock-up startups during the courses and encourage them to make them into real startups should they wish to do so. Such mock-up startups, however, may not be enough to accurately simulate real-world startup practice if the challenges typically faced by startups (e.g. lack of funding to keep operating) are not present in the course setting. To date, much of the entrepreneurship training is yet personalized to match the participants and the training. Ecosystem --------- The size and maturity of the startup ecosystem is where a startup is launched and where it grows to have an effect on the volume and success of the startups. The startup ecosystem consists of the individuals (entrepreneurs, venture capitalists, angel investors, mentors, advisors); institutions and organizations (top research universities and institutes, business schools and entrepreneurship programs and centres operated by universities and colleges, non-profit entrepreneurship support organizations, government entrepreneurship programs and services, Chambers of commerce) business incubators and business accelerators and top-performing entrepreneurial firms and startups. A region with all of these elements is considered to be a "strong" startup ecosystem. One of the most famous startup ecosystems is Silicon Valley in California, where major computer and internet firms and top universities such as Stanford University create a stimulating startup environment. Boston (where Massachusetts Institute of Technology is located) and Berlin, home of WISTA (a top research area), also have numerous creative industries, leading entrepreneurs and startup firms. Basically, attempts are being made worldwide, for example in Israel with its Silicon Wadi, in France with the Inovallée or in Italy in Trieste with the AREA Science Park, to network basic research, universities and technology parks in order to create a startup-friendly ecosystem. Although there are startups created in all types of businesses, and all over the world, some locations and business sectors are particularly associated with startup companies. The internet bubble of the late 1990s was associated with huge numbers of internet startup companies, some selling the technology to provide internet access, others using the internet to provide services. Most of this startup activity was located in the most well-known startup ecosystem - Silicon Valley, an area of northern California renowned for the high level of startup company activity: > The spark that set off the explosive boom of "Silicon startups" in Stanford Industrial Park was a personal dispute in 1957 between employees of Shockley Semiconductor and the company's namesake and founder, Nobel laureate and co-inventor of the transistor William Shockley... (His employees) formed Fairchild Semiconductor immediately following their departure... > > After several years, Fairchild gained its footing, becoming a formidable presence in this sector. Its founders began leaving to start companies based on their own latest ideas and were followed on this path by their own former leading employees... The process gained momentum and what had once begun in a Stanford's research park became a veritable startup avalanche... Thus, over the course of just 20 years, a mere eight of Shockley's former employees gave forth 65 new enterprises, which then went on to do the same... > > Startup advocates are also trying to build a community of tech startups in New York City with organizations like NY Tech Meet Up and Built in NYC. In the early 2000s, the patent assets of failed startup companies were being purchased by people known as patent trolls, who assert those patents against companies that might be infringing the technology covered by the patents. Investing --------- Startup investing is the action of making an investment in an early-stage company. Beyond founders' own contributions, some startups raise additional investment at some or several stages of their growth. Not all startups trying to raise investments are successful in their fundraising.Venture Capital is a subdivision of Private Equity wherein external investors fund small-scale startups that have high growth potential in the long run. Venture capital is the money of invention that is invested into young businesses which hold no historic background. Usually, the business of venture capital is highly risky but one can at the same time expect high returns as well. In the United States, the solicitation of funds became easier for startups as result of the JOBS Act. Prior to the advent of equity crowdfunding, a form of online investing that has been legalized in several nations, startups did not advertise themselves to the general public as investment opportunities until and unless they first obtained approval from regulators for an initial public offering (IPO) that typically involved a listing of the startup's securities on a stock exchange. Today, there are many alternative forms of IPO commonly employed by startups and startup promoters that do not include an exchange listing, so they may avoid certain regulatory compliance obligations, including mandatory periodic disclosures of financial information and factual discussion of business conditions by management that investors and potential investors routinely receive from registered public companies. Over the last decade, Europe has developed a rapid start-up scene that has given birth to global players, including more than 70 unicorns, and has created more than two million jobs. Investment in European start-ups increased sixfold between 2010 and 2020, reaching approximately €40 billion. Europe does a poorer job of nurturing young companies because of a failure to support their development into industry leaders. Promising European start-ups then struggle to raise the necessary capital to expand and mature. They are forced to either relocate to the US's deep capital markets or sell themselves to larger rivals with more financial availability. As a result, start-ups in the United States can typically raise far more money—up to five times as much as in Europe. Investors are generally most attracted to those new companies distinguished by their strong co-founding team, a balanced "risk/reward" profile (in which high risk due to the untested, disruptive innovations is balanced out by high potential returns) and "scalability" (the likelihood that a startup can expand its operations by serving more markets or more customers). Attractive startups generally have lower "bootstrapping" (self-funding of startups by the founders) costs, higher risk, and higher potential return on investment. Successful startups are typically more scalable than an established business, in the sense that the startup has the potential to grow rapidly with a limited investment of capital, labor or land.[*failed verification*] Timing has often been the single most important factor for biggest startup successes, while at the same time it's identified to be one of the hardest things to master by many serial entrepreneurs and investors. Startups have several options for funding. Revenue-based financing lenders can help startup companies by providing non-dilutive growth capital in exchange for a percentage of monthly revenue. Venture capital firms and angel investors may help startup companies begin operations, exchanging seed money for an equity stake in the firm. Venture capitalists and angel investors provide financing to a range of startups (a portfolio), with the expectation that a very small number of the startups will become viable and make money. In practice though, many startups are initially funded by the founders themselves using "bootstrapping", in which loans or monetary gifts from friends and family are combined with savings and credit card debt to finance the venture. Factoring is another option, though it is not unique to startups. Other funding opportunities include various forms of crowdfunding, for example equity crowdfunding, in which the startup seeks funding from a large number of individuals, typically by pitching their idea on the Internet. Startups can receive funding via more involved stakeholders, such as startup studios. Startup studios provide funding to support the business through a successful launch, but they also provide extensive operational support, such as HR, finance and accounting, marketing, and product development, to increase the probability of success and propel growth. Startups are funded through preset rounds, depending on their funding requirement and the stage of growth of the company. Startup investing is generally divided into six stage, namely 1. Angel funding 2. Seed Funding 3. Pre-Series A 4. Series B 5. Series C,D 6. Series E, F and Beyond ### Necessity of funding While some (would-be) entrepreneurs believe that they can't start a company without funding from VC, Angel, etc. that is not the case. In fact, many entrepreneurs have founded successful businesses for almost no capital, including the founders of MailChimp, Shopify, and ShutterStock. ### Valuations If a company's value is based on its technology, it is often equally important for the business owners to obtain intellectual property protection for their idea. The newsmagazine *The Economist* estimated that up to 75% of the value of US public companies is now based on their intellectual property (up from 40% in 1980). Often, 100% of a small startup company's value is based on its intellectual property. As such, it is important for technology-oriented startup companies to develop a sound strategy for protecting their intellectual capital as early as possible. Startup companies, particularly those associated with new technology, sometimes produce huge returns to their creators and investors—a recent example of such is Google, whose creators became billionaires through their stock ownership and options. ### Investing rounds When investing in a startup, there are different types of stages in which the investor can participate. The first round is called seed round. The seed round generally is when the startup is still in the very early phase of execution when their product is still in the prototype phase. There is likely no performance data or positive financials as of yet. Therefore, investors rely on strength of the idea and the team in place. At this level, family friends and angel investors will be the ones participating. At this stage the level of risk and payoff are at their greatest. The next round is called Series A. At this point the company already has traction and may be making revenue. In Series A rounds venture capital firms will be participating alongside angels or super angel investors. The next rounds are Series B, C, and D. These three rounds are the ones leading towards the Initial Public Offering (IPO). Venture capital firms and private equity firms will be participating. Series B: Companies are generating consistent revenue but must scale to meet growing demand. Series C & D: Companies with strong financial performance looking to expand to new markets, develop new products, make an acquisition, and/or preparing for IPO. ### History of startup investing After the Great Depression, which was blamed in part on a rise in speculative investments in unregulated small companies, startup investing was primarily a word of mouth activity reserved for the friends and family of a startup's co-founders, business angels, and Venture Capital funds. In the United States, this has been the case ever since the implementation of the Securities Act of 1933. Many nations implemented similar legislation to prohibit general solicitation and general advertising of unregistered securities, including shares offered by startup companies. In 2005, a new Accelerator investment model was introduced by Y Combinator that combined fixed terms investment model with fixed period intense bootcamp style training program, to streamline the seed/early-stage investment process with training to be more systematic. Following Y Combinator, many accelerators with similar models have emerged around the world. The accelerator model has since become very common and widely spread and they are key organizations of any Startup ecosystem. Title II of the Jumpstart Our Business Startups Act (JOBS Act), first implemented on 23 September 2013, granted startups in and startup co-founders or promoters in US. the right to generally solicit and advertise publicly using any method of communication on the condition that only accredited investors are allowed to purchase the securities. However the regulations affecting equity crowdfunding in different countries vary a lot with different levels and models of freedom and restrictions. In many countries there are no limitations restricting general public from investing to startups, while there can still be other types of restrictions in place, like limiting the amount that companies can seek from investors. Due to positive development and growth of crowdfunding, many countries are actively updating their regulation in regards to crowdfunding. ### Investing online The first known investment-based crowdfunding platform for startups was launched in February 2010 by Grow VC, followed by the first US. based company ProFounder launching model for startups to raise investments directly on the site, but ProFounder later decided to shut down its business due regulatory reasons preventing them from continuing, having launched their model for US. markets prior to JOBS Act. With the positive progress of the JOBS Act for crowd investing in US., equity crowdfunding platforms like SeedInvest and CircleUp started to emerge in 2011 and platforms such as investiere, Companisto and Seedrs in Europe and OurCrowd in Israel. The idea of these platforms is to streamline the process and resolve the two main points that were taking place in the market. The first problem was for startups to be able to access capital and to decrease the amount of time that it takes to close a round of financing. The second problem was intended to increase the amount of deal flow for the investor and to also centralize the process. Internal startups ----------------- Internal startups are a form of corporate entrepreneurship. Large or well-established companies often try to promote innovation by setting up "internal startups", new business divisions that operate at arm's length from the rest of the company. Examples include Bell Labs, a research unit within the Bell System and Target Corporation (which began as an internal startup of the Dayton's department store chain) and threedegrees, a product developed by an internal startup of Microsoft. To accommodate startups internally, companies, such as Google has made strides to make purchased startups and their workers feel at home in their offices, even letting them bring their dogs to work. Unicorns -------- Some startups become big and they become **unicorns,** i.e. privately held startup companies valued at over US$1 billion. The term was coined in 2013 by venture capitalist Aileen Lee, choosing the mythical animal to represent the statistical rarity of such successful ventures. According to *TechCrunch*, there were 452 unicorns as of May 2019, and most of the unicorns are in the USA, followed by China. The unicorns are concentrated in a few countries. The unicorn leaders are the U.S. with 196 companies, China with 165, India with 107 and the U.K. with 16. The largest unicorns included Ant Financial, ByteDance, DiDi, Uber, Xiaomi, and Airbnb. When the value of a company is over US$10 billion, the company will be called as a **Decacorn**. When the company is valued over US$100 billion, **Hectocorn** will be used. Critiques of the start-up model ------------------------------- According to Nikos Smyrnaios, Silicon Valley's start-ups are emblematic of the post-Fordist enterprise, reflecting a move toward values of liberty, autonomy and authenticity, and away from the Fordist emphasis on solidarity, economic security and equality. For some researchers, such as Antoine Gouritin, the start-up model, like many digital-related objects, is underpinned by a "solutionist" logic, as Evgeny Morozov describes it. *Technological solutionism* corresponds to the belief that thanks to digital tools such as those created by start-ups, simple and technical solutions can be found to all kinds of problems. Therefore, what is expected of start-ups is not that they address the root causes of problems, but that they find effective technical solutions quickly. The organizational model of start-ups is also questioned by former employees. For example, Mathilde Ramadier, a former start-up employee, brings the debate to the fore in France with her book *Bienvenue dans le nouveau monde. Comment j'ai survécu à la coolitude des start-ups* [*Welcome to the new world. How I survivied start-up coolness*] in 2017. Since then, awareness[*clarification needed*] has been growing. The non-hierarchical organization of start-ups means that all employees bear equal responsibility for their running smoothly. They are based on voluntary commitment and internalized behavioral norms rather than formal hierarchical constraints. Employees, encouraged to meet targets, often exceed overtime limits. Professional and personal life often blend in this highly connected environment. Employees are expected, without discussion, to give of themselves without counting the cost, to be always reachable and available, without asking for compensation commensurate with their professional commitment (in terms of time and activities), and to place the general interest of the organization before their personal interest. Finally, the employment contracts of start-up employees are often precarious since the company itself is not completely stable. Economist Scott A. Shane has used data on start-ups published in many countries to draw conclusions in terms of public policy. He is critical of public policy that encourages start-ups, pointing to evidence that these policies lead people to create marginal businesses that are more likely to fail, have little economic impact, and generate a very limited number of jobs. See also -------- * Brand management * Business incubator * Business plan * Deep tech * Innovation * Liquidity event * Platform cooperative * Small business * Vesting § Ownership in startup companies * Unicorn bubble

Startup company

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Startup_company

The **Mongols** are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, Inner Mongolia in China, and the Buryatia Republic of the Russian Federation. The Mongols are the principal member of the large family of Mongolic peoples. The Oirats in Western Mongolia as well as the Buryats and Kalmyks of Russia are classified either as distinct ethno-linguistic groups or subgroups of Mongols. The Mongols are bound together by a common heritage and ethnic identity. Their indigenous dialects are collectively known as the Mongolian language. The ancestors of the modern-day Mongols are referred to as Proto-Mongols. Definition ---------- Broadly defined, the term includes the Mongols proper (also known as the Khalkha Mongols), Buryats, Oirats, the Kalmyk people and the Southern Mongols. The latter comprises the Abaga Mongols, Abaganar, Aohans, Baarins, Chahars, Eastern Dorbets, Gorlos Mongols, Jalaids, Jaruud, Kharchins, Khishigten, Khorchins, Khuuchid, Muumyangan, Naimans, Onnigud, Ordos, Sunud, Tumed, Urad and Üzemchins. The designation "Mongol" briefly appeared in 8th century records of Tang China to describe a tribe of Shiwei. It resurfaced in the late 11th century during the Khitan-ruled Liao dynasty. After the fall of the Liao in 1125, the Khamag Mongols became a leading tribe on the Mongolian Plateau. However, their wars with the Jurchen-ruled Jin dynasty and the Tatar confederation had weakened them. In the thirteenth century, the word Mongol grew into an umbrella term for a large group of Mongolic-speaking tribes united under the rule of Genghis Khan. History ------- In various times Mongolic peoples have been equated with the Scythians, the Magog, and the Tungusic peoples. Based on Chinese historical texts the ancestry of the Mongolic peoples can be traced back to the Donghu, a nomadic confederation occupying eastern Mongolia and Manchuria. The Donghu neighboured the Xiongnu, whose identity is still debated today. Although some scholars maintain that they were proto-Mongols, they were more likely a multi-ethnic group of Mongolic and Turkic tribes. It has been suggested that the language of the Huns was related to the Xiongnu. The Donghu, however, can be much more easily labeled proto-Mongol since the Chinese histories trace only Mongolic tribes and kingdoms (Xianbei and Wuhuan peoples) from them, although some historical texts claim a mixed Xiongnu-Donghu ancestry for some tribes (e.g. the Khitan). ### In the Chinese classics The Donghu are mentioned by Sima Qian as already existing in Inner Mongolia north of Yan in 699–632 BCE along with the Shanrong. Unofficial Chinese sources such as *Yi Zhou Shu* ("Lost Book of Zhou") and the *Classic of Mountains and Seas* project the Donghu's activities back to the Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BCE). However, the Hu (胡) were not mentioned among the non-Shang *fang* (方 "border-region"; modern term *fāngguó* 方國 "fang-countries") in the extant oracle bones from the Shang period. The Xianbei formed part of the Donghu confederation, and possibly had in earlier times some independence within the Donghu confederation as well as from the Zhou dynasty. During the Warring States the poem "The Great Summons" (Chinese: 大招; pinyin: *Dà zhāo*) in the anthology Verses of Chu mentions small-waisted and long-necked Xianbei women, and possibly also the book *Discourses of the States*, which states that during the reign of King Cheng of Zhou (reigned 1042–1021 BCE) the Xianbei came to participate at a meeting of Zhou subject-lords at Qiyang (岐阳) (now Qishan County) but were only allowed to perform the fire ceremony under the supervision of Chu since they were not vassals (诸侯) by enfeoffment and establishment. The Xianbei chieftain was appointed joint guardian of the ritual torch along with Chu viscount Xiong Yi. These early Xianbei came from the nearby Zhukaigou culture (2200–1500 BCE) in the Ordos Desert, where maternal DNA corresponds to the Mongol Daur people and the Tungusic Evenks. The Zhukaigou Xianbei (part of the Ordos culture of Inner Mongolia and northern Shaanxi) had trade relations with the Shang. Liu Song dynasty commentator Pei Yin (裴駰), in his Jixie (集解), quoted Eastern Han dynasty scholar Fu Qian (服虔)'s assertion that Shanrong (山戎) and Beidi (北狄) are ancestors of the present-day Xianbei (鮮卑). Again in Inner Mongolia another closely connected core Mongolic Xianbei region was the Upper Xiajiadian culture (1000–600 BCE) where the Donghu confederation was centered. After the Donghu were defeated by Xiongnu king Modu Chanyu, the Xianbei and Wuhuan survived as the main remnants of the confederation. Tadun Khan of the Wuhuan (died 207 AD) was the ancestor of the proto-Mongolic Kumo Xi. The Wuhuan are of the direct Donghu royal line and the *New Book of Tang* says that in 209 BCE, Modu Chanyu defeated the Wuhuan instead of using the word Donghu. The Xianbei, however, were of the lateral Donghu line and had a somewhat separate identity, although they shared the same language with the Wuhuan. In 49 CE the Xianbei ruler Bianhe (Bayan Khan?) raided and defeated the Xiongnu, killing 2000, after having received generous gifts from Emperor Guangwu of Han. The Xianbei reached their peak under Tanshihuai Khan (reigned 156–181) who expanded the vast, but short lived, Xianbei state (93–234). Three prominent groups split from the Xianbei state as recorded by the Chinese histories: the Rouran (claimed by some to be the Pannonian Avars), the Khitan people and the Shiwei (a subtribe called the "Shiwei Menggu" is held to be the origin of the Genghisid Mongols). Besides these three Xianbei groups, there were others such as the Murong, Duan and Tuoba. Their culture was nomadic, their religion shamanism or Buddhism and their military strength formidable. There is still no direct evidence that the Rouran spoke Mongolic languages, although most scholars agree that they were Proto-Mongolic. The Khitan, however, had two scripts of their own and many Mongolic words are found in their half-deciphered writings. Geographically, the Tuoba Xianbei ruled the southern part of Inner Mongolia and northern China, the Rouran (Yujiulü Shelun was the first to use the title khagan in 402) ruled eastern Mongolia, western Mongolia, the northern part of Inner Mongolia and northern Mongolia, the Khitan were concentrated in eastern part of Inner Mongolia north of Korea and the Shiwei were located to the north of the Khitan. These tribes and kingdoms were soon overshadowed by the rise of the First Turkic Khaganate in 555, the Uyghur Khaganate in 745 and the Yenisei Kirghiz states in 840. The Tuoba were eventually absorbed into China. The Rouran fled west from the Göktürks and either disappeared into obscurity or, as some say, invaded Europe as the Avars under their Khan, Bayan I. Some Rouran under Tatar Khan migrated east, founding the Tatar confederation, who became part of the Shiwei. The Khitans, who were independent after their separation from the Kumo Xi (of Wuhuan origin) in 388, continued as a minor power in Manchuria until one of them, Abaoji (872–926), established the Liao dynasty (916–1125). ### Mongol Empire The destruction of Uyghur Khaganate by the Kirghiz resulted in the end of Turkic dominance in Mongolia. According to historians, Kirghiz were not interested in assimilating newly acquired lands; instead, they controlled local tribes through various manaps (tribal leaders). The Khitans occupied the areas vacated by the Turkic Uyghurs bringing them under their control. The Yenisei Kirghiz state was centered on Khakassia and they were expelled from Mongolia by the Khitans in 924. Beginning in the 10th century, the Khitans, under the leadership of Abaoji, prevailed in several military campaigns against the Tang dynasty's border guards, and the Xi, Shiwei and Jurchen nomadic groups. Remnants of the Liao dynasty led by Yelü Dashi fled west through Mongolia after being defeated by the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty and founded the Qara Khitai (Western Liao dynasty) in 1124 while still maintaining control over western Mongolia. In 1218, Genghis Khan incorporated the Qara Khitai after which the Khitan passed into obscurity. Some remnants surfaced as the Qutlugh-Khanid dynasty (1222–1306) in Iran and the Dai Khitai in Afghanistan. With the expansion of the Mongol Empire, the Mongolic peoples settled over almost all Eurasia and carried on military campaigns from the Adriatic Sea to Indonesian Java and from Japan to Palestine (Gaza). They simultaneously became Padishahs of Persia, Emperors of China, and Great Khans of the Mongols, and one (Al-Adil Kitbugha) became Sultan of Egypt. The Mongolic peoples of the Golden Horde established themselves to govern Russia by 1240. By 1279, they conquered the Song dynasty and brought all of China proper under the control of the Yuan dynasty. > ... from Chinggis up high down to the common people, all are shaven in the style *pojiao*. As with small boys in China, they leave three locks, one hanging from the crown of their heads. When it has grown some, they clip it; the strands lower on both sides they plait to hang down on the shoulders. > > — Zhao Gong With the breakup of the empire, the dispersed Mongolic peoples quickly adopted the mostly Turkic cultures surrounding them and were assimilated, forming parts of Afghanistan's Hazaras, Azerbaijanis, Uzbeks, Karakalpaks, Tatars, Bashkirs, Turkmens, Uyghurs, Nogays, Kyrgyzs, Kazakhs, Caucasaus peoples, Iranian peoples and Moghuls; linguistic and cultural Persianization also began to be prominent in these territories. Some Mongols assimilated into the Yakuts after their migration to northern Siberia and about 30% of Yakut words have Mongol origin. However, remnants of the Yuan imperial family retreated north to Mongolia in 1368, retaining their language and culture. There were 250,000 Mongols in southern China and many Mongols were massacred by the rebel army. The survivors were trapped in southern China and eventually assimilated. The Dongxiangs, Bonans, Yugur and Monguor people were invaded by the Ming dynasty. ### Northern Yuan After the fall of the Yuan dynasty in 1368, the Mongols continued to rule the Northern Yuan dynasty in northern China and the Mongolian steppe. However, the Oirads began to challenge the Eastern Mongols under the Borjigin monarchs in the late 14th century and Mongolia was divided into two parts: Western Mongolia (Oirats) and Eastern Mongolia (Khalkha, Inner Mongols, Barga, Buryats). The earliest written references to the plough in Middle Mongolian language sources appear towards the end of the 14th c. In 1434, Eastern Mongol Taisun Khan's (1433–1452) prime minister Western Mongol Togoon Taish reunited the Mongols after killing Eastern Mongol king Adai (Khorchin). Togoon died in 1439 and his son Esen Taish became ruler of Northern Yuan dynasty. Esen later unified the Mongol tribes. The Ming dynasty attempted to invade the Northern Yuan in the 14–16th centuries, however, the Ming dynasty was defeated by the Oirat, Southern Mongol, Eastern Mongol and united Mongol armies. Esen's 30,000 cavalries defeated 500,000 Chinese soldiers in 1449. Within eighteen months of his defeat of the titular Khan Taisun, in 1453, Esen himself took the title of Great Khan (1454–1455) of the Great Yuan. The Khalkha emerged during the reign of Dayan Khan (1479–1543) as one of the six tumens of the Eastern Mongolic peoples. They quickly became the dominant Mongolic clan in Mongolia proper. He reunited the Mongols again. In 1550, Altan Khan led a Khalkha Mongol raid on Beijing. The Mongols voluntarily reunified during Eastern Mongolian Tümen Zasagt Khan rule (1558–1592) for the last time (the Mongol Empire united all Mongols before this). Eastern Mongolia was divided into three parts in the 17th century: Outer Mongolia (Khalkha), Inner Mongolia (Inner Mongols) and the Buryat region in southern Siberia. The last Mongol khagan was Ligdan in the early 17th century. He got into conflicts with the Manchus over the looting of Chinese cities, and managed to alienate most Mongol tribes. In 1618, Ligdan signed a treaty with the Ming dynasty to protect their northern border from the Manchus attack in exchange for thousands of taels of silver. By the 1620s, only the Chahars remained under his rule. ### Qing-era Mongols The Chahar army was defeated in 1625 and 1628 by the Inner Mongol and Manchu armies due to Ligdan's faulty tactics. The Qing forces secured their control over Inner Mongolia by 1635, and the army of the last khan Ligdan moved to battle against Tibetan Gelugpa sect (Yellow Hat sect) forces. The Gelugpa forces supported the Manchus, while Ligdan supported Kagyu sect (Red Hat sect) of Tibetan Buddhism. Ligden died in 1634 on his way to Tibet. By 1636, most Inner Mongolian nobles had submitted to the Qing dynasty founded by the Manchus. Inner Mongolian Tengis noyan revolted against the Qing in the 1640s and the Khalkha battled to protect Sunud. Western Mongol Oirats and Eastern Mongolian Khalkhas vied for domination in Mongolia since the 15th century and this conflict weakened Mongol strength. In 1688, the Western Mongol Dzungar Khanate's king Galdan Boshugtu attacked Khalkha after murder of his younger brother by Tusheet Khan Chakhundorj (main or Central Khalkha leader) and the Khalkha-Oirat War began. Galdan threatened to kill Chakhundorj and Zanabazar (Javzandamba Khutagt I, spiritual head of Khalkha) but they escaped to Sunud (Inner Mongolia). Many Khalkha nobles and folks fled to Inner Mongolia because of the war. Few Khalkhas fled to the Buryat region and Russia threatened to exterminate them if they did not submit, but many of them submitted to Galdan Boshugtu. In 1683 Galdan's armies reached Tashkent and the Syr Darya and crushed two armies of the Kazakhs. After that Galdan subjugated the Black Khirgizs and ravaged the Fergana Valley. From 1685 Galdan's forces aggressively pushed the Kazakhs. While his general Rabtan took Taraz, and his main force forced the Kazakhs to migrate westwards. In 1687, he besieged the City of Turkistan. Under the leadership of Abul Khair Khan, the Kazakhs won major victories over the Dzungars at the Bulanty River in 1726, and at the Battle of Anrakay in 1729. The Khalkha eventually submitted to Qing rule in 1691 by Zanabazar's decision, thus bringing all of today's Mongolia under the rule of the Qing dynasty but Khalkha *de facto* remained under the rule of Galdan Boshugtu Khaan until 1696. The Mongol-Oirat's Code (a treaty of alliance) against foreign invasion between the Oirats and Khalkhas was signed in 1640, however, the Mongols could not unite against foreign invasions. Chakhundorj fought against Russian invasion of Outer Mongolia until 1688 and stopped Russian invasion of Khövsgöl Province. Zanabazar struggled to bring together the Oirats and Khalkhas before the war. Galdan Boshugtu sent his army to "liberate" Inner Mongolia after defeating the Khalkha's army and called Inner Mongolian nobles to fight for Mongolian independence. Some Inner Mongolian nobles, Tibetans, Kumul Khanate and some Moghulistan's nobles supported his war against the Manchus, however, Inner Mongolian nobles did not battle against the Qing. There were three khans in Khalkha and Zasagt Khan Shar (Western Khalkha leader) was Galdan's ally. Tsetsen Khan (Eastern Khalkha leader) did not engage in this conflict. While Galdan was fighting in Eastern Mongolia, his nephew Tseveenravdan seized the Dzungarian throne in 1689 and this event made Galdan impossible to fight against the Qing Empire. The Russian and Qing Empires supported his action because this coup weakened Western Mongolian strength. Galdan Boshugtu's army was defeated by the outnumbering Qing army in 1696 and he died in 1697. The Mongols who fled to the Buryat region and Inner Mongolia returned after the war. Some Khalkhas mixed with the Buryats. The Buryats fought against Russian invasion since the 1620s and thousands of Buryats were massacred. The Buryat region was formally annexed to Russia by treaties in 1689 and 1727, when the territories on both the sides of Lake Baikal were separated from Mongolia. In 1689 the Treaty of Nerchinsk established the northern border of Manchuria north of the present line. The Russians retained Trans-Baikalia between Lake Baikal and the Argun River north of Mongolia. The Treaty of Kyakhta (1727), along with the Treaty of Nerchinsk, regulated the relations between Imperial Russia and the Qing Empire until the mid-nineteenth century. It established the northern border of Mongolia. Oka Buryats revolted in 1767 and Russia completely conquered the Buryat region in the late 18th century. Russia and Qing were rival empires until the early 20th century, however, both empires carried out united policy against Central Asians. The Qing Empire conquered Upper Mongolia or the Oirat's Khoshut Khanate in the 1720s and 80,000 people were killed. By that period, Upper Mongolian population reached 200,000. The Dzungar Khanate conquered by the Qing dynasty in 1755–1758 because of their leaders and military commanders conflicts. Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the Dzungar population were destroyed by a combination of warfare and disease during the Qing conquest of the Dzungar Khanate in 1755–1758. Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide, has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence." The Dzungar population reached 600,000 in 1755. About 200,000–250,000 Oirats migrated from western Mongolia to Volga River in 1607 and established the Kalmyk Khanate.The Torghuts were led by their Tayishi, Höö Örlög. Russia was concerned about their attack but the Kalmyks became a Russian ally and a treaty to protect the southern Russian border was signed between the Kalmyk Khanate and Russia. In 1724 the Kalmyks came under control of Russia. By the early 18th century, there were approximately 300,000–350,000 Kalmyks and 15,000,000 Russians. The Tsardom of Russia gradually chipped away at the autonomy of the Kalmyk Khanate. These policies, for instance, encouraged the establishment of Russian and German settlements on pastures the Kalmyks used to roam and feed their livestock. In addition, the Tsarist government imposed a council on the Kalmyk Khan, thereby diluting his authority, while continuing to expect the Kalmyk Khan to provide cavalry units to fight on behalf of Russia. The Russian Orthodox church, by contrast, pressured Buddhist Kalmyks to adopt Orthodoxy. In January 1771, approximately 200,000 (170,000) Kalmyks began the migration from their pastures on the left bank of the Volga River to Dzungaria (Western Mongolia), through the territories of their Bashkir and Kazakh enemies. The last Kalmyk khan Ubashi led the migration to restore Mongolian independence. Ubashi Khan sent his 30,000 cavalries to the Russo-Turkish War in 1768–1769 to gain weapon before the migration. The Empress Catherine the Great ordered the Russian army, Bashkirs and Kazakhs to exterminate all migrants and the Empress abolished the Kalmyk Khanate. The Kyrgyzs attacked them near Balkhash Lake. About 100,000–150,000 Kalmyks who settled on the west bank of the Volga River could not cross the river because the river did not freeze in the winter of 1771 and Catherine the Great executed influential nobles of them. After seven months of travel, only one-third (66,073) of the original group reached Dzungaria (Balkhash Lake, western border of the Qing Empire). The Qing Empire transmigrated the Kalmyks to five different areas to prevent their revolt and influential leaders of the Kalmyks died soon (killed by the Manchus). Russia states that Buryatia voluntarily merged with Russia in 1659 due to Mongolian oppression and the Kalmyks voluntarily accepted Russian rule in 1609 but only Georgia voluntarily accepted Russian rule. In the early 20th century, the late Qing government encouraged Han Chinese colonization of Mongolian lands under the name of "New Policies" or "New Administration" (xinzheng). As a result, some Mongol leaders (especially those of Outer Mongolia) decided to seek Mongolian independence. After the Xinhai Revolution, the Mongolian Revolution on 30 November 1911 in Outer Mongolia ended an over 200-year rule of the Qing dynasty. ### Post-Qing era With the independence of Outer Mongolia, the Mongolian army controlled Khalkha and Khovd regions (modern day Uvs, Khovd, and Bayan-Ölgii provinces), but Northern Xinjiang (the Altai and Ili regions of the Qing Empire), Upper Mongolia, Barga and Inner Mongolia came under control of the newly formed Republic of China. On February 2, 1913 the Bogd Khanate of Mongolia sent Mongolian cavalries to "liberate" Inner Mongolia from China. Russia refused to sell weapons to the Bogd Khanate, and the Russian czar, Nicholas II, referred to it as "Mongolian imperialism". Additionally, the United Kingdom urged Russia to abolish Mongolian independence as it was concerned that "if Mongolians gain independence, then Central Asians will revolt". 10,000 Khalkha and Inner Mongolian cavalries (about 3,500 Inner Mongols) defeated 70,000 Chinese soldiers and controlled almost all of Inner Mongolia; however, the Mongolian army retreated due to lack of weapons in 1914. 400 Mongol soldiers and 3,795 Chinese soldiers died in this war. The Khalkhas, Khovd Oirats, Buryats, Dzungarian Oirats, Upper Mongols, Barga Mongols, most Inner Mongolian and some Tuvan leaders sent statements to support Bogd Khan's call of Mongolian reunification. In reality however, most of them were too prudent or irresolute to attempt joining the Bogd Khan regime. Russia encouraged Mongolia to become an autonomous region of China in 1914. Mongolia lost Barga, Dzungaria, Tuva, Upper Mongolia and Inner Mongolia in the 1915 Treaty of Kyakhta. In October 1919, the Republic of China occupied Mongolia after the suspicious deaths of Mongolian patriotic nobles. On 3 February 1921 the White Russian army—led by Baron Ungern and mainly consisting of Mongolian volunteer cavalries, and Buryat and Tatar cossacks—liberated the Mongolian capital. Baron Ungern's purpose was to find allies to defeat the Soviet Union. The Statement of Reunification of Mongolia was adopted by Mongolian revolutionist leaders in 1921. The Soviet, however, considered Mongolia to be Chinese territory in 1924 during a secret meeting with the Republic of China. However, the Soviets officially recognized Mongolian independence in 1945 but carried out various policies (political, economic and cultural) against Mongolia until its fall in 1991 to prevent Pan-Mongolism and other irredentist movements. On 10 April 1932 Mongolians revolted against the government's new policy and Soviets. The government and Soviet soldiers defeated the rebels in October. The Buryats started to migrate to Mongolia in the 1900s due to Russian oppression. Joseph Stalin's regime stopped the migration in 1930 and started a campaign of ethnic cleansing against newcomers and Mongolians. During the Stalinist repressions in Mongolia almost all adult Buryat men and 22,000–33,000 Mongols (3–5% of the total population; common citizens, monks, Pan-Mongolists, nationalists, patriots, hundreds of military officers, nobles, intellectuals and elite people) were shot dead under Soviet orders. Some authors also offer much higher estimates, up to 100,000 victims. Around the late 1930s the Mongolian People's Republic had an overall population of about 700,000 to 900,000 people. By 1939, Soviet said "We repressed too many people, the population of Mongolia is only hundred thousands". The proportion of victims in relation to the population of the country is much higher than the corresponding figures of the Great Purge in the Soviet Union. The Manchukuo (1932–1945), puppet state of the Empire of Japan (1868–1947) invaded Barga and some part of Inner Mongolia with Japanese help. The Mongolian army advanced to the Great Wall of China during the Soviet–Japanese War of 1945 (Mongolian name: *Liberation War of 1945*). Japan forced Inner Mongolian and Barga people to fight against Mongolians but they surrendered to Mongolians and started to fight against their Japanese and Manchu allies. Marshal Khorloogiin Choibalsan called Inner Mongolians and Xinjiang Oirats to migrate to Mongolia during the war but the Soviet Army blocked Inner Mongolian migrants' way. It was a part of a Pan-Mongolian plan and few Oirats and Inner Mongols (Huuchids, Bargas, Tümeds, about 800 Uzemchins) arrived. Inner Mongolian leaders carried out active policy to merge Inner Mongolia with Mongolia since 1911. They founded the Inner Mongolian Army in 1929 but the Inner Mongolian Army disbanded after ending World War II. The Japanese Empire supported Pan-Mongolism since the 1910s but there have never been active relations between Mongolia and Imperial Japan due to Russian resistance. The nominally independent Inner Mongolian Mengjiang state (1936–1945) was established with support of Japan in 1936; also, some Buryat and Inner Mongol nobles founded a Pan-Mongolist government with the support of Japan in 1919. The Inner Mongols established the short-lived Republic of Inner Mongolia in 1945. Another part of Choibalsan's plan was to merge Inner Mongolia and Dzungaria with Mongolia. By 1945, Chinese communist leader Mao Zedong requested the Soviets to stop Pan-Mongolism because China lost its control over Inner Mongolia and without Inner Mongolian support the Communists were unable to defeat Japan and Kuomintang. Mongolia and Soviets supported Xinjiang Uyghurs' and Kazakhs' separatist movement in the 1930–1940s. By 1945, the Soviets refused to support them after its alliance with the Chinese Communist Party and Mongolia interrupted its relations with the separatists under pressure. Xinjiang Oirat's militant groups operated together the Turkic peoples but the Oirats did not have the leading role due to their small population. Basmachis or Turkic and Tajik militants fought to liberate Central Asia (Soviet Central Asia) until 1942. On February 2, 1913 the Treaty of friendship and alliance between the Government of Mongolia and Tibet was signed. Mongolian agents and Bogd Khan disrupted Soviet secret operations in Tibet to change its regime in the 1920s. On October 27, 1961, the United Nations recognized Mongolian independence and granted the nation full membership in the organization. The Tsardom of Russia, Russian Empire, Soviet Union, capitalist and communist China performed many genocide actions against the Mongols (assimilate, reduce the population, extinguish the language, culture, tradition, history, religion and ethnic identity). Peter the Great said: "The headwaters of the Yenisei River must be Russian land". The Russian Empire sent the Kalmyks and Buryats to war to reduce the populations (World War I and other wars). During the 20th century, Soviet scientists attempted to convince the Kalmyks and Buryats that they're not Mongols during (demongolization policy). 35,000 Buryats were killed during the rebellion of 1927 and around one-third of the Buryat population in Russia died in the 1900s–1950s. 10,000 Buryats of the Buryat-Mongol Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic were massacred by Stalin's order in the 1930s. In 1919 the Buryats established a small theocratic Balagad state in Kizhinginsky District of Russia and it fell in 1926. In 1958, the name "Mongol" was removed from the name of the Buryat-Mongol Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. On 22 January 1922 Mongolia proposed to migrate the Kalmyks during the Kalmykian Famine but bolshevik Russia refused. 71,000–72,000 (93,000?; around half of the population) Kalmyks died during the Russian famine of 1921–22. The Kalmyks revolted against the Soviet Union in 1926, 1930 and 1942–1943 (see Kalmykian Cavalry Corps). In 1913, Nicholas II, tsar of Russia, said: "We need to prevent from Volga Tatars. But the Kalmyks are more dangerous than them because they are the Mongols so send them to war to reduce the population". On 23 April 1923 Joseph Stalin, communist leader of Russia, said: "We are carrying out wrong policy on the Kalmyks who related to the Mongols. Our policy is too peaceful". In March 1927, Soviet deported 20,000 Kalmyks to Siberia, the tundra and Karelia.The Kalmyks founded the sovereign Republic of Oirat-Kalmyk on 22 March 1930. The Oirats' state had a small army and 200 Kalmyk soldiers defeated 1,700 Soviet soldiers in Durvud province of Kalmykia but the Oirats' state was destroyed by the Soviet Army in 1930. Kalmykian nationalists and Pan-Mongolists attempted to migrate Kalmyks to Mongolia in the 1920s. Mongolia suggested to migrate the Soviet Union's Mongols to Mongolia in the 1920s but Russia refused the suggestion. Stalin deported all Kalmyks to Siberia in 1943 and around half of the (97,000–98,000) Kalmyk people deported to Siberia died before being allowed to return home in 1957. The government of the Soviet Union forbade teaching the Kalmyk language during the deportation. The Kalmyks' main purpose was to migrate to Mongolia and many Kalmyks joined the German Army. Marshal Khorloogiin Choibalsan attempted to migrate the deportees to Mongolia and he met with them in Siberia during his visit to Russia. Under the Law of the Russian Federation of April 26, 1991 "On Rehabilitation of Exiled Peoples," repressions against Kalmyks and other peoples were qualified as acts of genocide. On 3 October 2002 the Ministry of Foreign Affairs announced that Taiwan recognizes Mongolia as an independent country, although no legislative actions were taken to address concerns over its constitutional claims to Mongolia. Offices established to support Taipei's claims over Outer Mongolia, such as the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission, lie dormant. Agin-Buryat Okrug and Ust-Orda Buryat Okrugs merged with Irkutsk Oblast and Chita Oblast in 2008 despite Buryats' resistance. Small scale protests occurred in Inner Mongolia in 2011. The Inner Mongolian People's Party is a member of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization and its leaders are attempting to establish a sovereign state or merge Inner Mongolia with Mongolia. Language -------- Mongolian is the official national language of Mongolia, where it is spoken by nearly 2.8 million people (2010 estimate), and the official provincial language of China's Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, where there are at least 4.1 million ethnic Mongols. Across the whole of China, the language is spoken by roughly half of the country's 5.8 million ethnic Mongols (2005 estimate) However, the exact number of Mongolian speakers in China is unknown, as there is no data available on the language proficiency of that country's citizens. The use of Mongolian in China, specifically in Inner Mongolia, has witnessed periods of decline and revival over the last few hundred years. The language experienced a decline during the late Qing period, a revival between 1947 and 1965, a second decline between 1966 and 1976, a second revival between 1977 and 1992, and a third decline between 1995 and 2012. However, in spite of the decline of the Mongolian language in some of Inner Mongolia's urban areas and educational spheres, the ethnic identity of the urbanized Chinese-speaking Mongols is most likely going to survive due to the presence of urban ethnic communities. The multilingual situation in Inner Mongolia does not appear to obstruct efforts by ethnic Mongols to preserve their language. Although an unknown number of Mongols in China, such as the Tumets, may have completely or partially lost the ability to speak their language, they are still registered as ethnic Mongols and continue to identify themselves as ethnic Mongols. The children of inter-ethnic Mongol-Chinese marriages also claim to be and are registered as ethnic Mongols. The specific origin of the Mongolic languages and associated tribes is unclear. Linguists have traditionally proposed a link to the Tungusic and Turkic language families, included alongside Mongolic in the broader group of Altaic languages, though this remains controversial. Today the Mongolian peoples speak at least one of several Mongolic languages including Mongolian, Buryat, Oirat, Dongxiang, Tu and Bonan. Additionally, many Mongols speak either Russian or Mandarin Chinese as languages of inter-ethnic communication. Religion -------- The original religion of the Mongolic peoples was Mongolian shamanism. The Xianbei came in contact with Confucianism and Daoism but eventually adopted Buddhism. However, the Xianbeis and some other people in Mongolia and Rourans followed a form of shamanism. In the 5th century the Buddhist monk Dharmapriya was proclaimed "State Teacher" of the Rouran Khaganate and 3,000 families and some Rouran nobles became Buddhists. In 511 the Rouran Douluofubadoufa Khan sent Hong Xuan to the Tuoba court with a pearl-encrusted statue of the Buddha as a gift. The Tuoba Xianbei and Khitans were mostly Buddhists, although they still retained their original Shamanism. The Tuoba had a "sacrificial castle" to the west of their capital where ceremonies to spirits took place. Wooden statues of the spirits were erected on top of this sacrificial castle. One ritual involved seven princes with milk offerings who ascended the stairs with 20 female shamans and offered prayers, sprinkling the statues with the sacred milk. The Khitan had their holiest shrine on Mount Muye where portraits of their earliest ancestor Qishou Khagan, his wife Kedun and eight sons were kept in two temples. Mongolic peoples were also exposed to Zoroastrianism, Manicheism, Nestorianism, Eastern Orthodoxy and Islam from the west. The Mongolic peoples, in particular the Borjigin, had their holiest shrine on Mount Burkhan Khaldun where their ancestor Börte Chono (Blue Wolf) and Goo Maral (Beautiful Doe) had given birth to them. Genghis Khan usually fasted, prayed and meditated on this mountain before his campaigns. As a young man he had thanked the mountain for saving his life and prayed at the foot of the mountain sprinkling offerings and bowing nine times to the east with his belt around his neck and his hat held at his chest. Genghis Khan kept a close watch on the Mongolic supreme shaman Kokochu Teb who sometimes conflicted with his authority. Later the imperial cult of Genghis Khan (*Tengerism*, centered on the eight white gers and nine white banners in Ordos) grew into a highly organized indigenous religion with scriptures in the Mongolian script. Indigenous moral precepts of the Mongolic peoples were enshrined in oral wisdom sayings (now collected in several volumes), the anda (blood-brother) system and ancient texts such as the *Chinggis-un Bilig* (Wisdom of Genghis) and *Oyun Tulkhuur* (Key of Intelligence). These moral precepts were expressed in poetic form and mainly involved truthfulness, fidelity, help in hardship, unity, self-control, fortitude, veneration of nature, veneration of the state and veneration of parents. In 1254 Möngke Khan organized a formal religious debate (in which William of Rubruck took part) between Christians, Muslims and Buddhists in Karakorum, a cosmopolitan city of many religions. The Mongolic Empire was known for its religious tolerance, but had a special leaning towards Buddhism and was sympathetic towards Christianity while still worshipping Tengri. The Mongolic leader Abaqa Khan sent a delegation of 13–16 to the Second Council of Lyon (1274), which created a great stir, particularly when their leader 'Zaganus' underwent a public baptism. A joint crusade was announced in line with the Franco-Mongol alliance but did not materialize because Pope Gregory X died in 1276. Yahballaha III (1245–1317) and Rabban Bar Sauma (c. 1220–1294) were famous Mongolic Nestorian Christians. The Keraites in central Mongolia were Christian. In Istanbul the Church of Saint Mary of the Mongols stands as a reminder of the Byzantine-Mongol alliance. The western Khanates, however, eventually adopted Islam (under Berke and Ghazan) and the Turkic languages (because of its commercial importance), although allegiance to the Great Khan and limited use of the Mongolic languages can be seen even in the 1330s. In 1521 the first Mughal emperor Babur took part in a military banner milk-sprinkling ceremony in the Chagatai Khanate where the Mongolian language was still used. Al-Adil Kitbugha (reigned 1294-1296), a Mongol Sultan of Egypt, and the half-Mongol An-Nasir Muhammad (reigned till 1341) built the Madrassa of Al-Nasir Muhammad in Cairo, Egypt. An-Nasir's Mongol mother was Ashlun bint Shaktay. The Mongolic nobility during the Yuan dynasty studied Confucianism, built Confucian temples (including Beijing Confucius Temple) and translated Confucian works into Mongolic but mainly followed the Sakya school of Tibetan Buddhism under Phags-pa Lama. The general populace still practised Shamanism. Dongxiang and Bonan Mongols adopted Islam, as did Moghol-speaking peoples in Afghanistan. In the 1576 the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism became the state religion of Mongolia. The Red Hat school of Tibetan Buddhism coexisted with the Gelug Yellow Hat school which was founded by the half-Mongol Je Tsongkhapa (1357-1419). Shamanism was absorbed into the state religion while being marginalized in its purer forms, later only surviving in far northern Mongolia. Monks were some of the leading intellectuals in Mongolia, responsible for much of the literature and art of the pre-modern period. Many Buddhist philosophical works lost in Tibet and elsewhere are preserved in older and purer form in Mongolian ancient texts (e.g. the Mongol Kanjur). Zanabazar (1635–1723), Zaya Pandita (1599–1662) and Danzanravjaa (1803–1856) are among the most famous Mongol holy men. The 4th Dalai Lama Yonten Gyatso (1589–1617), a Mongol himself, is recognized as the only non-Tibetan Dalai Lama although the current 14th Dalai Lama is of Mongolic Monguor extraction. The name is a combination of the Mongolian word dalai meaning "ocean" and the Tibetan word (bla-ma) meaning "guru, teacher, mentor".[1] Many Buryats became Orthodox Christians due to the Russian expansion. During the socialist period religion was officially banned, although it was practiced in clandestine circles. Today, a sizable proportion of Mongolic peoples are atheist or agnostic. In the most recent census in Mongolia, almost forty percent of the population reported as being atheist, while the majority religion was Tibetan Buddhism, with 53%. Having survived suppression by the Communists, Buddhism among the Eastern, Northern, Southern and Western Mongols is today primarily of the Gelugpa (Yellow Hat sect) school of Tibetan Buddhism. There is a strong shamanistic influence in the Gelugpa sect among the Mongols. Military -------- Mongols battled against the most powerful armies and warriors in Eurasia. The beating of the kettle and smoke signals were signals for the start of battle. One battle formation that they used consisted of five squadrons or units. The typical squadrons were divided by ranks. The first two ranks were in the front. These warriors had the heaviest armor and weapons. The back three ranks broke out between the front ranks and attacked first with their arrows. The forces kept their distance from the enemy and killed them with arrow fire, during which time "archers did not aim at a specific target, but shot their arrows at a high path into a set 'killing zone' or target area." Mongolics also acquired engineers from the defeated armies. They made engineers a permanent part of their army, so that their weapons and machinery were complex and efficient. Kinship and family life ----------------------- The traditional Mongol family was patriarchal, patrilineal and patrilocal. Wives were brought for each of the sons, while daughters were married off to other clans. Wife-taking clans stood in a relation of inferiority to wife-giving clans. Thus wife-giving clans were considered "elder" or "bigger" in relation to wife-taking clans, who were considered "younger" or "smaller". This distinction, symbolized in terms of "elder" and "younger" or "bigger" and "smaller", was carried into the clan and family as well, and all members of a lineage were terminologically distinguished by generation and age, with senior superior to junior. In the traditional Mongolian family, each son received a part of the family herd as he married, with the elder son receiving more than the younger son. The youngest son would remain in the parental tent caring for his parents, and after their death he would inherit the parental tent in addition to his own part of the herd. This inheritance system was mandated by law codes such as the Yassa, created by Genghis Khan. Likewise, each son inherited a part of the family's camping lands and pastures, with the elder son receiving more than the younger son. The eldest son inherited the farthest camping lands and pastures, and each son in turn inherited camping lands and pastures closer to the family tent until the youngest son inherited the camping lands and pastures immediately surrounding the family tent. Family units would often remain near each other and in close cooperation, though extended families would inevitably break up after a few generations. It is probable that the Yasa simply put into written law the principles of customary law. > It is apparent that in many cases, for example in family instructions, the yasa tacitly accepted the principles of customary law and avoided any interference with them. For example, Riasanovsky said that killing the man or the woman in case of adultery is a good illustration. Yasa permitted the institutions of polygamy and concubinage so characteristic of southerly nomadic peoples. Children born of concubines were legitimate. Seniority of children derived their status from their mother. Eldest son received more than the youngest after the death of father. But the latter inherited the household of the father. Children of concubines also received a share in the inheritance, in accordance with the instructions of their father (or with custom). > > — Nilgün Dalkesen, Gender roles and women's status in Central Asia and Anatolia between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries After the family, the next largest social units were the subclan and clan. These units were derived from groups claiming patrilineal descent from a common ancestor, ranked in order of seniority (the "conical clan"). By the Chingissid era this ranking was symbolically expressed at formal feasts, in which tribal chieftains were seated and received particular portions of the slaughtered animal according to their status. The lineage structure of Central Asia had three different modes. It was organized on the basis of genealogical distance, or the proximity of individuals to one another on a graph of kinship; generational distance, or the rank of generation in relation to a common ancestor, and birth order, the rank of brothers in relation to each another. The paternal descent lines were collaterally ranked according to the birth of their founders, and were thus considered senior and junior to each other. Of the various collateral patrilines, the senior in order of descent from the founding ancestor, the line of eldest sons, was the most noble. In the steppe, no one had his exact equal; everyone found his place in a system of collaterally ranked lines of descent from a common ancestor. It was according to this idiom of superiority and inferiority of lineages derived from birth order that legal claims to superior rank were couched. The Mongol kinship is one of a particular patrilineal type classed as Omaha, in which relatives are grouped together under separate terms that crosscut generations, age, and even sexual difference. Thus, oe uses different terms for a man's father's sister's children, his sister's children, and his daughter's children. A further attribute is strict terminological differentiation of siblings according to seniority. The division of Mongolian society into senior elite lineages and subordinate junior lineages was waning by the twentieth century. During the 1920s, the Communist regime was established. The remnants of the Mongolian aristocracy fought alongside the Japanese and against Chinese, Soviets and Communist Mongols during World War II, but were defeated. The anthropologist Herbert Harold Vreeland visited three Mongol communities in 1920 and published a highly detailed book with the results of his fieldwork, *Mongol community and kinship structure*. Royal family ------------ The royal clan of the Mongols is the Borjigin clan descended from Bodonchar Munkhag (c. 850–900). This clan produced Khans and princes for Mongolia and surrounding regions until the early 20th century. All the Great Khans of the Mongol Empire, including its founder Genghis Khan, were of the Borjigin clan. The royal family of Mongolia was called the *Altan Urag* (Golden Lineage) and is synonymous with Genghisid. After the fall of the Northern Yuan Dynasty in 1635 the Dayan Khanid aristocracy continued the Genghisid legacy in Mongolia until 1937 when most were killed during the Stalinist purges. The four hereditary Khans of the Khalkha (Tüsheet Khan, Setsen Khan, Zasagt Khan and Sain Noyan Khan) were all descended from Dayan Khan (1464–1543) through Abtai Sain Khan, Sholoi Khan, Laikhur Khan and Tumenkhen Sain Noyan respectively. Dayan Khan was himself raised to power by Queen Mandukhai the Wise (c.1449–1510) during the crisis of the late 15th century when the line of Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, was on the verge of dying out. Dayan Khan's ancestry is as follows. His father was Bayanmunkh Jonon (1448–1479) the son of Kharkhutsag Taij (?–1453), the son of Agbarjin Khan (1423–1454), the son of Ajai Taij (1399–1438), the son or younger brother of Elbeg Nigülesügchi Khan (1361–1399), the son of Uskhal Khan (1342–1388), the younger brother of Biligtü Khan (1340–1370) and the son of Toghon Temur Khan (1320–1370), the son of Khutughtu Khan (1300–1329), the son of Külüg Khan (1281–1311), the son of Darmabala (1264–1292), the son of Crown Prince Zhenjin (1243–1286), the son of Kublai Khan (1215–1294), the son of Tolui (1191–1232), the son of Genghis Khan (1162–1227). Okada (1994) noted that according to the Korean Veritable Records Taisun Khan, the brother of Agbarjin Khan, sent a Mongolian letter to Korea on May 9, 1442, where he named Kublai Khan as his ancestor. This, along with the direct Mongol account of the Erdeniin Tobchi as well as indirect indications from three different Mongolian chronicles noted in Okada, establishes the Kublaid descent of Elbeg Nigülesügchi Khan. Buyandelger (2000) noted that the year of birth of Elbeg Nigülesügchi Khan as well as the meaning of his name is the same as that of Maidarabala (买的里八剌) the son of Biligtü Khan's secondary consort Empress Kim (daughter of Kim Yunjang 金允藏). Further noting that Maidarabala was sent back to Mongolia in 1374 after being held hostage in Beiping (Beijing) for 3 years Buyandelger identified Maidarabala with Elbeg Nigülesügchi Khan. This does not change the Kublaid descent of Elbeg Nigülesügchi Khan and only changes his paternity from Uskhal Khan to his brother Biligtü Khan. The Khongirad was the main consort clan of the Borjigin and provided numerous Empresses and consorts. There were five minor non-Khonggirad inputs from the maternal side which passed on to the Dayan Khanid aristocracy of Mongolia and Inner Mongolia. The first was the Keraite lineage added through Kublai Khan's mother Sorghaghtani Beki which linked the Borjigin to the Nestorian Christian tribe of Cyriacus Buyruk Khan. The second was the Turkic Karluk lineage added through Toghon Temur Khan's mother Mailaiti which linked the Borjigin to Bilge Kul Qadir Khan (840–893) of the Kara-Khanid Khanate and ultimately to the Lion-Karluks as well as the Ashina tribe of the 6th century Göktürks. The third was the Korean lineage added through Biligtü Khan's mother Empress Gi (1315–370) which linked the Borjigin to the Haengju Gi clan and ultimately to King Jun of Gojeoson (262–184 BC) and possibly even further to King Tang of Shang (1675–1646 BC) through Jizi. The fourth was the Esen Taishi lineage added through Bayanmunkh Jonon's mother Tsetseg Khatan which linked the Borjigin more firmly to the Oirats. The fifth was the Aisin-Gioro lineage added during the Qing Dynasty. To the west, Genghisid Khans received daughters of the Byzantine emperor in marriage, such as when the Byzantine princess Maria Palaiologina married to Abaqa Khan (1234–1282), while there were also connections with European royalty through Russia, where, for example, Prince Gleb (1237–1278) married Feodora Sartaqovna the daughter of Sartaq Khan, a great-grandson of Genghis Khan. The Dayan Khanid aristocracy still held power during the Bogd Khanate of Mongolia (1911–1919) and the Constitutional Monarchy period (1921–1924). They were accused of collaboration with the Japanese and executed in 1937 while their counterparts in Inner Mongolia were severely persecuted during the Cultural Revolution. Ancestral shrines of Genghis Khan were destroyed by the Red Guards during the 1960s and the Horse-Tail Banner of Genghis Khan disappeared. The Rinchen family in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia is a Dayan Khanid branch from Buryatia. Members of this family include the scholar Byambyn Rinchen (1905–1977), geologist Rinchen Barsbold (1935–?), diplomat Ganibal Jagvaral and Amartuvshin Ganibal (1974–?) the President of XacBank. There are many other families with aristocratic ancestry in Mongolia and it is often noted that most of the common populace already has some share of Genghisid ancestry. Mongolia, however, has remained a republic since 1924 and there has been no discussion of introducing a constitutional monarchy. Historical population --------------------- | Year | Population | Notes | | --- | --- | --- | | 1 AD | 1–2,000,000? | | | 1000 | 2,500,000? | 750,000 Khitans | | 1200 | 2,600,000? | 1,5–2,000,000 Mongols | | 1600 | 2,300,000? | 77,000 Buryats; 600,000 Khalkhas | | 1700 | 2,600,000? | 600,000 Khalkhas; 1,100,000? Oirats: 600,000 Zunghars, 200–250,000? Kalmyks, 200,000 Upper Mongols | | 1800 | 2,000,000? | 600,000 Khalkhas; 440,000? Oirats: 120,000 Zunghars, 120,000? Upper Mongols | | 1900 | 2,300,000? | 283,383 Buryats (1897); 500,000? Khalkhas (1911); 380,000 Oirats: 70,000? Mongolian Oirats (1911), 190,648 Kalmyks (1897), 70,000? Dzungarian and Inner Mongolian Oirats, 50,000 Upper Mongols; 1,500,000? Southern Mongols (1911) | | 1927 | 2,100,000? | **600,000 Mongolians** — 230,000? Buryats: 15,000? Mongolian Buryats, 214,957 Buryats in Russia (1926); 500,000? Khalkhas (1927); 330,000? Oirats: 70,000 Mongolian Oirats, 128,809 Kalmyks (1926) | | 1956 | 2,500,000? | 228,647 Buryats: 24,625 Mongolian Buryats (1956), 135,798 Buryats of the (Buryat Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic; 1959), 23,374 Agin-Buryats (1959), 44,850 Ust-Orda Buryats (1959); 639,141 Khalkhas (1956); 240,000? Oirats: 77,996 Mongolian Oirats (1956), 100,603 Kalmyks (1959), 1,462,956 Mongols in China (1953) | | 1980 | 4,300,000? | 317,966? Buryats: 29,802 Mongolian Buryats (1979), 206,860 Buryatian Buryats (1979), 45,436 Usta-Orda Buryats (1979), 35,868 Agin-Buryats (1979); 1,271,086 Khalkhas; 398,339 Oirats: 127,328 Mongolian Oirats (1979), 140,103 Kalmyks (1979), 2,153,000 Southern Mongols (1981) | | 1990 | 4,700,000? | 376,629 Buryats: 35,444 Mongolian Buryats (1989), 249,525 Buryatian Buryats (1989), 49,298 Usta-Orda Buryats (1989), 42,362 Agin-Buryats (1989); 1,654,221 Khalkhas; 470,000? Oirats: 161,803 Mongolian Oirats (1989), 165,103 Kalmyks (1989), 33,000 Upper Mongols (1987); | | 2010 | 5–9,200,000? | 500,000? Buryats (45–75,000 Mongolian Buryats, 10,000 Hulunbuir Buryats); 2,300,000 Khalkhas (including Dariganga, Darkhad, Eljigin and Sartuul); 638,372 Oirats: 183,372 Kalmyks, 205,000 Mongolian Oirats, 90–100, 000 Upper Mongols, 2010 — 140,000 Xinjiang Oirats; 2013 — 190,000? Xinjiang Oirats: 100,000? Torghuts (Kalmyks), 40–50,000? Olots, 40,000? other Oirats: mainly Khoshuts; 1,5–4,000,000? 5,700,000? Southern Mongols | Geographic distribution ----------------------- Today, the majority of Mongols live in the modern states of Mongolia, China (mainly Inner Mongolia and Xinjiang), Russia, Kyrgyzstan and Afghanistan. The differentiation between tribes and peoples (ethnic groups) is handled differently depending on the country. The Tumed, Chahar, Ordos, Barga, Altai Uriankhai, Buryats, Dörböd (Dörvöd, Dörbed), Torguud, Dariganga, Üzemchin (or Üzümchin), Bayads, Khoton, Myangad (Mingad), Eljigin, Zakhchin, Darkhad, and Olots (or Öölds or Ölöts) are all considered as tribes of the Mongols. ### Subgroups The Eastern Mongols are mainly concentrated in Mongolia, including the Khalkha, Eljigin Khalkha, Darkhad, Sartuul Khalkha, and Dariganga (Khalkha). The Southern or Inner Mongols mainly are concentrated in Inner Mongolia, China. They comprise the Abaga Mongols, Abaganar, Aohans, Asud, Baarins, Chahar, Durved, Gorlos, Kharchin, Hishigten, Khorchin, Huuchid, Jalaid, Jaruud, Muumyangan, Naiman (Southern Mongols), Onnigud, Ordos, Sunud, Tümed, Urad, and Uzemchin. ### Sister groups The Buryats are mainly concentrated in their homeland, the Buryat Republic, a federal subject of Russia. They are the major northern subgroup of the Mongols. The Barga Mongols are mainly concentrated in Inner Mongolia, China, along with the Buryats and Hamnigan. The Western Oirats are mainly concentrated in Western Mongolia: * 184,000 Kalmyks (2010) — Kalmykia, Russia * 205,000 Mongolian Oirats (2010) * 140,000 Oirats (2010) — Xinjiang region, China * 90,000 Upper Mongols (2010) — Qinghai region, China. The Khoshuts are the major subgroup of the Upper Mongols, along with the Choros, Khalkha and Torghuts. * 12,000 Sart Kalmyks (Zungharian descents) (2012) — Kyrgyzstan. Religion: Sunni Islam. Altai Uriankhai, Baatud, Bayad, Chantuu, Choros, Durvud, Khoshut, Khoid, Khoton, Myangad, Olots, Sart Kalmyks (mainly Olots), Torghut, Zakhchin. * Kalmyks — Baatud, Buzava, Choros, Durvud, Khoid, Olots, Torghut. * Upper Mongolian Oirats — Choros, Khoshut, Torghut. ### Mongolia In modern-day Mongolia, Mongols make up approximately 95% of the population, with the largest ethnic group being Khalkha Mongols, followed by Buryats, both belonging to the Eastern Mongolian peoples. They are followed by Oirats, who belong to the Western Mongolian peoples. Mongolian ethnic groups: Baarin, Baatud, Barga, Bayad, Buryat, Selenge Chahar, Chantuu, Darkhad, Dariganga Dörbet Oirat, Eljigin, Khalkha, Hamnigan, Kharchin, Khoid, Khorchin, Hotogoid, Khoton, Huuchid, Myangad, Olots, Sartuul, Torgut, Tümed, Üzemchin, Zakhchin. ### China The 2010 census of the People's Republic of China counted more than 7 million people of various Mongolic groups. The 1992 census of China counted only 3.6 million ethnic Mongols. The 2010 census counted roughly 5.8 million ethnic Mongols, 621,500 Dongxiangs, 289,565 Mongours, 132,000 Daurs, 20,074 Baoans, and 14,370 Yugurs. Most of them live in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, followed by Liaoning. Small numbers can also be found in provinces near those two. There were 669,972 Mongols in Liaoning in 2011, making up 11.52% of Mongols in China. The closest Mongol area to the sea is the Dabao Mongol Ethnic Township (大堡蒙古族乡) in Fengcheng, Liaoning. With 8,460 Mongols (37.4% of the township population) it is located 40 km (25 mi)from the North Korean border and 65 km (40 mi)from Korea Bay of the Yellow Sea. Another contender for closest Mongol area to the sea would be Erdaowanzi Mongol Ethnic Township (二道湾子蒙古族乡) in Jianchang County, Liaoning. With 5,011 Mongols (20.7% of the township population) it is located around 65 km (40 mi)from the Bohai Sea. Other peoples speaking Mongolic languages are the Daur, Sogwo Arig, Monguor people, Dongxiangs, Bonans, Sichuan Mongols and eastern part of the Yugur people. Those do not officially count as part of the Mongol ethnicity, but are recognized as ethnic groups of their own. The Mongols lost their contact with the Mongours, Bonan, Dongxiangs, Yunnan Mongols since the fall of the Yuan dynasty. Mongolian scientists and journalists met with the Dongxiangs and Yunnan Mongols in the 2000s. Inner Mongolia: Southern Mongols, Barga, Buryat, Dörbet Oirat, Khalkha, Dzungar people, Eznee Torgut. Xinjiang province: Altai Uriankhai, Chahar, Khoshut, Olots, Torghut, Zakhchin. Qinghai province: Upper Mongols: Choros, Khoshut ### Russia Two Mongolic ethnic groups are present in Russia; the 2010 census found 461,410 Buryats and 183,400 Kalmyks. ### Elsewhere Smaller numbers of Mongolic peoples exist in Western Europe and North America. Some of the more notable communities exist in South Korea, the United States, the Czech Republic and the United Kingdom. Gallery ------- * Mongol Empress Zayaat (Jiyatu), wife of Kulug Khan (1281–1311)Mongol Empress Zayaat (Jiyatu), wife of Kulug Khan (1281–1311) * Genghis' son Tolui with Queen SorgaqtaniGenghis' son Tolui with Queen Sorgaqtani * Hulegu Khan, ruler of the IlkhanateHulegu Khan, ruler of the Ilkhanate * 13th century Ilkhanid Mongol archer13th century Ilkhanid Mongol archer * Mongol soldiers by Rashid al-Din, BnF. MS. Supplément Persan 1113. 1430-1434 AD.Mongol soldiers by Rashid al-Din, BnF. MS. Supplément Persan 1113. 1430-1434 AD. * Kalmyk Mongol girl Annushka (painted in 1767)Kalmyk Mongol girl Annushka (painted in 1767) * A 20th-century Mongol Khan, NavaannerenA 20th-century Mongol Khan, Navaanneren * The 4th Dalai Lama Yonten GyatsoThe 4th Dalai Lama Yonten Gyatso * Dolgorsürengiin Dagvadorj became the first Mongol to reach sumo's highest rank.Dolgorsürengiin Dagvadorj became the first Mongol to reach sumo's highest rank. * Mongol women archers during Naadam festivalMongol women archers during Naadam festival * A Mongol musicianA Mongol musician * A Mongol WranglerA Mongol Wrangler * Buryat Mongol shamanBuryat Mongol shaman * Kalmyks, 19th centuryKalmyks, 19th century * Mongol girl performing Bayad danceMongol girl performing Bayad dance * Buryat Mongols (painted in 1840)Buryat Mongols (painted in 1840) * Daur Mongol Empress Wanrong (1906–1946), also had Borjigin blood on maternal side.Daur Mongol Empress Wanrong (1906–1946), also had Borjigin blood on maternal side. * Buryat Mongol boy during shamanic riteBuryat Mongol boy during shamanic rite * Concubine Wenxiu was Puyi's consortConcubine Wenxiu was Puyi's consort * A Mongolian Buddhist monk, 1913A Mongolian Buddhist monk, 1913 See also -------- * Altan Telgey * American Center for Mongolian Studies * Horse culture in Mongolia * List of medieval Mongol tribes and clans * List of modern Mongol clans * List of Mongolians * List of Mongol states * Mongolian name * Mongoloid * Qara'unas References ---------- ### Secondary sources * Balogh, Matyas (2010). "Contemporary shamanisms in Mongolia". *Asian Ethnicity*. **11** (2): 229–38. doi:10.1080/14631361003779489. S2CID 145595446. * Bira, Shagdaryn (2011). *Монголын тэнгэрийн үзэл: түүвэр зохиол, баримт бичгүүд* [*Mongolian Tengerism: selected papers and documents*] (in Mongolian). Ulaanbaatar: Sodpress. ISBN 9789992955932. * Bumochir, D. (2014). "Institutionalization of Mongolian shamanism: from primitivism to civilization". *Asian Ethnicity*. **15** (4): 473–91. doi:10.1080/14631369.2014.939331. S2CID 145329835. * Garcia, Chad D. (2012). *A New Kind of Northerner*. * Heissig, Walther (1980) [1970]. *The religions of Mongolia*. Translated by G. Samuel. London; Henley: Routledge; Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-7103-0685-7. * Ochir, Taĭzhiud Ai︠u︡udaĭn (2008). Sh. Choĭmaa (ed.). *Монголчуудын гарал, нэршил* [*On the origin of Mongolian family: clan names and ethnonyms*] (in Mongolian). Ulaanbaatar: International Institute for the Study of Nomadic Civilizations. ISBN 9789992959978. OCLC 505674246. * Schlehe, Judith (2004). "Shamanism in Mongolia and in New Age Movements". In Rasuly-Paleczek, Gabriele (ed.). *Central Asia on Display: Proceedings of the VIIth Conference of the European Society for Central Asian Studies*. Vol. 1. Vienna: LIT Verlag. pp. 283–96. ISBN 3-8258-8309-4. ### Primary sources * *The Secret History of the Mongols: a Mongolian Epic Chronicle of the Thirteenth Century*. Inner Asian library. Vol. 1–2. Translated by Igor de Rachewiltz with a historical and philological commentary. Leiden: Brill. 2004 [1971–85]. ISBN 978-90-04-15363-9.

Mongols

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongols

**Iron** is a chemical element with the symbol **Fe** (from Latin **ferrum** 'iron') and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of the periodic table. It is, by mass, the most common element on Earth, just ahead of oxygen (32.1% and 30.1%, respectively), forming much of Earth's outer and inner core. It is the fourth most common element in the Earth's crust, being mainly deposited by meteorites in its metallic state, with its ores also being found there. Extracting usable metal from iron ores requires kilns or furnaces capable of reaching 1,500 °C (2,730 °F) or higher, about 500 °C (932 °F) higher than that required to smelt copper. Humans started to master that process in Eurasia during the 2nd millennium BCE and the use of iron tools and weapons began to displace copper alloys—in some regions, only around 1200 BCE. That event is considered the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age. In the modern world, iron alloys, such as steel, stainless steel, cast iron and special steels, are by far the most common industrial metals, due to their mechanical properties and low cost. The iron and steel industry is thus very important economically, and iron is the cheapest metal, with a price of a few dollars per kilogram or pound. Pristine and smooth pure iron surfaces are a mirror-like silvery-gray. Iron reacts readily with oxygen and water to produce brown-to-black hydrated iron oxides, commonly known as rust. Unlike the oxides of some other metals that form passivating layers, rust occupies more volume than the metal and thus flakes off, exposing more fresh surfaces for corrosion. High-purity irons (e.g. electrolytic iron) are more resistant to corrosion. The body of an adult human contains about 4 grams (0.005% body weight) of iron, mostly in hemoglobin and myoglobin. These two proteins play essential roles in vertebrate metabolism, respectively oxygen transport by blood and oxygen storage in muscles. To maintain the necessary levels, human iron metabolism requires a minimum of iron in the diet. Iron is also the metal at the active site of many important redox enzymes dealing with cellular respiration and oxidation and reduction in plants and animals. Chemically, the most common oxidation states of iron are iron(II) and iron(III). Iron shares many properties of other transition metals, including the other group 8 elements, ruthenium and osmium. Iron forms compounds in a wide range of oxidation states, −2 to +7. Iron also forms many coordination compounds; some of them, such as ferrocene, ferrioxalate, and Prussian blue have substantial industrial, medical, or research applications. Characteristics --------------- ### Allotropes At least four allotropes of iron (differing atom arrangements in the solid) are known, conventionally denoted α, γ, δ, and ε. The first three forms are observed at ordinary pressures. As molten iron cools past its freezing point of 1538 °C, it crystallizes into its δ allotrope, which has a body-centered cubic (bcc) crystal structure. As it cools further to 1394 °C, it changes to its γ-iron allotrope, a face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal structure, or austenite. At 912 °C and below, the crystal structure again becomes the bcc α-iron allotrope. The physical properties of iron at very high pressures and temperatures have also been studied extensively, because of their relevance to theories about the cores of the Earth and other planets. Above approximately 10 GPa and temperatures of a few hundred kelvin or less, α-iron changes into another hexagonal close-packed (hcp) structure, which is also known as ε-iron. The higher-temperature γ-phase also changes into ε-iron, but does so at higher pressure. Some controversial experimental evidence exists for a stable β phase at pressures above 50 GPa and temperatures of at least 1500 K. It is supposed to have an orthorhombic or a double hcp structure. (Confusingly, the term "β-iron" is sometimes also used to refer to α-iron above its Curie point, when it changes from being ferromagnetic to paramagnetic, even though its crystal structure has not changed.) The inner core of the Earth is generally presumed to consist of an iron-nickel alloy with ε (or β) structure. ### Melting and boiling points The melting and boiling points of iron, along with its enthalpy of atomization, are lower than those of the earlier 3d elements from scandium to chromium, showing the lessened contribution of the 3d electrons to metallic bonding as they are attracted more and more into the inert core by the nucleus; however, they are higher than the values for the previous element manganese because that element has a half-filled 3d sub-shell and consequently its d-electrons are not easily delocalized. This same trend appears for ruthenium but not osmium. The melting point of iron is experimentally well defined for pressures less than 50 GPa. For greater pressures, published data (as of 2007) still varies by tens of gigapascals and over a thousand kelvin. ### Magnetic properties Below its Curie point of 770 °C (1,420 °F; 1,040 K), α-iron changes from paramagnetic to ferromagnetic: the spins of the two unpaired electrons in each atom generally align with the spins of its neighbors, creating an overall magnetic field. This happens because the orbitals of those two electrons (d*z*2 and d*x*2 −. *y*2) do not point toward neighboring atoms in the lattice, and therefore are not involved in metallic bonding. In the absence of an external source of magnetic field, the atoms get spontaneously partitioned into magnetic domains, about 10 micrometers across, such that the atoms in each domain have parallel spins, but some domains have other orientations. Thus a macroscopic piece of iron will have a nearly zero overall magnetic field. Application of an external magnetic field causes the domains that are magnetized in the same general direction to grow at the expense of adjacent ones that point in other directions, reinforcing the external field. This effect is exploited in devices that need to channel magnetic fields to fulfill design function, such as electrical transformers, magnetic recording heads, and electric motors. Impurities, lattice defects, or grain and particle boundaries can "pin" the domains in the new positions, so that the effect persists even after the external field is removed – thus turning the iron object into a (permanent) magnet. Similar behavior is exhibited by some iron compounds, such as the ferrites including the mineral magnetite, a crystalline form of the mixed iron(II,III) oxide Fe3O4 (although the atomic-scale mechanism, ferrimagnetism, is somewhat different). Pieces of magnetite with natural permanent magnetization (lodestones) provided the earliest compasses for navigation. Particles of magnetite were extensively used in magnetic recording media such as core memories, magnetic tapes, floppies, and disks, until they were replaced by cobalt-based materials. ### Isotopes Iron has four stable isotopes: 54Fe (5.845% of natural iron), 56Fe (91.754%), 57Fe (2.119%) and 58Fe (0.282%). 24 artificial isotopes have also been created. Of these stable isotopes, only 57Fe has a nuclear spin (−1⁄2). The nuclide 54Fe theoretically can undergo double electron capture to 54Cr, but the process has never been observed and only a lower limit on the half-life of 3.1×1022 years has been established. 60Fe is an extinct radionuclide of long half-life (2.6 million years). It is not found on Earth, but its ultimate decay product is its granddaughter, the stable nuclide 60Ni. Much of the past work on isotopic composition of iron has focused on the nucleosynthesis of 60Fe through studies of meteorites and ore formation. In the last decade, advances in mass spectrometry have allowed the detection and quantification of minute, naturally occurring variations in the ratios of the stable isotopes of iron. Much of this work is driven by the Earth and planetary science communities, although applications to biological and industrial systems are emerging. In phases of the meteorites *Semarkona* and *Chervony Kut,* a correlation between the concentration of 60Ni, the granddaughter of 60Fe, and the abundance of the stable iron isotopes provided evidence for the existence of 60Fe at the time of formation of the Solar System. Possibly the energy released by the decay of 60Fe, along with that released by 26Al, contributed to the remelting and differentiation of asteroids after their formation 4.6 billion years ago. The abundance of 60Ni present in extraterrestrial material may bring further insight into the origin and early history of the Solar System. The most abundant iron isotope 56Fe is of particular interest to nuclear scientists because it represents the most common endpoint of nucleosynthesis. Since 56Ni (14 alpha particles) is easily produced from lighter nuclei in the alpha process in nuclear reactions in supernovae (see silicon burning process), it is the endpoint of fusion chains inside extremely massive stars, since addition of another alpha particle, resulting in 60Zn, requires a great deal more energy. This 56Ni, which has a half-life of about 6 days, is created in quantity in these stars, but soon decays by two successive positron emissions within supernova decay products in the supernova remnant gas cloud, first to radioactive 56Co, and then to stable 56Fe. As such, iron is the most abundant element in the core of red giants, and is the most abundant metal in iron meteorites and in the dense metal cores of planets such as Earth. It is also very common in the universe, relative to other stable metals of approximately the same atomic weight. Iron is the sixth most abundant element in the universe, and the most common refractory element. Although a further tiny energy gain could be extracted by synthesizing 62Ni, which has a marginally higher binding energy than 56Fe, conditions in stars are unsuitable for this process. Element production in supernovas greatly favor iron over nickel, and in any case, 56Fe still has a lower mass per nucleon than 62Ni due to its higher fraction of lighter protons. Hence, elements heavier than iron require a supernova for their formation, involving rapid neutron capture by starting 56Fe nuclei. In the far future of the universe, assuming that proton decay does not occur, cold fusion occurring via quantum tunnelling would cause the light nuclei in ordinary matter to fuse into 56Fe nuclei. Fission and alpha-particle emission would then make heavy nuclei decay into iron, converting all stellar-mass objects to cold spheres of pure iron. Origin and occurrence in nature ------------------------------- ### Cosmogenesis Iron's abundance in rocky planets like Earth is due to its abundant production during the runaway fusion and explosion of type Ia supernovae, which scatters the iron into space. ### Metallic iron Metallic or native iron is rarely found on the surface of the Earth because it tends to oxidize. However, both the Earth's inner and outer core, which together account for 35% of the mass of the whole Earth, are believed to consist largely of an iron alloy, possibly with nickel. Electric currents in the liquid outer core are believed to be the origin of the Earth's magnetic field. The other terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, and Mars) as well as the Moon are believed to have a metallic core consisting mostly of iron. The M-type asteroids are also believed to be partly or mostly made of metallic iron alloy. The rare iron meteorites are the main form of natural metallic iron on the Earth's surface. Items made of cold-worked meteoritic iron have been found in various archaeological sites dating from a time when iron smelting had not yet been developed; and the Inuit in Greenland have been reported to use iron from the Cape York meteorite for tools and hunting weapons. About 1 in 20 meteorites consist of the unique iron-nickel minerals taenite (35–80% iron) and kamacite (90–95% iron). Native iron is also rarely found in basalts that have formed from magmas that have come into contact with carbon-rich sedimentary rocks, which have reduced the oxygen fugacity sufficiently for iron to crystallize. This is known as Telluric iron and is described from a few localities, such as Disko Island in West Greenland, Yakutia in Russia and Bühl in Germany. ### Mantle minerals Ferropericlase (Mg,Fe)O, a solid solution of periclase (MgO) and wüstite (FeO), makes up about 20% of the volume of the lower mantle of the Earth, which makes it the second most abundant mineral phase in that region after silicate perovskite (Mg,Fe)SiO3; it also is the major host for iron in the lower mantle. At the bottom of the transition zone of the mantle, the reaction γ-(Mg,Fe)2[SiO4] ↔ (Mg,Fe)[SiO3] + (Mg,Fe)O transforms γ-olivine into a mixture of silicate perovskite and ferropericlase and vice versa. In the literature, this mineral phase of the lower mantle is also often called magnesiowüstite. Silicate perovskite may form up to 93% of the lower mantle, and the magnesium iron form, (Mg,Fe)SiO3, is considered to be the most abundant mineral in the Earth, making up 38% of its volume. ### Earth's crust While iron is the most abundant element on Earth, most of this iron is concentrated in the inner and outer cores. The fraction of iron that is in Earth's crust only amounts to about 5% of the overall mass of the crust and is thus only the fourth most abundant element in that layer (after oxygen, silicon, and aluminium). Most of the iron in the crust is combined with various other elements to form many iron minerals. An important class is the iron oxide minerals such as hematite (Fe2O3), magnetite (Fe3O4), and siderite (FeCO3), which are the major ores of iron. Many igneous rocks also contain the sulfide minerals pyrrhotite and pentlandite. During weathering, iron tends to leach from sulfide deposits as the sulfate and from silicate deposits as the bicarbonate. Both of these are oxidized in aqueous solution and precipitate in even mildly elevated pH as iron(III) oxide. Large deposits of iron are banded iron formations, a type of rock consisting of repeated thin layers of iron oxides alternating with bands of iron-poor shale and chert. The banded iron formations were laid down in the time between 3,700 million years ago and 1,800 million years ago. Materials containing finely ground iron(III) oxides or oxide-hydroxides, such as ochre, have been used as yellow, red, and brown pigments since pre-historical times. They contribute as well to the color of various rocks and clays, including entire geological formations like the Painted Hills in Oregon and the Buntsandstein ("colored sandstone", British Bunter). Through *Eisensandstein* (a jurassic 'iron sandstone', e.g. from Donzdorf in Germany) and Bath stone in the UK, iron compounds are responsible for the yellowish color of many historical buildings and sculptures. The proverbial red color of the surface of Mars is derived from an iron oxide-rich regolith. Significant amounts of iron occur in the iron sulfide mineral pyrite (FeS2), but it is difficult to extract iron from it and it is therefore not exploited. In fact, iron is so common that production generally focuses only on ores with very high quantities of it. According to the International Resource Panel's Metal Stocks in Society report, the global stock of iron in use in society is 2,200 kg per capita. More-developed countries differ in this respect from less-developed countries (7,000–14,000 vs 2,000 kg per capita). ### Oceans Ocean science demonstrated the role of the iron in the ancient seas in both marine biota and climate. Chemistry and compounds ----------------------- | Oxidation state | Representative compound | | --- | --- | | −4 (d12) | [FeIn6−*x*Sn*x*] | | −2 (d10) | Disodium tetracarbonylferrate (Collman's reagent) | | −1 (d9) | Fe2(CO)2−8 | | 0 (d8) | Iron pentacarbonyl | | 1 (d7) | Cyclopentadienyliron dicarbonyl dimer ("Fp2") | | 2 (d6) | Ferrous sulfate, Ferrocene | | 3 (d5) | Ferric chloride, Ferrocenium tetrafluoroborate | | 4 (d4) | Fe(diars)2Cl2+2, FeO(BF4)2 | | 5 (d3) | FeO3−4 | | 6 (d2) | Potassium ferrate | | 7 (d1) | [FeO4]– (matrix isolation, 4K) | Iron shows the characteristic chemical properties of the transition metals, namely the ability to form variable oxidation states differing by steps of one and a very large coordination and organometallic chemistry: indeed, it was the discovery of an iron compound, ferrocene, that revolutionalized the latter field in the 1950s. Iron is sometimes considered as a prototype for the entire block of transition metals, due to its abundance and the immense role it has played in the technological progress of humanity. Its 26 electrons are arranged in the configuration [Ar]3d64s2, of which the 3d and 4s electrons are relatively close in energy, and thus a number of electrons can be ionized. Iron forms compounds mainly in the oxidation states +2 (iron(II), "ferrous") and +3 (iron(III), "ferric"). Iron also occurs in higher oxidation states, e.g., the purple potassium ferrate (K2FeO4), which contains iron in its +6 oxidation state. The anion [FeO4]– with iron in its +7 oxidation state, along with an iron(V)-peroxo isomer, has been detected by infrared spectroscopy at 4 K after cocondensation of laser-ablated Fe atoms with a mixture of O2/Ar. Iron(IV) is a common intermediate in many biochemical oxidation reactions. Numerous organoiron compounds contain formal oxidation states of +1, 0, −1, or even −2. The oxidation states and other bonding properties are often assessed using the technique of Mössbauer spectroscopy. Many mixed valence compounds contain both iron(II) and iron(III) centers, such as magnetite and Prussian blue (Fe4(Fe[CN]6)3). The latter is used as the traditional "blue" in blueprints. Iron is the first of the transition metals that cannot reach its group oxidation state of +8, although its heavier congeners ruthenium and osmium can, with ruthenium having more difficulty than osmium. Ruthenium exhibits an aqueous cationic chemistry in its low oxidation states similar to that of iron, but osmium does not, favoring high oxidation states in which it forms anionic complexes. In the second half of the 3d transition series, vertical similarities down the groups compete with the horizontal similarities of iron with its neighbors cobalt and nickel in the periodic table, which are also ferromagnetic at room temperature and share similar chemistry. As such, iron, cobalt, and nickel are sometimes grouped together as the iron triad. Unlike many other metals, iron does not form amalgams with mercury. As a result, mercury is traded in standardized 76 pound flasks (34 kg) made of iron. Iron is by far the most reactive element in its group; it is pyrophoric when finely divided and dissolves easily in dilute acids, giving Fe2+. However, it does not react with concentrated nitric acid and other oxidizing acids due to the formation of an impervious oxide layer, which can nevertheless react with hydrochloric acid. High-purity iron, called electrolytic iron, is considered to be resistant to rust, due to its oxide layer. ### Binary compounds #### Oxides and sulfides Ferrous or iron(II) oxide, FeOFerric or iron(III) oxide Fe2O3Ferrosoferric or iron(II,III) oxide Fe3O4 Iron forms various oxide and hydroxide compounds; the most common are iron(II,III) oxide (Fe3O4), and iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3). Iron(II) oxide also exists, though it is unstable at room temperature. Despite their names, they are actually all non-stoichiometric compounds whose compositions may vary. These oxides are the principal ores for the production of iron (see bloomery and blast furnace). They are also used in the production of ferrites, useful magnetic storage media in computers, and pigments. The best known sulfide is iron pyrite (FeS2), also known as fool's gold owing to its golden luster. It is not an iron(IV) compound, but is actually an iron(II) polysulfide containing Fe2+ and S2− 2 ions in a distorted sodium chloride structure. #### Halides The binary ferrous and ferric halides are well-known. The ferrous halides typically arise from treating iron metal with the corresponding hydrohalic acid to give the corresponding hydrated salts. Fe + 2 HX → FeX2 + H2 (X = F, Cl, Br, I) Iron reacts with fluorine, chlorine, and bromine to give the corresponding ferric halides, ferric chloride being the most common. 2 Fe + 3 X2 → 2 FeX3 (X = F, Cl, Br) Ferric iodide is an exception, being thermodynamically unstable due to the oxidizing power of Fe3+ and the high reducing power of I−: 2 I− + 2 Fe3+ → I2 + 2 Fe2+ (E0 = +0.23 V) Ferric iodide, a black solid, is not stable in ordinary conditions, but can be prepared through the reaction of iron pentacarbonyl with iodine and carbon monoxide in the presence of hexane and light at the temperature of −20 °C, with oxygen and water excluded.Complexes of ferric iodide with some soft bases are known to be stable compounds. ### Solution chemistry The standard reduction potentials in acidic aqueous solution for some common iron ions are given below: | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | [Fe(H2O)6]2+ + 2 e− | ⇌ Fe | E0 = −0.447 V | | [Fe(H2O)6]3+ + e− | ⇌ [Fe(H2O)6]2+ | E0 = +0.77 V | | FeO2−4 + 8 H3O+ + 3 e− | ⇌ [Fe(H2O)6]3+ + 6 H2O | E0 = +2.20 V | The red-purple tetrahedral ferrate(VI) anion is such a strong oxidizing agent that it oxidizes ammonia to nitrogen (N2) and water to oxygen 4 FeO2− 4 + 34 H 2O → 4 [Fe(H2O)6]3+ + 20 OH− + 3 O2 The pale-violet hexaquo complex [Fe(H2O)6]3+ is an acid such that above pH 0 it is fully hydrolyzed: | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | [Fe(H2O)6]3+ | ⇌ [Fe(H2O)5(OH)]2+ + H+ | *K* = 10−3.05 mol dm−3 | | [Fe(H2O)5(OH)]2+ | ⇌ [Fe(H2O)4(OH)2]+ + H+ | *K* = 10−3.26 mol dm−3 | | 2[Fe(H2O)6]3+ | ⇌ [Fe(H2O)4(OH)]4+2 + 2H+ + 2H2O | *K* = 10−2.91 mol dm−3 | As pH rises above 0 the above yellow hydrolyzed species form and as it rises above 2–3, reddish-brown hydrous iron(III) oxide precipitates out of solution. Although Fe3+ has a d5 configuration, its absorption spectrum is not like that of Mn2+ with its weak, spin-forbidden d–d bands, because Fe3+ has higher positive charge and is more polarizing, lowering the energy of its ligand-to-metal charge transfer absorptions. Thus, all the above complexes are rather strongly colored, with the single exception of the hexaquo ion – and even that has a spectrum dominated by charge transfer in the near ultraviolet region. On the other hand, the pale green iron(II) hexaquo ion [Fe(H2O)6]2+ does not undergo appreciable hydrolysis. Carbon dioxide is not evolved when carbonate anions are added, which instead results in white iron(II) carbonate being precipitated out. In excess carbon dioxide this forms the slightly soluble bicarbonate, which occurs commonly in groundwater, but it oxidises quickly in air to form iron(III) oxide that accounts for the brown deposits present in a sizeable number of streams. ### Coordination compounds Due to its electronic structure, iron has a very large coordination and organometallic chemistry. Many coordination compounds of iron are known. A typical six-coordinate anion is hexachloroferrate(III), [FeCl6]3−, found in the mixed salt tetrakis(methylammonium) hexachloroferrate(III) chloride. Complexes with multiple bidentate ligands have geometric isomers. For example, the *trans*-chlorohydridobis(bis-1,2-(diphenylphosphino)ethane)iron(II) complex is used as a starting material for compounds with the Fe(dppe)2 moiety. The ferrioxalate ion with three oxalate ligands (shown at right) displays helical chirality with its two non-superposable geometries labelled *Λ* (lambda) for the left-handed screw axis and *Δ* (delta) for the right-handed screw axis, in line with IUPAC conventions. Potassium ferrioxalate is used in chemical actinometry and along with its sodium salt undergoes photoreduction applied in old-style photographic processes. The dihydrate of iron(II) oxalate has a polymeric structure with co-planar oxalate ions bridging between iron centres with the water of crystallisation located forming the caps of each octahedron, as illustrated below. Iron(III) complexes are quite similar to those of chromium(III) with the exception of iron(III)'s preference for *O*-donor instead of *N*-donor ligands. The latter tend to be rather more unstable than iron(II) complexes and often dissociate in water. Many Fe–O complexes show intense colors and are used as tests for phenols or enols. For example, in the ferric chloride test, used to determine the presence of phenols, iron(III) chloride reacts with a phenol to form a deep violet complex: 3 ArOH + FeCl3 → Fe(OAr)3 + 3 HCl (Ar = aryl) Among the halide and pseudohalide complexes, fluoro complexes of iron(III) are the most stable, with the colorless [FeF5(H2O)]2− being the most stable in aqueous solution. Chloro complexes are less stable and favor tetrahedral coordination as in [FeCl4]−; [FeBr4]− and [FeI4]− are reduced easily to iron(II). Thiocyanate is a common test for the presence of iron(III) as it forms the blood-red [Fe(SCN)(H2O)5]2+. Like manganese(II), most iron(III) complexes are high-spin, the exceptions being those with ligands that are high in the spectrochemical series such as cyanide. An example of a low-spin iron(III) complex is [Fe(CN)6]3−. Iron shows a great variety of electronic spin states, including every possible spin quantum number value for a d-block element from 0 (diamagnetic) to 5⁄2 (5 unpaired electrons). This value is always half the number of unpaired electrons. Complexes with zero to two unpaired electrons are considered low-spin and those with four or five are considered high-spin. Iron(II) complexes are less stable than iron(III) complexes but the preference for *O*-donor ligands is less marked, so that for example [Fe(NH3)6]2+ is known while [Fe(NH3)6]3+ is not. They have a tendency to be oxidized to iron(III) but this can be moderated by low pH and the specific ligands used. ### Organometallic compounds Organoiron chemistry is the study of organometallic compounds of iron, where carbon atoms are covalently bound to the metal atom. They are many and varied, including cyanide complexes, carbonyl complexes, sandwich and half-sandwich compounds. Prussian blue or "ferric ferrocyanide", Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3, is an old and well-known iron-cyanide complex, extensively used as pigment and in several other applications. Its formation can be used as a simple wet chemistry test to distinguish between aqueous solutions of Fe2+ and Fe3+ as they react (respectively) with potassium ferricyanide and potassium ferrocyanide to form Prussian blue. Another old example of an organoiron compound is iron pentacarbonyl, Fe(CO)5, in which a neutral iron atom is bound to the carbon atoms of five carbon monoxide molecules. The compound can be used to make carbonyl iron powder, a highly reactive form of metallic iron. Thermolysis of iron pentacarbonyl gives triiron dodecacarbonyl, Fe3(CO)12, a complex with a cluster of three iron atoms at its core. Collman's reagent, disodium tetracarbonylferrate, is a useful reagent for organic chemistry; it contains iron in the −2 oxidation state. Cyclopentadienyliron dicarbonyl dimer contains iron in the rare +1 oxidation state. Structural formula of ferrocene and a powdered sample A landmark in this field was the discovery in 1951 of the remarkably stable sandwich compound ferrocene Fe(C5H5)2, by Pauson and Kealy and independently by Miller and colleagues, whose surprising molecular structure was determined only a year later by Woodward and Wilkinson and Fischer. Ferrocene is still one of the most important tools and models in this class. Iron-centered organometallic species are used as catalysts. The Knölker complex, for example, is a transfer hydrogenation catalyst for ketones. ### Industrial uses The iron compounds produced on the largest scale in industry are iron(II) sulfate (FeSO4·7H2O) and iron(III) chloride (FeCl3). The former is one of the most readily available sources of iron(II), but is less stable to aerial oxidation than Mohr's salt ((NH4)2Fe(SO4)2·6H2O). Iron(II) compounds tend to be oxidized to iron(III) compounds in the air. History ------- ### Development of iron metallurgy Iron is one of the elements undoubtedly known to the ancient world. It has been worked, or wrought, for millennia. However, iron artefacts of great age are much rarer than objects made of gold or silver due to the ease with which iron corrodes. The technology developed slowly, and even after the discovery of smelting it took many centuries for iron to replace bronze as the metal of choice for tools and weapons. #### Meteoritic iron Beads made from meteoric iron in 3500 BC or earlier were found in Gerzeh, Egypt by G.A. Wainwright. The beads contain 7.5% nickel, which is a signature of meteoric origin since iron found in the Earth's crust generally has only minuscule nickel impurities. Meteoric iron was highly regarded due to its origin in the heavens and was often used to forge weapons and tools. For example, a dagger made of meteoric iron was found in the tomb of Tutankhamun, containing similar proportions of iron, cobalt, and nickel to a meteorite discovered in the area, deposited by an ancient meteor shower. Items that were likely made of iron by Egyptians date from 3000 to 2500 BC. Meteoritic iron is comparably soft and ductile and easily cold forged but may get brittle when heated because of the nickel content. #### Wrought iron The first iron production started in the Middle Bronze Age, but it took several centuries before iron displaced bronze. Samples of smelted iron from Asmar, Mesopotamia and Tall Chagar Bazaar in northern Syria were made sometime between 3000 and 2700 BC. The Hittites established an empire in north-central Anatolia around 1600 BC. They appear to be the first to understand the production of iron from its ores and regard it highly in their society. The Hittites began to smelt iron between 1500 and 1200 BC and the practice spread to the rest of the Near East after their empire fell in 1180 BC. The subsequent period is called the Iron Age. Artifacts of smelted iron are found in India dating from 1800 to 1200 BC, and in the Levant from about 1500 BC (suggesting smelting in Anatolia or the Caucasus). Alleged references (compare history of metallurgy in South Asia) to iron in the Indian Vedas have been used for claims of a very early usage of iron in India respectively to date the texts as such. The rigveda term *ayas* (metal) refers to copper, while iron which is called as *śyāma ayas*, literally "black copper", first is mentioned in the post-rigvedic Atharvaveda. Some archaeological evidence suggests iron was smelted in Zimbabwe and southeast Africa as early as the eighth century BC. Iron working was introduced to Greece in the late 11th century BC, from which it spread quickly throughout Europe. The spread of ironworking in Central and Western Europe is associated with Celtic expansion. According to Pliny the Elder, iron use was common in the Roman era. In the lands of what is now considered China, iron appears approximately 700–500 BC. Iron smelting may have been introduced into China through Central Asia. The earliest evidence of the use of a blast furnace in China dates to the 1st century AD, and cupola furnaces were used as early as the Warring States period (403–221 BC). Usage of the blast and cupola furnace remained widespread during the Tang and Song dynasties. During the Industrial Revolution in Britain, Henry Cort began refining iron from pig iron to wrought iron (or bar iron) using innovative production systems. In 1783 he patented the puddling process for refining iron ore. It was later improved by others, including Joseph Hall. #### Cast iron Cast iron was first produced in China during 5th century BC, but was hardly in Europe until the medieval period. The earliest cast iron artifacts were discovered by archaeologists in what is now modern Luhe County, Jiangsu in China. Cast iron was used in ancient China for warfare, agriculture, and architecture. During the medieval period, means were found in Europe of producing wrought iron from cast iron (in this context known as pig iron) using finery forges. For all these processes, charcoal was required as fuel. Medieval blast furnaces were about 10 feet (3.0 m) tall and made of fireproof brick; forced air was usually provided by hand-operated bellows. Modern blast furnaces have grown much bigger, with hearths fourteen meters in diameter that allow them to produce thousands of tons of iron each day, but essentially operate in much the same way as they did during medieval times. In 1709, Abraham Darby I established a coke-fired blast furnace to produce cast iron, replacing charcoal, although continuing to use blast furnaces. The ensuing availability of inexpensive iron was one of the factors leading to the Industrial Revolution. Toward the end of the 18th century, cast iron began to replace wrought iron for certain purposes, because it was cheaper. Carbon content in iron was not implicated as the reason for the differences in properties of wrought iron, cast iron, and steel until the 18th century. Since iron was becoming cheaper and more plentiful, it also became a major structural material following the building of the innovative first iron bridge in 1778. This bridge still stands today as a monument to the role iron played in the Industrial Revolution. Following this, iron was used in rails, boats, ships, aqueducts, and buildings, as well as in iron cylinders in steam engines. Railways have been central to the formation of modernity and ideas of progress and various languages refer to railways as *iron road* (e.g. French *chemin de fer*, German *Eisenbahn*, Turkish *demiryolu*, Russian *железная дорога*, Chinese, Japanese, and Korean 鐵道, Vietnamese *đường sắt*). #### Steel Steel (with smaller carbon content than pig iron but more than wrought iron) was first produced in antiquity by using a bloomery. Blacksmiths in Luristan in western Persia were making good steel by 1000 BC. Then improved versions, Wootz steel by India and Damascus steel were developed around 300 BC and AD 500 respectively. These methods were specialized, and so steel did not become a major commodity until the 1850s. New methods of producing it by carburizing bars of iron in the cementation process were devised in the 17th century. In the Industrial Revolution, new methods of producing bar iron without charcoal were devised and these were later applied to produce steel. In the late 1850s, Henry Bessemer invented a new steelmaking process, involving blowing air through molten pig iron, to produce mild steel. This made steel much more economical, thereby leading to wrought iron no longer being produced in large quantities. ### Foundations of modern chemistry In 1774, Antoine Lavoisier used the reaction of water steam with metallic iron inside an incandescent iron tube to produce hydrogen in his experiments leading to the demonstration of the conservation of mass, which was instrumental in changing chemistry from a qualitative science to a quantitative one. Symbolic role ------------- Iron plays a certain role in mythology and has found various usage as a metaphor and in folklore. The Greek poet Hesiod's *Works and Days* (lines 109–201) lists different ages of man named after metals like gold, silver, bronze and iron to account for successive ages of humanity. The Iron Age was closely related with Rome, and in Ovid's *Metamorphoses* > The Virtues, in despair, quit the earth; and the depravity of man becomes universal and complete. Hard steel succeeded then. > > — Ovid, Metamorphoses, Book I, Iron age, line 160 ff An example of the importance of iron's symbolic role may be found in the German Campaign of 1813. Frederick William III commissioned then the first Iron Cross as military decoration. Berlin iron jewellery reached its peak production between 1813 and 1815, when the Prussian royal family urged citizens to donate gold and silver jewellery for military funding. The inscription *Ich gab Gold für Eisen* (I gave gold for iron) was used as well in later war efforts. Production of metallic iron --------------------------- ### Laboratory routes For a few limited purposes when it is needed, pure iron is produced in the laboratory in small quantities by reducing the pure oxide or hydroxide with hydrogen, or forming iron pentacarbonyl and heating it to 250 °C so that it decomposes to form pure iron powder. Another method is electrolysis of ferrous chloride onto an iron cathode. ### Main industrial route Iron production 2009 (million tonnes)[*dubious – discuss*]| Country | Iron ore | Pig iron | Direct iron | Steel | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | |  China | 1,114.9 | 549.4 | | 573.6 | |  Australia | 393.9 | 4.4 | | 5.2 | |  Brazil | 305.0 | 25.1 | 0.011 | 26.5 | |  Japan | | 66.9 | | 87.5 | |  India | 257.4 | 38.2 | 23.4 | 63.5 | |  Russia | 92.1 | 43.9 | 4.7 | 60.0 | |  Ukraine | 65.8 | 25.7 | | 29.9 | |  South Korea | 0.1 | 27.3 | | 48.6 | |  Germany | 0.4 | 20.1 | 0.38 | 32.7 | | World | 1,594.9 | 914.0 | 64.5 | 1,232.4 | Nowadays, the industrial production of iron or steel consists of two main stages. In the first stage, iron ore is reduced with coke in a blast furnace, and the molten metal is separated from gross impurities such as silicate minerals. This stage yields an alloy—pig iron—that contains relatively large amounts of carbon. In the second stage, the amount of carbon in the pig iron is lowered by oxidation to yield wrought iron, steel, or cast iron. Other metals can be added at this stage to form alloy steels. #### Blast furnace processing The blast furnace is loaded with iron ores, usually hematite Fe2O3 or magnetite Fe3O4, along with coke (coal that has been separately baked to remove volatile components) and flux (limestone or dolomite). "Blasts" of air pre-heated to 900 °C (sometimes with oxygen enrichment) is blown through the mixture, in sufficient amount to turn the carbon into carbon monoxide: 2 C + O 2 ⟶ 2 CO {\displaystyle {\ce {2 C + O2 -> 2 CO}}} {\displaystyle {\ce {2 C + O2 -> 2 CO}}} This reaction raises the temperature to about 2000 °C. The carbon monoxide reduces the iron ore to metallic iron Fe 2 O 3 + 3 CO ⟶ 2 Fe + 3 CO 2 {\displaystyle {\ce {Fe2O3 + 3 CO -> 2 Fe + 3 CO2}}} {\displaystyle {\ce {Fe2O3 + 3 CO -> 2 Fe + 3 CO2}}} Some iron in the high-temperature lower region of the furnace reacts directly with the coke: 2 Fe 2 O 3 + 3 C ⟶ 4 Fe + 3 CO 2 {\displaystyle {\ce {2Fe2O3 + 3C -> 4Fe + 3CO2}}} {\displaystyle {\ce {2Fe2O3 + 3C -> 4Fe + 3CO2}}} The flux removes silicaceous minerals in the ore, which would otherwise clog the furnace: The heat of the furnace decomposes the carbonates to calcium oxide, which reacts with any excess silica to form a slag composed of calcium silicate CaSiO3 or other products. At the furnace's temperature, the metal and the slag are both molten. They collect at the bottom as two immiscible liquid layers (with the slag on top), that are then easily separated. The slag can be used as a material in road construction or to improve mineral-poor soils for agriculture. Steelmaking thus remains one of the largest industrial contributors of CO2 emissions in the world. * 17th century Chinese illustration of workers at a blast furnace, making wrought iron from pig iron17th century Chinese illustration of workers at a blast furnace, making wrought iron from pig iron * How iron was extracted in the 19th centuryHow iron was extracted in the 19th century * Iron furnace in Columbus, Ohio, 1922Iron furnace in Columbus, Ohio, 1922 #### Steelmaking The pig iron produced by the blast furnace process contains up to 4–5% carbon (by mass), with small amounts of other impurities like sulfur, magnesium, phosphorus, and manganese. This high level of carbon makes it relatively weak and brittle. Reducing the amount of carbon to 0.002–2.1% produces steel, which may be up to 1000 times harder than pure iron. A great variety of steel articles can then be made by cold working, hot rolling, forging, machining, etc. Removing the impurities from pig iron, but leaving 2–4% carbon, results in cast iron, which is cast by foundries into articles such as stoves, pipes, radiators, lamp-posts, and rails. Steel products often undergo various heat treatments after they are forged to shape. Annealing consists of heating them to 700–800 °C for several hours and then gradual cooling. It makes the steel softer and more workable. * This heap of iron ore pellets will be used in steel production.This heap of iron ore pellets will be used in steel production. * A pot of molten iron being used to make steel.A pot of molten iron being used to make steel. ### Direct iron reduction Owing to environmental concerns, alternative methods of processing iron have been developed. "Direct iron reduction" reduces iron ore to a ferrous lump called "sponge" iron or "direct" iron that is suitable for steelmaking. Two main reactions comprise the direct reduction process: Natural gas is partially oxidized (with heat and a catalyst): 2 CH 4 + O 2 ⟶ 2 CO + 4 H 2 {\displaystyle {\ce {2 CH4 + O2 -> 2 CO + 4 H2}}} {\displaystyle {\ce {2 CH4 + O2 -> 2 CO + 4 H2}}} Iron ore is then treated with these gases in a furnace, producing solid sponge iron: Fe 2 O 3 + CO + 2 H 2 ⟶ 2 Fe + CO 2 + 2 H 2 O {\displaystyle {\ce {Fe2O3 + CO + 2 H2 -> 2 Fe + CO2 + 2 H2O}}} {\displaystyle {\ce {Fe2O3 + CO + 2 H2 -> 2 Fe + CO2 + 2 H2O}}} Silica is removed by adding a limestone flux as described above. ### Thermite process Ignition of a mixture of aluminium powder and iron oxide yields metallic iron via the thermite reaction: Fe 2 O 3 + 2 Al ⟶ 2 Fe + Al 2 O 3 {\displaystyle {\ce {Fe2O3 + 2 Al -> 2 Fe + Al2O3}}} {\displaystyle {\ce {Fe2O3 + 2 Al -> 2 Fe + Al2O3}}} Alternatively pig iron may be made into steel (with up to about 2% carbon) or wrought iron (commercially pure iron). Various processes have been used for this, including finery forges, puddling furnaces, Bessemer converters, open hearth furnaces, basic oxygen furnaces, and electric arc furnaces. In all cases, the objective is to oxidize some or all of the carbon, together with other impurities. On the other hand, other metals may be added to make alloy steels. ### Molten oxide electrolysis Molten oxide electrolysis uses an alloy of chromium, iron and other metals that does not react with oxygen and a liquid iron cathode while the electrolyte is a mixture of molten metal oxides into which iron ore is dissolved. The current keeps the electrolyte molten, and reduces the iron oxide. In addition to pure liquid iron, put oxygen is also produced, which can be sold to offset part of the cost. Production cell size is variable and can be much smaller than conventional furnaces. The only cardon dioxide emissions come from the electricity used to heat and reduce the metal. Applications ------------ Characteristic values of tensile strength (TS) and Brinell hardness (BH) of various forms of iron.| Material | TS (MPa) | BH (Brinell) | | --- | --- | --- | | Iron whiskers | 11000 | | | Ausformed (hardened) steel | 2930 | 850–1200 | | Martensitic steel | 2070 | 600 | | Bainitic steel | 1380 | 400 | | Pearlitic steel | 1200 | 350 | | Cold-worked iron | 690 | 200 | | Small-grain iron | 340 | 100 | | Carbon-containing iron | 140 | 40 | | Pure, single-crystal iron | 10 | 3 | ### As structural material Iron is the most widely used of all the metals, accounting for over 90% of worldwide metal production. Its low cost and high strength often make it the material of choice to withstand stress or transmit forces, such as the construction of machinery and machine tools, rails, automobiles, ship hulls, concrete reinforcing bars, and the load-carrying framework of buildings. Since pure iron is quite soft, it is most commonly combined with alloying elements to make steel. #### Mechanical properties The mechanical properties of iron and its alloys are extremely relevant to their structural applications. Those properties can be evaluated in various ways, including the Brinell test, the Rockwell test and the Vickers hardness test. The properties of pure iron are often used to calibrate measurements or to compare tests. However, the mechanical properties of iron are significantly affected by the sample's purity: pure, single crystals of iron are actually softer than aluminium, and the purest industrially produced iron (99.99%) has a hardness of 20–30 Brinell. The pure iron (99.9%～99.999%), especially called electrolytic iron, is industrially produced by electrolytic refining. An increase in the carbon content will cause a significant increase in the hardness and tensile strength of iron. Maximum hardness of 65 Rc is achieved with a 0.6% carbon content, although the alloy has low tensile strength. Because of the softness of iron, it is much easier to work with than its heavier congeners ruthenium and osmium. #### Types of steels and alloys α-Iron is a fairly soft metal that can dissolve only a small concentration of carbon (no more than 0.021% by mass at 910 °C). Austenite (γ-iron) is similarly soft and metallic but can dissolve considerably more carbon (as much as 2.04% by mass at 1146 °C). This form of iron is used in the type of stainless steel used for making cutlery, and hospital and food-service equipment. Commercially available iron is classified based on purity and the abundance of additives. Pig iron has 3.5–4.5% carbon and contains varying amounts of contaminants such as sulfur, silicon and phosphorus. Pig iron is not a saleable product, but rather an intermediate step in the production of cast iron and steel. The reduction of contaminants in pig iron that negatively affect material properties, such as sulfur and phosphorus, yields cast iron containing 2–4% carbon, 1–6% silicon, and small amounts of manganese. Pig iron has a melting point in the range of 1420–1470 K, which is lower than either of its two main components, and makes it the first product to be melted when carbon and iron are heated together. Its mechanical properties vary greatly and depend on the form the carbon takes in the alloy. "White" cast irons contain their carbon in the form of cementite, or iron carbide (Fe3C). This hard, brittle compound dominates the mechanical properties of white cast irons, rendering them hard, but unresistant to shock. The broken surface of a white cast iron is full of fine facets of the broken iron carbide, a very pale, silvery, shiny material, hence the appellation. Cooling a mixture of iron with 0.8% carbon slowly below 723 °C to room temperature results in separate, alternating layers of cementite and α-iron, which is soft and malleable and is called pearlite for its appearance. Rapid cooling, on the other hand, does not allow time for this separation and creates hard and brittle martensite. The steel can then be tempered by reheating to a temperature in between, changing the proportions of pearlite and martensite. The end product below 0.8% carbon content is a pearlite-αFe mixture, and that above 0.8% carbon content is a pearlite-cementite mixture. In gray iron the carbon exists as separate, fine flakes of graphite, and also renders the material brittle due to the sharp edged flakes of graphite that produce stress concentration sites within the material. A newer variant of gray iron, referred to as ductile iron, is specially treated with trace amounts of magnesium to alter the shape of graphite to spheroids, or nodules, reducing the stress concentrations and vastly increasing the toughness and strength of the material. Wrought iron contains less than 0.25% carbon but large amounts of slag that give it a fibrous characteristic. It is a tough, malleable product, but not as fusible as pig iron. If honed to an edge, it loses it quickly. Wrought iron is characterized by the presence of fine fibers of slag entrapped within the metal. Wrought iron is more corrosion resistant than steel. It has been almost completely replaced by mild steel for traditional "wrought iron" products and blacksmithing. Mild steel corrodes more readily than wrought iron, but is cheaper and more widely available. Carbon steel contains 2.0% carbon or less, with small amounts of manganese, sulfur, phosphorus, and silicon. Alloy steels contain varying amounts of carbon as well as other metals, such as chromium, vanadium, molybdenum, nickel, tungsten, etc. Their alloy content raises their cost, and so they are usually only employed for specialist uses. One common alloy steel, though, is stainless steel. Recent developments in ferrous metallurgy have produced a growing range of microalloyed steels, also termed 'HSLA' or high-strength, low alloy steels, containing tiny additions to produce high strengths and often spectacular toughness at minimal cost. Alloys with high purity elemental makeups (such as alloys of electrolytic iron) have specifically enhanced properties such as ductility, tensile strength, toughness, fatigue strength, heat resistance, and corrosion resistance. Apart from traditional applications, iron is also used for protection from ionizing radiation. Although it is lighter than another traditional protection material, lead, it is much stronger mechanically. The attenuation of radiation as a function of energy is shown in the graph. The main disadvantage of iron and steel is that pure iron, and most of its alloys, suffer badly from rust if not protected in some way, a cost amounting to over 1% of the world's economy. Painting, galvanization, passivation, plastic coating and bluing are all used to protect iron from rust by excluding water and oxygen or by cathodic protection. The mechanism of the rusting of iron is as follows: Cathode: 3 O2 + 6 H2O + 12 e− → 12 OH− Anode: 4 Fe → 4 Fe2+ + 8 e−; 4 Fe2+ → 4 Fe3+ + 4 e− Overall: 4 Fe + 3 O2 + 6 H2O → 4 Fe3+ + 12 OH− → 4 Fe(OH)3 or 4 FeO(OH) + 4 H2O The electrolyte is usually iron(II) sulfate in urban areas (formed when atmospheric sulfur dioxide attacks iron), and salt particles in the atmosphere in seaside areas. ### Catalysts and reagents Because Fe is inexpensive and nontoxic, much effort has been devoted to the development of Fe-based catalysts and reagents. Iron is however less common as a catalyst in commercial processes than more expensive metals. In biology, Fe-containing enzymes are pervasive. Iron catalysts are traditionally used in the Haber–Bosch process for the production of ammonia and the Fischer–Tropsch process for conversion of carbon monoxide to hydrocarbons for fuels and lubricants. Powdered iron in an acidic medium is used in the Bechamp reduction, the conversion of nitrobenzene to aniline. ### Iron compounds Iron(III) oxide mixed with aluminium powder can be ignited to create a thermite reaction, used in welding large iron parts (like rails) and purifying ores. Iron(III) oxide and oxyhydroxide are used as reddish and ocher pigments. Iron(III) chloride finds use in water purification and sewage treatment, in the dyeing of cloth, as a coloring agent in paints, as an additive in animal feed, and as an etchant for copper in the manufacture of printed circuit boards. It can also be dissolved in alcohol to form tincture of iron, which is used as a medicine to stop bleeding in canaries. Iron(II) sulfate is used as a precursor to other iron compounds. It is also used to reduce chromate in cement. It is used to fortify foods and treat iron deficiency anemia. Iron(III) sulfate is used in settling minute sewage particles in tank water. Iron(II) chloride is used as a reducing flocculating agent, in the formation of iron complexes and magnetic iron oxides, and as a reducing agent in organic synthesis. Sodium nitroprusside is a drug used as a vasodilator. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Biological and pathological role -------------------------------- Iron is required for life. The iron–sulfur clusters are pervasive and include nitrogenase, the enzymes responsible for biological nitrogen fixation. Iron-containing proteins participate in transport, storage and use of oxygen. Iron proteins are involved in electron transfer. Examples of iron-containing proteins in higher organisms include hemoglobin, cytochrome (see high-valent iron), and catalase. The average adult human contains about 0.005% body weight of iron, or about four grams, of which three quarters is in hemoglobin – a level that remains constant despite only about one milligram of iron being absorbed each day, because the human body recycles its hemoglobin for the iron content. Microbial growth may be assisted by oxidation of iron(II) or by reduction of iron (III). ### Biochemistry Iron acquisition poses a problem for aerobic organisms because ferric iron is poorly soluble near neutral pH. Thus, these organisms have developed means to absorb iron as complexes, sometimes taking up ferrous iron before oxidising it back to ferric iron. In particular, bacteria have evolved very high-affinity sequestering agents called siderophores. After uptake in human cells, iron storage is precisely regulated. A major component of this regulation is the protein transferrin, which binds iron ions absorbed from the duodenum and carries it in the blood to cells. Transferrin contains Fe3+ in the middle of a distorted octahedron, bonded to one nitrogen, three oxygens and a chelating carbonate anion that traps the Fe3+ ion: it has such a high stability constant that it is very effective at taking up Fe3+ ions even from the most stable complexes. At the bone marrow, transferrin is reduced from Fe3+ and Fe2+ and stored as ferritin to be incorporated into hemoglobin. The most commonly known and studied bioinorganic iron compounds (biological iron molecules) are the heme proteins: examples are hemoglobin, myoglobin, and cytochrome P450. These compounds participate in transporting gases, building enzymes, and transferring electrons. Metalloproteins are a group of proteins with metal ion cofactors. Some examples of iron metalloproteins are ferritin and rubredoxin. Many enzymes vital to life contain iron, such as catalase, lipoxygenases, and IRE-BP. Hemoglobin is an oxygen carrier that occurs in red blood cells and contributes their color, transporting oxygen in the arteries from the lungs to the muscles where it is transferred to myoglobin, which stores it until it is needed for the metabolic oxidation of glucose, generating energy. Here the hemoglobin binds to carbon dioxide, produced when glucose is oxidized, which is transported through the veins by hemoglobin (predominantly as bicarbonate anions) back to the lungs where it is exhaled. In hemoglobin, the iron is in one of four heme groups and has six possible coordination sites; four are occupied by nitrogen atoms in a porphyrin ring, the fifth by an imidazole nitrogen in a histidine residue of one of the protein chains attached to the heme group, and the sixth is reserved for the oxygen molecule it can reversibly bind to. When hemoglobin is not attached to oxygen (and is then called deoxyhemoglobin), the Fe2+ ion at the center of the heme group (in the hydrophobic protein interior) is in a high-spin configuration. It is thus too large to fit inside the porphyrin ring, which bends instead into a dome with the Fe2+ ion about 55 picometers above it. In this configuration, the sixth coordination site reserved for the oxygen is blocked by another histidine residue. When deoxyhemoglobin picks up an oxygen molecule, this histidine residue moves away and returns once the oxygen is securely attached to form a hydrogen bond with it. This results in the Fe2+ ion switching to a low-spin configuration, resulting in a 20% decrease in ionic radius so that now it can fit into the porphyrin ring, which becomes planar. (Additionally, this hydrogen bonding results in the tilting of the oxygen molecule, resulting in a Fe–O–O bond angle of around 120° that avoids the formation of Fe–O–Fe or Fe–O2–Fe bridges that would lead to electron transfer, the oxidation of Fe2+ to Fe3+, and the destruction of hemoglobin.) This results in a movement of all the protein chains that leads to the other subunits of hemoglobin changing shape to a form with larger oxygen affinity. Thus, when deoxyhemoglobin takes up oxygen, its affinity for more oxygen increases, and vice versa. Myoglobin, on the other hand, contains only one heme group and hence this cooperative effect cannot occur. Thus, while hemoglobin is almost saturated with oxygen in the high partial pressures of oxygen found in the lungs, its affinity for oxygen is much lower than that of myoglobin, which oxygenates even at low partial pressures of oxygen found in muscle tissue. As described by the Bohr effect (named after Christian Bohr, the father of Niels Bohr), the oxygen affinity of hemoglobin diminishes in the presence of carbon dioxide. Carbon monoxide and phosphorus trifluoride are poisonous to humans because they bind to hemoglobin similarly to oxygen, but with much more strength, so that oxygen can no longer be transported throughout the body. Hemoglobin bound to carbon monoxide is known as carboxyhemoglobin. This effect also plays a minor role in the toxicity of cyanide, but there the major effect is by far its interference with the proper functioning of the electron transport protein cytochrome a. The cytochrome proteins also involve heme groups and are involved in the metabolic oxidation of glucose by oxygen. The sixth coordination site is then occupied by either another imidazole nitrogen or a methionine sulfur, so that these proteins are largely inert to oxygen – with the exception of cytochrome a, which bonds directly to oxygen and thus is very easily poisoned by cyanide. Here, the electron transfer takes place as the iron remains in low spin but changes between the +2 and +3 oxidation states. Since the reduction potential of each step is slightly greater than the previous one, the energy is released step-by-step and can thus be stored in adenosine triphosphate. Cytochrome a is slightly distinct, as it occurs at the mitochondrial membrane, binds directly to oxygen, and transports protons as well as electrons, as follows: 4 Cytc2+ + O2 + 8H+ inside → 4 Cytc3+ + 2 H2O + 4H+ outside Although the heme proteins are the most important class of iron-containing proteins, the iron–sulfur proteins are also very important, being involved in electron transfer, which is possible since iron can exist stably in either the +2 or +3 oxidation states. These have one, two, four, or eight iron atoms that are each approximately tetrahedrally coordinated to four sulfur atoms; because of this tetrahedral coordination, they always have high-spin iron. The simplest of such compounds is rubredoxin, which has only one iron atom coordinated to four sulfur atoms from cysteine residues in the surrounding peptide chains. Another important class of iron–sulfur proteins is the ferredoxins, which have multiple iron atoms. Transferrin does not belong to either of these classes. The ability of sea mussels to maintain their grip on rocks in the ocean is facilitated by their use of organometallic iron-based bonds in their protein-rich cuticles. Based on synthetic replicas, the presence of iron in these structures increased elastic modulus 770 times, tensile strength 58 times, and toughness 92 times. The amount of stress required to permanently damage them increased 76 times. ### Nutrition #### Diet Iron is pervasive, but particularly rich sources of dietary iron include red meat, oysters, beans, poultry, fish, leaf vegetables, watercress, tofu, and blackstrap molasses. Bread and breakfast cereals are sometimes specifically fortified with iron. Iron provided by dietary supplements is often found as iron(II) fumarate, although iron(II) sulfate is cheaper and is absorbed equally well. Elemental iron, or reduced iron, despite being absorbed at only one-third to two-thirds the efficiency (relative to iron sulfate), is often added to foods such as breakfast cereals or enriched wheat flour. Iron is most available to the body when chelated to amino acids and is also available for use as a common iron supplement. Glycine, the least expensive amino acid, is most often used to produce iron glycinate supplements. #### Dietary recommendations The U.S. Institute of Medicine (IOM) updated Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for iron in 2001. The current EAR for iron for women ages 14–18 is 7.9 mg/day, 8.1 for ages 19–50 and 5.0 thereafter (post menopause). For men the EAR is 6.0 mg/day for ages 19 and up. The RDA is 15.0 mg/day for women ages 15–18, 18.0 for 19–50 and 8.0 thereafter. For men, 8.0 mg/day for ages 19 and up. RDAs are higher than EARs so as to identify amounts that will cover people with higher than average requirements. RDA for pregnancy is 27 mg/day and, for lactation, 9 mg/day. For children ages 1–3 years 7 mg/day, 10 for ages 4–8 and 8 for ages 9–13. As for safety, the IOM also sets Tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) for vitamins and minerals when evidence is sufficient. In the case of iron the UL is set at 45 mg/day. Collectively the EARs, RDAs and ULs are referred to as Dietary Reference Intakes. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) refers to the collective set of information as Dietary Reference Values, with Population Reference Intake (PRI) instead of RDA, and Average Requirement instead of EAR. AI and UL defined the same as in United States. For women the PRI is 13 mg/day ages 15–17 years, 16 mg/day for women ages 18 and up who are premenopausal and 11 mg/day postmenopausal. For pregnancy and lactation, 16 mg/day. For men the PRI is 11 mg/day ages 15 and older. For children ages 1 to 14 the PRI increases from 7 to 11 mg/day. The PRIs are higher than the U.S. RDAs, with the exception of pregnancy. The EFSA reviewed the same safety question did not establish a UL. Infants may require iron supplements if they are bottle-fed cow's milk. Frequent blood donors are at risk of low iron levels and are often advised to supplement their iron intake. For U.S. food and dietary supplement labeling purposes the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value (%DV). For iron labeling purposes 100% of the Daily Value was 18 mg, and as of May 27, 2016[update] remained unchanged at 18 mg. A table of the old and new adult daily values is provided at Reference Daily Intake. ### Deficiency Iron deficiency is the most common nutritional deficiency in the world. When loss of iron is not adequately compensated by adequate dietary iron intake, a state of latent iron deficiency occurs, which over time leads to iron-deficiency anemia if left untreated, which is characterised by an insufficient number of red blood cells and an insufficient amount of hemoglobin. Children, pre-menopausal women (women of child-bearing age), and people with poor diet are most susceptible to the disease. Most cases of iron-deficiency anemia are mild, but if not treated can cause problems like fast or irregular heartbeat, complications during pregnancy, and delayed growth in infants and children. The brain is resistant to acute iron deficiency due to the slow transport of iron through the blood brain barrier. Acute fluctuations in iron status (marked by serum ferritin levels) do not reflect brain iron status, but prolonged nutritional iron deficiency is suspected to reduce brain iron concentrations over time. In the brain, iron plays a role in oxygen transport, myelin synthesis, mitochondrial respiration, and as a cofactor for neurotransmitter synthesis and metabolism. Animal models of nutritional iron deficiency report biomolecular changes resembling those seen in Parkinson's and Huntington's disease. However, age-related accumulation of iron in the brain has also been linked to the development of Parkinson's. ### Excess Iron uptake is tightly regulated by the human body, which has no regulated physiological means of excreting iron. Only small amounts of iron are lost daily due to mucosal and skin epithelial cell sloughing, so control of iron levels is primarily accomplished by regulating uptake. Regulation of iron uptake is impaired in some people as a result of a genetic defect that maps to the HLA-H gene region on chromosome 6 and leads to abnormally low levels of hepcidin, a key regulator of the entry of iron into the circulatory system in mammals. In these people, excessive iron intake can result in iron overload disorders, known medically as hemochromatosis. Many people have an undiagnosed genetic susceptibility to iron overload, and are not aware of a family history of the problem. For this reason, people should not take iron supplements unless they suffer from iron deficiency and have consulted a doctor. Hemochromatosis is estimated to be the cause of 0.3 to 0.8% of all metabolic diseases of Caucasians. Overdoses of ingested iron can cause excessive levels of free iron in the blood. High blood levels of free ferrous iron react with peroxides to produce highly reactive free radicals that can damage DNA, proteins, lipids, and other cellular components. Iron toxicity occurs when the cell contains free iron, which generally occurs when iron levels exceed the availability of transferrin to bind the iron. Damage to the cells of the gastrointestinal tract can also prevent them from regulating iron absorption, leading to further increases in blood levels. Iron typically damages cells in the heart, liver and elsewhere, causing adverse effects that include coma, metabolic acidosis, shock, liver failure, coagulopathy, long-term organ damage, and even death. Humans experience iron toxicity when the iron exceeds 20 milligrams for every kilogram of body mass; 60 milligrams per kilogram is considered a lethal dose. Overconsumption of iron, often the result of children eating large quantities of ferrous sulfate tablets intended for adult consumption, is one of the most common toxicological causes of death in children under six. The Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) sets the Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for adults at 45 mg/day. For children under fourteen years old the UL is 40 mg/day. The medical management of iron toxicity is complicated, and can include use of a specific chelating agent called deferoxamine to bind and expel excess iron from the body. ### ADHD Some research has suggested that low thalamic iron levels may play a role in the pathophysiology of ADHD. Some researchers have found that iron supplementation can be effective especially in the inattentive subtype of the disorder. One study also showed that iron may be able to decrease the risk of cardiovascular events during treatment with ADHD drugs. Some researchers in the 2000s suggested a link between low levels of iron in the blood and ADHD. A 2012 study found no such correlation. ### Cancer The role of iron in cancer defense can be described as a "double-edged sword" because of its pervasive presence in non-pathological processes. People having chemotherapy may develop iron deficiency and anemia, for which intravenous iron therapy is used to restore iron levels. Iron overload, which may occur from high consumption of red meat, may initiate tumor growth and increase susceptibility to cancer onset, particularly for colorectal cancer. ### Marine systems Iron plays an essential role in marine systems and can act as a limiting nutrient for planktonic activity. Because of this, too much of a decrease in iron may lead to a decrease in growth rates in phytoplanktonic organisms such as diatoms. Iron can also be oxidized by marine microbes under conditions that are high in iron and low in oxygen. Iron can enter marine systems through adjoining rivers and directly from the atmosphere. Once iron enters the ocean, it can be distributed throughout the water column through ocean mixing and through recycling on the cellular level. In the arctic, sea ice plays a major role in the store and distribution of iron in the ocean, depleting oceanic iron as it freezes in the winter and releasing it back into the water when thawing occurs in the summer. The iron cycle can fluctuate the forms of iron from aqueous to particle forms altering the availability of iron to primary producers. Increased light and warmth increases the amount of iron that is in forms that are usable by primary producers. See also -------- * El Mutún in Bolivia, where 10% of the world's accessible iron ore is located * Iron and steel industry * Iron cycle * Iron nanoparticle * Iron–platinum nanoparticle * Iron fertilization – proposed fertilization of oceans to stimulate phytoplankton growth * Iron-oxidizing bacteria * List of countries by iron production * Pelletising – process of creation of iron ore pellets * Rustproof iron * Steel Bibliography ------------ * Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). *Chemistry of the Elements* (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8. * Weeks, Mary Elvira; Leichester, Henry M. (1968). "Elements known to the ancients". *Discovery of the elements*. Easton, PA: Journal of Chemical Education. pp. 29–40. ISBN 0-7661-3872-0. LCCN 68-15217. Further reading --------------- * H.R. Schubert, *History of the British Iron and Steel Industry ... to 1775 AD* (Routledge, London, 1957) * R.F. Tylecote, *History of Metallurgy* (Institute of Materials, London 1992). * R.F. Tylecote, "Iron in the Industrial Revolution" in J. Day and R.F. Tylecote, *The Industrial Revolution in Metals* (Institute of Materials 1991), 200–60.

Iron

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron

**Lagos** (Nigeria, UK: /ˈleɪɡɒs/ *LAY-gos*; US: /ˈlɑːɡoʊs/ *LAH-gouus*; Yoruba: *Èkó*) or **Lagos City** is the most populous city in Nigeria as well as Africa, with an estimated population of 21 million in 2015. The estimated population for Lagos was more than 26 million in 2023; and around 30 million for the Lagos metropolitan area. Lagos is the 4th most populous city in the world, and the most populous urban area in Africa. Lagos was the national capital of Nigeria until December 1991 following the government's decision to move their capital to Abuja in the centre of the country. Lagos is a major African financial centre and is the economic hub of Lagos State and Nigeria at large. The city has been described as the cultural, financial, and entertainment capital of Africa, and is a significant influence on commerce, entertainment, technology, education, politics, tourism, art, and fashion. Lagos is also among the top ten of the world's fastest-growing cities and urban areas. The megacity has the fourth-highest GDP in Africa and houses one of the largest and busiest seaports on the continent. The Lagos metropolitan area is a major educational and cultural centre in Sub Saharan Africa. Due to the large urban population and port traffic volumes, Lagos is classified as a Medium-Port Megacity. Lagos emerged as a home to the Awori tribe of the Yoruba of West Africa islands, which are contained in the present day Local Government Areas (LGAs) of Lagos Island, Eti-Osa, Amuwo-Odofin and Apapa. The islands are separated by creeks, fringing the southwest mouth of Lagos Lagoon, while being protected from the Atlantic Ocean by barrier islands and long sand spits such as Bar Beach, which stretch up to 100 km (62 mi) east and west of the mouth. Due to rapid urbanisation, the city expanded to the west of the lagoon to include areas in the present day Lagos Mainland, Ajeromi-Ifelodun, and Surulere. This led to the classification of Lagos into two main areas: the Island, which was the original city of Lagos, and the Mainland, which it has since expanded into. This city area was governed directly by the Federal Government through the Lagos City Council, until the creation of Lagos State in 1967, which led to the splitting of Lagos city into the present-day seven Local Government Areas (LGAs), and an addition of other towns (which now make up 13 LGAs) from the then Western Region to form the state. However, the state capital was later moved to Ikeja in 1976, and the federal capital moved to Abuja in 1991. Even though Lagos is still widely referred to as a city, the present-day Lagos, also known as "Metropolitan Lagos", and officially as "Lagos Metropolitan Area" is an urban agglomeration or conurbation, consisting of 16 LGAs including Ikeja, the state capital of Lagos State. This conurbation makes up 37% of Lagos State total land area, but houses about 85% of the state's total population. The population of Metropolitan Lagos is disputed. In the 2006 federal census data, the conurbation had a population of about 8 million people. However, the figure was disputed by the Lagos State Government, which later released its own population data, putting the population of Lagos Metropolitan Area at approximately 16 million. Daily, the Lagos area is growing by some 3,000 people or around 1.1 million annually, so the true population figure of the greater Lagos area in 2022 is roughly 28 million (up from some 23.5 million in 2018). Lagos may therefore have overtaken Kinshasa as Africa's most populous city. As of 2015, unofficial figures put the population of "Greater Metropolitan Lagos", which includes Lagos and its surrounding metro area, extending as far as into Ogun State, at approximately 21 million. The University of Lagos is one of the first generation universities of Nigeria. The business district of Lagos is home to Tinubu Square, named after the aristocratic slave trader Efunroye Tinubu. Lagos contains Murtala Muhammed International Airport, named after Nigerian president Murtala Muhammad, and is one of the busiest African airports. Lagos National Stadium has hosted various international sports events such as the 1980 African Cup of Nations. Name ---- *Lagos* is derived from the Portuguese word for "lakes". The pronunciation /ˈleɪɡɒs/ (*LAY-gos*) is typically standard in British and Nigerian English. Speakers of American English often use the pronunciation /ˈlɑːɡoʊs/ (*LAH-gouus*), which sounds more similar to the original Portuguese pronunciation. The native Yoruba name *Èkó* is also used by Yoruba people. History ------- Lagos was originally inhabited by the Awori subgroup of the Yoruba people in the 15th century and Binis in the 16th century. The Awori moved to an island now called Iddo and then to the larger Lagos Island. Because the area was dominated by the then expansive Benin Empire, they called it Eko, from the late 16th century to the mid-19th century. The name Eko was given to it by Oba Ado a prince from Benin Kingdom. Eko is still the native name for Lagos to date. *Lagos* (Portuguese for "lakes") was a name given to the settlement by the Portuguese. Throughout history, it was home to a number of warring ethnic Yoruba groups who had settled in the area. Following its early settlement by the Awori nobility, the state first came to the attention of the Portuguese in the 15th century. Portuguese explorer Rui de Sequeira visited the area in 1472, naming the area around the city *Lago de Curamo*, which means *Lake of Curamo*. It's also probable that the city was named after the homonymous coastal town of Lagos, Portugal, in the Algarve region, where sailors and settlers would have departed. In Britain's early 19th-century fight against the transatlantic slave trade, its West Africa Squadron or Preventative Squadron as it was also known, continued to pursue Portuguese, American, French, and Cuban slave ships and to impose anti-slavery treaties with West African coastal chiefs with so much doggedness that they created a strong presence along the West African coast from Sierra Leone all the way to the Niger Delta (today's Nigeria) and as far south as Congo. In 1849, Britain appointed John Beecroft Consul of the Bights of Benin and Biafra, a position he held (along with his governorship of Fernando Po) until his death in 1854. John Duncan was appointed Vice Consul and was located at Whydah. At the time of Beecroft's appointment, the Kingdom of Lagos (under Oba Kosoko) was in the western part of the Consulate of the Bights of Benin and Biafra and was a key slave trading port. In 1851 and with pressure from liberated slaves who now wielded political and business influence, Britain intervened in Lagos in what is now known as the Bombardment of Lagos or Capture of Lagos resulting in the installation of Oba Akitoye and the ouster of Oba Kosoko. Oba Akitoye then signed the Treaty between Great Britain and Lagos abolishing slavery. The signing of the 1852 treaty ushered in the Consular Period in Lagos's history wherein Britain provided military protection for Lagos. Following threats from Kosoko and the French who were positioned at Whydah, a decision was made by Lord Palmerston (British Prime Minister) who noted in 1861, "the expediency of losing no time in assuming the formal Protectorate of Lagos". William McCoskry, the Acting Consul in Lagos with Commander Bedingfield convened a meeting with Oba Dosunmu on 30 July 1861 aboard HMS *Prometheus* where Britain's intent was explained and a response to the terms were required by August 1861. Dosunmu resisted the terms of the treaty but under the threat to unleash a bombardment on Lagos by Commander Bedingfield, Dosunmu relented and signed the Lagos Treaty of Cession on 6 August 1861. Lagos was declared a colony on 5 March 1862. The remainder of modern-day Nigeria was seized in 1887, and when the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria was established in 1914, Lagos became its capital, continuing as such after the country's independence from Britain in 1960. Along with migrants from all over Nigeria and other West African nations were the returnee ex-slaves known as Creoles, who came from Freetown, Sierra Leone, Brazil, and the West Indies to Lagos. The Creoles contributed to Lagos's modernization and their knowledge of Portuguese architecture can still be seen from the architecture on Lagos Island. Since the 19th century, Lagos gradually transformed into a melting pot of Africans and Europeans. Railway links and telephone cables connecting Lagos to London had been established by 1886. Electric street lighting was introduced in the city in 1898. Lagos experienced rapid growth throughout the 1960s and 1970s as a result of Nigeria's economic boom. Before the creation of Lagos State on 27 May 1967, Lagos, which was the country's capital had been administered directly by the Federal Government as a Federal Territory through the *Federal Ministry of Lagos Affairs*, while the Lagos City Council (LCC) governed the city. Lagos, along with the towns from the then Western region (Ikeja, Agege, Mushin, Ikorodu, Epe and Badagry), were eventually captured to create Lagos State. Lagos city was split into the present day seven Local Government Areas (LGAs), while the other towns now make up 13 LGAs in the state. Lagos played the dual role of being the State and Federal Capital until 1976 when the state capital was moved to Ikeja. Lagos was adversely affected during Nigeria's military rule. Also, on 12 December 1991, the seat of the Federal Government was also formally relocated to Abuja. However, Lagos remains the financial center of the country, and also grew to become the most populous conurbation in the country. Administration -------------- Lagos was formerly the capital city of Nigeria, but it has since been replaced by Abuja. Abuja officially became the capital of Nigeria on 12 December 1991, although the decision to move the federal capital had been made in now Act no. 6 of 1976. Lagos is also home to the High Court of the Lagos State Judiciary, housed in an old colonial building on Lagos Island. In terms of administration, Lagos is not a single municipality and therefore has no overall city administration. The geographical city limits of Metropolitan Lagos comprise 16 of the 20 Local Government Areas of Lagos State. The latter entity provides overall government for the metropolitan region. The former Municipality of Lagos, which covered Lagos Island, Ikoyi, and Victoria Island as well as some mainland territory, was managed by the Lagos City Council (LCC), but it was disbanded in 1976 and divided into several Local Government Areas (most notably Lagos Island LGA, Lagos Mainland LGA and Eti-Osa LGA). The mainland beyond the Municipality of Lagos, on the other hand, included several separate towns and settlements such as Mushin, Ikeja and Agege. In the wake of the 1970s Nigerian oil boom, Lagos experienced a population explosion, untamed economic growth, and unmitigated rural migration. This caused the outlying towns and settlements to develop rapidly, thus forming the present-day "Lagos Metropolitan Area", also known as "Metropolitan Lagos". The history of Lagos is still evidenced in the layout of the LGAs that display the unique identities of the cultures that created them. By 2006, the metro area around Lagos had extended beyond Lagos State's boundaries and attained a megacity status. This much larger area is referred to as "Greater Metropolitan Lagos" or "Lagos Megacity Region", which is a continuously built-up land area of an additional 1,535.4 square kilometres (592.8 square miles), in LGAs situated next to Lagos's eastern and western city limits in Lagos State, and also beyond its northern limits, spilling into some LGAs in adjoining Ogun State. Ogun State LGAs that have become part of Greater Metropolitan Lagos include Obafemi Owode, Sagamu, Ifo, Ado-Odo/Ota and part of Ewekoro. Today, the word *Lagos* most often refers to the urban area, called "Metropolitan Lagos" in Nigeria, which includes both the islands of the former municipality of Lagos and the mainland suburbs. Lagos State government is responsible for some of the utilities including roads and transportation, power, water, health, and education. Metropolitan Lagos extends over 16 of the 20 LGAs of Lagos State and contains about 85% of the population of Lagos State, including some semi-rural areas. Lagos has a considerable number of high-rise buildings that dominate its skyline. Most of the tall buildings are located in the downtown Central Business District. Demography ---------- The 16 LGAs of Metropolitan Lagos| **Local Government Area** | **Land area****(in km2)** | **Population****(2006 Census)** | **Density(inh. per km2)** | | Agege | 17 | 459,939 | 41,071 | | Ajeromi-Ifelodun | 13.9 | 684,105 | 55,474 | | Alimosho | 137.8 | 1,277,714 | 6,899 | | Amuwo-Odofin | 179.1 | 318,166 | 2,364 | | Apapa | 38.5 | 217,362 | 8,153 | | Eti-Osa | 299.1 | 287,785 | 1,496 | | Ifako-Ijaiye | 43 | 427,878 | 16,078 | | Ikeja | 49.92 | 313,196 | 6,785 | | Kosofe | 84.4 | 665,393 | 8,174 | | Lagos Island | 9.26 | 209,437 | 24,182 | | Lagos Mainland | 19.62 | 317,720 | 16,322 | | Mushin | 14.05 | 633,009 | 36,213 | | Ojo | 182 | 598,071 | 3,781 | | Oshodi-Isolo | 41.98 | 621,509 | 13,886 | | Somolu | 14.6 | 402,673 | 34,862 | | Surulere | 27.05 | 503,975 | 21,912 | | **Metropolitan Lagos** | **1,171.28** | **7,937,932** | **7,941** | Although the 2006 National Population Census of Nigeria credited the metropolitan area with a population figure of 7,937,932, the figure is at variance with some projections by the United Nations and other population agencies and groups worldwide. The population figure of Lagos State given by the Lagos State Government is 17,553,924. That figure was based on claimed conducted enumeration for social planning by the Lagos State Government's "parallel census" and it believes that since the inhabitants of the metropolitan area of Lagos constitute 88% of the Lagos State population, the population of metropolitan Lagos is about 15.5 million. A rejoinder to Lagos State Government views concluded that Lagos State concealed the fact that the population projection, for Lagos Urban Agglomeration by the UN agencies, had been revised downwards substantially as early as 2003. It failed to interpret the two most important and fairly representative and reliable secondary data sets already in the public domain, the National Identity Card Scheme and the 2003 Voters Registration figures from INEC. The figures for 2007 Voters Registration by INEC were an act subsequent to the release of the provisional census results and comprehensively corroborate, vindicate and validate the population figures. According to the official results of the 2006 census, there were 8,048,430 inhabitants in Metropolitan Lagos. This figure was lower than anticipated and has created controversy in Nigeria. Lagos Island, the central Local Government Area and historic center of Metropolitan Lagos, had a population of 212,700 at the 2006 Census. Authorities of Lagos State have disputed the results of the 2006 census, accusing the Nigerian National Population Commission of undercounting the population of the state. This accusation is denied by the National Population Commission. A study found that research carried out by Africapolis (the African subsidiary of e-Geopolis backed by the Agence française de développement), in addition to the cross-referencing of official figures with more scientific independent research concluded that the 2006 census figures for Lagos State of about 9 million were valid and that the state's own assessments are inflated. Lagos is, by most estimates, one of the fastest-growing cities in the world. Lagos is experiencing a population increase of about 275,000 persons per annum. In 1999, the United Nations predicted that the city's metropolitan area, which had only about 290,000 inhabitants in 1950, would exceed 20 million by 2010 and thus become one of the ten most populated cities in the world. Historical population| Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1950 | 325,218 | —     | | 1960 | 762,418 | +134.4% | | 1970 | 1,413,528 | +85.4% | | 1980 | 2,572,218 | +82.0% | | 1990 | 4,764,093 | +85.2% | | 2000 | 7,280,706 | +52.8% | | 2010 | 10,441,182 | +43.4% | | 2019 | 13,903,620 | +33.2% | | source: for Lagos Agglomeration | Geography --------- Lagos is loosely classified into two main geographical areas—the "Island" and the "Mainland". ### Cityscape Lagos has the tallest skyline in Nigeria. The architectural styles in Lagos are diverse and range from tropical and vernacular to colonial European and ultramodern buildings or a mixture. Brazilian style architecture brought by the creoles is evident in buildings such as Water House and Shitta Bey Mosque. Skyscrapers and most high rise buildings are centered on the islands, while the mainland has some high rise buildings. In recent years, the Lagos State government has renovated existing parks and green areas, with a long-term goal of expansion. Many good quality buildings are interspersed across the city. #### Island The Island is a loose geographical term that is used to define the area of Lagos that is separated from the "Mainland" by the main channel draining the lagoon into the Atlantic Ocean, which forms Lagos Harbour. The Island is mainly a collection of islands that are separated from each other by creeks and are connected by bridges. The smaller sections of some creeks have been dredged and built over. This part of Lagos is the area where most business activities and entertainment events in Lagos take place. It also houses most of the upscale residential areas in Lagos. The Local Government Areas (LGAs) that are considered to be on the Island include Lagos Island and Eti-Osa. The major upscale Island neighborhoods within these LGAs include Ikoyi and Victoria Island. Three major bridges join the Island to the Mainland. They are the Carter Bridge, which starts from Iddo; the Eko Bridge (formerly called the Second Mainland Bridge); and the Third Mainland Bridge, which passes through densely populated mainland suburbs to the Lagos Lagoon. The Ikoyi link bridge links Ikoyi and Lekki Phase 1, both of which are part of the Island. Construction on the Fourth Mainland Bridge will commence in 2022, according to Lagos State Governor, Babajide Sanwo-Olu. ##### Lagos Island Lagos Island contains a central business district. This district is characterized by high-rise buildings. The Island also contains many of the city's largest wholesale marketplaces (such as the popular Idumota and Balogun Markets). It also has the National Museum of Nigeria, the Central Mosque, the Glover Memorial Hall, Christ's Church Cathedral (CMS) and the Oba's Palace (Iga Idunganran). Another major part of Lagos Island is Marina. It borders the idumota and Balogun markets and houses major Banking institutions. Though formerly in a derelict condition, Lagos Island's Tinubu Square is a site of historical importance; it was here that the Amalgamation Ceremony that unified the North and South protectorate to form Nigeria took place in 1914. ##### Ikoyi Ikoyi is situated on the eastern half of Lagos Island and joined to it by a landfill. Ikoyi is also connected to Victoria Island by Falomo bridge, which carries the main road over Five Cowrie creek. Falomo garden, a green public space which was developed by the state government in conjunction with Fidelity Bank in 2017, is located under the bridge. Ikoyi housed the headquarters of the federal government of Nigeria and other buildings owned by the government, including the old federal secretariat complex. The complex today is on reestablishment. In Ikoyi there are military and police barracks, a top-security prison, and a federal high court of Nigeria. Ikoyi also has hotels, nightclubs, a recreational park, and one of Africa's largest golf courses. Originally a middle class neighborhood, in recent years it has become a fashionable residential enclave for the upper middle class to the upper class. There are also commercial activities in Ikoyi, which are spotted in an increasing number of offices, banks, and shopping complexes. The commercial section is concentrated in the South-West. ##### Victoria Island Victoria Island with its annex is situated to the south of Lagos Island and known with a zip code of 101241 as assigned by NIPOST. It has expensive real estate properties and for that reason, many new luxury condos and apartments are blooming up everywhere. Along with Ikoyi, Victoria Island occupies a major area in Lagos that boasts several shopping districts. On its seashore along the Atlantic front, there is an environmentally reconstructed Bar Beach. **Ajah/Lekki** The Lekki Peninsula shares some prestige with its Ikoyi and Victoria Island neighbors. Development has stretched the piece of land further such that the Ibeju axis, though closer to Epe (which is on the outskirts of Lagos) is almost always described as part of Lekki. The expanse of land starts from the Lekki toll gate, which was the focal stage of the famous #EndSars protest in October 2019, and ends in Ibeju-Lekki and boasts of communities slowly inching their way to suburb status such as Ajah, Awoyaya, Sangotedo, Abijo, and Eputu. There is quite a bit of places to see – the Lekki Conservation Centre; The Novare Mall; The Lekki Free Trade Zone – Dangote, Africa's richest man is building his refinery in this FTZ; Lagos Business School; Eleko Beach; Elegushi Beach; La Camaigne Tropicana – a beach/tourist getaway, Pan-Atlantic University. The area has a Catholic monastery. ##### Iddo Across the main channel of the lagoon from Lagos Island, there is a smaller settlement called Iddo. Iddo is also a railroad terminus and it is now situated in the Lagos Mainland Local Government Area after it was connected to the Mainland like a peninsula. #### Mainland A huge population of Lagosians also live on the Lagos Mainland, and most industries are located there. The Mainland is known for its music and nightlife, which used to be located in areas around Yaba, Ikeja and Surulere. However, in recent years more nightclubs have sprung up on the Island, making the Island (particularly Victoria Island, Ikate, and Lekki Phase 1) the main nightlife attraction. Mainland LGAs include Surulere, Apapa, and Lagos Mainland. Metropolitan Lagos suburban LGAs include: Agege, Amuwo Odofin, Mushin, Oshodi-Isolo and Ikeja (site of Murtala Muhammed International Airport and the capital of Lagos State). Major areas on the Mainland include Ebute Metta, Yaba and Ejigbo. Some rivers, like Badagry Creek, flow parallel to the coast for some distance before exiting through the sand bars to the sea. ### Urban parks and squares Freedom Park is a memorial and leisure park area in the middle of downtown Lagos in Lagos Island, Nigeria which was formerly Her Majesty's Broad Street Prison. It was designed by the Architect Theo Lawson. The Park was constructed to preserve the history and cultural heritage of Nigerians. Monuments in the park reveal the Lagos colonial heritage and history of Her Majesty's Broad Street prisons. It was built to commemorate the 50th-anniversary independence celebration in October 2010. The Park serves as a national memorial, a historical landmark, a cultural site, arts and recreation center. The park is open to the public every day. Today, freedom park has become a venue for social events and recreational entertainment. Tinubu Square (formerly Independence Square), is an open space landmark located in Broad Street, Lagos Island, Lagos State, Nigeria named after the Yoruba slave trader, merchant, and aristocrat Madam Efunroye Tinubu. It used to be called *Ita Tinubu* before it was named *Independence Square* by leaders of the First Nigerian Republic after Nigerian independence and subsequently *Tinubu Square*. The Tafawa Balewa Square, (TBS) is a 14.5-hectare (35.8-acre) ceremonial ground (originally called "Race Course") in Lagos Island, Lagos. The entrance to the square has gigantic sculptures of four white horses hovering above the gate and seven red eagles, which are symbols from the national emblem signifying Strength and Dignity respectively. Other monuments in the square include the Remembrance Arcade 1(with memorials to World War I, World War II and Nigerian civil war victims) and the 26-storey Independence House, built in 1963 which was for a long time, the tallest building in Nigeria. Climate ------- Lagos experiences a tropical savanna climate (*Aw*) according to the Köppen climate classification, as there are four months under 60 mm or 2.4 in of rain, and annual rainfall is not nearly high enough for tropical monsoon classification. The wet season starts in March and ends in October, while the dry season starts in November and ends in February. The wettest month is June with precipitation total 315.5 mm or 12.42 in, while the driest month is January with precipitation total 13.2 mm or 0.52 in. Located near the equator, Lagos has only a slight seasonal temperature variation, with mean high temperatures ranging from 28.3 to 32.9 °C (82.9 to 91.2 °F). Lagos shares the seasons of the Southern Hemisphere, with the highest temperatures in March with a daily range from 32.9 to 24.1 °C (91.2 to 75.4 °F), and least hot temperatures in August ranging from 28.3 to 21.8 °C (82.9 to 71.2 °F). | Climate data for Lagos (Murtala Muhammed International Airport) 1961–1990, extremes: 1886–present | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 40.0(104.0) | 37.1(98.8) | 37.0(98.6) | 39.6(103.3) | 37.0(98.6) | 37.6(99.7) | 33.2(91.8) | 33.0(91.4) | 33.2(91.8) | 33.7(92.7) | 39.9(103.8) | 36.4(97.5) | 40.0(104.0) | | Average high °C (°F) | 32.2(90.0) | 33.2(91.8) | 32.9(91.2) | 32.2(90.0) | 30.9(87.6) | 29.3(84.7) | 28.2(82.8) | 28.3(82.9) | 28.9(84.0) | 30.3(86.5) | 31.4(88.5) | 31.8(89.2) | 30.8(87.4) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 27.3(81.1) | 28.4(83.1) | 28.5(83.3) | 28.0(82.4) | 27.0(80.6) | 25.6(78.1) | 25.2(77.4) | 25.0(77.0) | 25.5(77.9) | 26.4(79.5) | 27.2(81.0) | 27.2(81.0) | 26.8(80.2) | | Average low °C (°F) | 22.4(72.3) | 23.7(74.7) | 24.1(75.4) | 23.7(74.7) | 23.2(73.8) | 21.9(71.4) | 22.3(72.1) | 21.8(71.2) | 22.1(71.8) | 22.4(72.3) | 23.0(73.4) | 22.5(72.5) | 22.8(73.0) | | Record low °C (°F) | 12.6(54.7) | 16.1(61.0) | 14.0(57.2) | 14.9(58.8) | 20.0(68.0) | 21.2(70.2) | 15.0(59.0) | 19.0(66.2) | 13.0(55.4) | 17.9(64.2) | 11.1(52.0) | 11.6(52.9) | 11.1(52.0) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 13.2(0.52) | 40.6(1.60) | 84.3(3.32) | 146.3(5.76) | 202.4(7.97) | 315.5(12.42) | 243.0(9.57) | 121.7(4.79) | 160.0(6.30) | 125.1(4.93) | 39.7(1.56) | 14.8(0.58) | 1,506.6(59.31) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 1.5 | 2.8 | 6.6 | 9.0 | 12.5 | 16.2 | 13.2 | 11.6 | 12.7 | 11.2 | 4.9 | 2.1 | 104.3 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 81 | 79 | 76 | 82 | 84 | 87 | 87 | 85 | 86 | 87 | 84 | 82 | 83 | | Average dew point °C (°F) | 21(70) | 24(75) | 25(77) | 25(77) | 24(75) | 24(75) | 23(73) | 23(73) | 24(75) | 24(75) | 24(75) | 23(73) | 24(74) | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 164.3 | 168.0 | 173.6 | 180.0 | 176.7 | 114.0 | 99.2 | 108.5 | 114.0 | 167.4 | 186.0 | 192.2 | 1,843.9 | | Mean daily sunshine hours | 5.3 | 6.1 | 5.6 | 6.0 | 5.7 | 3.8 | 3.2 | 3.5 | 3.8 | 5.4 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 5.1 | | Source 1: Deutscher Wetterdienst (humidity, 1952–1967), NOAA (monthly sun hours) | | Source 2: Meteo Climat (record highs and lows) Time and Date (dewpoints, 2005–2015) Weather Atlas (daily sun hours) | ### Climate change A 2019 paper published in PLOS One estimated that under Representative Concentration Pathway 4.5, a "moderate" scenario of climate change where global warming reaches ~2.5–3 °C (4.5–5.4 °F) by 2100, the climate of Lagos in the year 2050 would most closely resemble the current climate of Panama City. The annual temperature would increase by 1.6 °C (2.9 °F) and the temperature of the warmest month by 1.5 °C (2.7 °F), while the temperature of the coldest month would be 2.9 °C (5.2 °F) higher. According to Climate Action Tracker, the current warming trajectory appears consistent with 2.7 °C (4.9 °F), which closely matches RCP 4.5. Moreover, according to the 2022 IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, Lagos is one of 12 major African cities (Abidjan, Alexandria, Algiers, Cape Town, Casablanca, Dakar, Dar es Salaam, Durban, Lagos, Lomé, Luanda and Maputo) that would be the most severely affected by sea level rise. It estimates that they would collectively sustain cumulative damage of USD 65 billion under RCP 4.5 and USD 86.5 billion in the high-emission scenario RCP 8.5 by the year 2050. Additionally RCP 8.5 combined with the hypothetical impact from marine ice sheet instability at high levels of warming would involve up to 137.5 billion USD in damage, while the additional accounting for the "low-probability, high-damage events" may increase aggregate risks to USD 187 billion for the "moderate" RCP4.5, USD 206 billion for RCP8.5 and USD 397 billion under the high-end ice sheet instability scenario. Since sea level rise would continue for about 10,000 years under every scenario of climate change, future costs of sea level rise would only increase, especially without adaptation measures. Economy ------- The city of Lagos is a major economic focal point in Nigeria, generating around 10% of the country's GDP. Most commercial and financial business is carried out in the central business district situated on the island. This is also where most of the country's commercial banks, financial institutions, and major corporations are headquartered. Lagos is also the major information communications and telecommunications (ICT) hub of West Africa.ref>Douglas Zhihua Zeng (2008). *Knowledge, Technology, and Cluster-based Growth in Africa (WBI development studies)*. World Bank Publications. p. 66. ISBN 9780821373071.</ref> Lagos is developing a 24-hour economy. ### Ports The Port of Lagos, formally known as the Lagos-Elbert Mathews Memorial Port, is Nigeria's leading port and one of the largest and busiest in Africa. Due to the large urban population, Lagos is categorized as a medium-port megacity using the Southampton System for port-city classification. It is administered by the Nigerian Ports Authority. The following types of vessels regularly call at the port of Lagos: Fishing vessels (18%), container ships (14%), oil/chemical tankers (13%), bulk carriers (12%), and offshore supply vessels (5%). The maximum length of vessels that have called at this port is 279 meters. The maximum draught is 13.5 m. The maximum carrying capacity is 113,306 t. The port features a railhead. It is split into three main sections. The largest terminal is located in the Apapa district (Apapa Quays). This is where mainly general cargo is handled. Among other things, Apapa is home to a container port owned by the Danish company A. P. Møller-Mærsk, worth over one billion U.S. dollars. The next largest terminal is located on Tin Can Island. Containers and bulk cargo are handled here. The storage capacity of the silos is 28,000 tons of grain transported by Fleetwood Transportation. The terminal handles wheat, corn, and malt, and can receive about 4000 tons of grain daily. The port facilities can handle vessels with a capacity of about 30,000 tons. There is also a grain bagging facility on the site. The third is the Lagos oil port north of Apapa Quays. ### Entertainment industry and media Lagos is the center of the West African film, music, and TV industries. The film industry in the Surulere locality ranks second or third in the world, ahead of or behind Hollywood, depending on the survey. PricewaterhouseCoopers Int. forecasts that the Nigerian entertainment industry will grow 85% to $15 billion. Since the success of the Nigerian thriller "The Figurine", Nigerian film has increasingly turned to high-quality productions that are also commercially successful. This, in turn, has led to consistently new box office revenue records in Nigeria (2009's "The Figurine," 2013's "Half of a Yellow Sun," 2016's "The Wedding Party"). ### Lekki Free Trade Zone Lekki Free Trade Zone (Lekki FTZ) is a free zone situated in the eastern part of Lekki, which covers a total area of about 155 square kilometers. The first phase of the zone has an area of 30 square kilometers, with about 27 square kilometers for urban construction purposes, which would accommodate a total resident population of 120,000. According to the Master Plan, the free zone will be developed into a new modern city within a city with the integration of industries, commerce and business, real estate development, warehousing and logistics, tourism, and entertainment. Lekki FTZ is divided into three functional districts; the residential district in the north, the industrial district in the middle, and the commercial trading/warehousing & logistics district in the southeast. The "sub-center" located in the south of the Zone is to be developed first. The region is close to the customs supervisory area, and it is mainly for commercial trading, logistics, and warehousing operations. The second phase is located in the north of the Zone adjacent to E9 Road (Highway) which will serve as central business district of the free zone. The area along E2 Road will be developed for financial and commercial businesses, estate properties & supporting facilities, high-end production service industries, which will link it to the sub-center of the Zone. The area along E4 Road will be used mainly for the development of logistics and industrial manufacturing/processing. A number of connection axes are also planned in between the principal axis and the sub-axis, with multi-functional service nodes to serve the whole of Lekki FTZ. Dangote Refinery is being built in the Lekki Free Zone. In the start-up area of the Lekki Free Trade Zone, there will be a Commercial and Logistics Park which will cover an area of 1.5 square kilometers. The park is planned to integrate commerce, trading, warehousing, and exhibition. According to the site plan, large construction works will be built in the park, including an international commodities and trade center, an international exhibition and conversation center, workshops, logistics warehouses, office buildings, hotels and residential apartment buildings, amongst others. ### Oil refinery Until now, paradoxically, oil *exporter* Nigeria had to *import* its oil derivatives (mainly gasoline) and oil processing by-products such as polypropylene. For this reason, the Dangote Group built an oil refinery in the Lekki district, which is expected to be operational in 2022 (as of December 2021). Job advertisements for this were placed in November 2021. The refinery is expected to process 650,000 barrels of oil per day when fully operational, and 327, 000 barrels of gasoline, 244,000 barrels of diesel, 56,000 barrels of aviation fuel, 800 megatons of propane, 2,500 megatons of polypropylene, and 100 megatons of sulfur. 9,000 direct jobs and 25,000 indirect jobs will be created by the refinery. The oil industry has been a major polluter of Lagos's water sources for decades. ### Fruit Market Ketu Lagos State Governor Babajide Sanwo-Olu opened the new Ikosi International Fruits Market in the Ketu district on 25 May 2023. The new fruit market comprises 1,004 shop units. It is located in close proximity to the interchange of Expressway 1 and Ikorodu Road, Lagos' two major arterial roads. It has its own water and electricity supply, canteen and parking facilities. The facility is monitored by security personnel. The new fruit market cost 2.8 trillion naira, about 3.5 million euros. The governor said, "A place that used to harbour miscreants has been transformed into an ultramodern market." He stressed that the market units would be affordable and accessible to all. The popular fruit market in Ketu district was demolished in November 2019 to pave way for a modern market in the area. Prior to the demolition of the market, tension arose when street vendors threw bottles at those who came to carry out the state government's order. It took the intervention of the police, who sporadically fired tear gas in the air to disperse the thugs and traders who were unwilling to leave the market. ### Software companies Software companies in Lagos work mainly in the telecommunications, banking, and education/employment services sectors. They are concentrated in the Lekki and Ikeja districts. MTN maintains the first and still predominant 4G network in Nigeria. Airtel is another 4G provider. 9Mobile and Dataflex are Internet providers. Flutterwave is in the virtual bank card business. Opay is a platform for online bookings. Paystack is used by Nigerians who regularly receive payments from abroad. Andela trains software engineers and places them in the Nigerian job market. ULesson maintains a platform on which secondary school learning content is presented. Hotels.ng allows hotel bookings to be made throughout Africa. Yaba has increasingly been a focal point with several software companies and engineering services companies set up around University of Lagos and Yabatech communities including Flutterwave and Andela. Several start-up incubators and entrepreneurs hubs are also located in the area which is sometimes called Yabacon valley in reference to Silicon Valley. ### Automotive industry Former Mercedes manager Oluwatobi Ajayi founded "Nord Automobiles Ltd" in the Sangotedo district in 2018. He benefited from the decline of the naira, which made importing vehicles unaffordable for many Nigerians. Nord has two assembly plants in Lagos: a 2,100 m2 (23,000 sq ft) plant in Sangotedo, where all eight models are assembled; the second 5,400 m2 (58,000 sq ft) plant in Epe is still under construction. Once completed, the assembly of the models will be moved to the new plant, while component manufacturing will take place in Sangotedo. The company manufactures its own plastic parts and plans to add steel stamping in the future. "In the new plant, we could produce about 1,000 vehicles per month. But the market is not yet big enough to justify assembly on that scale. We've only been selling officially since September, and our orders are increasing by 20% to 30% per month," Ajayi adds. The company offers eight models, with the 3-ton pickup, the Nord Tank, being the most popular. The others are the Nord Max (2.6-ton pickup), Nord A3 (sedan), Nord A5 (luxury SUV), Nord Flit minibus, Nord Yarn, and Nord Tripper. ### Fertiliser A fertiliser production plant was commissioned in the Lekki Free Trade Zone on May 3, 2022. It will produce 3 million tonnes of fertilizer a year. Since Russian fertilizer is refrained from coming onto the world market due to the Ukraine war 2022, Nigeria fills a gap in the market. ### Pharmaceutical industry Nigeria hosts about 60 percent of the pharmaceutical production capacity in Africa (status 2022). The larger pharmaceutical companies in Nigeria are located in the North of Lagos. *Emzor Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd* appears to be the pharmaceutical producer with the most employees. Next in line are *Fidson Healthcare Plc*, *May & Baker Nig. Plc* and *Swiss Pharma Nigeria*. Social situation ---------------- There is a huge spectrum of wealth distribution among the people that reside in Lagos. It ranges from the very wealthy to the very poor. Lagos has attracted many young people and families seeking a better life from all other parts of Nigeria and beyond and this has also contributed to its cosmopolitan status. Oil export revenues have led to a general increase in prices and cost of living, making Lagos the most expensive city in Nigeria. Despite its oil wealth, long queues are commonplace at the country's gas stations due to gasoline shortages. Yet the city remains more or less functional, and rapid growth is producing intact infrastructures even without government intervention - despite what the West sees as a chaotic picture. Change and permeability characterize urban coexistence. One room is occupied by an average of four people, and life takes place primarily on the streets. During the rush hour between the center and the residential areas, the main traffic routes are transformed into marketplaces. After improvements in living conditions, the 1990s with their economic and political crises led to mass impoverishment in Lagos as well. In a 2018 ranking of cities by quality of life, Lagos ranked 212th among 231 cities surveyed worldwide. Lagos has been ranked as one of the most expensive cities in the world. In some parts of Lagos, residents have one of the highest standards of living in Nigeria and in Africa. At the same time, a sizable proportion of the residents live in slums without access to piped water and sanitation. Culture ------- Lagos is a cultural centre of Nigeria. As a port city and the starting point of British colonisation, the Western influence is stronger here than in probably any other Nigerian city. All Nigerian ethnic groups can be found in the melting pot of this metropolis, with the Yoruba predominating. The music and film industries in the city are dynamic centres of the country with global standing. ### Monumental buildings A very striking building in Lagos is the National Theatre with its oval base. The renovation of the National Theatre was completed in March 2023. With the new "blue line" of the Lagos light rail, the National Theatre is recently easily accessible - the station "National theatre" is at a stone's throw distance from the theatre building. Another frequently photographed structure in Lagos is the Lekki-Ikoji Link Bridge - or more simply: Lekki bridge. The Cathedral Church of Christ is at the centre of the oldest part of Lagos. The Anglican church was built between 1867 and 1869, shortly after the establishment of British colonial rule. The Synagogue Church of all Nations was built in 2004. ### Art The Nike Art Gallery is an art gallery in Lagos owned by Nike Davies-Okundaye. The gallery is probably the largest of its kind in West Africa. It is housed in a five-storey building and has a collection of about 8,000 different works of art by various Nigerian artists such as Chief Josephine Oboh Macleod. In 2002, Lagos was one of the African platform cities for the art exhibition Documenta 11. ### Musea The National Museum in Onikan on Lagos Island houses archaeological and ethnographic collections as well as traditional art. There is an opportunity to purchase Nigerian arts and crafts at the adjoining craft centre. Haggling is allowed at the island's Jankara market. Spices, printed cotton and hand-woven fabrics as well as leather articles are offered here. The John K. Randle Centre houses an exhibition on Yoruba culture inaugurated in 2023. The curators actively work with artists, writers, craftspeople, historians and storytellers to share the rich Yoruba culture. The John K. Randle Centre is a new, partly interactive kind of museum. It adapts modern Western museum practices to present new forms of storytelling inspired by Yoruba traditions. It celebrates tangible and intangible culture by preserving, enhancing and promoting the cultural heritage of the Yoruba people. The centre actively collects a wide range of items that distinguish it from a traditional museum. The John K. Randle Centre plays a leading role in the repatriation of Yoruba artefacts from European institutions. ### Festivals Lagos has become an important location for African and Black cultural identity. Currently, Lagos is primarily known as a business-oriented and fast-paced community. Many festivals are held in Lagos; festivals vary in offerings each year and may be held in different months. The Eyo carnival (a yearly festival originated from Iperu Remo, Ogun State), which takes place since 2009, has world city status. Other festivals are Festac Food Fair held in Festac Town Annually, Lagos Black Heritage Carnival, Lagos Carnival, Eko International Film Festival, Lagos Seafood Festac Festival, LAGOS PHOTO Festival, and the Lagos Jazz Series, which is a franchise for high-quality live music in all genres with a focus on jazz. Established in 2010, the event takes place over a 3–5 day period at high-quality outdoor venues. The music is as varied as the audience itself and features a mix of musical genres from rhythm and blues to soul, Afrobeat, hip hop, bebop, and traditional jazz. The festivals provide entertainment of dance and song to add excitement to travelers during a stay in Lagos. ### Cuisine Some of the famous dishes in Lagos include indigenous delicacies such as eba and egusi; amala and ewedu; jollof (the go-to party dish); ofada rice; plantains (locally called dodo); beans; suya (spicy shish kebab or spiced roasted beef), which is consumed in local clubs and bars with a bottle of cold beer; and eba, made from cassava and eaten with soups prepared with vegetables and mixture of spices and herbs. Other dishes range from local ones like *Iyan* (pounded yam) made from yam flour, amala; asaro, which is usually eaten with various kinds of vegetables; and Egusi (melon soup) to European, Middle-Eastern, and Asian cuisine. ### Music Lagos is famous throughout Africa for its music scene. Lagos has a vibrant nightlife and has given birth to a variety of styles such as Sakara music, Nigerian hip hop, highlife, juju, fuji and Afrobeats. James Brown performed in Lagos in 1970. With his band *Wings*, Paul McCartney recorded his fifth post-Beatles album, *Band on the Run*, in an EMI studio in Lagos in August and September 1973. Other foreign musicians who have also performed in the city include Sean Paul, Snoop Dogg, 50 Cent, Akon, Jarule, Ashanti, Usher, Shaggy, R Kelly, Cardi B, Migos especially during the Star Mega Jam; Shakira, John Legend, Ludacris, Busta Rhymes, Boyz II Men, T-Pain, Brian McKnight, JayZ, Mary J. Blige, Beyoncé, Brandy, Ciara, Keri Hilson and Lauryn Hill. ### Film The Surulere district is the centre of the Nigerian film industry, commonly referred to as Nollywood. Lagos itself is the location and setting for many films. The city is featured in domestic and foreign feature film productions. Many films are shot in the Festac area of Lagos, which also hosted the World Festival of Black Arts. The 2016 film "Captain America: Civil War" contains a scene set in Lagos. The Spanish police series "La unidad" (2020 - 2023), the British drama "The last tree" (2019) and the US-Spanish drama "The Way, Chapter 2" with Martin Sheen (2023 still in development) also use Lagos as a filming location. Since the success of the Nigerian thriller "The Figurine", Nigerian film has increasingly focused on high-quality productions that are also commercially successful. This in turn has led to ever new records in box office takings in Nigeria (2009: "The Figurine", 2013: "Half of a Yellow Sun", 2016: "The Wedding Party"). There are also a number of cinemas in the city. Sports ------ Association football is Lagos's most popular sport. Prominent Lagos football clubs include Bridge Boys F.C., MFM F.C., and First Bank: both play in Nigeria National League, the second tier of Nigerian football. The Nigeria national football team, also known as the Super Eagles, used to play almost all of their home games in Lagos at the National Stadium in Surulere; much later, games were played at the then New Abuja National Stadium in Abuja for sometime; however, games are now mostly played at the newer Godswill Akpabio International Stadium in Uyo, which is the default home of the Super Eagles. Lagos also hosted the 2nd All-African games in 1973. Tourism ------- Following the remodernization project achieved by the previous administration of Governor Raji Babatunde Fashola, Lagos is gradually becoming a major tourist destination, being one of the largest cities in Africa and in the world. Diasporan Africans and others, especially from East and Southern Africa, are increasingly visiting Lagos mostly to understand and experience the Nigeria that has been presented to them by Nollywood. Lagos is taking steps to become a global city and is rated as Beta − by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Lagos has sandy beaches by the Atlantic Ocean, including Elegushi Beach and Alpha Beach. Lagos also has private beach resorts including Inagbe Grand Beach Resort and several others on the outskirts. Lagos hotels ranging from three-star to five-star rating, with local hotels such as Eko Hotels and Suites, Federal Palace Hotel, and franchises of multinational chains such as Intercontinental Hotel, Sheraton, and Four Points by Sheraton. Other places of interest include the Tafawa Balewa Square, Festac town, The Nike Art Gallery, Freedom Park, Lagos and the Cathedral Church of Christ, Lagos. ### Tourist Attractions #### Places 1. National Theatre, Iganmu 2. Tafawa Balewa Square, Lagos - This was where Nigeria got its Independence and the British Union Jack was lowered for the last time while the Nigerian Green-White-Gree Flag was hoisted and flown for the first time 3. Civic Centre, Lagos - An Iconic Building on the shores of the Lagos Lagoon 4. Takwa Bay - A popular bay from where you can observe shipping traffic in and out of the Lagos port as well as enjoy some water sports. If you have a personal yacht this is where to go 5. The Oba's Palace at Iga Idunganran - This is an ancestral palace for the Oba of Lagos - the custodian on the traditions and customs of the people of Eko 6. Lekki Conservation Centre - Right in the heart of Lekki, a place to observe animals such as Monkeys, Birds and Reptiles in their natural habitat #### Others 1. The iconic Lekki Bridge, the first cable-stayed bridge built in Nigeria 2. Herbert Macaulay Memorial Statue at CMS 3. Welcome to Lagos statue showing three Lagos white cap chiefs. In local parlance, they are noted as warning you not to "suegbe, didinrin nor ya mugun" while in Lagos 4. Ndubuisi Kanu Park - A public green space much loved by all for relaxation 5. Sir Mobolaji Bank-Anthony Statue Education --------- The Lagos State Government operates state schools. The education system is the 6-3-3-4 system, which is practiced throughout the country (as well as by many other members of the Economic Community of West African States). The levels are Primary, Junior Secondary School (JSS), Senior Secondary School (SSS), and university. All children are offered basic education, with a special focus now on the first nine years. Many of the schools in Nigeria are federally funded and usually are boarding schools. A few examples are the Federal government college Odogbolu (FGCOdogbolu), the Federal government girls' college Sagamu (FGGCSagamu), and the Federal government college Kano (FGCKano). The state of Lagos has its own federally funded high schools namely Federal government college Ijanikin also known as FGC Lagos, King's College Lagos and Queen's College Lagos. Lagos is home to postsecondary schools, universities, and other vocational institutions that are either operated by the government or private entities. ### Vocational schools * Institute for Industrial Technology (IIT) : founded in 2000, IIT is a technical vocational school for male youth from families with limited resources. Its educational model is based on the Dual Training System. ### Polytechnics * Yaba College of Technology (YABATECH): founded in 1934, the college is Nigeria's first higher educational institution and the third in Africa. The college is a center of culture and heritage. It has student enrolments of over 16,000. * Lagos State Polytechnic is a polytechnic comprising more than six schools including private polytechnics and was founded 25 years ago. Its main campus resides at Ikorodu, along Shagamu road. * Lagos City Polytechnic, located at 6/8, Bashiru Oweh Street, Off Simbiat Abiola Road (formerly Medical Road), Ikeja – This is the first private Polytechnic in Nigeria. It was established in 1990 by Engr. Babatunde Odufuwa. Engr. Odufuwa hails from Oke-Aye in Ijebu North East Local Government Area (I.N.E.L.G) of Ogun State. * Grace Polytechnic * Wolex Polytechnic * Federal College of Fisheries and Marine Technology is a monotechnic that offers courses in fisheries technology, general science, marine engineering and nautical science. * Federal College of Education (tech) Akoka * Ronik Polytechnic ### Universities * The University of Lagos (UNILAG) Akoka, is a large institution dating from 1962, with over 55,000 students. It comprises 13 faculties, run by over 4,000 staff. * Lagos State University (LASU) is a multi-campus university established in the year 1983 and owned by the Lagos State government. The main campus is located at Ojo, along the Lagos-Badagry Expressway. * Pan-Atlantic University formerly known as Pan-African University has a business school (LBS), a school of Media and Communication (SMC), and an entrepreneurial development center (EDC), specialized in providing short courses for SMEs. The School of Media and Communication is also known for its pragmatic communication courses in the field of journalism, media, and marketing. SMC awards BSc., MSc., and Ph.D. in social science courses. Founded in 1996 and awarded university status in 2002. The university also places some emphasis on the study of art, running the Virtual Museum of Modern Nigerian Art. * National Open University of Nigeria is the first Open university in Nigeria; it is located on Ahmadu Bello Way, Victoria Island, Lagos. * Caleb University is a private university located at Imota, Lagos. * Lagos State College of Health Technology (LASCOHET) is an institution that runs health courses such as Health Information Management, Pharmacist Tech, Medical Laboratory Tech, Community Health Extension, and Environmental Health Technology; it is located in Yaba. * Lagos State University College of Medicine (LASUCOM), Ikeja * College of Medicine, University of Lagos (CMUL) Healthcare ---------- Lagos has many hospitals and medical facilities. The oldest Nigerian hospital is located in the city as well as West Africa's first air-operated emergency medical service, which commenced in the city. The Lagos healthcare system is divided into public and private sectors that provide medical services at the primary, secondary, and tertiary levels. Transportation -------------- Lagos has one of the largest and most extensive road networks in West Africa. It also has suburban trains and some ferry services. Highways are usually congested in peak hours owing to the geography of the city and to its explosive population growth. Lagos is also linked by many highways and bridges. ### Highways The Lagos–Ibadan Expressway and the Lagos–Abeokuta Expressway are the major controlled-access highways in the north of the city and serve as inter-state highways to Oyo State and Ogun State respectively. To the west the congested Lagos–Badagry Expressway serves outlying towns such as *Festival Town*, which was the location for the 1977 Festival of Black Arts and Culture 77. Lagos's importance as a commercial center and port and its strategic location have led to it being the end-point of three Trans-African Highway routes using Nigeria's national roads. The Trans–West African Coastal Highway leaves the city as the Badagry Expressway to Benin and beyond as far as Dakar and Nouakchott; the Trans-Sahara Highway to Algiers, which is close to completion, leaves the city as the Lagos-Ibadan Expressway. ### Local public transport The Lagos Metropolitan Area Transport Authority (LAMATA) is responsible for public transport. Since 2021 using a bus or the light rail system is paid for with a public transport card without cash. This card can be used equally on BRT and LBSL buses. One can purchase a public transportation card at any of the ticketing booths at the bus terminals scattered across Lagos State. #### City buses There are two city bus companies in Lagos: BRT (Lagos Bus Rapid Transit System) and LBSL (Lagos Bus Services). The city buses are air-conditioned. BRT was inaugurated in 2008. BRT offers e-payment with bank cards. On two arterial roads (Ikorodu Road and Funsho Williams Avenue), a dedicated bus lane has been established for BRT buses. BRT uses diverse brands of buses, like Ashok Leyland and Yutong. Primero Transport Services (PTS) Ltd. is the sole operator of the BRT buses. LBSL was inaugurated in 2019. LBSL uses Brazilian-built Marcopolo buses. The central hub for city buses and long-distance buses is the Oshodi Bus Terminal, which is visible from afar. It is the largest bus station in West Africa and commenced operation in 2019. #### Suburban rail A rapid transit system, the Lagos Light Rail, is under construction with the first section scheduled to open in 2022. The "Blue Line" will operate between Okokomaiko and Marina (East–west axis). The "Red Line" will run between Agbado and Marina (North–south axis). Both lines will share three stations: Iddo, Ebute Ero, and Marina. There are plans for more light rail lines: * The green line (Marina to Lekki), * the yellow line (Otta/airport to Iddo), * the purple line (Redeem to Ojo), * The brown line (Mile 12 to Marina) and * the orange line (Redeem to Marina). #### Rail transport As of June 2021, Lagos has a double-track standard gauge line to Ibadan and a modern main station, Mobolaji Johnson. Departure times are 8:00 and 16:00 (on time). Ticket sales are over the counter and cash only (as of 2021). The operator is the Nigerian Railway Corporation. #### Shared cabs A popular means of transportation are yellow minibuses called danfo. The yellow buses, most of the VW T3 or LT type, characterize the appearance of the city. They run on fixed routes but without a timetable, according to the principle of shared cabs. #### Ferries Lagos State Ferry Services Corporation runs a few regular routes, for example between Lagos Island and the mainland, served by modern ferries and wharves. Private boats run irregular passenger services on the lagoon and on some creeks. ### Air traffic Lagos is served by Murtala Muhammed International Airport, one of the largest and busiest airports in Africa. The MMIA is Nigeria's premier international air gateway. The airport's history dates back to colonial times, around the time of the Second World War. The international airport terminal was built and commissioned over 40 years ago, in 1978. The terminal opened officially on 15 March 1979. The airport had been known simply as the Lagos International Airport. It was, however, renamed for the late Nigerian Head of State, General Murtala Muhammed, who died in 1976. The airport terminal has been renovated several times since the 1970s but its most radical makeover began in 2013, following the launch of the Federal government's multi-billion naira Remodelling/ Rehabilitation Programme for its airports nationwide. Under the re-modeling work there, by late in 2014, the MMA lounge area had been expanded to four times its previous size and new passenger handling conveyor systems were installed which can handle over 1,000 passengers per hour. A second airport, Lekki-Epe International Airport is proposed. ### Logistics hub In Ketu-Ereyun, between Epe and Ikorodu, Lagos State builds a "Food Logistics Park" - the biggest logistics hub for food in Sub-Saharan Africa. The site is 1.2 million square meters big and the construction is expected to be finished in 2024. ### Timber trade In the middle of the city, in the Oko Baba district, there is (as of September 2022) a large transshipment center for timber, mainly redwood and mahogany. This timber trade, including a sawmill, will move to a new location, "Timberville", in December 2022. Notable people -------------- ### Business * Aliko Dangote, founder, and CEO of the Dangote Group, a conglomerate with interests in cement, sugar, salt, and other commodities. * Victoria Chibuogu Nneji, a computer scientist, design and innovation strategist, lecturing fellow, known for her research on robotics and autonomous transportation * Habeeb Okunola, businessman and philanthropist * Toyin Saraki, global health advocate and healthcare philanthropist ### Politicians and rulers * Rilwan Akiolu, Oba (traditional ruler) of Lagos * Akinwunmi Ambode, former Governor of Lagos state * Babatunde Fashola, Former Governor of Lagos and current Minister of Power, Works and Housing * Lekan Fatodu, Politician and journalist * Bode George, Politician * Alhaji Lateef Jakande, the first civilian governor of Lagos State and served from 1979 to 1983. * Brigadier Mobolaji Johnson, Military Governor of Lagos State * Ndubuisi Kanu, Military Governor of Lagos State * Yemi Osinbajo, politician, lawyer, and current vice-president of Nigeria. * Babajide Sanwo-Olu, Governor of Lagos State * Bola Tinubu, President of Nigeria and former Governor of Lagos State * Funsho Williams, politician and one-time aspirant to the office of Lagos state governor ### Sports * Kenny Adeleke (born 1983), basketball player * Israel Adesanya, Current UFC middleweight champion * Nelson Agholor, Professional American football player, Super Bowl LII Champion with the Philadelphia Eagles in 2018 * Tunji Awojobi (born 1973), professional basketball player * Arnaut Danjuma, football player * Dimaku Fidelis (born 1989), footballer * Israel Idonije, Professional American football player, Chicago Bears 2003–2013, Detroit Lions 2013 * Uche Okechukwu, football player * Hakeem Olajuwon, professional basketball player * Anoure Obiora, football player * Victor Osimhen, football player * Omos, professional wrestler ### Other * Oyinkan Braithwaite, novelist and writer, who wrote *My Sister, the Serial Killer* * Agbani Darego, Miss Nigeria 2001, Semifinalist Miss Universe 2001 and Miss World 2001 * Rosa Egipcíaca, Afro-Brazilian Catholic mystic, who wrote *Sagrada Teologia do Amor Divino das Almas Peregrinas* * Buchi Emecheta, novelist * Ovia Idah, Nigerian sculptor * Oluwashina Okeleji, sports journalist * Yvonne Orji, actress, comedian * Esther Uzodinma, actress and producer Twin towns – sister cities -------------------------- Lagos is twinned with: * United States Atlanta, United States * United States Gary, Indiana, United States * Brazil Belo Horizonte, Brazil * Romania Bucharest, Romania * Trinidad and Tobago Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago See also -------- * List of largest cities * List of governors of Lagos State Explanatory notes ----------------- 1. 1 2 3 Metropolitan Lagos consists of 16 of Lagos State's 20 LGAs, which excludes Badagry, Epe, Ibeju-Lekki and Ikorodu. 2. ↑ The American English pronunciation of *Lagos* is closer to the original Portuguese pronunciation. However, the Nigerian and British pronunciation is generally preferred as the standard pronunciation. Further reading --------------- * Leithead, Alastair (August 2017). "The city that won't stop growing: How can Lagos cope with its spiralling population?". BBC News.

Lagos

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagos

**National Geographic** (formerly **National Geographic Channel**; abbreviated and trademarked as **Nat Geo** or **Nat Geo TV**) is an American pay television network and flagship channel owned by the National Geographic Global Networks unit of Disney Entertainment and National Geographic Partners, a joint venture between The Walt Disney Company (73%) and the National Geographic Society (27%), with the operational management handled by Walt Disney Television. The flagship channel airs non-fiction television programs produced by National Geographic and other production companies. Like History (which is 50% owned by Disney through A&E Networks) and Discovery Channel, the channel features documentaries with factual content involving nature, science, culture, and history, plus some reality and pseudo-scientific entertainment programming. Its primary sister network worldwide, including the United States, is Nat Geo Wild, which focuses on animal-related programming, including the popular *Dog Whisperer with Cesar Millan*. As of February 2015, National Geographic is available to approximately 86,144,000 pay television households (74% of households with television) in the United States. Overview -------- In the United States, the National Geographic Channel launched on January 7, 2001, as a joint venture of National Geographic Television & Film and Fox Cable Networks. National Geographic provides programming expertise and the Fox Networks Group provides its expertise on distribution, marketing, and advertising sales. *The '90s: The Last Great Decade*, a documentary series narrated by Rob Lowe, pulled in 1.10 million viewers, and was the second highest-rated July telecast in the National Geographic Channel rating history. *The 2000s: A New Reality*, also narrated by Lowe, premiered on July 12, 2015. On November 14, 2016, National Geographic Channel was renamed as simply National Geographic, dropping the "Channel" from its name. On December 14, 2017, in a deal, The Walt Disney Company announced it would buy the majority of 21st Century Fox. Disney would assume control of Fox's controlling stake in the National Geographic partnership thereafter. Following the acquisition, National Geographic and its sister channels were folded into Walt Disney Television, with the president of the National Geographic Partners reporting directly to the Walt Disney Television chairman. Disney officially closed the deal on March 20, 2019, having then added Nat Geo into its portfolio of networks. TV shows -------- National Geographic Channel's TV shows, in alphabetical order: * *Abandoned* * *Access 360° World Heritage* * *Air Crash Investigation* * *Alaska State Troopers* * *American Chainsaw* * *American Colony: Meet the Hutterites* * *American Genius* * *American Gypsies* * *American Weed* * *America's Lost Treasures* * *Amish: Out of Order* * *Ancient Secrets* * *Apocalypse 101* * *Are You Tougher Than a Boy Scout?* * *Banged Up Abroad* * *Battleground Afghanistan* * *Beast Hunter* * *Bid & Destroy* * *Big, Bigger, Biggest* * *Big Picture with Kal Penn* * *Bizarre Dinosaurs* * *Borderforce USA: The Bridges* * *The Boonies* * *Border Wars* * *Brain Games* * *Breakout* * *Building Wild* * *Cesar 911* * *Chasing UFOs* * *Construction Zone* * *Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey* * *Crowd Control* * *Diggers* * *Dino Autopsy* * *Dino Death Match* * *Dino Death Trap* * *Dinosaurs Decoded* * *Dogs with Jobs* * *Doomsday Castle* * *Doomsday Preppers* * *Drugged* * *Drugs, Inc.* * *Drain the Oceans* * *Duck Quacks Don't Echo* * *Eat: The Story of Food* * *Europe From Above* * *Expedition Wild Week* * *Explorer* * *Eyewitness War* * *Family Beef* * *Family Guns* * *Forecast: Disaster* * *Genius* * *Going Ape* * *Hacking The System* * *Hard Time* * *Hell on the Highway* * *Highway Thru Hell* * *The Hot Zone* * *Inside the American Mob* * *Inside Combat Rescue* * *Inside: Secret America* * *Inside: Thirumala Tirupathi* * *Kentucky Justice* * *Lawless Oceans* * *The Legend of Mick Dodge* * *Let it Ride* * *Life After Dinosaurs* * *Life Below Zero* * *Life Hacker* * *The Link* * *Live Free or Die* * *Locked Up Abroad* * *Lords of War* * *Mars* * *Megastructures* * *Meltdown* * *Mountain Movers* * *Mudcats* * *The Numbers Game* * *Origins: The Journey of Humankind* * *One World: Together at Home* * *One Strange Rock* * *Phobia* * *Polygamy, USA* * *Port Protection* * *Race to the Center of the Earth* * *Remote Survival* * *Richard Hammond's Engineering Connections* * *Rocket City Rednecks* * *Scam City* * *Science of Stupid* * *Seconds From Disaster* * *Sky Monsters* * *Snake Salvation* * *Southern Justice* * *StarTalk* * *Street Genius* * *The Story of God with Morgan Freeman* * *The Story of Us with Morgan Freeman* * *Supercars* * *SharkFest* * *SuperCroc* * *Taboo* * *To Catch a Smuggler* * *The '80s: The Decade that Made Us* * *The '90s: The Last Great Decade?* (also entitled *The '90s: The Decade that Connected Us*) * *The 2000s: The Decade We Saw It All* * *The Truth Behind* * *T-Rex Autopsy* * *T-Rex Walks* * *Ultimate Airport Dubai* * *Ultimate Dino Survivor* * *Ultimate Factories* * *Ultimate Survival Alaska* * *When Crocs Ate Dinosaurs* * *Wicked Tuna* * *Wicked Tuna: Outer Banks* * *Wild Amazon* * *Wild Justice* * *Wild Russia* * *Witness: Disaster* * *WW2 Hell Under the sea* * *You Can't Lick Your Elbow* * *Yukon Gold* * *Yukon River Run* Theme fanfare music ------------------- The National Geographic Channel's signature theme fanfare music, which is played at the beginning of many of the channel's television programs, was composed by Elmer Bernstein. It was originally written in 1964 for the Society's television specials, which were broadcast on CBS, ABC, PBS and NBC from 1964 until the early 2000s. Other National Geographic US channels ------------------------------------- ### National Geographic HD The United States 720p high definition simulcast of the National Geographic Channel launched in January 2006. It is available on all major cable and satellite providers. ### Nat Geo Wild Nat Geo Wild (stylized as Nat Geo WILD or abbreviated as NGW) is a cable/satellite TV channel focused on animal-related programs. It is a sister network to National Geographic Channel and it is the latest channel to be jointly launched by the National Geographic Society and Fox Cable Networks. It was launched in United States on March 29, 2010, focusing primarily on wildlife and natural history programming. ### Nat Geo Mundo Nat Geo Mundo is broadcast in American Spanish, and was launched in 2011. It shares programming with the Nat Geo Channel available in Hispanic American countries. The channel is fully-owned by the National Geographic Society with no involvement from Disney General Entertainment Content. ### Nat Geo TV Nat Geo TV is an application for smartphones and tablet computers, along with Windows 10. It allows subscribers of participating pay television providers (such as Time Warner Cable and Comcast Xfinity) numerous viewing options: * individual episodes of National Geographic and Nat Geo Wild's original series and documentaries (which are made available live) Controversy and criticism ------------------------- In 2013, the network began airing the reality show *Are You Tougher Than a Boy Scout?*. National Geographic Channel was criticized for their association with the Boy Scouts of America, an organization which, until a vote in May of that year that overturned its ban, had forbidden openly gay members. Archaeologists have protested that National Geographic shows such as *Diggers* and *Nazi War Diggers* promote the looting and destruction of archaeological sites by promoting the work of metal detecting souvenir hunters and collectable dealers. In 2013 the National Geographic Channel set off a firestorm of controversy with its reality show *Diggers*. Professional archaeologists from the Society for Historical Archaeology, the largest scholarly group concerned with the archaeology of the modern world (A.D. 1400–present), roundly criticized the network for promoting the theft of cultural materials on public and private land. The show *Nazi War Diggers* was accused of showing unscientific and disrespectful handling of human remains. A promotional quote from a military relic dealer, "I feel that by selling things that are Nazi-related and for lots of money, I am preserving things that museums don't want to deal with," was removed from the channel's website in March 2014. National Geographic expressed regret for how the series was presented by its own website but maintained that many of the accusations against the series were based on misinformation. The show was repackaged, amid controversy, as *Battlefield Recovery* for air during 2016 on Channel 5 in the UK. See also -------- * List of documentary television channels * List of National Geographic documentary films * List of programs broadcast by National Geographic Channel * National Geographic Abu Dhabi * National Geographic Channel (Asia) * National Geographic (Australia and New Zealand) * National Geographic (Canadian TV channel) * National Geographic Channel (France) * National Geographic Channel (Germany) * National Geographic Channel (Greece) * National Geographic Channel (India) * National Geographic Channel (Netherlands) * National Geographic Channel (South Korea) * National Geographic Channel (UK and Ireland) * National Geographic Farsi * Nat Geo People

National Geographic (American TV channel)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Geographic_(American_TV_channel)

A **world war** is an international conflict which involves most or all of the world's major powers. Conventionally, the term is reserved for two major international conflicts that occurred during the first half of the 20th century, World War I (1914–1918) and World War II (1939–1945), although historians have also described other global conflicts as world wars, such as the Nine Years' War, the War of the Spanish Succession, the Seven Years' War, the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, the Cold War, and the War on Terror. Etymology --------- The *Oxford English Dictionary* cited the first known usage in the English language to a Scottish newspaper, *The People's Journal*, in 1848: "A war among the great powers is now necessarily a world-war." The term "world war" is used by Karl Marx and his associate, Friedrich Engels, in a series of articles published around 1850 called *The Class Struggles in France*. Rasmus B. Anderson in 1889 described an episode in Teutonic mythology as a "world war" (Swedish: *världskrig*), justifying this description by a line in an Old Norse epic poem, "Völuspá: folcvig fyrst I heimi" ("The first great war in the world".) German writer August Wilhelm Otto Niemann had used the term "world war" in the title of his anti-British novel, *Der Weltkrieg: Deutsche Träume* (*The World War: German Dreams*) in 1904, published in English as *The Coming Conquest of England*. The term "first world war" was first used in September 1914 by German biologist and philosopher Ernst Haeckel, who claimed that "there is no doubt that the course and character of the feared 'European War' ... will become the first world war in the full sense of the word", citing a wire service report in *The Indianapolis Star* on 20 September 1914. In English, the term "First World War" had been used by Lt-Col. Charles à Court Repington, as a title for his memoirs (published in 1920); he had noted his discussion on the matter with a Major Johnstone of Harvard University in his diary entry of September 10, 1918. The term "World War I" was coined by *Time* magazine on page 28b of its June 12, 1939 issue. In the same article, on page 32, the term "World War II" was first used speculatively to describe the upcoming war. The first use for the actual war came in its issue of September 11, 1939. One week earlier, on September 4, the day after France and the United Kingdom declared war on Germany, the Danish newspaper *Kristeligt Dagblad* used the term on its front page, saying "The Second World War broke out yesterday at 11 a.m." Speculative fiction authors had been noting the concept of a Second World War in 1919 and 1920, when Milo Hastings wrote his dystopian novel, *City of Endless Night*. Other languages have also adopted the "world war" terminology; for example, in French: "world war" is translated as *guerre mondiale*, in German: *Weltkrieg* (which, prior to the war, had been used in the more abstract meaning of a global conflict), in Italian: *guerra mondiale*, in Spanish and Portuguese: *guerra mundial*, in Danish and Norwegian: *verdenskrig*, in Russian: *мировая война* (*mirovaya voyna*), and in Finnish: *maailmansota**.* History ------- ### First World War World War I occurred from 1914 to 1918. In terms of human technological history, the scale of World War I was enabled by the technological advances of the second industrial revolution and the resulting globalization that allowed global power projection and mass production of military hardware. It had been recognized that the complex system of opposing military alliances (the German and Austro-Hungarian Empires against the British, Russian, and French Empires) was likely, if war broke out, to lead to a worldwide conflict. That caused a very minute conflict between two countries to have the potential to set off a domino effect of alliances, triggering a world war. The fact that the powers involved had large overseas empires virtually guaranteed that such a war would be worldwide, as the colonies' resources would be a crucial strategic factor. The same strategic considerations also ensured that the combatants would strike at each other's colonies, thus spreading the wars far more widely than those of pre-Columbian times. [*further explanation needed*] War crimes were perpetrated in World War I. Chemical weapons were used in the war despite the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 having outlawed the use of such weapons in warfare. The Ottoman Empire was responsible for the Armenian genocide, during the First World War, as well as other war crimes. ### Second World War The Second World War occurred from 1939 to 1945 and is the only conflict in which nuclear weapons have been used; both Hiroshima and Nagasaki, in the Japanese Empire, were devastated by atomic bombs dropped by the United States. Nazi Germany, led by Adolf Hitler, was responsible for genocides, most notably the Holocaust, the killing of about 6,000,000 Jews and the killing of 11,000,000 others who were persecuted by the Nazis, including Romani people and homosexuals. The United States, the Soviet Union, and Canada deported and interned minority groups within their own borders and, largely because of the conflict, many ethnic Germans were later expelled from Eastern Europe. Japan was responsible for attacking neutral nations without a declaration of war, such as the attack on Pearl Harbor. It is also known for its brutal treatment and killing of Allied prisoners of war and the inhabitants of Asia. It also used Asians as forced laborers and was responsible for the Nanjing Massacre in which 250,000 civilians were brutally murdered by Japanese troops. Noncombatants suffered at least as badly as or worse than combatants, and the distinction between combatants and noncombatants was often blurred by the belligerents of total war in both conflicts. The outcome of the war had a profound effect on the course of world history. The old European empires collapsed or they were dismantled as a direct result of the crushing costs of the war and in some cases, their fall was caused by the defeat of imperial powers. The United States became firmly established as the dominant global superpower, along with its close competitor and ideological foe, the Soviet Union. The two superpowers exerted political influence over most of the world's nation-states for decades after the end of the Second World War. The modern international security, economic, and diplomatic system was created in the aftermath of the war. Institutions such as the United Nations were established to collectivize international affairs, with the explicit goal of preventing another outbreak of general war. The wars had also greatly changed the course of daily life. Technologies developed during wartime had a profound effect on peacetime life as well, such as by advances in jet aircraft, penicillin, nuclear energy, and electronic computers. Potential Third World War ------------------------- Since the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki during the Second World War, there has been a widespread and prolonged fear of a potential third World War between nuclear-armed powers. It is often suggested that it would become a nuclear war, and be more devastating and violent than both the First and Second World Wars. Albert Einstein is often quoted as having said in 1947 that "I know not with what weapons World War III will be fought, but World War IV will be fought with sticks and stones." It has been anticipated and planned for by military and civil authorities, and it has also been explored in fiction in many countries. Scenarios have ranged from conventional warfare to limited or total nuclear warfare. Various former government officials, politicians, authors, and military leaders (including James Woolsey, Alexandre de Marenches, Eliot Cohen, and Subcomandante Marcos) have attempted to apply the labels of the "Third World War" and the "Fourth World War" to various past and present global wars since the end of the Second World War, such as the Cold War and the War on Terror respectively. However, none of the wars have commonly been deemed world wars. During the early 21st century, the war in Afghanistan (2001–2021), the Arab Spring (2010–2012), the Syrian civil war (2011–present), the war in Iraq (2013–2017), the Russo-Ukrainian War (2014–present), the Yemeni Civil War (2014–present), the 2022 Kazakh unrest, and their worldwide spillovers are sometimes described as proxy wars waged by the United States and Russia, which led some commentators[*who?*] to characterize the situation as a "proto-world war" with many countries embroiled in overlapping conflicts. Other global conflicts ---------------------- The Late Bronze Age collapse has been described as "World War Zero" by some historians. Some historians consider the Seven Years' War (1756–1763) to have been a world war. Historians Richard F. Hamilton and Holger H. Herwig include it among a list of eight world wars, including the two generally agreed upon world wars plus these six others: the Nine Years' War (1689–1697), the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714), the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748), the Seven Years' War, the French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802), and the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815). British historian John Robert Seeley dubbed all of those wars between France and Great Britain (later the UK) between 1689 and 1815 (including the American Revolutionary War from 1775–1783) as the Second Hundred Years' War, echoing an earlier period of conflict between France and England known as the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453). Although that period included the War of the Quadruple Alliance (1718–1720) in which France and Great Britain were on the same side. Some writers have referred to the American Revolutionary War alone as a world war. Other historians suggest even earlier conflicts to be world wars. For example, the Russian ethnologist L. N. Gumilyov called the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 as "the World War of the 7th century", as it evolved into a war between the fourfold alliance of the Chinese Empire, the Western Turkic Khaganate, the Khazars, and Byzantine Empire against a triple union of Sasanian Empire, the Avars, and the Eastern Turkic Kaganates, with proxy conflicts in Afro-Eurasia (like the Aksumite–Persian wars) and across the Old World. Others consider that the Ottoman–Portuguese confrontations and Ottoman–Habsburg wars can be considered as world conflicts, prototypes of the "Great Game" in Eurasia and the Scramble for Africa, but between two main power-projecting and religious blocs, that being the Ottomans, as holders of the Muslim Caliph title, and the Habsburgs, as emperors of Christendom. However, the Americas and Oceania were not involved in those conflicts, in which case, other historians consider the Thirty Years' War and Eighty Years' War as the first global conflict, pitting the Spanish Empire and the Portuguese Empire against the French colonial empire, Dutch Empire, British Empire, and their allies (mostly Protestants) across the 5 continents. Another possible example is the Second Congo War (1998–2003) even though it was only waged on one continent. It involved nine nations and led to ongoing low-intensity warfare despite an official peace and the first democratic elections in 2006. It has frequently been referred to as "Africa's World War". | Event | Casualties lowest estimate | Casualties highest estimate | Location | From | To | Duration (years) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | NineYearsWar.png Nine Years' War | 680,000 | | Europe, North America, South America, Asia | 1688 | 1697 | 9 | | WaroftheSpanishSuccession.png War of the Spanish Succession | 700,000 | 1,251,000 | Europe, North America, South America, Africa | 1701 | 1714 | 13 | | WaroftheAustrianSuccession.png War of the Austrian Succession | 359,000 | | Europe, North America, South America, India | 1740 | 1748 | 8 | | SevenYearsWar.png Seven Years' War | 992,000 | 1,500,000 | Europe, North America, South America, Africa, Asia | 1754 | 1763 | 9 | | AmericanRevolutionaryWar.png American Revolutionary War | 217,000 | 262,000 | North America, Gibraltar, Balearic Islands, India, Africa, Caribbean Sea, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean | 1775 | 1783 | 8 | | FrenchRevolutionaryWars.png French Revolutionary Wars | 663,000 | | Europe, Egypt, Middle East, Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean, Indian Ocean | 1792 | 1802 | 9 | | NapoleonicWars.png Napoleonic Wars | 1,800,000 | 7,000,000 | Europe, Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, North Sea, Río de la Plata, French Guiana, West Indies, Indian Ocean, North America, South Caucasus | 1803 | 1815 | 13 | | WWI-re.png World War I | 15,000,000 | 65,000,000 | Global | 1914 | 1918 | 4 | | Map of participants in World War II.svg World War II | 40,000,000 | 85,000,000 | Global | 1939 | 1945 | 6 | | Cold War alliances mid-1975.svg Cold War | | | Global | 1947 | 1991 | 44 | | Battlefields in The Global War on Terror.svg War on Terror | 4,500,000 | 4,600,000 * "Summary". *Costs of War*. Archived from the original on 17 June 2023. * Berger, Miriam (15 May 2023). "Post-9/11 wars have contributed to some 4.5 million deaths, report suggests". *The Washington Post*. Archived from the original on 29 May 2023. * Savell, Stephanie (15 May 2023). "How Death Outlives War: The Reverberating Impact of the Post-9/11 Wars on Human Health" (PDF). *Costs of War*. Watson Institute of International & Public Affairs. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 June 2023.</ref> | Global | 2001 | Ongoing | 21+ | See also -------- * Neocolonialism * New Imperialism * Revolutionary wave * List of largest empires * First wave of European colonization * List of military conflicts spanning multiple wars * List of wars and anthropogenic disasters by death toll * Military history * Political history of the world

World war

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_war